Wikipidia bjnwiki https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laman_Tatambaian MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.14 first-letter Media Istimiwa Pamandiran Pamakai Pamandiran Pamakai Wikipidia Pamandiran Wikipidia Barakas Pamandiran Barakas MediaWiki Pamandiran MediaWiki Citakan Pamandiran Citakan Patulung Pamandiran Patulung Tumbung Pamandiran Tumbung Lawang Pamandiran Lawang TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 218 113337 113174 2026-08-07T19:09:49Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republik Indonesia | common_name = Indonesia | image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg | image_coat = National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg | symbol_type = Lambang Negara | national_motto = ''[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]'' {{small|([[Bahasa Jawa Kuno|Kawi]])}}<br />{{small|("Berbeda-beda, namun tetap satu")}}<br />'''[[Ideologi|Ideologi nasional]]: '''''[[Pancasila]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm|title=Pancasila|publisher=[[Perpustakaan Kongres Amerika Serikat]]|language=en|date=3 Februari 2017|access-date=5 Februari 2017|dead-url=yes|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010135/http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm|archive-date=5 Februari 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=117}} | national_anthem = "[[Indonesia Raya]]"<br /><div style="padding-top:0.5em;"> </div> | image_map = Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg | image_map2 = Indonesia - Location Map (2013) - IDN - UNOCHA-id.svg | map_width = 230px | map_caption = Wilayah yang dikendalikan Indonesia berwarna hijau | capital = [[Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]] | largest_city = [[Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]] | coordinates = {{Coord|6|10|S|106|49|E|type:city_region:ID}} | languages_type = Basa rasmi | official_languages = [[Basa Indunisia]] | languages2_type = '''Basa daerah''' | languages2_sub = yes | languages2 = Labih matan 700 bahasa<ref name="ethnologue">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition|last1=Simons|first1=Gary F.|last2=Fennig|first2=Charles D.|publisher=[[SIL International]]|language=en|access-date=20 September 2018}}</ref> | ethnic_groups = Kurang labih 1.340 suku bangsa<ref name="BPS">{{cite web|url=http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia|last1=Na'im|first1=Akhsan|last2=Syaputra|first2=Hendry|publisher=[[Badan Pusat Statistik]] (BPS)|date=Agustus 2010|language=id|access-date=23 September 2015|dead-url=no|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194534/http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/news/2015/11/18/127/mengulik-data-suku-di-indonesia.html|title=Mengulik Data Suku di Indonesia|publisher=[[Badan Pusat Statistik]]|access-date=1 Januari 2021|language=id|date=18 November 2015}}</ref> | religion_year = [[2018]] | religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|86,7% [[Islam]]|10,72% [[Karistin]]|—7,60% [[Protestanisme]]|—3,12% [[Katolik]]|1,74% [[Hindu]]|0,77% [[Buddha]]|0,03% [[Konfusianisme ]]<br />0,04% [[Kaparcayaan]]}} | religion_ref = <ref name="RELIGION">{{cite web|url=https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|title=Statistik Umat Menurut Agama di Indonesia|publisher=[[Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia]]|date=15 Mei 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903221250/https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|archive-date=3 September 2020|access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="sp2010">{{cite web|url=https://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=321&wid=0|title=Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut Indonesia|publisher=BPS|date=15 Mei 2010|access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref> | demonym = [[Bangsa Indunisia]] | government_type = [[Nagara kesatuan]] basistim [[republik]] presidensial | leader_title1 = [[Presiden Indunisia|Presiden]] | leader_name1 = [[Prabowo Subianto]] | leader_title2 = [[Wakil Presiden Indunisia|Wakil Presiden]] | leader_name2 = [[Gibran Rakabuming Raka]] | leader_title4 = [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|Katua DPR]] | leader_name4 = [[Puan Maharani]] | leader_title6 = [[Daftar Ketua Mahkamah Agung Republik Indonesia|Katua Mahkamah Agung]] | leader_name6 = [[Sunarto]] | leader_title3 = [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia 2019–2024|Katua MPR]] | leader_name3 = [[Ahmad Muzani]] | leader_title5 = [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah Republik Indonesia|Katua DPD]] | leader_name5 = [[Sultan Bachtiar Najamudin]] | legislature = [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]] (MPR) | upper_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah Republik Indonesia|Dewan Perwakilan Daerah]] (DPD) | lower_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (DPR) | sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Indunisia|Pembentukan]] | established_event1 = [[Sajarah Indunisia|Karajaan Hindu-Buddha]] | established_date1 = abad ka-2 M | established_event2 = [[Panyabaran Islam ka Indunisia|Kasultanan Islam]] | established_date2 = abad ke-13 M | established_event3 = ''[[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie]]'' | established_date3 = 20 Maret 1602 | established_event4 = [[Hindia Belanda]] | established_date4 = 1 Januari 1800 | established_event5 = [[Sajarah Nusantara (1942-1945)|Pandudukan Japang]] | established_date5 = 9 Maret 1942 | established_event6 = [[Proklamasi Kamardikaan Indunisia|Proklamasi kamardikaan]] | established_date6 = 17 Agustus 1945 | established_event7 = [[Konferensi Meja Bundar|Pangakuan]] wan [[Republik Indunisia Sarikat|pambantukan federasi]] | established_date7 = 27 Desember 1949 | established_event8 = Federasi dibubarakan | established_date8 = 17 Agustus 1950 | established_event9 = Paristiwa [[Supersemar]] | established_date9 = 11 Maret 1966 | established_event11 = ''[[Sajarah Indunisia (1998-sekarang)|Reformasi]]'' | established_date11 = 21 Mei 1998 | established_event10 = [[Orde Baru]] | established_date10 = 12 Maret 1967 | area_km2 = 1910931<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Statistics|publisher=[[Parsarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]|language=en|date=2005|access-date=31 Oktober 2007|dead-url=no|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031023924/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|archive-date=31 Oktober 2007}}</ref> | area_rank = ka-14 | percent_water = 4,85 | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{UN_Population|Indonesia}}{{UN_Population|ref}} | population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 270.203.917<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2021/01/21/1854/hasil-sensus-penduduk-2020.html|publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik|title=Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020|language=id|date=Januari 2021|access-date=21 Januari 2021}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = {{UN_Population|Year}} | population_census_year = [[Sensus Penduduk Indonesia 2020|2020]] | population_census_rank = ka-4 | population_density_km2 = 141 | population_density_rank = ka-88 | GDP_PPP = $3.328 triliun<ref name="IMF">{{Cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/select-date-range?c=536,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,|access-date=15 Oktober 2020|publisher=[[Dana Moneter Internasional]]}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2020 | GDP_PPP_rank = ka-7 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}} $12.345<ref name="IMF" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-95 | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $1.089 triliun<ref name="IMF" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2020 | GDP_nominal_rank = ka-15 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $4.038<ref name="IMF" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ke-108 | Gini = 38.2 | Gini_year = 2019 | Gini_change = increase <!--increase//steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="GINI Indonesia">{{cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) - Indonesia|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=ID|publisher=[[Bank Dunia]]|language=en|date=2020|access-date=28 Juni 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.718 | HDI_year = 2019 | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="2020 components">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 Desember 2020|publisher=[[Program Pembangunan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]|language=en|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343-346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 Desember 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215155214/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|archive-date=2020-12-15|dead-url=no}}</ref> | HDI_rank = ke-107 | currency = [[Rupiah]] (Rp) | currency_code = IDR | time_zone = [[Waktu di Indunisia|baragam]] | utc_offset = [[UTC+7|+7]] sampai [[UTC+9|+9]] | date_format = DD/MM/YYYY | drives_on = kiwa<!--Note that this refers to the side of the road used, not the seating of the driver--> | calling_code = [[Daftar kode telepon di Indonesia|+62]] | cctld = [[.id]] }} '''Indunisia''', disambat jua lawan '''Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia''' ('''NKRI''', {{IPA-id|nəˈɡara kəsaˈt̪ua̯n reˈpublɪk in.ˈdo.nɛ.sja}}); atawa sahibar '''Ripublik Indunisia''' ('''RI''') adalah nagara di [[Asia Tunggara]] nang dilalui garis [[khatulistiwa]] wan baandak di antara daratan banua [[Asia]] wan [[Australia]], wan antara [[Lalautan Pasipik]] wan [[Lalautan Hindia]]. Indunisia adalah nagara [[kapulauan]] pangganalnya di dunia nang tadiri matan 17.504 pulau. Ngaran lain nang rancak dipakai adalah [[Nusantara]].<ref name="Kroef">{{cite journal|author=Justus M. van der Kroef|date=1951|title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5|dead-url=no|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=71|issue=3|pages=166–171|doi=10.2307/595186|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410201834/http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5|archive-date=10 April 2020|access-date=2 Agustus 2008}}</ref> Lawan garumbung mancapai 270.203.917 jiwa wayah tahun 2020,<ref name="Sensus2020">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=21 Januari 2021|title=Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020|url=https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2021/01/21/1854/hasil-sensus-penduduk-2020.html|website=Badan Pusat Statistik|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121095521/https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2021/01/21/1854/hasil-sensus-penduduk-2020.html|archive-date=21 Januari 2021|dead-url=no|access-date=21 Januari 2021}}</ref> Indunisia jadi nagara bapanggana pangganalnya kaampat di dunia wan nagara bapanggana [[Muslim]] pangganalnya di dunia, lawan panganut labih matan 230 juta ikung.<ref name="SP2010">{{cite web|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=321&wid=0|title=Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut|date=15 Mei 2010|publisher=[[Badan Pusat Statistik]]|location=Jakarta|access-date=28-02-2019|archive-date=2017-12-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203121120/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=321&wid=0|dead-url=no}}</ref>{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=379}} Bantuk nagara Indunisia adalah [[nagara kasatuan]] wan bantuk pamarintahan Indunisia adalah [[ripublik]], lawan [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]], [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah]], wan [[Parisidin Indunisia|Parisidin]] nang dipilih sacara langsung. [[Indung banua nagara Indunisia]] adalah [[Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]]. Indunisia bawatasan darat lawan [[Malaysia]] di [[Pulau Kalimantan]] wan [[Pulau Sebatik]], lawan [[Papua Nugini]] di [[Pulau Papua]] wan [[Timor Leste]] di [[Pulau Timor]]. Nagara jiran lainnya adalah [[Singapura]], [[Pilipina]], [[Australia]], wan wilayah pasatuan [[Kapulauan Andaman wan Nikobar]] di [[India]]. [[Sajarah Indunisia]] banyak diujaki ulih bangsa lainnya. Kapulauan Indunisia jadi wilayah padagangan panting matan abat ka-7, yaitu matan badirinya [[Kadatuan Sriwijaya]], sabuah kamaharajaan Hindu-Buddha nang bapusat di [[Palembang]]. Karajaan Sriwijaya ngini manjalin hubungan [[agama]] wan padagangan lawan [[Ripublik Rakyat Cina|Tiongkok]] wan [[India]], lawan jua bangsa [[Arab]]. Karajaan-karajaan baagama [[Hindu]] wan/atawa [[Buddha]] mula tumbuh wayah panambaian abat ka-4 sampai abat ka-13 Masihi, diumpati bubuhan padagang wan ulama matan [[jazirah Arab]] nang mambawa agama [[Islam]] kikira abat ka-8 sampai abat ka-16, wan kadatangan bangsa [[Irupa]] wayah warih abat ka-15 mang saling batampur gasan maajaki padagangan rarampah [[Maluku]] sawayah era pakujukan samudra. Imbah ada di bawah [[masa panjajahan Walanda|panjajahan Walanda]] salawas parak 3 abat, Indunisia nang wayah ngitu bangaran [[Hindia Walanda]] [[Pasarihan Kamardikaan Indunisia|manyarihakan kamardikaannya]] di warih [[Parang Dunia II]], wayah tanggal 17 Agustus 1945. Imbahnya, Indunisia dapat bamamacam tantangan wan pamasalahan barat, mula matan rancaknya tajadi bancana alam, praktik korupsi, konflik susial, garakan siparatisma, runtutan dimukratisasi, wan pariuda pambangunan, paubahan wan pakambangan susial-ikunumi-pulitik, wan [[pamudirinan]] nang lakas. Matan [[Sabang]] di hujung [[Aceh]] sampai [[Merauke]] di tanah [[Papua]], Induniia tadiri matan bamamacam suku bangsa, basa, wan agama. Badasarakan rumpun bangsa (ras), Indunisia tadiri atas bangsa asli pribumi, yaitu [[Mongoloid]] Salatan/[[Austronesia]] wan [[Melanesia]] di mana bangsa Austronesia nang pangganalnya jumlahnya wan tabanyak mangganai Indunisia palihan barat. Sacara tarinci, [[Suku Jawa|suku bangsa Jawa]] adalah suku bangsa pangganalnya lawan garumbung mancapai 41,7% matan sabarataan panggana Indunisia.<ref>Leo Suryadinata, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, Aris Ananta; Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape; Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003</ref> Sambuyan nasiunal Indunisia, ''"[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika|Bhinneka tunggal ika]]"'' ("Babida-bida tagal tatap satu"), bamakna kabaragaman susial-budaya nang mambantuk satu kasatuan/nagara. Suwalih baisi garumbung panggana nang racap wan wilayah nang luas, Indunisia baisi wilayah alam nang mandukung tingkat [[kabamacaman hayati]] pangganalnya kadua di dunia. Indunisia marupakan angguta matan [[PBB]] wan satu-satunya angguta nang suah kaluar matan [[PBB]], yaitu wayah tanggal 7 Januari 1965, wan bagabung baasa wayah tanggal 28 Siptimbir 1966. Indunisia tatap disarihakan jadi angguta nang ka-60, kaanggutaan nang sama matan bagabungnya Indunisia wayah tanggal 28 Siptimbir 1950. Suwalih [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]], Indunisia jadi nagara angguta jua matan pahimpunan [[ASEAN]], [[Konferensi Asia–Afrika|KAA]], [[APEC]], [[Pahimpunan Bacaram Islam|OKI]], [[G-20]], wan satumat lagi cagar jadi angguta [[OECD]]. == Etimologi == Kata "Indonésia" ba'asal tumat kata dalam [[basa Latin]] yaitu ''Indus'' nang ba'arti "Hindia" dan kata dalam [[basa Yunani]] ''nesos'' nang ba'arti "pulau".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book |last=Tomascik |first=T |coauthors=Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. |title=The Ecology of the Indunisian Seas - Part One |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |id=ISBN 962-593-078-7}}</ref> Jadi, kata Indonésia ba'arti [[wilayah]] Hindia kapulauan, atawa kapulauan nang ba'ada di Hindia, nang manunjukakan bahua ngaran naini tabantuk jauh sabalum Indonésia manjadi nagara badaulat.<ref name="indoety">{{cite news |last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal Usul Nama Indunisia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date=[[16 Agustus]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]]}}</ref> Di tahun 1850, [[George Earl]], sa'ikung [[etnologi|etnolog]] bakabangsaan Inggeris, awalnya ma'usulakan istilah ''Indunesia'' wan ''Malayunesia'' gasan panduduk "Kapulauan Hindia atawa Kapulauan Malayu".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=119}}</ref> Murid ulih Earl, [[James Richardson Logan]], mangguna'akan kata ''Indunisia'' sabagai sinonim matan ''Kapulauan India''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=James Richardson |title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga/page/n15 4], 252–347}}; {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=254, 277–278}}</ref> Tagal ha, panulisan akademik Walanda di media [[Hindia Walanda]] kada mangguna'akan kata ''Indunisia'', tapi istilah ''Kapulauan Malayu'' (''Maleische Archipel''); ''Hindia Timur Walanda'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), atawa ''Hindia'' (''Indië''); ''Timur'' (''de Oost''); dan bahkan ''Insulinde'' (istilah ini diparkanalkan tahun 1860 dalam novel ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' (1859), ditulis ulih [[Multatuli]], mengenai kritik lawan kolonialisme Walanda).<ref name=Kroef/> Tumatan tahun 1900, ngaran Indonésia manjadi labih umum di lingkungan akademik di luar Walanda, dan golongan nasionalis Indonésia mangguna'akannya gasan éksprési politik.<ref name=Kroef/> [[Adolf Bastian]] tumatan di [[Universitas Humboldt Berlin|Universitas Berlin]] mamasyarakatakan ngaran naini liwat buku ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. Palajar Indunisia panambaian nang mangguna'akannya ialah [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|Suwardi Suryaningrat]] (Ki Hajar Dewantara), yaitu sawayah sidin mandirikan kantur barita di Walanda nang bangaran ''Indonesisch Pers Bureau'' di tahun 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> == Sajarah == Paninggalan posil-posil ''[[Homo erectus]]'', nang ulih [[Antropologi|antropolog]] digalari jua "[[Manusia Jawa]]", mancungulakan sangkaan bahua kapulauan Indunisia sudah bamula bapanghuni di antara dua juta sampai 500.000 tahun nang lalu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pope |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-anthropology_1988_17/page/43 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |pages=43–77 |year=1988 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309–312 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=[[15 Agustus]], [[1983]] |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |accessdate=|pmid=6410399|doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J.P. |coauthors=P.Y. Sondaar, |title=Dating hominid sites in Indunisia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4, 988–4992 |date=[[9 Desember]] [[1994]] |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |accessdate=}} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}</ref> [[Austronésia#Asal usul bangsa Austronésia|Bangsa Austronésia]], nang mambantuk mayoritas panduduk di wayah ngini, bamigrasi ka Asia Tunggara tumatan di [[Taiwan]]. Bubuhannya bangsul di pintangan 2000&nbsp;SM, wan manyababakan [[Melanésia|bangsa Melanésia]] nang sudah ada tadahulu di sana tagasak ka wilayah-wilayah nang jauh di timur kapulauan.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 5–7</ref> Kondisi tampat nang idéal gasan pahuma'an, dan panguasaan atas cara [[pahumaan|batanam banih]] paling kada tumatan abad ka-8 SM,<ref> {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman|title=Indunisia |publisher=Yale University Press |date= |location=New Haven and London |pages=8–9 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref> manyababkan banyak kampung, kuta, wan karajaan-karajaan tumbuh sacara baik di abad panambaian masihi. Salain itu, Indonésia nang ba'andak di jalur pardagangan laut antarbangsa wan antar pulau, sudah manjadi jalur palayaran antara India dan Cina salawas babarapa abad.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indunisia |publisher=Yale University Press |date= |location=New Haven and London |pages=15–18 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref> Sajarah Indunisia selanjutnya ma'alami banyak banar pangaruh matan kagiatan pardagangan nangitu tadi.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), hal. 18–20, 60, 133–134</ref> [[Barakas:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|right|Tumatan abad ka-1 kapal dagang Indunisia sudah balayar jauh, bahkan sampai ka [[Aprika]]. Sabuting palih matan rélief kapal di candi [[Borobudur]], k. 800 M.]] Di bawah pangaruh agama [[Hindu]] dan [[Buddha]], babarapa kerajaan tabantuk di pulau [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], dan [[Jawa]] tumatan [[abad ka-4]] sahingga [[abad ka-14]]. [[Karajaan Kutai|Kutai]], merupakan karajaan panuwastu di Nusantara nang badiri di abad ka-4 di pahuluan [[sungay Mahakam]], [[Kalimantan Timur]]. Di wilayah barat pulau Jawa, pada abad ka-4 sahingga abad ka-7 M badiri karajaan [[Tarumanagara]]. Pamarintahan Tarumanagara ditarusakan ulih [[Karajaan Sunda]] tumatan tahun 669 M sampai 1579 M. Di abad ka-7 cungul karajaan Malayu nang bapusat di [[Kuta Jambi|Jambi]], Sumatra. [[Sriwijaya]] ma'alahakan Malayu dan cungul sabagai karajaan maritim nang paling harat di Nusantara. Wilayah kakuasaannya meliputi Sumatra, Jawa, samananjung Malaya, salajur bakamit (mangontrol) pardagangan di Salat Malaka, Salat Sunda, dan Laut Cina Salatan.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), hal. 3</ref> Di bawah pangaruh Sariwijaya, antara abad ka-8 dan ka-10 wangsa [[Wangsa Syailendra|Syailendra]] dan [[Wangsa Sanjaya|Sanjaya]] bahasil mangambangakan karajaan-karajaan babasis agrikultur di [[Jawa]], lawan paninggalan basajarahnya pariannya candi [[Borobudur]] dan candi [[Prambanan]]. Di pa'uncitan abad ka-13, [[Majapahit]] badiri di bagian timur pulau Jawa. Di bawah pimpinan mahapatih [[Gajah Mada]], kakuasaannya baluas sampai parak sama wilayah Indonésia damini; wan rancak disambat "Jaman Kaamasan" dalam sajarah Indonésia.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The next great empire |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_futures-uk_1982-02_14_1/page/47 |author=Peter Lewis |journal=Futures |volume=14 |issue=1 |year=1982 |pages=47–61 |doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}}</ref> Kadatangan padagang-padagang [[Bangsa Arap|Arap]] dan [[Bangsa Pérsia|Pérsia]] liwat Gujarat, India, limbah nitu mambawa agama [[Islam]]. Selain itu palaut-palaut [[Cina]] nang dipimpin ulih Laksamana [[Cheng Ho]] (Zheng He) nang ba'agama Islam, suah jua manyinggahi wilayah ini di tatambayan [[abad ka-15]].<ref>*Kong Yuanzhi, [http://www.solusihukum.com/resensi.php?id=33 ''Muslim Tionghoa Cheng Ho, Misteri Perjalanan Muhibah di Nusantara.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207180851/http://www.solusihukum.com/resensi.php?id=33 |date=2008-12-07 }} Penyunting: HM. Hembing Wijayakusuma. Pustaka Populer Obor, Oktober 2000, xliv + 299 tungkaran</ref> Bubuhan padagang-padagang naini gin manyabakakan agama Islam di babarapa wilayah Nusantara. [[Samudera Pasai]] nang badiri di tahun 1267, merupakan karajaan Islam panambayan di Indonésia. Sawayah urang-urang [[Irupa]] bangsul di tatambayan [[abad ka-16]], bubuhannya mahaba babarapa karajaan nang gampang haja bubuhannya kuasai gasan mandominasi pardagangan rarampahan. Portugis tatambayan balabuh di dua bandar [[Karajaan Sunda]] yaitu [[Banten]] dan [[Padrao Sunda Kelapa|Sunda Kelapa]], tagal kawa diundurakan dan bagarak ke ampah timur wan manguasai [[Maluku]]. Di [[abad ka-17]], [[Walanda]] cungul sabagai nang panguatnya di antara nagara-nagara Irupa lainnya, ma'alahakan [[Baritania Raya]] dan [[Portugal]] (kacawali gasan koloni bubuhannya, [[Timor Portugis]]). Di wayah nitu pang agama [[Kerestén]] masuk ka Indonésia sabagai salah satu misi imperialisma lawas nang dipinandui sabagai ''3G'', yaitu ''[[Abad Pamahabaan|Gold, Glory, and Gospel]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Louis B. |title=Gold, Glory, and the Gospel: The Adventurous Lives and Times of the Renaissance Explorers |url=https://archive.org/details/goldglorygospel0000unse |publisher=Atheneum |date=1970 |location=New York |pages= |id= }}</ref> Walanda manguasai Indunisia sabagai koloni sahingga [[Perang Dunia II]], tatambayannya liwat [[VOC]], dan limbah nitu langsung ulih pamarintah Walanda tumatan tatambayan abad ka-19. [[Barakas:Raden Sarief Bastaman Saleh - Johannes Graaf van den Bosch.jpg|left|120px|thumb|[[Johannes van den Bosch]], pencetus ''Cultuurstelsel'']] Di bawah sistem ''[[Cultuurstelsel]]'' (''Sistem Pananaman'') di abad ka-19, parkabunan ganal wan pananaman paksa dilaksanakan di Jawa, akhirnya mahasilakan kauntungan gasan Walanda nang kada kawa kulihi VOC. Di wayah pamarintahan kolonial nang labih bibas limbah [[1870]], sistem naini dihapus. Limbah [[1901]] pihak Belanda maminanduakan [[Politik Etis|Kabijakan Ba'étika]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Modern Indunisia since c.1300 |publisher=MacMillan |date =1991 |location=London |pages=151 |url= |doi= |id=ISBN 0-33-579690-X}}</ref> nang tamasuk réformasi politik nang tabatas dan investasi nang labih ganal di Hindia-Walanda. Di wayah Perang Dunia II, sawaktu Walanda dijajah ulih [[Jérman]], [[Japang]] manguasai Indonésia. Imbah mandapatakan Indonésia di tahun 1942, Japang malihat bahua bubuhan pajuang Indonésia marupakan kawal pardagangan nang kooperatif dan basadia mangarahakan parajurit lamun diparluakan. [[Soekarno]], [[Hatta|Mohammad Hatta]], [[Mas Mansur, Kiai Haji|KH. Mas Mansur]], wan [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]] dibari'i pangharagaan ulih [[Hirohito|Kaisar Japang]] di tahun 1943. Di Marat [[1945]] Japang mambantuk sabuah komite gasan kamardikaan Indonésia. Tuntung [[perang Pasipik]] di tahun 1945, di bawah tikinan organisasi pamuda, Soekarno-Hatta mamproklamasiakan kamardikaan Indunisia di tanggal [[17 Agustus]] [[1945]]. Limbah kamardikaan, talu pandiri bangsa yakni [[Soekarno]], [[Mohammad Hatta]], dan [[Sutan Sjahrir]] masing-masing manjabat sabagai parisidin, wakil parisidin, dan [[pardana manteri]]. Dalam usaha handak manguasai pulang Indonésia, Walanda mangirimakan pasukannya. Usaha-usaha badarah gasan mamajahi pagarakan kamardikaan naini kaina dipinandui ulih urang Walanda sabagai 'aksi kapulisian' (''Politionele Actie''), atawa dikenal ulih urang Indunisia sabagai Agresi malitir.<ref>{{cite book |last=ZWEERS |first=L. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Agressi II: Operatie Kraai. De vergeten beelden van de tweede politionele actie |publisher=SDU uitgevers |date=1995 |location=[[Den Haag]] |pages= |url= |doi= |id= }}</ref> Walanda kayaannya hakunai manarima hak Indonésia handak mardika di [[27 Desember]] [[1949]] sabagai nagara [[féderal]] nang disambat [[Ripublik Indonésia Sarikat]] limbah ma'ulihi gasakan nang gancang matan bubuhan antarbangsa, ta'utama [[Amirika Sarikat]]. Mosi Integral [[Natsir]] wayah tanggal 17 Agustus 1950, manyaru babuliknya nagara kasatuan Ripublik Indonésia wan marakai Ripublik Indonésia Sarikat. Ba'asa pulang Soekarno manjadi parisidin lawan Mohammad Hatta sabagai wakil parisidin wan Mohammad Natsir sabagai pardana mantri. Di tahun 1950-an dan 1960-an, pamarintahan Soekarno bamula ma'umpati salajuran mahuluakan [[garakan non-blok]] di tatambayannya, limbah nitu manjadi labih taparak lawan blok [[sosialisma|sosialis]], umpamanya [[Ripublik Rakyat Cina]] dan [[Yugoslavia]]. Tahun 1960-an manjadi saksi tajadinya konfrontasi malitir kapada nagara jiran, [[Malaysia]] ("''[[Konfrontasi Indunisia-Malaysia|Konfrontasi]]''"),<ref>van der Bijl, Nick. ''Confrontation, The War with Indunisia 1962—1966'', (London, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84415-595-8</ref> dan kahadapuasan kapada kangalihan ekonomi nang sasain baganal. Kaya'annya di tahun 1965 maladum kajadian [[G30S]] nang manyababakan kamatian 6 urang [[jenderal]] dan sajumbelah [[parwira]] manangah nang lainnya. Cungul kanahapan wastur nang manyambat dirinya [[Orde Puga]] nang sigra mandawa [[Partai Komunis Indonésia]] sabagai utak di balakang kajadian ngini wan bamaksud mahumbalingakan pamarintahan nang sarih lawan jua manyilih ideologi nasional manjadi badasarkan paham [[sosialisma|sosialis]]-[[komunisma|komunis]]. Dawa'an naini salajurai dijadi'akan alasan gasan manyilih pamarintahan lawas di bawah Paresiden [[Soekarno]]. [[Barakas:Presiden Sukarno (retouched).jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Sukarno]], Paresiden panambayan Indunisia]] Jénderal [[Soeharto]] manjadi parisidin di tahun [[1967]] ba'alasan gasan ma'amanakan nagara matan ancaman [[komunisme]]. Pahadangan nitu kondisi pisik Soekarno saurang sagin balamah. Limbahnya Soeharto bakuasa, ratusan ribu warga Indonésia nang dicurigai ta'umpat pihak komunis dibunuh, pahadangan nitu masih banyak ai jua warga Indonésia nang parahatan bagana di luar nagara, kada wani bulik ka tanah banyu, wan kawarihannya dipacul [[kawarganagaraan]]nya. Talung puluh dua tahun wayah kakuasaan Soeharto dingarani [[Orde Puga]], pahadangan masa pamarintahan Soekarno disambat [[Orde Usang]]. Soeharto manarapakan ikunumi [[néoliberalisma|néoliberal]] dan bahasil mandatangakan [[invéstasi]] luar nagara nang ganal masuk ka Indonésia wan mahasilakan partumbuhan ikunumi nang basar, walau kada barata. Di tatambayan [[rézim]] Orde Puga kabijakan ikunumi Indonésia disusun ulih bubuhan ékonom lulusan Departemén Ikunumi [[Universitas California, Berkeley]], nang dikiau "[[Mafia Berkeley]]".<ref>Wibowo, Sigit, Sjarifuddin. ''[http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0606/05/sh02.html Ekonomi Indunisia Gagal karena Mafia Berkeley]'', Harian Umum Sore Sinar Harapan. Copyright © Sinar Harapan 2003. Diakses: Selasa, 6 Agustus 2008.</ref> Tagal ha, Soeharto manambah kasugihannya dan kulawarganya liwat peraktik [[korupsi]], [[kolusi]], wan [[népotisma]] nang babangat wan sidin kaputingannya dipaksa turun tumatan jabatannya limbah aksi [[démonstrasi]] ganal-ganalan dan kondisi ikunumi nagara nang baburuk di tahun [[1998]]. Tumatan 1998 sahingga 2001, Indonésia ba'isi talu [[Daptar Paresiden Indonésia|parisidin]]: [[Habibie|Bacharuddin Jusuf (BJ) Habibie]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] dan [[Megawati Soekarnoputri]]. Di tahun [[2004]] [[pamilu 2004|pamilu]] sabuting hari pambasarnya di dunia<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Laporan dari [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Center Carter Center] |pages=30 |year=2004 |title=The Carter Center 2004 Indunisia Election Report |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=[[29 Juli]] [[2008]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614025148/http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |date=2007-06-14 }}</ref> diadakan dan dimanangakan ulih [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]. Indonésia damini parahatan ma'alami masalah-masalah ikunumi, pulitik wan [[konflik|barungkis]] banuansa agama di dalam nagara, dan babarapa da'irah ba'usaha handak ma'ulihi kamardika'an, ta'utama [[Papua]]. [[Timor Timur]] kaputingannya rasmi mamisahakan diri di tahun [[1999]] imbah 24 tahun basatu lawan Indunisia wan 3 tahun di bawah administrasi [[PBB]] manjadi nagara [[Timor Lésté]]. Wayah Disimbir [[2004]] dan Marat [[2005]], [[Aceh]] dan [[Pulaw Nias|Nias]] dilanda dua [[lindu|gampa bumi]] basar nang totalnya ratusan ribu jiwa mati tajangak. (Liati ''[[Lindu Lalautan Hindia 2004]]'' wan ''[[Lindu Sumatra Marat 2005]]''.) Kajadian naini ditunti ulih [[Lindu Yogyakarta Mai 2006|lindu di Yogyakarta]] dan [[Lindu Jawa Juli 2006|tsunami]] nang mahantam [[Pantai Pangandaran]] wan pintangannya, lawan jua [[Ba'ah lumpur panas Sidoarjo 2006|ba'ah lumpur]] di [[Sidoarjo]] di 2006 nang kada bakatuntungan. == Pulitik wan pamarintahan == {{main|Pulitik Indonésia}} Indonésia manjalanakan pamarintahan [[ripublik]] [[sistim parésidénsial|parésidénsial]] multipartai nang [[démokrasi|démokratis]]. Nangkaya jua di nagara-nagara démokrasi nang lainnya, sistim pulitik di Indonésia dipandalakan lawan [[Pamisahan kakuasaan|Trias Politika]] yaitu kakuasaan [[législatip]], [[éksékutip]] wan [[yudikatip]]. Kakuasaan législatip dipingkut ulih sabuting lambaga bangaran [[Majelis Pamusyawaratan Rakyat]] (MPR). MPR suah manjadi [[Majelis Pamusyawaratan Rakyat#Kadudukan|lambaga nagara paningginya]] [[sistim sabuting kamar|unikameral]], tagal imbah [[Parubahan Kaampat Undang-Undang Dasar Nagara Republik Indunisia Tahun 1945|amandemén ka-4]] MPR kadanya lambaga paningginya lagi, wan komposisi kaanggotaannya gin ba'ubah. MPR tuntung amandemén UUD 1945, yaitu tumatan [[2004]] ba'ubah manjadi lambaga [[sistem dua kamar|bikameral]] nang tadiri matan 560 angguta [[Diwan Parwakilan Rakyat]] (DPR) nang marupakan wakil rakyat liwat [[Partai Pulitik]], ditambah lawan 132 angguta [[Diwan Parwakilan Dairah]] (DPD) nang marupakan wakil paropinsi matan jalur [[indepénden]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Amandemen Katalu Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 |url=http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf |format=PDF |authorlink=[[Majelis Parmusyawaratan Rakyat]] |date=2006-12-13 |access-date=2010-11-29 |archive-date=2006-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201025250/http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Angguta DPR wan DPD dipilih liwat [[pamilu]] wan dilantik gasan masa jabatan lima tahun. Sabalumnya, angguta MPR adalah sabarataan angguta DPR ditambah [[utusan gulungan]] wan [[Tantara Nasional Indonésia|TNI]]/[[Kapulisian Nagara Ripublik Indonésia|Polri]]. MPR wayahini dikatuhai ulih [[Taufiq Kiemas]]. DPR wayahini dikatuhai ulih [[Marzuki Alie]], sadangkan DPD wayahini dikatuhai ulih [[Irman Gusman]]. Lembaga éksékutip bapusat di [[parisidin]], [[wakil parisidin]], wan [[kabinét]]. Kabinét di Indonésia adalah [[Kabinét (pamarintahan)|Kabinét Parésidénsial]] makanya bubuhan mantri batanggung jawab lawan parésidén wan kada mawakili partai pulitik nang ada di parlemén. Walau damintu, Parésidén wayahini yakni [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] nang disahan ulih [[Partai Demokrat]] manunjuk jua sajumbelah pemimpin [[Partai Pulitik]] gasan baduduk di kabinetnya. Untingannya gasan manjaga stabilitas pamarintahan ma'ingat matan nahapnya pusisi lambaga législatip di Indonésia. Tagal pos-pos panting wan setratégis umumnya diisi ulih mantri tanpa portofolio partai (ba'asal matan sa'iukung urang nang dianggap ahli dalam bidangnya). Lambaga Yudikatip tumatan wayah réformasi wan adanya amandemén UUD 1945 dijalanakan ulih [[Mahkamah Agung Ripublik Indonésia|Mahkamah Agung]], [[Komisi Yudisial]], wan [[Mahkamah Konstitusi]], tamasuk pa'aturan administrasi bubuhan hakim. Walau damintu kabaradaan [[Menteri Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indunisia|Menteri Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia]] tatap dipartahanakan. == Pambagian administratip == {{Utama|Parupinsi Indunisia}} [[Barakas:Indonesia provinces indonesian.png|right|450px|thumb|Parupinsi di Indunisia]] Indunisia damini tadiri matan 34 [[parupinsi]], lima di antaranya baisi satatus nang balain. Parupinsi dibagi jadi 416 [[kabupatin]] wan 98 [[kuta]] nang dibagi pulang jadi [[kacamatan]] wan dibagi pulang jadi [[kalurahan]], [[disa]], [[gampong]], [[kampung]], [[nagari]], [[pekon]], atawa istilah lain nang diakomodasi ulih Undang-Undang Ripublik Indunisia Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 tantang [[Pamarintahan Dairah]]. Saban parupinsi baisi [[Diwan Pambadalan Rakyat Dairah Parupinsi|DPRD Parupinsi]] wan [[hobnor]]; pahadangan [[kabupatin]] baisi [[Diwan Pambadalan Rakyat Dairah Kabupatin|DPRD Kabupatin]] wan [[bupati]]; imbah ngitu [[kuta]] baisi [[Diwan Pambadalan Rakyat Dairah Kuta|DPRD Kuta]] wan [[wali kuta]]; samunyaannya dipilih langsung ulih rakyat malalui [[Pamilu]] wan [[Pilkada]]. Nang kaya apa pun jua di Jakarta kadada DPR Kabupatin atawa DPR Kuta, marga Kabupatin Administrasi wan Kuta Administrasi di Jakarta kadanya pang dairah otonom. Parupinsi [[Aceh]], [[Dairah Istimiwa Yogyakarta]], [[Papua Barat]], wan [[Papua]] baisi hak istimewa législatur nang taganal wan tingkat otonomi nang tatinggi dibandingakan parupinsi nang lain. Misalnya, Aceh baisi hak mambantuk sistim légal saurang; di tahun 2003, Aceh bamula manatapakan hukum [[Syariah]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789}}</ref> Yogyakarta mandapatakan satatus Dairah Istimiwa sabagai pangakuan lawan paran panting Yogyakarta dalam mandukung Indunisia salawas Revolusi.<ref>[[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (1999). Bab XIV Other Provisions, Pasal 122; ''[http://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Republik_Indunisia_Nomor_5_Tahun_1974 Undang-Undang Republik Indunisia Nomor 5 Tahun 1974 tentang Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan di Daerah]''. [[Presiden Indunisia]] (1974). Bab VII Aturan Peralihan, Pasal 91</ref> [[Paropinsi Papua]], sabalumnya disambat Irian Jaya, ma'ulihi status otonomi husus tahun 2001.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dursin |first=Richel |coauthors=Kafil Yamin |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]]}}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta|publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]]}}</ref> [[DKI Jakarta]], adalah dairah husus indung nagara. [[Timor Portugis]] digabungakan ka dalam wilayah Indunisia wan jadi paropinsi [[Timor Timur]] di tahun 1979–1999, nang imbah ngitu mamisahakan diri malalu'i réferéndum manjadi Nagara [[Timor Lésté]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Burr |first=W. |coauthors=Evans, M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indunisia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Archive National Security Archieve], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_University Universitas George Washington], [[Washington, D.C.]] |date=[[6 Desember]] [[2001]] |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |accessdate=[[17 September]] [[2006]]}}</ref> ;Paropinsi di Indonésia wan indung banuanya {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} '''[[Sumatra]]''' * [[Acéh]] - [[Kuta Banda Acéh|Banda Acéh]] * [[Sumatra Utara]] - [[Kuta Médan|Médan]] * [[Sumatra Barat]] - [[Kuta Padang|Padang]] * [[Riau]] - [[Kuta Pekanbaru|Pekanbaru]] * [[Kapulauan Riau]] - [[Kuta Tanjung Pinang|Tanjung Pinang]] * [[Jambi]] - [[Kuta Jambi|Jambi]] * [[Sumatra Salatan]] - [[Kuta Palémbang|Palémbang]] * [[Kapulauan Bangka Belitung]] - [[Kuta Pangkal Pinang|Pangkal Pinang]] * [[Bengkulu]] - [[Kuta Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] * [[Lampung]] - [[Kuta Bandar Lampung|Bandar Lampung]] '''[[Jawa]]''' * [[Dairah Kusus Indungnagara Jakarta]] * [[Banten]] - [[Kuta Sérang|Sérang]] * [[Jawa Barat]] - [[Kuta Bandung|Bandung]] * [[Jawa Tengah]] - [[Kuta Samarang|Samarang]] * [[Dairah Istimiwa Yogyakarta]] - [[Kuta Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] * [[Jawa Timur]] - [[Kuta Surabaya|Surabaya]] '''[[Kapulauan Sunda Kacil]]''' * [[Bali]] - [[Kuta Dénpasar|Dénpasar]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Barat]] - [[Kuta Mataram|Mataram]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Timur]] - [[Kuta Kupang|Kupang]] {{col-break}} '''[[Kalimantan]]''' * [[Kalimantan Barat]] - [[Kuta Pontianak|Pontianak]] * [[Kalimantan Tangah]] - [[Kuta Palangkaraya|Palangkaraya]] * [[Kalimantan Salatan]] - [[Kuta Banjarmasin|Banjarmasin]] * [[Kalimantan Timur]] - [[Kuta Samarinda|Samarinda]] * [[Kalimantan Utara]] - [[Kuta Tanjung Selor|Tanjung Selor]] '''[[Sulawesi]]''' * [[Sulawési Utara]] - [[Kuta Manado|Manado]] * [[Gorontalo]] - [[Kuta Gorontalo|Gorontalo]] * [[Sulawési Tangah]] - [[Kuta Palu|Palu]] * [[Sulawési Barat]] - [[Kuta Mamuju|Mamuju]] * [[Sulawési Salatan]] - [[Kuta Makassar|Makassar]] * [[Sulawési Tunggara]] - [[Kuta Kendari|Kendari]] '''[[Kapulauan Maluku]]''' * [[Maluku]] - [[Kuta Ambon|Ambon]] * [[Maluku Utara]] - [[Sofifi]] '''[[Papua]]''' * [[Papua Barat]] - [[Manokwari (kuta)|Manokwari]] * [[Papua]] - [[Kuta Jayapura|Jayapura]] {{col-end}} == Geografi == {{main|Geografi Indunisia}} ''Lihat pula: [[Asia#Peta|Peta Asia]] dan [[Jumlah pulau di Indunisia]]'' [[Barakas:Indonesian archipelagic baselines.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Peta garis kapulauan Indunisia, Deposit oleh Republik Indunisia pada daftar titik-titik koordinat geografis bapandalkan pasal 47, ayat 9, matan Konvensi PBB masa'alah Hukum Laut.<ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/MAPS/idn_mzn67_2009.jpg Indunisian archipelagic baselines]</ref><ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/DEPOSIT/idn_mzn67_2009.pdf Daftar koordinat geografis titik-titik garis-garis pangkal kepulauan Indunisia]</ref>]] [[Barakas:Waterfall_Madakaripura_B.JPG|150px|thumb|right|Sebuah [[air terjun]], di [[Taman Nasional Bromo Tengger Semeru]], [[Lumbang, Probolinggo]], [[Jawa Timur]].]] Indunisia adalah [[nagara kepulauan]] di [[Asia Tunggara]]<ref>{{cite book | first=Harm | last=Dotinga | coauthors=Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea | title=International organizations and the law of the sea: documentary yearbook, Vol 14 |pages=960 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | year=2000 | isbn=9041113452, 9789041113450}}</ref> nang ba'isi 17.504 pulau ganal dan halus, bangsa 6.000 di antaranya kada bapanghuni<ref name="Indunisia Regions">{{cite press release |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=536&S=PPPWGT-PPPPC&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0&x=45&y=5 Estimate |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |title=World Economic Outlook Database |month=April |year=2006 }}; {{cite web | first =Hendriawan | title =Indunisia Regions | publisher =Indunisia Business Directory | url =http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | accessdate =2007-04-24 | archive-date =2005-12-28 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20051228011848/http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | dead-url =yes }}</ref>, nang manyabak di pintangan [[khatulistiwa]], nang memberikan cuaca tropis. Posisi Indunisia ba'andak di koordinat 6°[[LU]] - 11°08'[[LS]] dan tumatan 95°'[[BB]] - 141°45'[[BT]] awan jua ba'andak di antara dua [[benua]] yaitu benua [[Asia]] dan benua [[Australia]]/[[Oseania]]. Wilayah Indunisia mambantang sepanjang 3.977 mil di antara [[Samudra Hindia]] dan [[Samudra Pasifik]]. Luas daratan Indunisia adalah 1.922.570 km² dan luas perairannya 3.257.483 km². Pulau paracapnya penduduknya adalah pulau Jawa, dimana setangah populasi Indunisia bagana. Indunisia terdiri dari 5 pulau besar, yaitu: [[Pulau Jawa|Jawa]] lawan luas 132.107 km², [[Sumatera]] lawan luas 473.606 km², [[Pulau Kalimantan|Kalimantan]] lawan luas 539.460 km², [[Sulawesi]] lawan luas 189.216 km², dan [[Pulau Papua|Papua]] lawan luas 421.981 km². Batas wilayah Indunisia diukur matan kepulauan lawan menggunakan territorial laut: 12 [[mil laut]] serta zona ekonomi eksklusif: 200 [[mil laut]],<ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part5.htm Article 55], 1982 UN Convention on the Law of The Sea.</ref> searah penjuru mata angin, yaitu: {{batas_USBT |utara=Negara [[Malaysia]] lawan perbatasan sepanjang 1.782 km<ref name="Indunisia Regions"/>, [[Singapura]], [[Filipina]], dan [[Laut Cina Selatan]] |selatan=Negara [[Australia]], [[Timor Leste]], dan [[Samudra Indunisia]] |timur=Negara [[Papua Nugini]] lawan perbatasan sepanjang 820 km<ref name="Indunisia Regions"/>, [[Timor Leste]], dan [[Samudra Pasifik]] |barat=[[Samudra Hindia|Samudra Indunisia]] }} === Sumbar daya alam === [[Barakas:Man of the woods.JPG|thumb|[[Urang hutan Sumatera]].]] [[Sumbar daya alam]] Indunisia berupa [[minyak bumi]], [[timah]], [[gas alam]], [[nikel]], [[kayu]], [[bauksit]], [[tanah subur]], [[batu bara]], [[amas]], dan [[pirak]] lawan pambagian lahan terdiri matan tanah [[partanian]] saganal 10%, [[parkabunan]] saganal 7%, [[padang kumpay]] saganal 7%, [[hutan]] dan dairah bahutan saganal 62%, dan lainnya saganal 14% lawan lahan [[irigasi]] salumbah 45.970 km<ref name="Indunisia: environment and development">{{cite book | first= | last=World Bank | coauthors= | title=A World Bank country study Country Studies: Indunisia: environment and development | publisher=World Bank Publications | year=1994 | isbn=0821329502, 9780821329504}}</ref> == Pandidikan == {{utama|Pendidikan di Indunisia}} Sasuai lawan konstitusi nang barlaku, yaitu bapandalkan [[Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indunisia Tahun 1945|UUD 1945]] pasal 31 ayat 4 dan [[Undang-undang]] nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pandidikan nasional, bahua pamarintah Indunisia baik pusat atawa jua daerah musti ma'alokasikan anggaran gasan pandidikan saganal 20% matan [[APBN]] dan [[APBD]] diluar gajih pandidik dan biaya kadinasan. Tagal di tahun [[2007]] alokasi nang disadiaakan nangitu tadih wastur bangsa 17.2 %, jauh tarandah dibandingakan lawan nagara [[Malaysia]], [[Thailand]] dan [[Filipina]] sudah ma'alokasikan anggaran gasan pendidikan talabih daripada 28 %<ref>World Bank, (2008), ''Spending for development: making the most of Indunisia's new opportunities : Indunisia public expenditure review'', World Bank Publications, ISBN 978-0-8213-7320-0</ref>. == Ikunumi == {{main|Ikunumi Indunisia}} Sistem ekonomi Indunisia panambaiannya didukung lawan dilungsurakannya [[Oeang Repoeblik Indunisia|Oeang Repoeblik Indunisia (ORI)]] nang manjadi mata uang tatambayan Republik Indunisia, nang kainanya baganti manjadi Rupiah. Di wayah pamarintahan Orde Usang, Indunisia kada sabukuan maadaptasi sistem ekonomi kapitalis, tapi jua memadukannya lawan nasionalisme ekonomi. Pamarintah nang baluman bapangalaman, masih ai umpat campur tangan ka dalam beberapa kagiatan paruduksi nang bapangaruh lawan masyarakat banyak. Hal nangitu, ditambah jua kacamuhan politik, maakibatkan tajadinya kahadasatabilan lawan ekonomi nagara.<ref name="SCHWARZ">Schwarz, A. (1994). ''A Nation in Waiting: Indunisia in the 1990s''. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2, tungkaran 52–57.</ref> Pamarintahan Orde Puga sigra manarapkan disiplin ekonomi nang batujuan manikin [[inflasi]], manyatabilkan mata uang, panjadualan ba'asa [[hutang luar nageri]], dan bausaha mambisai tatulungan (bantuan) dan investasi asing.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Di wayah era tahun 1970-an haraga [[minyak bumi]] nang banaik manyababakan babanyaknya nilai ekspor, dan mambari muhara tingkat partumbuhan ekonomi rata-rata nang tinggi saganal 7% antara tahun 1968 sampai 1981.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Reformasi ekonomi nang dudi parak ahir tahun 1980-an, antara lain berupa deregulasi sektor kaduitan dan palamahan nilai rupiah nang takendali,<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> imbah nitu maalirakan investasi asing ka Indunisia hususnya lawan industri-industri baorientasi ekspor wayah antara tahun 1989 sampai 1997<ref>{{cite web |title=Indunisia: Country Brief |work=Indunisia:Key Development Data & Statistics |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |month=September |year=2006 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |format= |doi= |accessdate= |archive-date=2012-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101135702/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ekonomi Indunisia maalami kamunduran wayah ahir tahun [[1990-an]] lantaran [[krisis finansial Asia|krisis ekonomi]] nang melanda palih basar [[Asia]] di wayah itu,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Poverty in Indunisia: Always with them |journal=[[The Economist]] |date=[[14 September]] [[2006]] |accessdate=[[26 Desember]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7925064}}</ref> nang diumpati jua baahirnya masa Orde Puga lawan paunduran diri Paresiden Soeharto tanggal 21 Mai 1998. Masa ini ekonomi Indunisia sudah pang sadang satabil. Partumbuhan [[PDB|PDB Indunisia]] tahun 2004 dan 2005 malabihi 5% dan dikikira'akan pacang tarus balanjut.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indunisia: Forecast |work=Country Briefings |publisher=[[The Economist]] |date=[[3 Oktober]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.economist.com/countries/Indunisia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |accessdate=}}</ref> Tagal walau damintu, dampak partumbuhan intu baluman mayu ganal dalam mampangaruhi tingkat pa-angguran, yaitu saganal 9,75%.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indunisia |title=Babarapa Indikator Panting Mengenai Indunisia |date=[[2 Desember]] [[2008]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf|format=PDF |language=[[Bahasa Indunisia]] |accessdate=[[18 Maret]] [[2008]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| author=Ridwan Max Sijabat| title=Unemployment still blighting the Indunisian landscape| publisher=[[The Jakarta Post]]| date=[[23 Maret]] [[2007]]| url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp| access-date=2010-12-01| archive-date=2007-05-01| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501081947/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp| dead-url=yes}}</ref> Parkiraan tahun 2006, sabanyak 17,8% masyarakat hidup di bawah [[garis kamiskinan]], dan ta'ulihi 49,0% masyarakat nang hidup lawan panghasilan kurang daripada AS$ 2 par hari.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Making the New Indunisia Work for the Poor - Overview |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |year=2006 |accessdate=[[26 Desember]] [[2006]] |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> [[Barakas:Indonesian_Rupiah_(IDR)_banknotes2009.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Duwit [[rupiah]]]] [[Barakas:Bank_Indonesian_headquarters.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Gadung pusat [[Bank Indunisia]].]] Indunisia baisi [[sumbar daya alam]] nang ganal di luar [[Jawa]], tamasuk [[minyak mantah]], [[gas alam]], [[timah]], [[tembaga]], dan [[amas]]. Indunisia pa-ekspor gas alam pangganalnya kadua di dunia, maski wayah dudi naya inya sudah mulai manjadi pa-impor barasih [[minyak mantah]]. Hasil partanian nang utama tamasuk [[baras]], [[tih]], [[kupi]], [[rarampahan]], dan gatah/[[karet]].<ref name='indoCIA'/> [[Jasa|Sektor jasa]] adalah penyumbang pangganalnya PDB, nang mencapai 45,3% gasan PDB 2005. Sedangkan [[Industri|sektor industri]] manyumbang 40,7%, dan [[partanian|sektor partanian]] manyumbang 14,0%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Statistics and its Development in Indunisia |work=Sub Committee on Statistics: First Session 18–20 February, 2004 |publisher=Economic and Social Commission for Asia & the Pacific |page=19 |format=PDF |url=http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf |access-date=2010-12-01 |archive-date=2009-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225211/http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Maski damia, sektor partanian ma'ulahakan gawian urang tabanyak daripada sektor-sektor nang lainnya, yaitu 44,3% matan 95 juta urang tanaga gawi. Sektor jasa manggawiakan 36,9%, dan sisanya sektork industri saganal 18,8%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indunisia at a Glance |work=Indunisia Development Indicators and Data |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |date=[[13 Agustus]] [[2006]] |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/idn_aag.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Kawal pardagangan pangganalnya Indunisia adalah [[Japang]], [[Amirika Sarikat]], dan nagara-nagara halatnya yaitu [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]] dan [[Australia]]. Meski sugih akan sumbar daya alam dan manusia, Indunisia magun ai mahadapi masalah ganal dalam bidang kamiskinan nang palih ganal disababakan ulih [[korupsi]] nang liwar banyak dalam pamarintahan. Lembaga [[Transparency International]] ma'andak Indunisia sabagai peringkat ke-143 matan 180 nagara dalam [[Indeks Persepsi Korupsi]], nang dikaluarakannya wayah tahun 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title =[[Indeks Persepsi Korupsi]] |publisher =[[Transparency International]] |year =2007 |url =http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |accessdate =[[28 September]] [[2007]] |archive-date =2008-04-28 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080428203145/http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |dead-url =yes }}</ref> <!-- referensi mengenai data-data perekonomian di bagian ini sedang ditambahkan. (Naval Scene) --> == Paringkat antarabangsa == {| class="wikitable" |- ! Organisasi ! Nama Survey ! Peringkat |- | [[Heritage Foundation]]/''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' | [[Index of Economic Freedom#Current ratings|Indeks Kebebasan Ekonomi]] | 110 matan 157<ref>{{cite web | title = Index of Economic Freedom | publisher = ''The Heritage Foundation & The Wall Street Journal'' | url = http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/countries.cfm | accessdate = 2008-06-31 | archive-date = 2008-02-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080213211732/http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/countries.cfm | dead-url = yes }}</ref> |- | ''[[The Economist]]'' | [[Indeks Kualitas Hidup]] | 71 matan 111<ref>{{cite web | title = The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Quality-of-Life Index | publisher = ''The Economist'' | url = http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-09-12 }}</ref> |- | [[Reporters Without Borders]] | [[Reporters Without Borders#Worldwide press freedom index|Indeks Kebebasan Pers]] | 103 matan 168<ref>{{cite web | title = Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006 | publisher = ''Reporters Without Borders'' | url = http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/cm2006.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-06-31 }}</ref> |- | [[Transparency International]] | [[Indeks Persepsi Korupsi]] | 143 matan 179<ref>{{cite web | title = cpi 2007 table | publisher = ''Transparency International'' | date = 2008-02-13 | url = http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2007/cpi2007/cpi_2007_table | accessdate = 2008-06-31 }}</ref> |- | [[United Nations Development Programme]] | [[Daptar nagara menurut Indeks Pambangunan Manusia|Indeks Pambangunan Manusia]] | 108 matan 177<ref>{{cite web | title = Human Development Reports: Indunisia | publisher = ''United Nations Development Programme'' | url = http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_IDN.html | accessdate = 2008-06-31 }}</ref> |- | [[Forum Ekonomi Dunia]] | [[Laporan Daya Saing Global]] | 51 matan 122<ref>{{cite web | title = Global Competitiveness Index rankings and 2006–2007 comparisons | publisher = ''World Economic Forum'' | url = http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/gcr_2007/gcr2007_rankings.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-06-31 }}</ref> |} == Demografi == {{main|Demografi Indunisia}} [[Barakas:Kepadatan 2010.JPG|thumb|Karacapan panduduk Indunisia menurut Sensus 2010]] Menurut sensus penduduk 2000, Indunisia baisi populasi bangsa 206 juta,<ref name='bps2000'>{{cite press release |title=2000 Population Statistics |publisher=Indunisian Central Statistics Bureau |date=[[30 Juni]] [[2000]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]]}}</ref> dan diperkirakan pada tahun 2010 bapanduduk 237 juta.<ref name="BPS"/> 130 juta (lebih dari 50%) tinggal di [[Pulau Jawa]] nang merupakan pulau bapanduduk pambanyaknya salajur pulau dimana indung banua [[Jakarta]] baandak.<ref>{{cite web |last=Calder |first=Joshua |title=Most Populous Islands |publisher=World Island Information |date=[[3 Mei]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |accessdate=[[26 September]] [[2006]]}}</ref> Palih ganal (95%) panduduk Indunisia adalah [[Austronesia#Asal usul bangsa Austronesia|Bangsa Austronesia]], dan taulih jua kelompok-kelompok suku [[Melanesia]], [[Polinesia]], dan [[Mikronesia]] tautama di Indunisia palih Timur. Banyak penduduk Indunisia nang bapadah dirinya sabagai palih matan kelompok suku nang lebih spesifik, nang dibagi menurut basa dan asal daerah, misalnya [[urang Jawa|Jawa]], [[urang Sunda|Sunda]], [[urang Malayu|Malayu]], [[Suku Madura|Madura]], [[Suku Batak|Batak]], dan [[Suku Minangkabau|Minangkabau]]. Selain itu gin ada jua panduduk pandatang nang jumlahnya minoritas di antaranya adalah etnis [[Tionghoa]], [[India]], dan [[Bangsa Arab|Arab]]. Bubuhannya tutih sudah lawas datang ke Nusantara liwat perdagangan tumatan abad ke 8 M dan bagana manjadi palih matan Nusantara. Di Indunisia taulihi bangsa 4 juta populasi etnis Tionghoa.<ref name="eiu">{{cite paper |title=Country Profile 2008: Indunisia |pages= |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit Economist Intelligence Unit] |date=[[16 Mei]] [[2008]] |doi= |url=http://portal.eiu.com/report_dl.asp?issue_id=1973383782&mode=pdf |format=pdf |id= |accessdate=[[31 Juli]] [[2008]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129085351/https://portal.eiu.com/Login.aspx?c=1 |date=2021-01-29 }}</ref> Angka naya babeda-beda lantaran wastu pada tahun 1930 dan 2000 pemerintah melakukan sensus lawan cara manggalambang-galambangkan masyarakat Indunisia ka dalam suku bangsa dan katurunannya. [[Islam]] adalah [[agama]] mayoritas nang dipeluk oleh bangsa 85,2% penduduk Indunisia, nang manjadikan Indunisia nagara lawan penduduk muslim pambanyaknya di dunia.<ref name='indoCIA'>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|title=Indunisia - The World Factbook|access-date=2011-05-03|archive-date=2008-12-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210041527/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sisanya baagama [[Protestan]] (8,9%), [[Katolik]] (3%), [[Hindu]] (1,8%), [[Buddha]] (0,8%), dan lain-lain (0,3%). Selain agama-agama nangitu tadih, pemerintah Indunisia gin secara resmi maakui [[Agama Konghucu|Konghucu]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indunisia |journal=Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=8 |month=August |year=2005 |url=http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/nang2005.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=[[2 Oktober]] [[2006]] }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Kebanyakannya penduduk Indunisia basurah dalam [[basa daerah]] sabagai [[basa uma]], tagal [[basa resmi]] nagara, yaitu [[basa Indunisia]], diajarakan di sabarataan sekolah-sekolah di nagara naya dan dikuasai oleh parak sabarataan penduduk Indunisia. {{kota besar di Indunisia|image=Jakarta Skyline (Resize).jpg}} == Kabudayaan == {{main|Budaya Indunisia}} === Partunjukan === [[Barakas:WanangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|right|150px|[[Wanang|Wanang kulit]] warisan budaya Jawa.]] Indonesia baisi bangsa 300 kelompok etnis, tiap etnis baisi warisan budaya nang bakambang salawas baabad-abad, dipangaruhi oleh kebudayaan India, Arab, Cina, Eropa, dan tamasuk kebudayaan saurang yaitu [[Melayu]]. Contohnya tarian [[Jawa]] dan [[Bali]] tradisional baisi aspek budaya dan mitologi Hindu, kaya [[Wanang|wanang kulit]] nang menampayakan kisah-kisah parihal kejadian mitologis Hindu [[Ramayana]] dan [[Baratayuda]]. Banyak jua seni tari nang baisikan nilai-nilai [[Islam]]. Beberapa di antaranya dapat ditemukan di daerah [[Sumatera]] seperti tari [[Tari Ratéb Meuseukat|Ratéb Meuseukat]] dan tari [[Tari Seudati|Seudati]] matan [[Aceh]]. Seni [[pantun]], [[gurindam]], dan sabagainya dari pelbagai daerah pariannya pantun Melayu, dan pantun-pantun lainnya rancak digunaakan dalam acara-acara bakurinah yaitu [[karasmin]], pentas seni, dan lain-lain. === Busana === {{utama|Daftar busana daerah Indunisia}} [[Barakas:Aesan_Gede_Songket_Palembang.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Saikung galuh [[Palembang]] rahatan mamuruk [[Songket]], salah sabuting busana tradisional Indunisia.]] Di bidang busana warisan budaya nang dipinandui di sabarataan dunia adalah kerajinan [[batik]]. Beberapa daerah nang tarkenal akan industri batik pariannya [[Yogyakarta]], [[Kota Surakarta|Surakarta]], [[Cirebon]], [[Pandeglang]], [[Garut]], [[Kabupaten Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]] dan jua [[Kabupaten Pekalongan|Pekalongan]]. Kerajinan batik ini gin diklaim oleh nagara lain lawan industri batiknya.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://majalah.depkumham.go.id/node/125 |title=PENGERAJIN BATIK TAK PERLU RESAH |work=Majalah Hukum & HAM Online |date=[[30 September]] [[2007]] |accessdate=14 Agustus 2008 |archive-date=2008-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926071726/http://majalah.depkumham.go.id/node/125 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Busana asli Indunisia tumatan [[Sabang]] sampai [[Merauke]] lainnya kawa dipinandui matan ciri-cirinya nang dirasuk di setiap daerah antara lain [[baju kurung]] lawan [[songket]]nya matan [[Sumatera Barat]] ([[Minangkabau]]), kain [[ulos]] matan [[Sumatra Utara]] ([[Batak]]), busana [[kebaya]], busana khas [[Suku Dayak|Dayak]] di [[Kalimantan]], [[baju bodo]] dari [[Sulawesi Selatan]], busana ba[[koteka]] matan [[Papua]] dan sabagainya. === Arsitektur === {{utama|Arsitektur Indunisia}} [[Barakas:Hindu Temple in Java , Indunisia.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Lukisan [[Candi Prambanan]] nang baasal matan masa pemerintahan [[Raffles]].]] [[Arsitektur Indunisia]] mancaraminakan keanekaragaman [[Budaya Indunisia|budaya]], [[Sejarah Indunisia|sajarah]], dan [[Geografi Indunisia|geografi]] nang membentuk Indunisia seutuhnya. Kaum penyerang, penjajah, penyebar agama, pedagang, dan saudagar membawa perubahan budaya lawan cara memberi dampak pada gaya dan teknik bangunan. Tradisionalnya, pengaruh arsitektur asing nang paling nahap adalah matan India. Tagal, Cina, Arab, dan tumatan abad ke-19 pengaruh Eropa manjadi mayu dominan. Ciri has arsitektur Indunisia kuno magunai kawa dilihat liwat rumah-rumah adat dan/atau istana-istana kerajaan matan tiap-tiap provinsi. [[Taman Mini Indunisia Indah]], salah satu objek wisata di Jakarta nang manjadi miniatur Indunisia, manampayakan keanekaragaman arsitektur Indunisia itu. Beberapa bangunan khas Indunisia pariannya [[Rumah Gadang]], [[Monumen Nasional]], dan Bangunan Fakultas Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan di [[Institut Teknologi Bandung]]. === Olahraga === {{utama|Olahraga Indunisia}} [[Barakas:Badminton Beijing 2008 Lu Lan vs Yulianti.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Maria Kristin Yulianti]] (habang), peraih [[medali]] [[perunggu]] pas [[Olimpiade Beijing 2008]].]] Olahraga nang paling populer di Indunisia adalah [[bulu tangkis]] wan [[sepak bola]]; [[Liga Super Indunisia]] adalah liga klub sepak bola utama di Indunisia. Olahraga tradisional tamasuk [[sepak takraw]] wan [[karapan sapi]] di [[Pulau Madura|Madura]]. Di wilayah lawan sajarah perang antar suku, kontes pertarungan diadakan, parannya ''caci'' di [[Flores]], dan [[pasola]] di [[Sumba]]. [[Pencak silat]] adalah seni bela diri nang unik nang baasal matan wilayah Indunisia. Seni bela diri ini bahanu ditampayakan pada acara-acara pertunjukkan nang biasanya diumpatiti lawan musik tradisional Indunisia berupa [[gamelan]] dan seni musik tradisional lainnya sesuai lawan daerah asalnya. Olahraga di Indunisia biasanya baorientasi lawan lalakian dan olahraga spektator rancak bahubungan lawan judi nang ilegal di Indunisia.<ref>{{cite book | last =Witton | first =Patrick | title =Indunisia | publisher =Lonely Planet | year =2003 | location =Melbourne | pages =hal.103 | id = ISBN1-74059-154-2 }}</ref> Di ajang kompetisi multi cabang, prestasi atlet-atlet Indunisia kada tapi mengesankan. Di Olimpiade, prestasi pambaiknya Indunisia dikulihi di wayah [[Olimpiade 1992]], dimana Indunisia menduduki peringkat 24 lawan kulihan 2 amas 2 pirak dan 1 pirunggu. Pada era 1960 hingga 2000, Indunisia merajai bulu tangkis. Atlet-atlet putra Indunisia nangkaya [[Rudi Hartono]], [[Liem Swie King]], [[Icuk Sugiarto]], [[Alan Budikusuma]], [[Ricky Subagja]], dan [[Rexy Mainaky]] merajai kejuaraan-kejuaraan dunia. Rudi Hartono nang dianggap sabagai maestro bulu tangkis dunia, manjadi juara [[All England]] pambanyaknya sepanjang sajarah. Selain [[bulu tangkis]], atlet-atlet tinju Indunisia gin kawawa maulihi gelar juara dunia, pariannya [[Elyas Pical]], [[Nico Thomas]]<ref>[http://www.surya.co.id/2009/03/27/elyas-pical-dapat-penghargaan.html Elyas Pical Dapat Penghargaan]{{Dead link|date=September 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}. ''[[Surya (surat kabar)|Surya]]'', [[27 Maret]] [[2009]]. Diakses pada [[10 September]] [[2010]].</ref>, dan [[Chris John (petinju)|Chris John]].<ref>Afriatni, Ami. [http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/olahraga/2007/08/19/brk,20070819-105865,id.html Petinju Chris John Sukses Pertahankan Gelar Juara Dunia]. ''[[Koran Tempo|Tempo]]'', [[19 Agustus]] [[2007]]. Diakses pada [[10 September]] [[2010]].</ref> === Seni musik === {{utama|Musik Indunisia}} Seni musik di Indunisia, baik tradisional atawa jua nang modern liwar banyak tabentang matan [[Sabang]] sahingga [[Merauke]]. Setiap provinsi di Indunisia baisi [[musik tradisional]] lawan cacirian khasnya saurangan. Musik tradisional tamasuk jua [[keroncong]] nang berasal matan katurunan [[Portugis]] di daerah [[Kampung Tugu|Tugu]], [[Jakarta]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |title=Kampung Tugu, Menyimpan Kenangan Sejarah |work=Kompas |date=Rabu, [[28 April]] [[2004]] |accessdate=14 Agustus 2008}}</ref> nang dikenal oleh sabarataan rakyat Indunisia bahkan hingga ke mancanagara. Ada jua musik nang merakyat di Indunisia nang dikenal lawan ngaran [[dangdut]] yaitu musik baaliran [[musik Malayu|Malayu]] modern nang dipengaruhi oleh musik India sehingga musik dangdut ini babeda bangat lawan musik tradisiunal Malayu nang sabujurnya, pariannya musik Melayu Deli, Melayu Riau, dan sabagainya. [[Barakas:Traditional_indonesian_instruments02.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Gamelan|Seperangkat gamelan]]]] Alat musik tradisional nang merupakan alat musik khas Indunisia baisi banyak ragam matan pelbagai daerah di Indunisia, tagal banyak jua matan alat musik tradisional Indunisia 'dicuntan' oleh nagara lain<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.gatra.com/2008-01-01/artikel.php?id=110550 |title=Perspektif: Mencuri Klaim, Itu Biasa|work=Gatra.Com |author=Radhar Panca Dahana |date=Kamis, [[6 Desember]] [[2007]]|accessdate=14 Agustus 2008}}</ref> gasan kepentingan penambahan budaya dan seni musiknya saurang lawan cara mematenkan hak cipta seni budaya ampun Indunisia. [[Daftar alat musik Indunisia|Alat musik tradisional Indunisia]] antara lain meliputi: {{Col-begin|width=}} {{Col-4}} * [[Angklung]] * Bende * [[Calung]] * Dermenan * [[Gamelan]] * Gandang Tabuik * Gendang Bali {{Col-4}} * Gondang Batak * Gong Kemada * Gong Lambus * Jidor * [[Tembang Cianjuran|Kecapi Suling]] * Kulcapi Batak * Kendang Jawa {{Col-4}} * Kenong * [[Kulintang]] * [[Rebab]] * [[Rebana]] * [[Saluang]] * [[Saron]] * [[Sasando]] {{Col-4}} * [[Serunai]] * Seurune Kale * Suling Lembang * Sulim Batak * Suling Sunda * [[Talempong]] * Tanggetong * Tifa, dan sabagainya {{Col-end}} === Boga === {{main|Masakan Indunisia}} [[Barakas:SOTO FOOD.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Beberapa [[Masakan Indunisia|makanan Indunisia]]: [[soto]] hayam, [[sate]] kerang, hintalu pindang, perkedel dan es teh manis.]] [[Masakan Indunisia]] bavariasi bagantung lawan wilayahnya.<ref>{{cite book |last=Witton |first=Patrick |title=World Food: Indunisia |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonely_Planet Lonely Planet] |year=2002 |location=Melbourne |id=ISBN 1-74059-009-0}}</ref> Nasi adalah makanan pokok dan dihidangkan lawan lauk daging dan gangan. Bumbu (tautama [[cabai]]), [[santan]], [[iwak]], dan [[hayam]] adalah bahan nang penting.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brissendon |first=Rosemary |title=South East Asian Food |publisher=Hardie Grant Books |year=2003 |location=Melbourne|id=ISBN 1-74066-013-7}}</ref> Sepanjang sajarah, Indunisia sudah manjadi tempat perdagangan antara dua benua. Ini menyebabkan umpat tabawanya banyak bumbu, bahan makanan dan teknik memasak matan bangsa [[Melayu]] saurang, [[India]], [[Timur tangah]], [[Tionghoa]], dan [[Eropa]]. Samunyaan ini bakambuh lawan ciri khas makanan Indunisia tradisional, mahasilkan banyak keanekaragaman nang kada tahaga di daerah lain. Bahkan bangsa [[Spanyol]] dan [[Portugis]], sudah mendahului bangsa [[Belanda]] lawan membawa banyak produk matan dunia puga ke Indunisia. Pamakanan halus pariannya wadai mawadai banyak dijual di pasar tradisional. Wadai-wadai nangitu tadih biasanya babahan dasar beras, lakatan, gumbili kayu, gumbili lancar, galapung, atau sagu. Nasi rames nang berisi nasi beserta lauk atau gangan pilihan dijual di tempat-tempat umum, pariannya stasiun [[kereta api]], pasar, dan terminal bus. Di [[Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta]] dan sekitarnya dikenal nasi kucing sabagai nasi rames nang berukuran sangat minimalis baharaga murah, nasi kucing rancak dijual di atas angkringan, semacam warung kaki lima. Taulih jua aneka makanan nang dijual oleh bubuhan pedagang keliling menggunakan rombong atau pikulan. Pedagang bakuliling ini menyajikan [[mie ayam]], mi [[bakso]], [[soto]], [[siomay]], roti burger, [[nasi basanga]], [[nasi balamak]], dan lain-lain. === Perfilman === {{utama|Perfilman Indunisia}}<!-- [[Berkas:Tjoet Nja' Dhien.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Poster film ''[[Tjoet Nja' Dhien (film)|Tjoet Nja' Dhien]]'' (1988), film parihal pahlawan nasional Indunisia asal [[Aceh]].]]--> Film tatambayan nang diproduksi panambayan kalinya di nusantara adalah film bisu tahun [[1926]] nang berjudul ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'' dan diulah oleh sutradara [[Belanda]] G. Kruger dan L. Heuveldorp wayah zaman [[Hindia Walanda]]. Film ini diulah pakay aktor lokal oleh Perusahaan Film Jawa NV di [[Bandung]] dan mancungul panambayan kalinya pada tanggal [[31 Desember]], [[1926]] di teater Elite and Majestic, [[Bandung]]. Setelah itu, lebih matan 2.200 film diproduksi. Di masa awal kemerdekaan, sineas-sineas Indunisia beluman kacangulan. Di antara sineas nang ada, [[Usmar Ismail]] merupakan salah saikung sutradara paling produktif, lawan film tatambayannya ''[[Harta Karun (film)|Harta Karun]]'' (1949). Tagal bahitu film pertama nang secara resmi diakui sabagai film pertama Indunisia sabagai nagara bakedaulatan adalah film ''[[Darah dan Doa]]'' (1950) nang disutradarai Usmar Ismail. Dekade 1970 hingga 2000-an, [[Arizal]] cungul sabagai sutradara film paling produktif. Kada kurang matan 52 buah film dan 8 judul sinetron lawan 1.196 episode sudaah dihasilakan sidin. Popularitas [[Perfilman Indunisia|industri film Indunisia]] memuncak pada tahun 1980-an dan mendominasi bioskop di Indunisia,<ref name="kompasmovies">{{cite news |last=Kristianto |first=JB |title=Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indunisia |language=Bahasa Indunisia |publisher=Kompas |date=[[2 Juli]] [[2005]] |url=https://www.portalestreiamusica.info/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |archive-date=2008-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113052204/https://www.portalestreiamusica.info/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> meskipun kepopulerannya berkurang pada awal tahun 1990-an. Antara tahun 2000 hingga 2005, jumlah film Indunisia nang dirilis saban tahun meningkat.<ref name="kompasmovies"/> Film [[Laskar Pelangi]] (2008) nang diangkat matan novel karya [[Andrea Hirata]] manjadi film lawan pendapatan paningginya sepanjang sajarah perfilman Indunisia wayah ini. === Kesusastraan === {{utama|Sastra Indunisia}} Bukti tulisan panuwastu di Indunisia adalah babagai prasasti babasa [[Sanskerta]] pada abad ke-5 [[Masehi]]. Figur penting dalam sastra modern Indunisia tamasuk: pengarang Belanda [[Multatuli]] nang mengkritik perlakuan Belanda lawan Indunisia salawas zaman penjajahan Belanda; [[Muhammad Yamin]] dan [[Hamka]] nang merupakan penulis dan politikus pra-kemerdekaan;<ref>Taylor (2003), tungkaran 299–301</ref> dan [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], pembuat novel Indunisia nang paling terkenal.<ref>Vickers (2005) tungkaran 3 to 7; Friend (2003), tungkaran 74, 180</ref> Selain novel, sastra tulis Indunisia jua berupa puisi, pantun, dan sajak. [[Chairil Anwar]] merupakan penulis puisi Indunisia nang paling tanama. Banyak urang Indunisia baisi [[tradisi lisan]] nang nahap, nang membantu mendefinisikan dan memelihara identitas budaya bubuhannya.<ref name="UNESCO Jakarta, Indunisia">{{cite web |last= Czermak|first= Karen|authorlink= |coauthors= Philippe DeLanghe, Wei Weng|title="Preserving Intangible Cultural Heritage in Indunisia"|publisher=SIL International|url=http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|format=PDF |accessdate= 2007-07-04}}</ref> Kebebasan pers di Indunisia meningkat imbah baakhirnya kekuasaan Presiden [[Soeharto]]. Stasiun [[televisi]] tamasuk sepuluh stasiun televisi swasta nasional, dan jaringan daerah nang bersaing lawan stasiun televisi nageri [[TVRI]]. [[Stasiun radio]] swasta menyiarkan berita bubuhannya dan program penyiaran asing. Dilaporkan tauliht 20 juta pamakai internet di Indunisia pada tahun 2007.<ref>{{cite web | title =Internet World Stats | work =Asia Internet Usage, Population Statistics and Information | publisher =Miniwatts Marketing Group | year =2006 | url =http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia.htm#id | accessdate =2007-08-13 | archive-date =2019-04-30 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190430095416/https://www.internetworldstats.com/asia.htm#id | dead-url =yes }}</ref> Penggunaan internet tabatas pada minoritas populasi, dikikiraakan bangsa 8.5%. == Lingkungan hidup == {{utama|Flora Indunisia|Fauna Indunisia}} [[Barakas:Rafflesia sumatra.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Rafflesia arnoldii]] kambang pangganalnya di dunia, garis tangahnya mandapati 1,3 meter. ]] [[Barakas:Varanus_komodoensis6.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Komodo]], hewan reptil langka khas matan [[Nusa Tenggara]].]] Wilayah Indunisia baisi keanekaragaman makhluk hidup nang tinggi sehingga oleh beberapa pihak wilayah ekologi Indunisia disambat lawan istilah "''Mega biodiversity''" atawa "keanekaragaman mahluk hidup nang tinggi"<ref>http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker </ref><ref>http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311005957/http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html |date=2009-03-11 }} Dunia Sebut Indunisia Mega Biodiversity</ref> umumnya dipinandui sabagai ''Indomalaya'' atau [[Malesia]] bedasarkan penelitian bahwa 10 persen tatumbuhan, 12 persen mamalia, 16 persen reptil, 17 persen burung, 25 persen ikan nang ada di dunia hidup di Indunisia, padahal luas Indunisia 1,3 % wara matan luas Bumi. Kasugihan makhluk hidup Indunisia menduduki peringkat ketiga imbah [[Brasil]] dan [[Republik Demokratik Kongo]]. <ref>http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007155430/http://cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf |date=2010-10-07 }} Report on the CITES workshop on mega-biodiversity exporters (with the assistance of the European Commission)</ref> [[Barakas:Toba Lake View.JPG|thumb|right|[[Danau Toba]], danau pangganalnya di [[Indunisia]].]] <!--Di beberapa hutan hujan Indunisia ditemukan berbagai spesies bunga Rafflesia yg merupakan unga tebesar di dunia. Pada beberapa spesies, seperti Rafflesia arnoldii, diameter bunganya dapat mencapai lebih dari 100 cm, dan beratnya hingga 10 kg. Bahkan spesies terkecil, Rafflesia manillana, bunganya berdiameter 20 cm.--> Meskipun damia, [[Guinness World Records]] pada 2008 suah mencatat rekor Indunisia sabagai nagara nang paling hancap laju kerusakan hutannya di dunia. Saban tahun Indunisia kehilangan hutan seluas 1,8 juta hektar. Kerusakan nang tajadi di daerah hulu (hutan) umpat jua merusak kawasan di daerah hilir (pesisir).<ref>http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html Sulung Prasetyo. Ekologi Indunisia Masuki Masa Genting, Paragraf 1. Sinar Harapan Online. Diakses pada 13 November 2009</ref> Menurut catatan ''Down The Earth'', proyek [[Asian Development Bank]] (ADB) di sektor kelautan Indunisia telah memicu tajadinya alih fungsi secara baganalan hutan bakau manjadi kawasan pertambakan. Padahal hutan bakau, selain bapungsi melindungi pantai matan abrasi, merupakan habitat nang baik gasan bamacam macam iwak. Kehancuran hutan bakau nangitu tadih maakibatkan paiwakan musti mencari iwak lawan jarak sagin bajauh dan menambah biaya operasional bubuhannya wayah mencari iwak. Selain itu, hancurnya hutan bakau jua maakibatkan sagin rentannya kawasan pesisir Indunisia terhadap tampuran banyu pasang laut dan baah, talebih lagi di wayah musim hujan.<ref>http://www.satudunia.net/?q=content/utang-ekologis-adb-di-indonesia {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209033455/http://www.satudunia.net/?q=content%2Futang-ekologis-adb-di-indonesia|date=2017-02-09}} Firdaus Cahyadi Utang Ekologis ADB di Indunisia, Tulisan pernah dimuat di [[Koran Tempo]], 2 Mei 2009</ref> {{clear}} == Rujukan == {{Portal|Indunisia}} {{reflist|2}} {{Paropinsi Indunisia}} [[Tumbung:Indonésia]] a5d3bg2gjso1u2afcq8opojw6v191hp 0 350 113329 91166 2026-08-07T18:56:17Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113329 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:Leech in water.jpg|thumb|left|200px|pacat di atas batu]] '''Pacat''' adalah [[hewan]] nang tergabung dalam [[filum]] ''[[Annelida]]'' subkelas ''Hirudinea''. Terdapat macam lintah nang dapat hidup di daratan, air tawar, dan laut. Seperti halnya kerabatnya, ''[[Oligochaeta]]'', mereka memiliki [[klitelum]]. Seperti [[cacing tanah]], lintah jua [[hermaprodit]] (berkelamin ganda). Lintah obat Eropa, ''Hirudo medicinalis'', telah sejak lama dimanfaatkan gasan pengeluaran darah ([[plebotomi]]) secara medis. Lintah dibedakan dari pacet bukan berdasarkan taksonomi, tetapi lebih pada habitat kesukaannya. Lintah sehari-hari hidup di air, sedangkan pacet sehari-harinya melekat pada daun atau batang pohon (di luar air). Semua spesies lintah adalah [[karnivora]]. Beberapa merupakan [[predator]], mendapat makanan dari berbagai macam [[invertebrata]] seperti cacing, [[siput]], atau [[larva]] serangga. == Ragam pacat == [[File:Haemadipsa zeylanica japonica.jpg|thumb|alt=A terrestrial leech, Haemadipsa zeylanica | ''[[Haemadipsa zeylanica]]'', pacat darat nang ditamuakan di dairah pagunungan Japang]] [[File:Parasite180056-fig1 Placobdelloides siamensis (Glossiphoniidae).png|thumb|alt=Dorsal (upper) surface and ventral (lower) surface of Placobdelloides siamensis. Ventral surface showing numerous young leeches.| ''[[Placobdelloides siamensis]]'', pacat nang hidup sabagai parasit hagan kura-kura di Thailand. Kiri: sisi dorsal (punggung), kanan: sisi ventral (perut) basarta banyak anak lintah.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiangkul |first1=Krittiya |last2=Trivalairat |first2=Poramad |last3=Purivirojkul |first3=Watchariya |title=Redescription of the Siamese shield leech ''Placobdelloides siamensis'' with new host species and geographic range |journal=Parasite |volume=25 |year=2018 |page=56 |issn=1776-1042 |doi=10.1051/parasite/2018056 |url=https://www.parasite-journal.org/articles/parasite/full_html/2018/01/parasite180056/parasite180056.html|doi-access=free }}</ref>]] Sakitar 680 [[spesies]] pacat sudah [[Deskripsi spesies|didiskripsiakan]]; sakitar 100 di antaranya hidup di laut, 90 di darat, wan sisanya hidup di banyu tawar.<ref name=Sket>{{cite journal |author1=Sket, Boris |author2=Trontelj, Peter |year=2008 |title=Global diversity of leeches (Hirudinea) in freshwater |journal=[[Hydrobiologia]] |volume=595 |issue=1 |pages=129–137 |doi=10.1007/s10750-007-9010-8}}</ref><ref name="Fogden">{{Cite journal |author1=Fogden, S. |author2= Proctor, J. | title=Notes on the Feeding of Land Leeches (''Haemadipsa zeylanica'' Moore and ''H. picta'' Moore) in Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biotropica_1985-06_17_2/page/172 |journal=[[Biotropica]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=172–174 |year=1985 |doi=10.2307/2388511 | jstor=2388511 }}</ref> Pacat paling halus baisi panjang 1 cm, sadangkan pacat paling ganal yaitu pacat raksasa amazon (''[[Haementeria ghilianii]]'') kawa mancapai panjang 30&nbsp;cm. Pancat kawa ditamuakan di saban benua, kacuali [[Antarktika]],<ref name=Sket/> tagal paling banyak ditamuakan di danau-danau wan kulam-kulam di daerah ba[[iklim sedang]] di [[Belahan Bumi utara|paruh Bumi utara]]. Kabanyakan pacat banyu tawar labih katuju dairah pinggir danau atawa kulam nang tenang, dangkal, wan ditumbuhi tumbuhan, atawa ganangan parak sungai atawa aliran banyu lambat, wan hanya sadikit nang mampu batahan di banyu daras. Pacat kawa ditamui lawan kapadatan tinggi di tampat-tampat nang cucuk, nangkaya 10.000 ekor pacat per m² nang tarcatat di lingkungan banyu hibak [[polutan]] organik di [[Illinois]], Amirika Sarikat. Babarapa spesies manggawi [[estivasi]] (kada aktip atawa [[dormansi|dorman]] pas musim kemarau) wan kawa bartahan hidup walaupun kahilangan 90% bobot tubuhnya.<ref>Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). ''Invertebrate Zoology'' (edisi ke-7th). Cengage Learning. hlm. 471–482. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-315-0104-7</nowiki>.</ref> Di antara pacat tawar tardapat kalumpuk [[Glossiphoniidae]], binatang nang babantuk pipih wan bartindak sabagai parasit di awak binatang nangkaya kura-kura, wan marupakan satu-satunya binatang [[Annelida]] nang maarami hintalunya wan mambawa kakanakannya di bagian bawah awaknya.<ref>{{cite web |last=Siddall |first=Mark E. |title=Glossiphoniidae |url=http://research.amnh.org/~siddall/mes/leech/glossiphoniidae.html|publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]|accessdate=1 Mei 2018|date=1998}}</ref> == Pangait luar == * {{En}} [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/hirudo/h._medicinalis Information on the medicinal leech] * {{En}} [http://www.invertebrate.us/leech Detailed information on leeches] * {{En}} [http://www.amonline.net.au/factsheets/leeches.htm Leech fact sheet] * {{En}} [http://www.glooskapandthefrog.org/leach.htm North American leeches] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129195613/http://www.glooskapandthefrog.org/leach.htm |date=2012-01-29 }} * {{En}} [http://www.wildmadagascar.org/overview/leeches.html How to remove a leech] * {{En}} [http://www.worstcasescenarios.com/scenario.htm?scenarioid=22&cache=1153346951 How to remove a leech II] * {{En}} [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4429631 H2G2-Leeches] * {{En}} [http://myleechfarm.com/?p=194 National Geography Leech Therapy: Traditional Ayurveda Treatment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211205226/http://myleechfarm.com/?p=194 |date=2010-02-11 }} == Referensi == [[Tumbung:Binatang]] [[Tumbung:Satua]] [[Tumbung:WikiBaiman]] 5v2q7wtl8kfu3lcgp3mtexefvc6oqkx 0 352 113346 113220 2026-08-07T19:32:41Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113346 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:P_20160703_103837.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Pahumaan matan jarak parak]] [[Berkas:Rice fields of Bali.jpg|jmpl|250px|Pahumaan bartaras di Bali]] [[Berkas:Canh-dong-Viet.JPG|jmpl|Pahumaan di [[Vietnam]].]] '''Pahumaan''' adalah lahan usaha pertanian nang sacara fisik berpermukaan rata, dihalati ulih pematang, serta baulih ditanami banih, palawija atawa tanaman budidaya lainnya. Kabanyakan pahumaan digunakan hagan bercocok tanam banih. hagan keperluan ngini, pahumaan musti mampu menyangga genangan banyu karana banih mamarlukan pangganangan pada periode tartantu dalam partumbuhannya. Hagan mangairi pahumaan digunakan sistem irigasi matan mata banyu, sungai atawa banyu hujan. Pahumaan nang padudian dipatuh sabagai pahumaan tanai hujan, samantara nang lainnya adalah pahumaan irigasi. banih nang ditanam di pahumaan dikenal sabagai banih lahan jimus (''lowland rice''). Sabuting studi nang dipublikasiakan [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] manamukan bahwa sabarataan janis banih nang dibudidayakan wayahini, baik matan spesies ''indica'' maupun ''japonica'', baaasal matan sabuting spesies banih liar ''[[Oryza rufipogon]]'' nang ada pas tahun 8200 tahun hingga 13500 tahun nang lalu di China.<ref name="pnas1">{{Cite journal | last1 = Molina | first1 = J. | last2 = Sikora | first2 = M. | last3 = Garud | first3 = N. | last4 = Flowers | first4 = J. M. | last5 = Rubinstein | first5 = S. | last6 = Reynolds | first6 = A. | last7 = Huang | first7 = P. | last8 = Jackson | first8 = S. | last9 = Schaal | first9 = B. A. | last10 = Bustamante | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1104686108 | first10 = C. D. | last11 = Boyko | first11 = A. R. | last12 = Purugganan | first12 = M. D. | title = Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2011-05-17_108_20/page/8351 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 108 | issue = 20 | pages = 8351 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> Padi sawah dibudidayakan di berbagai negara seperti [[Bangladesh]], [[China]], [[Filipina]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Jepang]], [[Kamboja]], [[Korea Selatan]], [[Korea Utara]], [[Laos]], [[Malaysia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Taiwan]], [[Thailand]], wan [[Vietnam]]. Banih pahumaan jua ditanam di Irupa nangkaya di [[Piedmont]] ([[Italia]]) wan [[Camargue]] ([[Prancis]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.riz-camargue.com/pages-uk/moisparmois.html |title=Riz de Camargue, Silo de Tourtoulen, Riz blanc de Camargue, Riz et céréales de Camargue |publisher=Riz-camargue.com |date= |accessdate=2013-04-25 |archive-date=2013-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514175534/http://www.riz-camargue.com/pages-uk/moisparmois.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == Sajarah == Bubuhan pakar arkeologi sapakat bahwa pambudidayaan di lahan basah baawal di [[China]]. Bukti kabaradaan pahumaan banih panambayan ditamuakan batanggal 6280 tahun nang lalu badasarakan pananggalan karbon matan biji banih wan materi organik tanah nang ditamuakan di situs Chaodun di [[Kushan County]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cao | first1 = Zhihong | last2 = Fu | first2 = Jianrong | last3 = Zou | first3 = Ping | last4 = Huang | first4 = Jing Fa | last5 = Lu | first5 = Hong | last6 = Weng| first6 = Jieping | last7 = Ding | first7 = Jinlong|title=Origin and chronosequence of paddy soils in China.|journal=Proceedings of the 19th World Congress of Soil Science|year=2010|month=August|pages=39–42|url=http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20123011310.html|accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> Di sabuting situs Neolitik di Caoxieshan, arkeologis manggawi panggalian wan manamuakan sabuting andakan nang diparcaya bahari marupakan pahumaan.<ref>Fujiwara, H. (ed.). ''Search for the Origin of Rice Cultivation: The Ancient Rice Cultivation in Paddy Fields at the Cao Xie Shan Site in China''. Miyazaki: Society for Scientific Studies on Cultural Property, 1996. (In Japanese and Chinese)</ref> Diparkirakan situs di Caoxieshan batanggal 4000 hingga 3000 SM.<ref>Fujiwara 1996</ref><ref>Tsude, Hiroshi. Yayoi Farmers Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Agricultural Development in East Asia. ''Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association'' 21(5):53-59, 2001.</ref> Selain ngitu terdapat 10 lukasi arkeologi nang takait lawan pahumaan di Korea. Duwa diantaranya nang tatuha baandak di Okhyun wan Yaumdong, [[Ulsan]], dibangun sejak [[Mumun pottery period]].<ref>Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. ''Antiquity'' 77(295):87-95, 2003.</ref> Tadapat bukti arkeologis jua bahwa baras (banih nang sudah dihilangkan sekamnya) disimpan hagan kaparluan militer wan prosesi pemakaman sejak zaman [[Neolitik]] hingga [[Dinasti Han]] di China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://http-server.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/fumi98.htm |title=Expansion of Chinese Paddy Rice to the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau |publisher= |accessdate=2007-08-06 }} </ref> == Ikusistim Pahumaan == [[Berkas:Paddy Field in Kuala Pembuang, Central Kalimantan.jpg|thumb|260px|Pahumaan di [[Kuala Pambuang]], [[Kalimantan Tangah]]]] Pahumaan sabagai ikusistim disambat ulih saikung [[ahli antropologi]] bakabangsaan [[Amirika Serikat]], [[Clifford Geertz|Geertz]] yakni pahumaan sangat stabil atawa tahan lawas. Pahumaan kawa tarus mahasilakan panenan nang bulih disambat kada bakurang matan tahun ka tahun, bahkaan rancak dua kali satahun.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Quality of Land Use of Tropical Cultivators|last=Gourou|first=Pierre|date=1956|publisher=|isbn=|location=|pages=336-349|url-status=live}}</ref> Peranan banyu di dalam ikusistim pahumaan bapangaruh banar tarhadap dinamika kahidupan pahumaan. Disini, karakter tanah tropis nang tipis diatasi lawan mamasuakan zat hara ka pahumaan lawan banyu irigasi hagan manggantiakan zat makanan nang diambil matan tanah; panyarapan nitrogen ulih ganggang hijau-biru nang bakambang biak dalam banyu panas; pambusukan kimiawi bakteri matan bahan urganik, tarmasuk sisa-sisa tanaman nang sudah dituai tatinggal dalam banyu; pangisian angin pada tanah lawan garakan banyu pahumaan nang bagimitan; wan tantu saja lawa pungsi-pungsi ikulugis lainnya nang digawi ulih irigasi baluman dikatahui<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rice|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_T2-FNO-940|last=Grist|first=D. H.|date=1959|publisher=Longmans Green|isbn=|edition=3|location=London|pages=|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Pioneer Settlement in the Asiatic Tropics|last=Pelzer|first=Karl Josef|date=1945|publisher=Institute of Pacific Relations|isbn=|location=New York|pages=|url-status=live}}</ref> Labih lanjut, pada ikusistim pahumaan tadapat kumpunin abiotik wan biotik. Kumpunin abiotik tadiri atas paktor edafik atawa kasuburan tanah nang diitihi matan parameter Kapasitas Pertukaran Kation (KTK), kandungan bahan organik tanah, kandungan N total, P tarsadia, wan K tarsadia dalam tanah; wan paktor hidrologik nang diitihi matan parameter kadalaman banyu bamandak pahumaan. Sadangkan kumpunin biotik ikusistim pahumaan diithi matan parameter karagaman hayati, pupulasi hama wan musuh alaminya, serta pula interaksi nang tarjadi di antara tanaman wan sarangga herbivora, sarta antara serangga hama wan musuh alaminya.. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aminatun|first=Tien|last2=Widyastuti|first2=Sri Harti|first3=Djuwanto|year=2014|title=Pola Kearifan Masyarakat Lokal dalam Sistem Sawah Surjan untuk Konservasi Ekosistem Pertanian|url=|journal=Jurnal Penelitian Humaniora|volume=19|issue=1|pages=65-76|doi=}}</ref>{{Sitasi tak relevan}} == Referensi == {{reflist|2}} [[Tumbung:Banih]] [[Tumbung:Pahumaan]] [[Tumbung:WikiBaiman]] [[de:Reis#Reisanbau]] gp7406p6opiqkcmf9hgaijeeglwxy76 0 972 113352 113189 2026-08-07T19:39:20Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113352 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:Paul Heinrich Dietrich Baron d'Holbach.jpg|jmpl|200px|Panulis [[Parancis]] abad ka-18, [[Baron d'Holbach]] adalah sa'ikung urang panambaian nang manyambat diri sidin ateis. Dalam buku ''[[The System of Nature]]'' (1770), sidin malukisakan alam basar dalam pangartian materialisma filsafat, determinisma nang kipit, dan ateisma. Buku nangini dan buku sidin ''Common Sense'' (1772) dikutuk ulih [[Parlemen|Parlemen Paris]], wan sasalinannya disalukut di hadapan urang banyak.]] '''Atéisma''' marupakan sabuting pandangan filosofi nang kada mamparcayai adanya [[Tuhan]] wan [[déwa-déwi]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=William L. |last=Rowe |authorlink=William L. Rowe |encyclopedia=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |title=Atheism |year=1998 |editor=Edward Craig}} </ref> atawa jua ba'indah (manampik) lawan téisma.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Kai |last=Nielsen |authorlink=Kai Nielsen |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |title=Atheism |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/40634/atheism |year=2009 |accessdate=2007-04-28}} "Atheism, in general, the critique and denial of metaphysical beliefs in God or spiritual beings.... a more adequate characterization of atheism consists in the more complex claim that to be an atheist is to be someone who rejects belief in God for [reasons that depend] on how God is being conceived."</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Atheism |first=Paul |last=Edwards |authorlink=Paul Edwards (philosopher)|publisher=Collier-MacMillan |year=1967 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Philosophy|The Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |volume=Vol. 1 |page=175 |quote=On our definition, an 'atheist' is a person who rejects belief in God, regardless of whether or not his reason for the rejection is the claim that 'God exists' expresses a false proposition. People frequently adopt an attitude of rejection toward a position for reasons other than that it is a false proposition. It is common among contemporary philosophers, and indeed it was not uncommon in earlier centuries, to reject positions on the ground that they are meaningless. Sometimes, too, a theory is rejected on such grounds as that it is sterile or redundant or capricious, and there are many other considerations which in certain contexts are generally agreed to constitute good grounds for rejecting an assertion.}} </ref> Dalam pangartian nang paling luas, inya tutih kadada kaparcayaan lawan adanya [[diwa]] atawa [[Tuhan]].<ref>Artikal handap [[religioustolerance.org]] di [http://www.religioustolerance.org/atheist4.htm Definitions of the term "Atheism"] mamadahakan bahua kadada konsénsus lawan katantuan istilah atéisma. [[Simon Blackburn]] dalam [[The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy]]: "''Atheism. Either the lack of belief in a god, or the belief that there is none''".</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.ditext.com/runes/a.html |title=Dictionary of Philosophy |first=Dagobert D.(editor) |last=Runes |authorlink=Dagobert D. Runes |year=1942 edition |publisher=Littlefield, Adams & Co. Philosophical Library |location=New Jersey |isbn=0064634612 |accessdate=2010-02-01 |quote=(a) the belief that there is no God; (b) Some philosophers have been called "atheistic" because they have not held to a belief in a personal God. Atheism in this sense means "not theistic". The former meaning of the term is a literal rendering. The latter meaning is a less rigorous use of the term though widely current in the history of thought}}</ref> Istilah ''atéisma'' baasal tumatan Bahasa Yunani {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:ἄθεος|ἄθεος]]}} (''atheos''), nang sacara marandahakan diguna'akan gasan manunjuk lawan siapa haja nang kaparcayaannya balawanan lawan agama/kaparcayaan nang sudah nahap di lingkungannya. Sawayah manyabaknya [[pamikiran bibas]], [[sképtisisma ilmiah]], wan kritik lawan agama, istilah atéis bamula dikhususakan gasan manunjuk lawan bubuhan nang kada parcaya lawan Tuhan. Urang nang panambaian mangaku sabagai "atéis" mancungul wayah abad ka-18. Di jaman wayah ini, ada pang bangsa 2,3% populasi dunia mangaku sabagai atéis, bubuhan nang lain pulang 11,9% mangaku sabagai [[nontéisma|nontéis]].<ref name="Britannica demographics"/> Ada bangsa 65% urang Japang mangaku sabagai atéis, agnostik, atawa jua urang nang kada ba-agama; dan bangsa 48%-nya di nagara Rusia.<ref name=Zuckerman/> Parsintasi komunitas nangitu di Uni Irupa baantara 6% (Italia) sampai 85% (Swedia).<ref name=Zuckerman>Zuckerman, Phil. [http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822041707/http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html |date=2009-08-22 }}, ''The Cambridge Companion to Atheism'', ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2005.</ref> Banyak urang atéis basikap curiga lawan adanya paristiwa paranormal marga kurangnya bukti émpiris. Bubuhan nang lain mambari'i alasan badasar pada filosofis, susial, atawa sajarah. Di kabudayaan Barat, atéis karancakannya dianggap sabagai kada ba-agama ([[ireligius]]).<ref name=cline-buddhism>{{cite web | last = Cline | first = Austin | title = Buddhism and Atheism | url = http://atheism.about.com/b/a/220595.htm | accessdate = 2006-10-21 | year = 2005 | publisher = [[about.com]] | archive-date = 2006-12-17 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061217190241/http://atheism.about.com/b/a/220595.htm | dead-url = yes }}</ref> Babarapa aliran [[Agama Buddha]] kada suah manyambat istilah '[[Tuhan dalam agama Buddha|Tuhan]]' dalam bamacam upacara ritualnya, tagal dalam Agama Buddha konsép katuhanan nang dimaksud hintadi mangguna'akan istilah [[Nibbana]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samaggi-phala.or.id/naskahdamma_dtl.php?id=1003&multi=T&hal=0|title= Caramah Bhikkhu Uttamo - Katuhanan dalam agama Buddha|accessdate=2010-08-18|publisher=Samaggi Phala}}</ref> Marga kaitu pang agama nangini rancak disambat agama atéistik.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kedar |first=Nath Tiwari |year=1997 |title=Comparative Religion |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |id=ISBN 81-208-0293-4 |pages=hal. 50}}</ref> Tapi pang banyak jua tumatan bubuhan urang nang ma-artiakan dirinya sabagai atéis bacundai lawan filosofi sékular pariannya [[humanisma]],<ref>Honderich, Ted (Ed.) (1995). "Humanism". ''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy''. Oxford University Press. p 376. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.</ref> [[rasiunalisma]], dan [[naturalisma]]<ref>Fales, Evan. "Naturalism and Physicalism", in {{harvnb|Martin|2007|pp=122–131}}.</ref>, kadada idéologi atawa kalakuan bakurinah nang dijunjung ulih samunyaan atéis.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|pp=3–4}}.</ref> == Asal Istilah == [[Barakas:Ephesians 2,12 - Greek atheos.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Kata Yunani {{lang|grc|αθεοι}} (''atheoi''), nang talihat di [[Surat Paulus lawan Jamaah di Efesus]] di atas papirus abad ka-3]] Di wayah jaman [[Yunani bahari]], kata sipat ''atheos'' (''{{lang|grc|[[:wikt:ἄθεος|ἄθεος]]}}'', baasal matan awalan ἀ- + ''{{lang|grc|[[:wikt:θεός|θεός]]}}'' "tuhan") baarti "kada batuhan". Kata nangini batumat manunjuk lawan manampikakan tuhan nang disinghaja'akan dan batumat aktip wayah abad ka-5 SM, mamakai définisi "mamagat hubungan lawan tuhan/diwa" atawa "manampik tuhan/diwa". Tarjamahan modérn di téks-téks klasik bahanu manarjamahakan {{transl|grc|atheos}} sabagai "atéistik". Sabagai nomina abstrak, ta'ulih jua ''{{lang|grc|[[:wikt:ἀθεότης|ἀθεότης]]}}'' ({{transl|grc|atheotēs}}), nang baarti "atéisma". [[Cicero]] mantransliterasi kata Yunani naitu ka dalam [[bahasa Latin]] ''{{lang|la|[[:wikt:atheos#Latin|atheos]]}}''. Istilah naini rancak diguna'akan wayah bapapandiran antara umat [[Garéja tatambaian|Kerestén awal]] lawan bubuhan umat agama Yunani Kuna (Helenis), nang basasambatan sabagai atéis sacara marandahakan.<ref name=drachmann>{{cite book |last=Drachmann |first=A. B. |title=Atheism in Pagan Antiquity |url=https://archive.org/details/atheisminpaganan0000drac |publisher=Chicago: Ares Publishers |year=1977 ("sabuah citakan ba'asa nang kada ba'ubah matan versi tahun 1922") |isbn=0-89005-201-8 |quote = Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said ''{{transl |grc |atheos}}'' and ''{{transl |grc |atheotēs}}''; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, ''{{transl |grc |atheos}}'' was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed. }}</ref> ''Ateisma'' panambaian diguna'akan gasan manunjuk lawan "kaparcayaan batunggal" wayah pandudian abad ka-18 di [[Irupa]], utamanya manunjuk kapada kahadaparcayaan lawan Tuhan monoteis.<ref name="adevism">In part because of its wide use in monotheistic Western society, ''atheism'' is usually described as "disbelief in God", rather than more generally as "disbelief in deities". A clear distinction is rarely drawn in modern writings between these two definitions, but some archaic uses of ''atheism'' encompassed only disbelief in the singular God, not in [[polytheism|polytheistic]] deities. It is on this basis that the obsolete term ''[[adevism]]'' was coined in the late 19th century to describe an absence of belief in plural deities. {{cite journal |author=Britannica |title=Atheonism | journal = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | edition = 11th Edition |year=1911}}</ref> Wayah abad ka-20, [[globalisasi]] mamparluas definisi istilah nangini hagan manunjuk kapada "kahadaparcayaan lawan samunyaan tuhan/diwa", tagal magun ai sacara umum gasan manunjuk ateisma sabagai "kahadaparcayaan lawan Tuhan (monoteis)".<ref name="martin">Martin, Michael. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism]''. Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-521-84270-0.</ref> Wayah dudi nangini, ta'ulih suatu gasakan di dalam galambang filosofi nang balain gasan mandéfinisiakan ba'asa ''atéisma'' sabagai "kadada kaparcayaan lawan diwa/diwi", daripada atéisma sabagai kaparcayaan nangitu sawrang. Définisi nangini wantar banar di antara komunitas atéis, tagal panggunaannya magun ai tabatas haja.<ref name="martin"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Cline |first=Austin |title=What Is the Definition of Atheism? |url=http://atheism.about.com/od/definitionofatheism/a/definition.htm |accessdate=2006-10-21 |year=2006 |publisher=[[about.com]] |archive-date=2012-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205025339/http://atheism.about.com/od/definitionofatheism/a/definition.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Flew |first=Antony | authorlink = Antony Flew |title=God, Freedom, and Immortality: A Critical Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/godfreedomimmort0000flew |publisher=Buffalo, NY: Prometheus |year=1984 |isbn=0-87975-127-4}}</ref> <!-- Ateisma kadanya pang parcaya bahua Tuhan kada ada tapi kada parcaya bahua Tuhan ada. Dengan kata nang lain, ateisma kada merupakan kaparcayaan atawa kayakinan tapi sistem kahadaparcayaan atawa kahadayakinan. Ateisma kada merupakan suatu agama, kada baisi ajaran rasmi nangkaya agama umumnya ada. Ateisma gin jua bukan sabuah pamikiran anti-agama dan anti-tuhan tagal karap dicamuhkan lawan [[Antiteisma]] nang merupakan suatu pemikiran anti-agama atawa anti-tuhan. Ateisma bukanlah agama lantaran kada baisi ajaran ba'astilah, kada baisi kitab suci ba'astilah, dan kada jua manyambah napa-napa. Atéisma sama sakali babida lawan [[komunisma]]. Komunisma umumnya atéis, tagal atéis kada musti baarti komunis. Komunisma adalah sabuting sistim pamikiran nang kawa dikambangkan jadi idéologi dan bahkan sistim pamarintahan, pahadangan atéisma marupakan sistim ka(tiada)parcayaan. [[Agnostisisma]] kada sama lawan atéisma. Agnostisisma artinya kada mangatahuani apakah Tuhan ada atawa kahada. Pahadangan pulang atéisma kada mamparcayai ka-ada-an Tuhan. Pamikiran bahua Tuhan kadada, kada jua ba'arti balalu bapikir bahua manusia bibas manggawi apa jua sakahandaknya. Atéisma tikas suatu kaadaan sahibar 'kada parcaya bahwa Tuhan ada', kada labih matan itu. Kadada jaminan bahua sa'urang atéis kaina balalu bakalakuan sakahandaknya, nangkaya jua kadada jaminan sa'urang ba'agama dan parcaya lawan Tuhan kainanya musti bakal manggawi kabaikan. Sa'urang atéis kawa jua (dan umumnya) manjadi sa'urang humanis. Ta'ulih jua ada ai bubuhannya nang jadi [[sadisma|sadis]] nangkaya [[Josef Stalin]] nang sudah tabukti mambunuh 30 juta jiwa rakyatnya sawrang (walau parlu ditikinakan bahua kakajaman nang digawi ulih Stalin kada samata lantaran sidin kada parcaya lawan tuhan tagal lantaran idéologi komunisma nang sidin salewengakan), atawa jua jadi nangkaya [[Voltaire]] nang manjuangakan kabibasan urang jaba Prancis matan kungkungan panguasa pamarintahan dan panguasa agama nang absolut. --> == Definisi wan Pambidaan == [[Barakas:AtheismImplicitExplicit3_versiindo.png|jmpl|200px|Sabuting gambaran nang manampaiakan hubungan antara definisi ateisma nahap/lamah lawan ateisma implisit/eksplisit. Ateis implisit kada baisi pamikiran ba-kaparcayaan lawan tuhan; sa'ikung urang nangkaya itu disambat sacara implisit sondér kaparcayaan lawan tuhan. Ateis eksplisit ma'ambil posisi kapada kaparcayaan lawan tuhan; sa'ikung urang nangitu kawa bahaliung gasan parcaya lawan tuhan (ateisma lamah), atawa jua ma'ambil posisi bahua tuhan kada ada (ateisma nahap).]] Bubuhan pananulis babida-bida dalam mendefinisikan dan mangklasifikasi ''ateisma''<ref name="eb911-atheism">{{cite web |year=1911 |url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Atheism |title="Atheism" |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |accessdate=7 Juni 2007}}</ref>, yakni apakah ateisma merupakan suatu kaparcayaan batunggal atawa tikas katiadaan lawan kaparcayaan, dan apa ateisma parlu ba'indah nang sacara sadar dan eksplisit digawi. Bamacam kategori sudah disurung gasan mancuba mambida'akan macam-macam bantuk ateisma. === Ruang lingkup === Sapalih ambiguitas dan kontroversi nang ta'umpat dalam pendefinisian ''ateisma'' marga kangalihan mandapati konsensus dalam mendefinisikan kata-kata nangkaya ''diwa'' dan ''tuhan''. Pluralitas dalam konsep katuhanan dan diwa manyababakan bida pamikiran gasan ma'andak kata ''ateisma''. Dalam konteks ''teisma'' didefinisikan sabagai kaparcayaan lawan [[Tuhan]] monoteis, urang-urang nang parcaya lawan diwa-diwi lainnya bakal diklasifikasikan sabagai ateis. Kabalikannya jua, urang-urang Rumawi gin mandawa umat Keresten sabagai ateis lantaran kada manyambah diwa-diwi [[paganisma]]. Wayah abad ka-20, pandangan nang ini batumat ditinggalakan baimbaian lawan dianggapnya ''teisma'' meliputi sabarataan kaparcayaan lawan diwa/tuhan.<ref name="mmartin">Martin, Michael. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism]''. Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-521-84270-0.</ref> Bagantung lawan apa nang bubuhan ateis indahakan (tampikakan), ma'indahakan ateisma kawa saputar tumatan maindahakan kaba'adaan tuhan/diwa sampai wan kaba'adaan konsep-konsep spiritual dan [[paranormal]] nangkaya nang ada di agama Hindu dan Buddha.<ref name="Britannica1992">{{cite journal |author=Britannica |title=Atheism as rejection of religious beliefs |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38265/atheism |accessdate=2006-10-27 | journal = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | edition = 15th Edition | volume = 1 |pages=666 |year=1992 |id=0852294735}}</ref> === Implisit dan eksplisit === Definisi ateisma gin bamacam-macam jua dalam halnya sajauh mana garang sa'ikung urang nangitu musti maambil posisi mengenai gagasan kabaradaan tuhan supaya inya dianggap sabagai ateis. Ateisma bahanu didefinisikan sacara luas gasan maliputi katiadaan kaparcayaan lawan kabaradaan tuhan/diwa. Definisi nang luas nangini kaina mamasukkan jua urang-urang nang kada ba'isi konsep teisma sabagai ateis. Di tahun 1772, [[Baron d'Holbach]] mamadahakan bahua "Samunyaan kakanakan diparanakakan sabagai ateis, lantaran bubuhannya nangitu kada tahu lawan Tuhan."<ref>{{cite book |last=d'Holbach |first=P. H. T. | authorlink = Baron d'Holbach |title=Good Sense |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7319 |accessdate=27 Oktober 2006 |year=1772}}</ref> [[George H. Smith]] (1979) jua mansugestikan bahua: "Urang nang kada tahu lawan teisma adalah ateis lantaran inya kada parcaya lawan tuhan. Kategori nang ini jua bakal mamasukakan kakanak ba-kapasitas konseptual gasan mangarti isu-isu nang ta'umpat, tagal magun ai kada sadar lawan isu-isu nangkaya itu (''sabagai ateis''). Fakta bahua kakanak nangini kada parcaya lawan tuhan ma'ulah di'inya tutih pantas ai disambat ateis."<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|p=14}}.</ref> Smith ma'ulah istilah ''ateisma implisit'' gasan manunjuk lawan "kahada kaparcayaan teistik tanpa ba'indah nang sacara sadar digawi" dan ''ateisma eksplisit'' gasan manunjuk lawan definisi kahadaparcayaan nang digawi sacara sadar. Dalam kabudayaan Barat, pandangan bahua kakanakan diparanakakan sabagai ateis merupakan pamikiran nang hanyar. Sabalum abad ka-18, kaba'adaan Tuhan ditarima sacara luas banar sadamintunya kaba'adaan ateisma nang bujur-bujur kada parcaya lawan Tuhan nangitu jadi tatakunan kaba'adaannya. Hal nangkaya ini disambat ''theistic innatism'' (pambawaan lahir teistik), yakni suatu nosi bahua samunyaan urang parcaya lawan Tuhan tumat diparanakanan. Pandangan nangini ba'isi konotasi bahua bubuhan ateis hanyalah bakulim lawan dirinya sawrang.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cudworth |first=Ralph | authorlink = Ralph Cudworth |title=The True Intellectual System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility demonstrated |url=https://archive.org/details/bim_early-english-books-1641-1700_the-true-intellectual-sy_cudworth-ralph_1678 |year=1678}}</ref> Ta'ulih jua sabuah posisi nang mangklaim bahua ateis pacang lakas parcaya lawan Tuhan mun di wayah krisis, bahua ateis parcaya lawan tuhan di wayah [[maninggal dunia]], atawa jua bahua "kada ada ateis dalam liang palindungan perang (''no atheists in foxholes'')."<ref>Lihat : {{cite web|url=http://www.lds-mormon.com/atheist.shtml|title=Atheists call for church head to retract slur|date=1996-09-03|accessdate=2008-07-02|archive-date=2011-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515175331/http://www.lds-mormon.com/atheist.shtml|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sapalih pandukung pandangan nangini mangklaim bahua kauntungan antropologis agama ma'ulah manusia kawa ma'atasi ka'adaan nang ngalih talabih baik pang.<!--(cf.[[opium of the people]] Karl Marx, Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher February, 1844)--> Sapalih ateis manitikbaratkan pakta bahua ta'ulih banyak cuntuh nang mambukti'akan kabalikannya, di antaranya cuntuh-cuntuh "ateis nang bujur-bujur ba'ada di liang palindungan perang."<ref>{{cite web |last=Lowder |first=Jeffery Jay |year=1997 |title=Atheism and Society |url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/jeff_lowder/society.html |accessdate=10 Januari 2007 }}.</ref> === Kuat dan lamah === Bubuhan filsuf pariannya [[Antony Flew]]<ref name="presumption">Flew, Antony. "The Presumption of Atheism". ''The Presumption of Atheism and other Philosophical Essays on God, Freedom, and Immortality''. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1976. pp 14ff.</ref>, [[Michael Martin (filsuf)|Michael Martin]]<ref name="martin"/>, dan [[William L. Rowe]]<ref name="RoweRoutledge">Rowe, William L. "Atheism". ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Edward Craig (editor). Routledge: Juni 1998. ISBN 0-415-18706-0. 530-534.</ref> mambida'akan antara ateisma nahap (positip) lawan ateisma lamah (negatip). Ateisma nahap adalah batamam-tamam mamadahakan bahua tuhan kada ada, lamun ateisma lamah meliputi sabarataan bantuk ajaran nonteisma lainnya. Ma'umpati kategorisasi nangini, siapa gin jua nang kahada teis kawa ai tamasuk ateis nang lamah atawa jua nahap.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cline |first=Austin |title=Strong Atheism vs. Weak Atheism: What's the Difference? |url=http://atheism.about.com/od/atheismquestions/a/strong_weak.htm |accessdate=2006-10-21 |year=2006 |publisher=[[about.com]] |archive-date=2012-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205025348/http://atheism.about.com/od/atheismquestions/a/strong_weak.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Istilah ''lamah'' dan ''nahap'' nang ini merupakan istilah hanyar; tagal istilah nang sabanding nangkaya ateisma ''negatif'' dan ''positif'' sudah diguna'akan dalam bamacam literatur-literatur filosofi<ref name="presumption"/> dan apologetika Katolik (dalam artian nang sadikit babida).<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm |title=On the Meaning of Contemporary Atheism |journal=The Review of Politics |first=Jacques |last=Maritain |year=1949 |month=Juli |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=267–280}}</ref> Manggunakan batasan ateisma nangini, kabanyakan [[agnostisisma|agnostik]] adalah ateis lamah. Sawayah [[Michael Martin (filsuf)|Martin]], batamam-tamam mamadahakan bahua [[agnostisisma]] ba'isi bawaan ateisma lamah,<ref name="martin"/> kabanyakan agnostik memandang pandangan bubuhannya tutih babida matan ateisma, nang bubuhannya lihat ateisma sama haja kadada bujurnya lawan teisma.<ref>{{cite book |first=Anthony |last=Kenny |authorlink=Anthony Kenny |title=What I believe |url=https://archive.org/details/whatibelieve0000kenn |chapter=Why I Am Not an Atheist |publisher=Continuum |isbn=0-8264-8971-0 |quote=The true default position is neither theism nor atheism, but agnosticism … a claim to knowledge needs to be substantiated; ignorance need only be confessed. |year=2006}}</ref> Ketidaktercapaian pangatahuan nang diparlukan gasan mambuktikan atawa mangulimakan kaba'adaan tuhan/diwa limbahanu dilihat sabagai indikasi bahua ateisma mamarlukan sabuah luncatan [[kaparcayaan]]. Respon ateis kapada argumen naini adalah bahua dalil-dalil [[agama|kaagamaan]] nang kada tabukti saharusnya pang pantas mandapatkan ketidakpercayaan nang sama nangkaya jua kahadaparcayaan lawan dalil-dalil kada tabukti ''lainnya'',<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|pp=30–34}}. "Who seriously claims we should say 'I neither believe nor disbelieve that the Pope is a robot', or 'As to whether or not eating this piece of chocolate will turn me into an elephant I am completely agnostic'. In the absence of any good reasons to believe these outlandish claims, we rightly disbelieve them, we don't just suspend judgement."</ref> dan bahua ketidakterbuktian kaba'adaan tuhan kada ma'implikasikan bahua probabilitas kaba'adaan tuhan sama lawan probabilitas katiadaan tuhan.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=22}}. "A lack of proof is no grounds for the suspension of belief. This is because when we have a lack of absolute proof we can still have overwhelming evidence or one explanation which is far superior to the alternatives."</ref> Filsuf Skotlandia [[J. J. C. Smart]] bahkan ba'argumen bahua "limbahanu sa'ikung urang nang bujur-bujur ateis kawa manyambat dirinya sabagai sa'urang agnostik lantaran generalisasi [[skeptisisma filosofis]] kada ba'alasan nang kainanya mahalangi kita ba'ucap kita tahu apapun, kacawali mungkin kabanaran matematika dan logika formal."<ref name="stanford">{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ |title=Atheism and Agnosticism |first=J.C.C. |last=Smart |date=2004-03-09 |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |accessdate=2007-04-12}}</ref> Marga naitu, sapalih panulis ateis populer nangkaya [[Richard Dawkins]] mamilih gasan mambida'akan posisi teis, agnostik, dan ateis sabagai spektrum probabilitas kapada pernyataan "Tuhan ada" (''spektrum probabilitas teistik'').<ref>Cudworth, Ralph. The true intellectual system of the universe. 1678. Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. Bantam Books: 2006, hal. 50. (ISBN 0-618-68000-4)</ref> == Dasar pamikiran == [[Barakas:Supreme Impiety, Atheist and Charlatan - Picta poesis, by Barthélemy Aneau (1552).jpg|jmpl|250px|"Sa'ikung kakanak tumatan bubuhan garumbulan urang nang suah ditakuni sa'urang ahli [[astronomi]] siapa abah nang mambawanya ka dalam dunia ini. [[Cendekiawan]] naitu manunjuk langit dan sa'urang tuha nang parahatan baduduk, dan ba'ucap:{{br}} '' 'Nang di sana adalah abah awakmu, dan nang itu adalah abah jiwamu.' ''{{br}} Kakanak lalakian nangitu mambalas:{{br}} '' 'Napa nang di atas kita bukanlah urusan kita, dan ulun supan jadi anak matan urang nang tuhanya kaya itu!'{{br}} '' 'Umay liwar kada babudi, kada handak maminandui abahmu, dan kada bapikir bahua Tuhan adalah panciptamu!' ''<ref>Terjamahan matan teks babahasa Latin matan "[http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FANa100 Summa impietas]" (1552), ''Picta poesis'', by [[Barthélemy Aneau]]. Glasgow University Emblem Website. Diakses wayah [[26 Maret]] [[2007]].</ref> Ilustrasi ateisma praktis dan asosiasi historisnya lawan amoralitas, judul "Supreme Impiety: Atheist and Charlatan", tumatan ''Picta poesis'', ulih [[Barthélemy Aneau]], 1552.]] Batasan dasar pamikiran ateistik nang paling lumbah adalah antara ateisma praktis lawan ateisma teoretis. Bantuk-bantuk ateisma teoretis nang babida-bida ba'asal matan argumen filosofis dan dasar pamikiran nang babida-bida jua. Kabalikannya, ateisma praktis kada parlu lawan argumen nang spesifik dan kawa meliputi pengabaian dan ketidaktahuan awan pamikiran tentang tuhan/diwa. === Ateisma praktis === Dalam ateisma ''praktis'' atawa ''pragmatis'', nang jua dipinandui sabagai [[apateisma]], individu hidup sonder tuhan dan mamadahakan fenomena alam sonder mangguna'akan alasan paranormal. Ujar pandangan nangini, kaba'adaan tuhan kada pang dikulimakan, tagal kawa dianggap sabagai kada panting dan kada baguna; kadanya pang tuhan naitu mambari'i kita tujuan hidup, atawa jua mampangaruhi kahidupan sahari-hari.<ref name = "Zdybicka-p20">{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=20}}.</ref> Sabuting bantuk ateisma praktis lawan implikasinya dalam [[komunitas ilmiah]] adalah [[naturalisma metodologis]], yaitu pa'ambilan asumsi naturalisma filosofis dalam [[metode ilmiah]] nang kada diucapakan lawan atawa jua sonder sacara hibak manarima atawa mamparcayainya."<ref name="neps">Schafersman, Steven D. "[http://www.freeinquiry.com/naturalism.html Naturalism is an Essential Part of Science and Critical Inquiry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125032848/http://www.freeinquiry.com/naturalism.html |date=2021-01-25 }}". Conference on Naturalism, Theism and the Scientific Enterprise. Department of Philosophy, The University of Texas. February 1997. Revised May 2007. Diakses wayah [[9 April]] [[2007]].</ref> === Ateisma teoretis === Ateisma teoretis sacara eksplisit mambari'i argumen menentang kaba'adaan tuhan, dan sacara aktif merespon lawan argumen teistik mengenai kaba'adaan tuhan, nangkaya pariannya [[argumen matan rancangan]] dan [[taruhan Pascal]]. Ta'ulih bamacam alasan-alasan teoretis gasan manampik kaba'adaan tuhan, utamanya sacara ontologis, gnoseologis, dan epistemologis. Suwalih naitu ta'ulih jua alasan psikologis dan sosiologis. ==== Argumen epistemologis dan ontologis ==== Ateisma [[epistemologi]]s ba'argumen bahua urang kada kawa mangatahuani Tuhan atawa jua manantuakan kaba'adaan Tuhan. Dasar epistemologis ateisma adalah [[agnostisisma]]. Dalam filosofi [[imanensi]], ketuhanan kada kawa dipisahakan tumatan dunia naitu sawrang, tamasuk jua pikiran sasa'ikung urang, dan [[kasadaran]] saban ikung urang takunci lawan [[subjek (filsafat)|subjek]]. Ujar bantuk agnostisisma naini, katarbatasan lawan perspektif naini mahalangi kasimpulan objektif apapun mengenai kaparcayaan lawan tuhan dan kaba'adaannya. Agnostisisma [[rasionalisma|rasionalistik]] [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] dan [[Abad Pencerahan|Pencerahan]] wastu manarima ilmu nang dideduksi matan rasionalitas manusia. Bentuk ateisma naini ba'isi posisi bahua tuhan kada kawa dilihat sabagai suatu materi sacara prinsipnya, sahingga kada kawa dikatahuani apakah inya ada atawa kada. [[Skeptisisma filosofis|Skeptisisma]], nang didasarkan lawan pemikiran [[David Hume|Hume]], bataman-taman mamadahakan bahua kapastian lawan sagala sasuatunya adalah kada mungkin, sahingga sa'ikung urang kada pacang suah mangatahuani kaba'adaan tentang Tuhan. Alokasi agnostisisma kapada ateisma adalah dipertentangkan; inya jua kawa dianggap sabagai pandangan dunia dasar nang independen.<ref name = "Zdybicka-p20"/> Argumen lainnya nang mandukung ateisma nang kawa diklasifikasikan sabagai epistemologis atawa jua [[ontologi]]s meliputi [[positivisma logis]] dan [[ignostisisma]], nang batamam-tamam mamadahan ketidakberartian atawa jua ketidakterpahaman istilah-istilah dasar nangkaya "Tuhan" dan pernyataan nangkaya "Tuhan adalah mahakuasa." [[Nonkognitivisma teologis]] ba'isi posisi bahua pernyataan "Tuhan ada" bukanlah suatu dalil, namun adalah mangaradau atawa jua sacara kognitif kada ba'arti. ==== Argumen metafisika ==== Ateisma metafisik didasarkan lawan [[monisma]] metafisika, yakni pandangan bahua realitas adalah wantu (homogen) dan kada kawa dibagi. Ateis metafisik absolut tamasuk ka dalam babarapa bantuk [[fisikalisma]], sahingga sacara eksplisit manampikakan kaba'adaan makhluk-makhluk halus. Ateis metafisik relatif ba'indah sacara implisit konsep-konsep katuhanan ba'astilah didasarkan lawan ketidakkongruenan antara filosofi dasar bubuhannya lawan sifat-sifat nang biasanya ditujukan lawan tuhan, pariannya [[transendensi]], sifat-sifat personal, dan ka'asaan tuhan. Contoh-contoh ateisma metafisik relatif meliputi [[panteisma]], [[panenteisma]], dan [[deisma]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=19}}.</ref> [[Barakas:Epikouros BM 1843.jpg|jmpl|kiri|[[Epikouros]] rancak disambat sabagai urang nang panambaian ma'uraikan sacara taparinci [[masalah kajahatan]]. [[David Hume]] dalam buku sidin ''[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]]'' (1779) mangutip argumen Epikouros dalam bantuk saliritan tatakunan <ref>{{cite book|title=Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion|author=David Hume|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4583|publisher=Project Gutenberg (e-text)}}</ref> "Apa [Tuhan] baniat manampikakan kajahatan, tagal kada kawa? maka apakah inya impoten. Apakah inya kawa, tagal kada baniat? Maka apakah inya bahati culas. Apakah inya kawa wan baniat? maka tumatan manakah kajahatan?"]] ==== Argumen psikologis, sosiologis, dan ekonomi ==== Bubuhan filsuf nangkaya [[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]]<ref>Feuerbach, Ludwig (1841) ''[[The Essence of Christianity]]''</ref> dan [[Sigmund Freud]] ba'argumen bahua Tuhan dan kaparcayaan ka'agamaan lainnya wastu ciptaan manusia, nang dicipta'akan gasan ma'umpati kahandak dan kaparluan psikologis dan emosi manusia. Hal naini jua merupakan pandangan banyak [[Buddhisma|Buddhis]].<ref>Walpola Rahula, ''What the Buddha Taught.'' Grove Press, 1974. Halaman 51–52.</ref> [[Karl Marx]] dan [[Friedrich Engels]], dipangaruhi ulih karya Feuerbach, ba'argumen bahua kaparcayaan lawan Tuhan dan agama adalah pungsi sosial, nang diguna'akan ulih panguasa gasan mahinyik kalas pakarja. Ujar [[Mikhail Bakunin]], "pamikiran lawan Tuhan ma'implikasikan turunnya darajat akal manusia dan ka'adilan; inya marupakan negasi kabibasan manusia nang paling nahap, dan saparlunya pacangan ba'akhir di parbudakan umat manusia, dalam teori dan prakteknya." Sidin mambalikakan aforisma [[Voltaire]] nang terkenal nang babunyi jika "Tuhan kadada, maka adalah parlu gasan manciptakanNya", lawan cara manulis: "Jika Tuhan bujur-bujur ada, maka adalah parlu gasan mahapusnya."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html |title=God and the State |accessdate=2007-04-12 |last=Bakunin |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Bakunin |year=1916 |work= |publisher=New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association}}</ref> ==== Argumen logis dan badasar bukti ==== Ateisma logis ba'isi posisi bahua bamacam konsep katuhanan, nangkaya tuhan personal dalam kakerestenan, dianggap sacara logis kada konsisten. Bubuhan ateis naini mambari'i argumen deduktif nang manantang kaba'adaan Tuhan, nang batamam-tamam mamadahakan kahadacucukan antara sifat-sifat Tuhan batunggal, pariannya kasampurnaan, status pancipta, kakakalan, kamahakuasaan, kamahatahuan, kamahabalaskasihan, transendensi, kamahaadilan, dan kamahapangampunan Tuhan.<ref>Various authors. "Logical Arguments for Atheism". [[Internet Infidels]], ''The Secular Web Library''. Diakses pada [[9 April]] [[2007]].</ref> Ateis [[teodisi]] parcaya bahua dunia naini kada kawa dicucukkan lawan sifat-sifat nang ta'ulih di Tuhan dan diwa-diwi badimapa nang dibari'i ulih bubuhan teolog. Bubuhannya ba'argumen bahua kamahatahuan, kamahakuasaan, dan kamahabalaskasihan Tuhan kada pang cucuk lawan dunia nang hibak lawan [[masalah kajahatan|kajahatan]] dan [[marista]], dan kasih tuhan/diwa adalah kada kawa dilihat ulih banyak urang.<ref>[[Theodore Drange|Drange, Theodore M.]] (1996). "[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/aeanb.html The Arguments From Evil and Nonbelief]". [[Internet Infidels]], ''Secular Web Library''. Diakses di wayah [[18 April]] [[2007]].</ref> Argumen nang sama jua dipadahakan ulih [[Siddhartha Gautama]], pandiri [[Agama Buddha]].<ref>V.A. Gunasekara, {{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_attitude_to_god.htm |title=The Buddhist Attitude to God. |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102053643/http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_attitude_to_god.htm |archivedate=2008-01-02 |access-date=2010-10-28 |dead-url=no }} In the Bhuridatta Jataka, "The Buddha argues that the three most commonly given attributes of God, viz. omnipotence, omniscience and benevolence towards humanity cannot all be mutually compatible with the existential fact of dukkha."</ref> ==== Argumen antroposentris ==== Ateisma [[aksiologis]] atawa konstruktif manampikakan kaba'adaan tuhan, dan kabalikannya manarima kaba'adaan "kamutlakan nang talabih tinggi" nangkaya [[kamanusiaan]].<!-- The previous wikilink is a disambig. page. Someone redirect it to human race, human nature, etc., etc. --> Ateisma dalam bantuk ini maanggap kamanusiaan sabagai sumbar mutlak etika dan nilai-nilai, dan ma'ijinkan individu gasan ma'untungakan pamasalahan moral tanpa bagantung lawan Tuhan. Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, dan Sartre samunyaannya mangguna'akan argumen naini gasan menyebarkan pasar-pasan kabibasan, [[Übermensch]], dan kabahagiaan tanpa kekangan.<ref name = "Zdybicka-p20"/> Sabuting kritik nang paling umum lawan ateisma adalah bahua manampikakan kaba'adaan Tuhan kainanya mambawa lawan [[relativisma moral]], manyababakan sa'ikung urang kada bamoral atawa jua kada ba'isi dasar etika,<ref name="misconceptions">{{cite web |url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=12346 |title=Common Misconceptions About Atheists and Atheism |accessdate=2006-10-21 |last=Gleeson |first=David |year=2006 |publisher=''American Chronicle'' |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121204192151/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/12346 |archivedate=2012-12-04 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> atawa ma'ulah hidup kada ba'arti dan pina sadih.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|p=275}}. "Perhaps the most common criticism of atheism is the claim that it leads inevitably to moral bankruptcy."</ref> [[Blaise Pascal]] memaparkan argumen naini di tahun 1669.<ref>[[Blaise Pascal|Pascal, Blaise]] (1669). ''[[Pensées]]'', II: "The Misery of Man Without God".</ref> Ateisma praktis kawa ba'ujud: * Katiadaan motivasi religius, yakni kaparcayaan lawan tuhan kada mamotivasi tindakan moral, religi, atawa jua bantuk-bantuk tindakan lainnya; * Mahaliungakan masalah tuhan dan religi sacara aktif tumatan penelusuran intelek dan tindakan praktis; * Pengabaian, yakni ketiadaan ketertarikan napa-napa lawan permasalahan tuhan dan agama; dan * Ketidaktahuan lawan konsep tuhan dan dewa.<ref>{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=21}}.</ref> == Demografi == [[Barakas:Irreligion map.png|jmpl|450px|Kadar ateisma dan agnostisisma di sabarataan dunia<ref>[http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html Dentsu Institute (2006)]</ref><ref>[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html Zuckerman (2005)]</ref>]] Ngalih ai pang ah lamun handak marékén jumbelah ateis di dunia. Bubuhan responden survei kawa mendefinisikan "ateisma" sacara babida-bida atawa jua manarik garis watas nang babida antara ''ateisma'', kaparcayaan non-religius, dan kaparcayaan religius non-teis dan spiritual.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Nonreligious |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents, Section on accuracy of non-Religious Demographic Data |accessdate=2008-03-28 |archive-date=2018-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116005919/http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Nonreligious |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Suwalih naitu, masyarakat di sapalihan balahan dunia anggan melaporkan dirinya sabagai ateis gasan mahaliungi stigma sosial, [[diskriminasi]], dan [[panganiayaan]]. Survei tahun 2005 nang dipublikasi dalam ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' manampaikan bahua galambang non-religius mandapati bangsa 11,9% populasi dunia, dan ateis bangsa 2,3%. Jumlah naini kada tamasuk urang-urang nang mamaluk agama ateistik, nangkaya agama Buddha.<ref name="Britannica demographics">{{cite web |url=http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9432620 |title=Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2005 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2005 |accessdate=2007-04-15}} * 2.3% Atheists: Persons professing atheism, skepticism, disbelief, or irreligion, including the militantly antireligious (opposed to all religion). * 11.9% Nonreligious: Persons professing no religion, nonbelievers, agnostics, freethinkers, uninterested, or dereligionized secularists indifferent to all religion but not militantly so. </ref> Survei November-Desember 2006 nang digawi di Amirika Sarikat dan lima nagara Irupa, dan dipublikasi di ''[[Financial Times]]'' manampaikan bahua urang Amirika (73%) cunday labih parcaya lawan tuhan/diwa atawa makhluk paling tinggi dalam bantuk apa-kah pada urang Irupa. Di antara urang dewasa Irupa nang disurvei, urang Italia adalah nang paling banyak parcaya (62%) dan urang Parancis adalah nang paling sadikit (27%). Di Parancis, 32% mangaku dirinya sabagai ateis, dan 32% lainnya mangaku sabagai [[agnostik]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131 |title=Religious Views and Beliefs Vary Greatly by Country, According to the Latest Financial Times/Harris Poll |publisher=Financial Times/Harris Interactive |date=[[2006-12-20]] |accessdate=2007-01-17}}</ref> Survei rasmi [[Uni Irupa]] mambari hasil-hasil berikut: 18% populasi Uni Eropa kada parcaya lawan tuhan; 27% yakin lawan kaba'adaan babarapa "makhluk halus atawa ruh", manakala 52% percaya lawan tuhan-tuhan batantu. Proporsi urang nang parcaya naik jadi 65% di urang-urang nang pagat sakulah di umur 15; responden survei nang ba'anggapan dirinya ba'asal tumatan latar balakang kulawarga nang pangarasan gin labih cunday parcaya lawan tuhan daripada urang-urang nang marasa dirinya tumbuh di lingkungan tanpa aturan nang karas.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |authorlink = |coauthors = |title =Social values, Science and Technology |publisher =Directorate General Research, European Union |year =2005 |location= |pages= hal. 7–11 |url =http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |doi = |id= |isbn= |format=PDF}}</ref> Sabuting surat nang dipublikasi di ''[[Nature]]'' wayah tahun 1998 malaporkan sabuah survei bahua kaparcayaan lawan tuhan personal atawa jua kahidupan limbahnya mati ada dalam posisi tarandah di antara bubuhan anggota [[Akademi Sains Nasional]] AS, tikas 7,0% haja anggota nang parcaya lawan tuhan personal, ditandingkan lawan talabih matan 85% masyarakat AS sacara umumnya.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Correspondence: Leading scientists still reject God |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1998-07-23_394_6691/page/313 |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |coauthors=Larry Witham |year=1998 |journal=Nature |volume=394 |issue= 6691 |pages=313 |doi=10.1038/28478}} Available at [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html StephenJayGould.org], Stephen Jay Gould archive. Diakses pada [[17 Desember]] [[2006]].</ref> Wayah tahun nang sama jua, [[Frank Sulloway]] tumatan [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] dan [[Michael Shermer]] tumatan [[California State University]] manggawi sabuting kajian nang manamuni bahua di sampel survei bubuhannya nang terdiri tumatan urang dewasa AS nang "diparcayai" (12% Ph.D dan 62% lulusan parguruan tinggi), 64%-nya parcaya lawan Tuhan, dan ta'ulih sabuting [[korelasi]] nang ma'indikasikan manurunnya tingkat kaparcayaan ba'imbaian lawan maningkatnya tingkat pandidikan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shermer |first=Michael |authorlink =Michael Shermer |coauthors = |title =How We Believe: Science, Skepticism, and the Search for God |publisher =William H Freeman |year =1999 |location=New York |pages= pp76–79 |url = |doi = |id=ISBN 0-7167-3561-X }}</ref> Korelasi nang babanding tabalik antara kaimanan lawan kapintaran gin sudah tahaba di 39 kajian nang digawi antara tahun 1927 sampai tahun 2002, ujar sabuah artikal dalam ''Majalah [[Mensa International|Mensa]]''.<ref>Menurut Dawkins (2006), hal. 103. Dawkins mengutip pernyataan Bell, Paul. "Would you believe it?" ''Mensa Magazine'', UK Edition, Feb. 2002, hal. 12–13. Analyzing 43 studies carried out since 1927, Bell found that all but four reported such a connection, and he concluded that "the higher one's intelligence or education level, the less one is likely to be religious or hold 'beliefs' of any kind."</ref> Panamuan ini sacara luas sasuai lawan [[meta-analisis]] statistis tahun 1958 nang digawi ulih Profesor [[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Michael Argyle]] tumatan [[Universitas Oxford]]. Sidin ma-analisa tujuh kajian riset nang sudah ma-investigasi korelasi antara sikap kapada agama lawan pangukuran [[inteligensi]] di palajar-palajar sakulah dan paguruan tinggi AS. Walau korelasi negatif tahaba sacara jalas, analisis naini kada ma'identifikasi sabab musababnya, tapi manilai bahua faktor-faktor nangkaya latar balakang kulawarga nang otoriter dan kalas susial mau ai mamainkan sapalih peran panting.<ref>{{cite book |last=Argyle |first=Michael |authorlink =Michael Argyle |coauthors = |title =Religious Behaviour |publisher =Routledge and Kegan Paul |year =1958 |location=London |pages= pp 93–96 |url =https://archive.org/details/religiousbehavio0000argy |doi = |isbn= 0-415-17589-5 }}</ref> Dalam cacah jiwa pamarintah Australia wayah tahun 2006, dalam tatakunan nang manakunakan ''Apa agama andika?'' Tumatan sabarataan populasi, 18,7% manconteng tabla (kotak) ''kada ba'agama'' atawa jua manulis sabuting respon nang diklasifikasikan sabagai non-religius (humanisma, agnostik, ateis). Tatakunan naini basipat sakarila dan 11,2% kada manjawab tatakunan naini.<ref>Australian Bureau of Statistics, Census of Population and Housing, 2006, [http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/TopicList?prenavtabname=Topic%20List&collection=Census&period=2006&breadcrumb=T&&navmapdisplayed=true&textversion=false& Census Table 20680-Religious Affiliation (broad groups) by Sex - Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723231638/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/TopicList?prenavtabname=Topic%20List&collection=Census&period=2006&breadcrumb=T&&navmapdisplayed=true&textversion=false& |date=2013-07-23 }}</ref> Dalam cacah jiwa [[Salandia Hanyar]] 2006 nang manakunakan ''Apa agama andika?'', 34,7% ma'indikasikan kada ba'agama, 12,2% kada marespon atawa jua kada hakun manjawab tatakunan naitu.<ref>Statistics New Zealand, [http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/2006-census-data/quickstats-about-culture-identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity.htm?page=para012Master QuickStats About Culture and Identity, Religious affiliation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611115200/http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/2006-census-data/quickstats-about-culture-identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity.htm?page=para012Master |date=2009-06-11 }}</ref> == Ateisma, agama, wan moralitas == [[Barakas:Lightmatter buddha3.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Marga [[Tuhan dalam agama Buddha|katiadaan]] [[Tuhan]] pancipta, [[Agama Buddha]] umumnya dideskripsikan sabagai nonteis.]] Walau urang nang mangaku sabagai ateis karancakannya diasumsikan kada ba'agama, sapalihan sekte agama nang ba'astilah ada jua nang manampikakan kaba'adaan diwa pancipta nang personal.<ref name="winston2">{{cite book |last=Winston |first=Robert (Ed.) |title=Human |url=https://archive.org/details/human0000unse_n1j1 |publisher=New York: DK Publishing, Inc |year=2004 |isbn=0-7566-1901-7 |pages=hal. 299 | quote=Nonbelief has existed for centuries. For example, Buddhism and Jainism have been called atheistic religions because they do not advocate belief in gods.}}</ref> Wayah pandudian naini, aliran-aliran kaagamaan nang ba'astilah gin sudah mambari kapingin banyak panganut nang sacara buka-bukaan ateis, nangkaya pariannya Yahudi ateis atawa Yahudi humanis<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/subdivisions/humanistic.shtml |title=Humanistic Judaism |date=[[2006-07-20]] |accessdate=2006-10-25 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Levin |first=S. |year=1995 | month = May |title=Jewish Atheism | journal = New Humanist | volume = 110 | issue = 2 |pages=13–15}}</ref> dan Keresten ateis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/types/christianatheism.shtml |title=Christian Atheism |date=[[2006-05-17]] |accessdate=2006-10-25 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Altizer |first=Thomas J. J. |authorlink=Thomas J. J. Altizer |title=The Gospel of Christian Atheism |url=http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=523 |accessdate=2006-10-27 |year=1967 |publisher=London: Collins |pages=102–103 |archive-date=2006-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929171840/http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=523 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lyas |first=Colin |year=1970 | month = January |title=On the Coherence of Christian Atheism | journal = Philosophy: the Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy | volume = 45 | issue = 171 |pages=1–19}}</ref> Marga artian nang paling kaku ateisma positif kada parlu kaparcayaan spesifik napa-napa diluar kahadaparcayaan lawan diwa/tuhan, ateis kawa ja ba'isi kaparcayaan spiritual napa haja. Gasan alasan nang sama jua, bubuhan ateis kawa bapingkut lawan bamacam kaparcayaan etis, mulai tumatan [[universalisma moral]] [[humanisma]], nang bapandangan bahua nilai-nilai moral harus pang diandak sacara konsisten gasan sabarataan manusia, sampai lawan [[nihilisma moral]], nang bapandapat bahua moralitas adalah hal nang kada ba'arti.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|pp=21-22}}.</ref> Walau inya tadih merupakan kabanaran filosofis, nang sacara handap dipaparkan dalam karya Plato [[dilema Euthyphro]] bahua peran tuhan dalam manantukan nang bujur daripada nang salah adalah kada diparlukan awan jua adalah sewenang-wenang, argumen bahua moralitas harus pang diturunakan tumatan Tuhan dan kada kawa ada tanpa pancipta nang bijak sudah jadi isu-isu nang tatarusan cungul dalam dabat politik.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1979|p=275}}. "Among the many myths associated with religion, none is more widespread -or more disastrous in its effects -than the myth that moral values cannot be divorced from the belief in a god."</ref><ref>In [[Dostoevsky]]'s ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' (Book Eleven: ''Brother Ivan Fyodorovich'', Chapter 4) there is the famous argument that ''If there is no God, all things are permitted.'': "'But what will become of men then?' I asked him, 'without God and immortal life? All things are lawful then, they can do what they like?'"</ref><ref name = "Kant CPR A811"> For [[Kant]], the presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was a practical concern, for "Morality, by itself, constitutes a system, but happiness does not, unless it is distributed in exact proportion to morality. This, however, is possible in an intelligible world only under a wise author and ruler. Reason compels us to admit such a ruler, together with life in such a world, which we must consider as future life, or else all moral laws are to be considered as idle dreams..." (''Critique of Pure Reason'', A811).</ref> Persepsi moral nangkaya "mambunuh adalah salah" dilihat sabagai hukum Tuhan, nang mamarlukan tukang ulah hukum dan hakim. Tagal ha, banyak ateis nang ba'argumen bahua memperlakukan moralitas sacara legalistik adalah [[analogi salah]], dan bahua moralitas kada saparlunya mamarlukan sa'urang pancipta hukum sama halnya hukum naitu sawrang.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=38}}.</ref> Filsuf [[Susan Neiman]]<ref>{{cite video| people =[[Susan Neiman]]| title =Beyond Belief Session 6| medium =Conference| publisher =The Science Network| location =[[Salk Institute]], La Jolla, CA|date= November 6, 2006 }}</ref> dan [[Julian Baggini]]<ref> {{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=40}}</ref> batamam-tamam mamadahakan bahua parangai etis nang diulah tikas lantaran mandat Nang Di Atas haja kada pang parangai etis nang sabujurnya, tapi tikas kama'asian picak haja. Baggini ba'argumen bahua ateisma merupakan dasar etika nang talabih superior, dan mangklaim bahua dasar moral di luar susuruhan agama adalah diparlukan gasan ma'evaluasi moralitas susuruhan naitu sawrang. Sabagai cuntuh, susuruhan "andika harus pang mancuntan" adalah amoral bahkan jakanya suatu agama manyuruhakannya, sahingga ateis ba'isi kauntungan gasan talabih kawa manggawi evaluasi nangitu tadi daripada umat ba'agama nang ma'asi'i parintah agamanya sawrang.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=43}}.</ref> Filsuf politik kontemporer Britania Martin Cohen manawari cuntuh historis susuruhan Alkitab nang manyuruhakan panyiksaan dan parbudakan sabagai bukti bahua suruhan-suruhan religius ma'umpati norma-norma sosial dan politik, dan kadanya pang norma-norma sosial dan politik nang ma'umpati susuruhan religius. Tapi sidin jua mancatat bahua kacundaian nang sama tajadi jua pang lawan filsuf-filsuf nang kada mamihak dan objektif.<ref> 101 Ethical Dilemmas, 2nd edition, by Cohen, M., Routledge 2007, pp184-5. (Cohen notes particularly that Plato and Aristotle produced arguments in favour of slavery.) </ref> Cohen mamparluas argumen naini nang talabih mandetail di ''Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao'' dalam kasus kitab [[Al-Quran]] nang sidin lihat sudah ba'isi peran nang jadi panyasalan dalam mamalihara kode-kode sosial jaman panangahan di tangah-tangah parubahan masarakat sakular.<ref> Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao, by Cohen, M, Second edition 2008 </ref> Walau damintu, bubuhan ateis pariannya [[Sam Harris (panulis)|Sam Harris]] ba'argumen bahua kabargantungan agama Barat lawan otoritas Nang Di Atas bakontribusi lawan [[otoritarianisma]] dan [[dogma]]tisma.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harris |first=Sam | authorlink = Sam Harris (author) |title=The Myth of Secular Moral Chaos |url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=sharris_26_3 |accessdate=2006-10-29 |publisher=[[Free Inquiry]] |year=2006a}}</ref> Sabujurnya jua, [[fundamentalisma agama]] dan agama ekstrinsik (agama dipaluk marga inya talabih ma'untungakan<ref name=Moreira-almeida2006>{{cite journal |author=Moreira-almeida, A. | coauthors = Lotufo Neto, F.; Koenig, H.G. |year=2006 |title=Religiousness and mental health: a review | journal = Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria | volume = 28 |pages=242–250 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-44462006000300018&script=sci_arttext |accessdate=2007-07-12 }}</ref>) bakorelasi lawan otoritarianisa, dogmatisma, dan prasangka.<ref>See for example: Kahoe, R.D. (June 1977). "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8294(197706)16%3A2%3C179%3AIRAAAD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X Intrinsic Religion and Authoritarianism: A Differentiated Relationship]". ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion''. '''16'''(2). hal. 179-182. Also see: Altemeyer, Bob and Bruce Hunsberger (1992). "[http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327582ijpr0202_5?journalCode=ijpr Authoritarianism, Religious Fundamentalism, Quest, and Prejudice]". ''International Journal for the Psychology of Religion''. '''2'''(2). hal. 113-133.</ref> Argumen naini, ba'imbaian lawan kajadian-kajadian basajarah nangkaya [[Perang Salib]], [[Inkuisisi]], dan pahukuman [[sihir|tukang sihir]], rancak digunakan ulih bubuhan ateis nang antiagama gasan mambanarkan pandangan bubuhannya.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harris |first=Sam |authorlink=Sam Harris (author) |title=An Atheist Manifesto |url=http://www.truthdig.com/dig/print/200512_an_atheist_manifesto |accessdate=2006-10-29 |publisher=[[Truthdig]] |year=2005 |quote=In a world riven by ignorance, only the atheist refuses to deny the obvious: Religious faith promotes human violence to an astonishing degree. |archive-date=2011-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516191405/http://www.truthdig.com/dig/print/200512_an_atheist_manifesto |dead-url=yes }}</ref> <center><gallery> Image:Bezbozhnik u stanka 22-1929.jpg Image:Descent of the Modernists, E. J. Pace, Christian Cartoons, 1922.jpg </gallery></center> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} {{Sistim kaparcayaan}} {{AP}} [[Tumbung:Ateisma]] cjbvyyowk2sja8o8nu84pryzvd1o7x9 0 1796 113349 113186 2026-08-07T19:35:34Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113349 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:Solar System True Color BJN.png|jmpl|upright=1.5|Gambaran awam Tata Suria (ukuran digambarakan sasuai sakala, tagal jarak kahada): [[Matahari]], [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Bumi]], [[Mars]], [[Ceres]], [[Yupiter]], [[Saturnus]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptunus]], [[Pluto]], wan [[Eris]].]] '''Tata Suria'''{{Ref label|A|a|none}} adalah garumbung banda langit nang tasusun matan sabuting [[bintang]] nang disambat [[matahari]] wan samunyaan upjik nang tajarat lawan gaya [[gravitasi|garapitasi]]nya. Upjik-upjik ngitu tamasuk walung [[planet|palanit]] nang sudah dikatahuani baurbit babantuk [[élips|ilips]], lima [[planet kihit|palanit kihit]], 173 [[satelit alami|satilit alami]] nang sudah dipinandui, wan jutaan banda langit ([[météor|mitiur]], [[astéroid|astiruit]], [[komét|kumit]]) nang lain. Tata suria tabagi jadi matahari, ampat [[#Planet-planet palih dalam|palanit palih dalam]], [[#Sabuk asteroid|sabuk asteroid]], ampat [[#Planet-planet luar|palanit palih luar]], wan di palih paluarnya ada [[#Sabuk Kuiper|Sabuk Kuipar]] wan [[#Pipiringan basapai|pipiringan basapai]]. [[#Awan Oort|Awan Oort]] disangka baandak di [[#da'irah panjauhnya|dairah panjauhnya]] nang bajarak bangsa saribu kali di luar palih nang paluaran. Bapandal jaraknya matan di matahari, kawalu buting planet Tata Surya ialah [[Merkurius]] (57,9 juta [[kilumitir|km]]), [[Venus]] (108 juta km), [[Bumi]] (150 juta km), [[Mars]] (228 juta km), [[Jupiter]] (779 juta km), [[Saturnus]] (1.430 juta km), [[Uranus]] (2.880 juta km), wan [[Neptunus]] (4.500 juta km). Tumatan di panangahan tahun [[2008]], ada lima upjik rakun nang dikalasipikasi'akan sawagai [[planet kihit|palanit kihit]]. Urbit palanit-palanit kihit, kacawali Ceres, andakannya tajauh pada Neptunus. Kalima buting palanit kihit ngitu adalah [[Ceres]] (415 juta km. di sabuk astiruit; bahari dikalasipikasiakan sawagai palanit kalima), [[Pluto]] (5.906 juta km.; bahari dikalasipikasiakan sawagai palanit kasanga), [[Haumea]] (6.450 juta km), [[Makemake]] (6.850 juta km), wan [[Eris]] (10.100 juta km). Anam tumatan kawalu buting palanit wan talu tumatan kalima buting palanit kihit ngitu dikulilingi ulih [[satelit alami|satilit alami]], nang rancak disambat "bulan" sasuai lawan [[Bulan]] atawa satelit alami Bumi. Masing-masing palanit palih luar dikulilingi ulih [[utas palanit]] nang tasusun ulih dabu wan partikal nang lain. == Talatah == Banyak pang sudah hipotesis tentang talatah Tata Surya dikuya bubuhan ahli, di antaranya : [[Barakas:Pierre-Simon Laplace.jpg|thumb|upright|Pierre-Simon Laplace, pandukung Hipotesis Nebula]] [[Barakas:GerardKuiper.jpg|thumb|upright|Gerard Kuiper, pandukung Hipotesis Kondensasi]] ;Hipotesis Nebula Hipotesis nebula panambayan dikuya ulih [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] ([[1688]]-[[1772]])<ref>Swedenborg, Emanuel. 1734, (Principia) Latin: Opera Philosophica et Mineralia (English: Philosophical and Mineralogical Works), (Principia, Volume 1)</ref> tahun [[1734]] dan disampurnakan ulih [[Immanuel Kant]] ([[1724]]-[[1804]]) di tahun [[1775]]. Hipotesis sarupa jua dikambangkan ulih [[Pierre Marquis de Laplace]]<ref>{{cite journal |year=1909| title= The Past History of the Earth as Inferred from the Mode of Formation of the Solar System| journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society | volume=48 | pages=119 | author=See, T. J. J. | url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-049X%28190901%2F04%2948%3A191%3C119%3ATPHOTE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U&size=LARGE | accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> sacara independen di tahun [[1796]]. Hipotesis naini, nang labih dipinandui pakai ngaran Hipotesis Nebula Kant-Laplace, mamadahakan bahua di tahap tatambayan, Tata Surya magun ba'ujud saun raksasa. Saun naini tabantuk ulih [[dabu]], [[es]], dan [[gas]] nang disambat [[nebula]], dan unsur gas nang pambanyaknya [[hidrogen]]. Gaya grapitasi ampun inya ma'ulah saun naitu mangarusut dan bapusing ampah nang bakurinah, suhu saun bapanas, wan kawarihannya jadi bintang raksasa (matahari). Matahari raksasa batarus bakarucut dan bapusing sasain hancap, dan utas-utas gas dan es takipai ka sakuliling matahari. Marga [[gaya]] [[gravitasi]], gas-gas nangitu tadi baracap baraung lawan panurunan suhunya dan mambantuk [[planet dalam]] dan [[planet luar]]. Laplace bapandapat bahua orbit babantuk babaya balingkar tumatan planet-planet marupakan akibat tumatan pambantukan bubuhannya.<ref name=history>{{cite journal|title=The Solar System: Its Origin and Evolution|author=M. M. Woolfson|work=Physics Department, University of New York|journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=34|pages=1–20|year=1993|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1993QJRAS..34....1W&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=YES |accessdate=2008-04-16}}</ref> ;Hipotesis Planetisimal Hipotesis planetisimal panambaian dikuya ulih [[Thomas C. Chamberlin]] wan [[Forest R. Moulton]] di tahun [[1900]]. Hipotesis planetisimal mamadahakan bahua Tata Surya kita tabantuk marga adanya bintang lain nang lalu sadang pang paraknya lawan matahari, di wayah tatambayan pambantukan matahari. Paraknya nangitu tadi manyababakan tajadinya dugul di pamukaan matahari, dan ba'imbai paroses internal matahari, manjuhut materi babulang bulik tumatan di matahari. Efek grapitasi bintang ma'akibatkan tabantuknya dua pagalangan spiral nang bapanjang tumatan di matahari. Pahadangan naitu palih tabanyak materi tajuhut pulang, sapalih nang lain pacang tatap di orbit, badingin dan baracap, dan jadi banda-banda ba'ukuran halus nang bubuhannya sambat [[planetisimal]] dan babarapa nang ganal sabagai [[protoplanet]]. Obyek-objek nangitu tadi barumpakan waktu kawilang waktu dan mambantuk planet dan bulan, pahadangan naitu sisa-sisa materi nang lainnya jadi komet dan asteroid. ;Hipotesis Pasang Pandit Bintang Hipotesis pasang pandit bintang panambayan dikuya ulih [[James Jeans]] di tahun [[1917]]. Planet dianggap tabantuk lantaran baparaknya bintang nang lain lawan matahari. Ka'adaan nang babaya barumpakan manyababakan tajuhutnya sajumbelah basar materi tumatan di matahari dan bintang lain nangitu tadi ulih [[gaya]] [[pasang pandit]] ba'imbai-imbaian bubuhannya, nang limbah itu takondensasi jadi planet.<ref name=history /> Tagal astronom [[Harold Jeffreys]] di tahun 1929 manangkar bahua barumpakam nang sadamia naitu babaya kada mungkin tajadi.<ref name=history/> Damintu jua astronom [[Henry Norris Russell]] manguya kabaratannya lawan hipotesis nangitu tadi.<ref>{{cite book|author=Benjamin Crowell|title=Conservation Laws|publisher=lightandmatter.com|year=1998-2006|chapter=5|url=http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch05/ch05.html|access-date=2010-11-07|archive-date=2010-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214161609/http://lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch05/ch05.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> ;Hipotesis Kondensasi Hipotesis kondensasi bamula dikuya ulih astronom Walanda nang bangaran [[G.P. Kuiper]] ([[1905]]-[[1973]]) di tahun [[1950]]. Hipotesis kondensasi mamadahi bahua Tata Surya tabantuk tumatan bal saun raksasa nang bapusing mambantuk cakram raksasa. ;Hipotesis Bintang Kambar Hipotesis bintang kambar bamula dikuya ulih [[Fred Hoyle]] ([[1915]]-[[2001]]) di tahun [[1956]]. Hipotesis naini manguya bahua bahari kala Tata Surya kita ba'ujut dua bintang nang babaya sama ukurannya dan baparakan nang sabutingnya maladum maninggali rapai-rapai halus. Rapaian naitu tajabak ulih gravitasi bintang nang kada maladum dan mulai mangulilinginya. == Sajarah pamahabaan == Lima [[planet|palanit]] taparak ka Matahari suwalih [[Bumi]] ([[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Mars]], [[Yupiter]], wan [[Saturnus]]) sudah dikatahui matan di jaman bahari kala marga bubuhannya ngitu kawa dijanaki pakai mata tilanjang. Banyak bangsa di dunia ngini baisi [[Planet#Sajarah ngaran-ngaran planet|ngaran saurang gasan masing-masing palanit]]. Pakambangan ilmu pangatahuan wan tiknulugi panjanakan di lima abat bahari mambawa manusia mamahami banda-banda langit tabibas matan lingkuh mitulugi. [[Galileo Galilei]] (1564-1642) lawan [[teleskop|tiliskup]] riprakturnya kawa maulah mata manusia "labih itih" dalam maitihi banda langit nang kada kawa diitihi pakai mata tilanjang. Marga tiliskup Galileo kawa maitihi talabih itih, inya kawa maniring bamamacam parubahan bantuk panampaian [[Venus]], pariannya Venus Sabit atawa Venus Purnama sawagai marga parubahan kaandakan Venus ka Matahari. Panalaran Venus maulai Matahari sasain manahapi tiuri [[heliosentris|hiliusintris]], yaitu bahua matahari adalah pusat alam samasta, kadanya Bumi pang, nang sabalumnya dikuya ulih [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543). Susunan heliosentris adalah Matahari dikulilingi ulih [[Merkurius]] sampai [[Saturnus]]. [[Barakas:De Revolutionibus manuscript p9b.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Model heliosentris dalam [[manuskrip]] [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]].]] Teleskop Galileo tarus disampurnaakan ulih ilmuwan lain nangkaya [[Christian Huygens]] (1629-1695) nang mahaba [[Titan]], satilit Saturnus, nang baandak babaya 2 kali intang urbit [[Bumi]]-[[Yupiter]]. Pakambangan tiliskup diimbangi jua lawan pakambangan pawilangan garak banda-banda langit wan hubungan sabuting lawan nang lain malalui [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630) pakai [[Hukum Kepler]]. Puncaknya, [[Sir Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727) pakai [[hukum gravitasi|hukum garapitasi]]. Mamakai dua tiuri pawilangan ngini nang maulah kawa pangagaian wan pawilangan banda-banda langit pandudiannya. Wayah tahun [[1781]], [[William Herschel]] (1738-1822) mahaba [[Uranus]]. Pawilangan anyak urbit Uranus manyimpulakan lamun palanit ngini ada nang mahaurnya. [[Neptunus]] tahaba wayah bulan Agustus [[1846]]. Pamahabaan Neptunus nyatanya kada mayu manjalasakan gangguan urbit Uranus. [[Pluto]] badudi tahaba wayah tahun [[1930]]. Wayah Pluto tahaba, inya dikatahui wastu sabubutingannya upjik angkasa nang ada imbah Neptunus. Imbah ngitu wayah tahun 1978, [[Karon (bulan)|Karon]], satilit nang mangulilingi Pluto tahaba, sabalumnya sawat disangka sawagai palanit nang sabujurnya marga ukurannya kada babida jauh lawan Pluto. Bubuhan astronom imbah ngitu mahaba bangsa 1.000 upjik halus lainnya nang andakannya malimpuai Neptunus (disambat [[objek trans-Neptunus]]), nang jua mangulilingi Matahari. Di sana saku ada bangsa 100.000 objek sarupa nang dipinandui sabagai Objek [[Sabuk Kuiper]] (Sabuk Kuiper adalah palih tumatan di objek-objek trans-Neptunus). Bawalas-walas banda langit tamasuk dalam Objek Sabuk Kuiper di antaranya [[Quaoar]] (1.250&nbsp;km di bulan Juni 2002), [[Huya]] (750&nbsp;km di bulan Marat 2000), [[Sedna]] (1.800&nbsp;km di bulan Marat 2004), [[Orkus]], [[Vesta]], [[Pallas]], [[Hijea]] dan [[20000 Varuna|Varuna]]. == Struktur == [[Barakas:Masses of the planets en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|Tantingan relatif massa planet. Yupiter adalah 71% daripada total dan Saturnus 21%. Merkurius dan Mars, nang total baraung kurang daripada 0.1% wara kada talihat dalam diagram di atas.]] [[Barakas:Oort cloud Sedna orbit-de.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|Orbit-orbit Tata Surya pakai sekala nang sabujurnya]] [[Barakas:Planetoid 90377 sedna animation location.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|right|Illustrasi sekala]] Komponen utama sistem Tata Surya adalah [[matahari]], sabuah [[bintang]] [[deret utama]] kalas G2 nang batian 99,86 parsin massa tumatan sistem dan mandominasi sabarataan lawan gaya gravitasinya.<ref>{{cite journal |author=M Woolfson |title=The origin and evolution of the solar system |doi= 10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x |year=2000 |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |volume=41 |pages=1.12}}</ref> [[Yupiter]] dan [[Saturnus]], dua komponen pangganalnya nang mamusingi matahari, mencakup bangsa 90 parsin massa salabihnya.{{Ref label|C|c|none}} Parak samunyaan objek-objek ganal nang ma'orbit matahari ba'andak di bidang pusingan [[bumi]], nang umumnya dingarani [[ekliptika]]. Samunyaan [[planet]] ba'andak liwar parak lawan ekliptika, pahadangan naitu komet dan objek-objek sabuk Kuiper biasanya ba'isi bida buncu nang liwar ganal dibandingkan ekliptika. Planet-planet dan objek-objek Tata Surya gin ma'orbit mangulilingi matahari balawanan lawan ampah jarum jam lamun diliat tumatan di kutup utara matahari, kacawali [[Komet Halley]]. [[Hukum Kepler|Hukum Garakan Planet Kepler]] manjabarkan bahua orbit tumatan objek-objek Tata Surya sakuliling matahari bagarak ma'umpati bantuk elips mamakai matahari sabagai salah satu titik fokusnya. Objek nang bajarak taparak tumatan di matahari (sumbu ''semi-mayor''-nya tahalus) ba'isi tahun waktu nang tahandap. Di orbit elips, jarak antara objek lawan matahari bavariasi satahunan. Jarak taparaknya antara objek lawan matahari dingarani [[perihelion]], mun jarak panjauhnya tumatan di matahari dingarani [[aphelion]]. Samunyaan objek Tata Surya bagarak pahancapnya di titik perihelion dan panggalainya di titik aphelion. Orbit planet-planet kawa disambat babaya babantuk balingkar, tagal komet, asteroid dan objek sabuk Kuiper kabanyakan orbitnya babantuk [[elips]]. Gasan manggampangkan representasi, kabanyakan diagram Tata Surya manampaiakan jarak antara orbit nang sama antara sabuting lawan nang lainnya. Kanyataannya, lawan babarapa pangacawalian, samagin jauh andakan sabuah planet atawa sabuk tumatan di matahari, samagin ganal jarak antara objek naitu lawan jalur pusingan orbit sabalumnya. Sabagai cuntuh, [[Venus]] ba'andak bangsa 0,33 [[satuan astronomi]] (SA) tumatan di [[Merkurius]]{{Ref label|D|d|none}}, mun [[Saturnus]] adalah 4,3 SA tumatan di [[Yupiter]], dan [[Neptunus]] ba'andak 10,5 SA tumatan di [[Uranus]]. Babarapa ukara sudah dicuba gasan manantuakan korelasi jarak antar orbit naini ([[hukum Titus-Bode]]), tagal sampai wayahini gin kadada jua sabuting-buting teori nang sudah ditarima. Parak samunyaan planet-planet di Tata Surya gin ba'isi sistem sekunder. Kabanyakan adalah banda pa'orbit alami nang disambat satelit, atawa bulan. Babarapa banda ini ba'isi ukuran taganal daripada planet. Parak samunyaan [[satelit alami]] nang pangganalnya ba'andak di orbit sinkron, lawan asa higa satelitnya bapaling ka ampah planet induknya sacara batatap. Ampat planet pangganalnya gin ba'isi utas nang isinya partikal-partikal halus nang ma'orbit baraungan. === Terminologi === Sacara informal, Tata Surya kawa dibagi jadi talu da'irah. Tata Surya palih dalam mencakup ampat [[planet kabumian]] dan [[sabuk asteroid]] utama. Di da'irah nang tajauh, Tata Surya palih luar, ta'ulih ampat gas planet raksasa.<ref>{{cite web |title=An Overview of the Solar System |author=nineplanets.org |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/overview.html |accessdate=2007-02-15}}</ref> Tumatan wayah tahaba [[Sabuk Kuiper]], palih luarnya Tata Surya dianggap wilayah babida batunggal nang meliputi samunyaan objek malimpuai Neptunus.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Horizons Set to Launch on 9-Year Voyage to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt |author=Amir Alexander |work=The Planetary Society |year=2006 |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2006/0116_New_Horizons_Set_to_Launch_on_9_Year.html |accessdate=2006-11-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222080327/http://www.planetary.org/news/2006/0116_New_Horizons_Set_to_Launch_on_9_Year.html |archivedate=2006-02-22 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Sacara dinamis dan pisik, objek nang ma'orbit [[matahari]] kawa diklasipikasikan dalam talu golongan: [[planet]], [[planet kihit]], dan [[Banda Halus Tata Surya|banda halus Tata Surya]]. Planet adalah sabuah awak nang mamusingi matahari dan ba'isi massa sadang ganalnya gasan mambantuk bulatan diri dan sudah mambarsihi orbitnya lawan ma-inkorporasikan samunyaan objek-objek halus di pintangannya. Mamakai definisi ngini, Tata Surya ba'isi walu planet: [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Bumi]], [[Mars]], [[Yupiter]], [[Saturnus]], dan [[Neptunus]]. [[Pluto]] sudah dipacul status planetnya lantaran kada kawa mambarsihi orbitnya tumatan objek-objek Sabuk Kuiper.<ref name="FinalResolution"/> Planet kihit adalah banda rakun kada satelit nang mangulilingi matahari, ba'isi massa nang mayu gasan kawa membantuk bulatan diri tagal baluman kawa mambarsihi da'irah pintangannya.<ref name="FinalResolution"/> Ma'umpati definisi ini, Tata Surya ba'isi lima buah planet kihit: [[Ceres]], [[Pluto]], [[Haumea]], [[Makemake]], dan [[Eris]].<ref name=name>{{cite web|date=2008-11-07 <!--11:42:58-->|title=Dwarf Planets and their Systems|work= Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN) |url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append7.html#DwarfPlanets| accessdate=2008-07-13 | publisher= U.S. Geological Survey }}</ref> Objek lain nang mungkin cagaran diklasifikasikan sabagai planet kihit adalah: [[Sedna]], [[Orcus]], dan [[Quaoar]]. Planet kihit nang ba'isi orbit di da'irah trans-Neptunus biasanya disambat "plutoid".<ref name="IAU0804">{{cite web |date=June 11, 2008, Paris |title=Plutoid chosen as name for Solar System objects like Pluto |publisher=[[International Astronomical Union]] (News Release - IAU0804) |url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0804 |accessdate=2008-06-11 |archive-date=2008-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613121232/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0804/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Sisa objek-objek lain berikutnya nang mamusingi matahari adalah banda halus Tata Surya.<ref name="FinalResolution">{{cite news |title=The Final IAU Resolution on the definition of "planet" ready for voting |publisher=IAU |date=2006-08-24 |url=http://www.iau.org/iau0602.423.0.html |accessdate=2007-03-02 |archive-date=2009-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107044134/http://www.iau.org/iau0602.423.0.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ilmuwan ahli planet manggunakan istilah gas, es, dan batu gasan mandeskripsi kalas jat nang ta'ulih di dalam Tata Surya. ''Batu'' digunakan gasan mangarani bahan batitik lanah tinggi (taganal daripada 500&nbsp;K), sabagai cuntuh [[silikat]]. Bahan batuan ngini umum bangat ta'ulih di Tata Surya palih dalam, merupakan komponen pambantuk utama parak samunyaan planet kabumian dan asteroid. Gas adalah bahan-bahan batitik lanah randah pariannya atom hidrogen, helium, dan gas mulia, bahan-bahan ini mandominasi wilayah tangah Tata Surya, nang didominasi ulih Yupiter dan Saturnus. Mun es, pariannya [[banyu]], [[metana]], [[amonia]] dan [[karbon dioksida]],<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.04.009 | bibcode=2007Icar..190..345F | title=Asymmetries in the distribution of H2O and CO2 in the inner coma of Comet 9P/Tempel 1 as observed by Deep Impact | year=2007 | author=Feaga, L | journal=Icarus | volume=190 | pages=345}}</ref> ba'isi titik lanah bangsa ratusan darajat kelvin. Bahan ngini merupakan komponen utama tumatan palihan taganal satelit planet raksasa. Inya gin merupakan komponen utama [[Uranus]] dan [[Neptunus]] (nang rancak disambat "es raksasa"), wan jua bamacam banda halus nang ba'andak di parak orbit Neptunus.<ref name=zeilik>{{cite book | pages=[https://archive.org/details/astronomyevolvin0000zeil/page/240 240] | author=Michael Zellik| title=Astronomy: The Evolving Universe | url=https://archive.org/details/astronomyevolvin0000zeil | edition=9th | year=2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0521800900 | oclc=223304585 46685453}}</ref> Istilah ''volatiles'' mencakup samunyaan bahan batitik gurak randah (kurang daripada ratusan kelvin), nang tamasuk gas dan es; tagantung lawan suhunya, 'volatiles' kawa tahaba sabagai es, cairan, atawa gas di bamacam palih Tata Surya. === Zona planet === [[Barakas:Solarsys.svg|thumb|upright=2|left|Zona Tata Surya nang meliputi, planet palih dalam, sabuk asteroid, planet palih luar, wan [[sabuk Kuiper]]. (Gambar kada sasuai sekala) ]] Di zona planet dalam, [[Matahari]] adalah pusat Tata Surya dan andakannya pamaraknya lawan planet [[Merkurius]] (jarak tumatan di matahari 57,9&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁶ km, atawa 0,39&nbsp;[[satuan astronomi|SA]]), [[Venus]] (108,2&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁶&nbsp;km, 0,72&nbsp;SA), [[Bumi]] (149,6&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁶&nbsp;km, 1&nbsp;SA) dan [[Mars]] (227,9&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁶&nbsp;km, 1,52&nbsp;SA). Ukuran garis tangahnya antara 4.878&nbsp;km wan 12.756&nbsp;km, lawan massa macam antara 3,95&nbsp;g/cm³ dan 5,52&nbsp;g/cm³. Antara Mars dan [[Yupiter]] ta'ulih da'irah nang disambat [[sabuk asteroid]], garumbung babatuan metal dan mineral. Kabanyakan asteroid-asteroid naini bagaris tangah babarapa kilumitir haja(liati: [[Daptar asteroid]]), dan babarapa ba'isi garis tangah 100&nbsp;km atawa labih. [[Ceres]], palih tumatan di garumbung asteroid ngini, ba'ukuran bangsa 960&nbsp;km dan dikategorikan sabagai [[planet kihit]]. Orbit asteroid-asteroid ini liwar eliptis, bahkan babarapa manyimpangi [[Merkurius]] ([[1566 Icarus|Icarus]]) dan [[Uranus]] ([[2060 Chiron|Chiron]]). Di zona planet luar, ta'ulih planet gas raksasa [[Yupiter]] (778,3&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁶&nbsp;km, 5,2&nbsp;SA), [[Uranus]] (2,875&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁹&nbsp;km, 19,2&nbsp;SA) dan [[Neptunus]] (4,504&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁹&nbsp;km, 30,1&nbsp;SA) lawan massa macam antara 0,7&nbsp;g/cm³ dan 1,66&nbsp;g/cm³. Jarak rata-rata antara planet-planet lawan matahari kawa dikikira'akan pakai [[Hukum Titus-Bode|baris matematis Titus-Bode]]. Regularitas jarak antara jalur pumusingan orbit-orbit naini kamungkinan merupakan efek resonansi sisa tumatan tatambayan tabantuknya Tata Surya. Anihnya, planet [[Neptunus]] kada cungul di baris matematis Titus-Bode, nang ma'ulah bubuhan pangamat baspekulasi bahua Neptunus merupakan hasil rarampakan kosmis. === Matahari === {{utama|Matahari}} [[Matahari]] adalah bintang induk Tata Surya dan merupakan komponen utama sistem Tata Surya naini. [[Bintang]] naini ba'ukuran 332.830 massa [[bumi]]. Massa nang ganal naini manyababakan racapan hinti nang sadang ganalnya gasan kawa mandukung kasinambungan [[fusi nuklir]] dan manyamburakan sajumbelah energi nang dahsyat. Kabanyakan energi naini dipancarakan ka luar rakun dalam bantuk radiasi eletromagnetik, tamasuk spektrum optik. Matahari dikategorikan ka dalam bintang kihit kuning (tipe G V) nang ba'ukuran panangahan, tagal ngaran naini kawa manyababakan kasalahpahaman (tapahuya), lantaran ditanding lawan bintang-bintang nang ada di dalam galaksi Bima Sakti, matahari tamasuk sadang ganalnya dan mancilang. Bintang diklasipikasikan pakai [[diagram Hertzsprung-Russell]], yaitu sabuah grafik nang manggambarakan hubungan nilai [[luminositas]] sabuah bintang kapada suhu pamukaannya. Sacara umum, bintang nang tapanas pacang labih mancilang. Bintang-bintang nang ma'umpati pola ini disambat ba'andak di [[lirit utama]], dan matahari andakannya parcis di tangah lirit ini. Tagal ha, bintang-bintang nang talabih mancilang dan tapanas daripada matahari adalah langka, mun bintang-bintang nang takurup dan dingin adalah umum.<ref>{{cite web |year=2001 |author=Smart, R. L.; Carollo, D.; Lattanzi, M. G.; McLean, B.; Spagna, A. |title=The Second Guide Star Catalogue and Cool Stars |work=Perkins Observatory |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001udns.conf..119S |accessdate=2006-12-26}}</ref> Diparcayai bahua kadudukan matahari di lirit utama sacara umum merupakan "puncak hidup" tumatan sabuah bintang, lantaran baluman habisnya hidrogen nang tasimpan gasan fusi nuklir. Wayahini Matahari tumbuh samagin mancilang. Di tatambayan kahidupannya, tingkat kacilangannya adalah bangsa 70 parsin daripada kacilangan damini.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Towards a Solution to the Early Faint Sun Paradox: A Lower Cosmic Ray Flux from a Stronger Solar Wind|author=Nir J. Shaviv|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|doi=10.1029/2003JA009997|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astroph/0306477v2|accessdate=20090126|year=2003|volume=108|pages=1437}}</ref> Matahari sacara [[metalisitas]] dikategorikan sabagai bintang "populasi I". Bintang kategori naini tabantuk tadudi di tingkat evolusi [[alam samasta]], sahingga batian tabanyak unsur nang tabarat daripada hidrogen dan helium ("metal" dalam sambatan astronomi) ditanding lawan bintang "populasi II".<ref>{{cite journal |author=T. S. van Albada, Norman Baker |title=On the Two Oosterhoff Groups of Globular Clusters |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1973-10-01_185_1/page/n482 |journal=Astrophysical Journal |volume=185 |year=1973 |pages=477–498 |doi=10.1086/152434}}</ref> Unsur-unsur nang tabarat daripada [[hidrogen]] dan [[helium]] tabantuk di dalam hinti bintang purba nang limbah nitu maladum. Bintang-bintang generasi panambayan parlu ''punah'' badahulu sabalum alam samasta kawa dihibaki ulih unsur-unsur nang tabarat naini. Bintang-bintang panuhanya batian sadikit bangat metal, mun bintang puga ba'isi tianan metal nang tatinggi. Tingkat metalitas nang tinggi naini dikira-kira'akan bapangaruh panting di pambantukan sistem Tata Surya, lantaran tabantuknya planet adalah hasil panggumpalan metal.<ref>{{cite web |title=An Estimate of the Age Distribution of Terrestrial Planets in the Universe: Quantifying Metallicity as a Selection Effect |author=Charles H. Lineweaver |work=University of New South Wales |date=2001-03-09 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0012399 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> ==== Medium antarplanet ==== [[Barakas:Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif|left|thumb|[[Lambar aliran heliosfer]], lantaran garak rotasi magnetis matahari kapada medium antarplanet.<!-- The heliospheric current sheet. -->]] Salain hindaunya, [[matahari]] gin batatarusan mamancarakan samburan partikal bamuatan ([[plasma]]) nang dipinandui sabagai [[angin matahari]]. Samburan partikal ini basapai takaluar kira-kira di hancapan 1,5 juta kilumitir par jam,<ref>{{cite web |title=Solar Physics: The Solar Wind |work=Marshall Space Flight Center |date=2006-07-16<!--Internet Archive estimate--> |url=http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml |accessdate=2006-10-03 |archive-date=2015-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813081520/http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml |dead-url=yes }}</ref> manciptakan atmosfer nipis ([[heliosfer]]) nang malayapi Tata Surya paling kada sajauh 100 SA (liat jua ''[[heliopause]]''). Kasamunyaannya ini disambat [[medium antarplanet]]. Badai geomagnetis di pamukaan matahari, pariannya [[samburan matahari]] (''solar flares'') dan [[pangaluaran massa korona]] (''coronal mass ejection'') manyababkan gangguan di heliosfer, manciptakan cuaca ruang rakun.<ref name="SunFlip">{{cite web |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast15feb_1.htm |title=The Sun Does a Flip |accessdate=2007-02-04 |last=Phillips |first=Tony |date=2001-02-15 |work=Science@NASA |archive-date=2009-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512121817/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast15feb_1.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Struktur pangganalnya tumatan heliosfer dingarani [[lambar aliran heliosfer]] (''heliospheric current sheet''), sabuah spiral nang tajadi lantaran garak rotasi magnetis matahari kapada medium antarplanet.<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm A Star with two North Poles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718014855/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm |date=2009-07-18 }}, April 22, 2003, Science @ NASA</ref><ref>Riley, Pete; Linker, J. A.; Mikić, Z., "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080205064113/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations]", (2002) ''Journal of Geophysical Research'' (Space Physics), Volume 107, Issue A7, pp. SSH 8-1, CiteID 1136, DOI 10.1029/2001JA000299. ([http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf Full text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814052347/http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf |date=2009-08-14 }})</ref> [[Magnetosfer|Medan magnet]] bumi mantagah [[atmosfer bumi]] ba'interaksi lawan angin matahari. [[Venus]] dan [[Mars]] nang kada ba'isi medan magnet, atmosfernya habis takikis ka luar rakun.<ref>{{cite science |last=Lundin |first=Richard |date=2001-03-09 |title=Erosion by the Solar Wind |author=Rickard Lundin |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5510 |pages=1909 |doi=10.1126/science.1059763 |url=http://sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/291/5510/1909 |accessdate=2006-12-26|abstract=http://sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/291/5510/1909}}</ref> Interaksi antara angin matahari dan medan magnet bumi manyababakan tajadinya [[aurora]], nang kawa diliat parak kutup magnetik bumi. Heliosfer gin baperan malindungi Tata Surya tumat [[sinar kosmik]] nang ba'asal tumatan di luar Tata Surya. Medan magnet planet-planet manambah peran palindungan satarusnya. Densitas [[sinar kosmik]] di [[medium antarbintang]] dan kakuatan medan magnet matahari manamuni parubahan di sekala waktu nang liwar panjang, makanya darajat radiasi kosmis di dalam Tata Surya saurang adalah bavariasi, walau kada dikatahui sa'apa ganalnya.<ref name="Langner_et_al_2005">{{cite journal |last=Langner |first=U. W. |coauthors=M.S. Potgieter |year=2005 |title=Effects of the position of the solar wind termination shock and the heliopause on the heliospheric modulation of cosmic rays |journal=Advances in Space Research |volume=35 |issue=12 |pages=2084–2090 |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2004.12.005 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AdSpR..35.2084L |accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref> Medium antarplanet gin merupakan tampat adanya paling kada dua da'irah mahirip pipiringan nang isinya dabu kosmis. Da'irah nang panambayan, awan dabu zodiak, ba'andak di Tata Surya palih dalam dan merupakan panyabab cahaya zodiak. Ini kamungkinan tabantuk tumatan di rumpakan dalam [[sabuk asteroid]] nang disababkan ulih interaksi lawan planet-planet.<ref>{{cite web |year=1998 |title=Long-term Evolution of the Zodiacal Cloud |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/workshops/1997/zodiac/backman/IIIc.html |accessdate=2007-02-03 |archive-date=2006-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929030040/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/workshops/1997/zodiac/backman/IIIc.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Da'irah nang kadua bantangannya antara 10 SA sampai bangsa 40 SA, wan saku disababakan ulih rumpakan nang mahirip tagal tajadi di dalam [[Sabuk Kuiper]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2003 |title=ESA scientist discovers a way to shortlist stars that might have planets |work=ESA Science and Technology |url=http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=29471 |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Landgraf |first=M. |coauthors=Liou, J.-C.; Zook, H. A.; Grün, E. |month=May |year=2002 |title=Origins of Solar System Dust beyond Jupiter |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=123 |issue=5 |pages=2857–2861 |doi=10.1086/339704 |url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-3881/123/5/2857/201502.html |accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref> === Tata Surya palih dalam === Tata Surya palih dalam adalah ngaran umum nang mencakup [[planet kabumian]] dan [[asteroid]]. Ta'utama ta'ulah tumatan [[silikat]] dan logam, objek tumatan Tata Surya palih dalam melingkup parak lawan [[matahari]], radius tumatan sabarataan da'irah ini tahandap daripada jarak antara Yupiter wan Saturnus. ==== Planet-planet palih dalam ==== {{utama|Planet kabumian}} [[Barakas:4_Terrestrial_Planets_Size_Comp_True_Color.png|thumb| Planet-planet palih dalam. Tumatan di kiwa ka kanan: [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Bumi]], dan [[Mars]] (ukuran ma'umpati sekala)]] Ampat [[planet]] palih dalam atawa planet kabumian (''terrestrial planet'') ba'isi komposisi babatuan nang racap, babaya kada ba'isi atawa kadada ba'isi bulan dan kada ba'isi sistem utas. Komposisi Planet-planet ini ta'utama adalah mineral batitik lanah tinggi, pariannya silikat nang mambantuk karak dan lingkuh, dan logam pariannya wasi dan nikel nang mambantuk hintinya. Talu tumatan ampat planet ini ([[Venus]], [[Bumi]] dan [[Mars]]) ba'isi [[atmosfer]], samunyaannya ba'isi kawah meteor dan sipat-sipat pamukaan tektonis nangkaya gunung ba'api dan lembah pacahan. Planet nang andakannya di antara matahari dan bumi ([[Merkurius]] dan [[Venus]]) disambat jua planet inferior. ===== Merkurius ===== : [[Merkurius]] (0,4 SA tumatan di matahari) adalah planet pamaraknya tumatan di matahari lawan jua pahalusnya (0,055 massa bumi). Merkurius kada ba'isi satelit alami dan ciri geologisnya suwalih kawah meteorid nang dikatahui adalah ''lobed ridges'' atawa ''rupes'', kamungkinan tajadi lantaran pangarusutan di perioda tatambayan sajarahnya.<ref>Schenk P., Melosh H.J. (1994), ''Lobate Thrust Scarps and the Thickness of Mercury's Lithosphere'', Abstracts of the 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 1994LPI....25.1203S</ref> Atmosfer Merkurius nang babaya kawa kada diharungi tasusun tumatan atom-atom nang tapacul matan pamukaannya lantaran samburan angin matahari.<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Bill Arnett |title=Mercury |work=The Nine Planets |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/mercury.html |accessdate=2006-09-14}}</ref> Ganalnya hinti wasi dan nipisnya karak Merkurius magun ai baluman kawa dijalasakan. Ma'umpati sangkaan hipotesa lapisan luar planet ini tapacul limbah tajadi rumpakan raksasa, dan pakambangan ("akresi") hibaknya tasandat ulih energi tatambaian matahari.<ref>Benz, W., Slattery, W. L., Cameron, A. G. W. (1988), ''Collisional stripping of Mercury's mantle'', Icarus, v. 74, p. 516–528.</ref><ref>Cameron, A. G. W. (1985), ''The partial volatilization of Mercury'', Icarus, v. 64, p. 285–294.</ref> ===== Venus ===== : [[Venus]] (0,7 SA tumatan di matahari) ba'ukuran mahirip bumi (0,815 massa bumi). Dan nangkaya [[bumi]], planet ini ba'isi salimput kulimbit silikat nang kandal dan bahinti wasi, atmosfernya gin kandal dan ba'isi aktivitas geologi. Tagal ha planet ini takaring daripada bumi dan atmosfernya sanga kali taracap daripada bumi. Venus kada ba'isi satelit. Venus adalah planet pamanasnya lawan suhu pamukaan mandapati 400&nbsp;°C, kamungkinan basar disababakan jumbelah gas rumah kaca nang takandung di dalam atmosfer.<ref>{{cite paper |author=Mark Alan Bullock |title=The Stability of Climate on Venus |publisher=Southwest Research Institute |year=1997 |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/PhDThesis.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |accessdate=2006-12-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614202751/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/PhDThesis.pdf |date=2007-06-14 }}</ref> Sajauh ini aktivitas geologis Venus baluman dideteksi, tagal lantaran planet ini kada ba'isi medan magnet nang kawa mantagah habisnya atmosfer, disangka sumbar atmosfer Venus ba'asal tumatan di gunung ba'api.<ref>{{cite web |year=1999 |author=Paul Rincon |title=Climate Change as a Regulator of Tectonics on Venus |work=Johnson Space Center Houston, TX, Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/Science2_1999.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-11-19 |archive-date=2007-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614202807/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/Science2_1999.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ===== Bumi ===== : [[Bumi]] (1 SA tumatan di matahari) adalah planet palih dalam nang pangganalnya dan paracapnya, wastu sabubutingannya nang dikatahui ba'isi aktivitas geologi dan sabubutingannya planet nang dikatahui ba'isi mahluk hidup. Hidrosfer-nya nang cair adalah has di antara planet-planet kabumian dan jua merupakan sabubutingannya planet nang diobservasi ba'isi lempeng tektonik. Atmosfer bumi babida bangat ditanding planet-planet nang lainnya, lantaran dipangaruhi ulih adanya mahluk hidup nang mahasilakan 21% [[oksigen]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth's Atmosphere: Composition and Structure |author=Anne E. Egger, M.A./M.S. |work=VisionLearning.com |url=http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?c3=&mid=107&l= |accessdate=2006-12-26 |archive-date=2013-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602144823/http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?c3=&mid=107&l= |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Bumi ba'isi sabuting [[satelit]], [[bulan]], wastu sabubutingannya satelit ganal tumatan planet kabumian di dalam Tata Surya. ===== Mars ===== : [[Mars]] (1,5 SA tumatan di matahari) ba'ukuran tahalus daripada bumi dan Venus (0,107 massa bumi). Planet ini ba'isi atmosfer nipis nang tianan utamanya adalah [[karbon dioksida]]. Pamukaan Mars nang dihibaki gunung ba'api raksasa pariannya [[Olympus Mons]] dan lembah bancar pariannya [[Valles marineris]], manampaikan aktivitas geologis nang tarus tajadi sampai hanyar dudi ini. Kalir habangnya ba'asal tumatan warna tagar tanahnya nang sugih wasi.<ref>{{cite web |year=2004 |title=Modern Martian Marvels: Volcanoes? |author=David Noever |work=NASA Astrobiology Magazine |url=http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=1360&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Mars ba'isi dua satelit alami halus ([[Deimos]] dan [[Phobos]]) nang disangka merupakan [[asteroid]] nang tajabak gravitasi Mars.<ref>{{cite web |year=2004 |title=A Survey for Outer Satellites of Mars: Limits to Completeness |author=Scott S. Sheppard, David Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna |work=The Astronomical Journal |url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-3881/128/5/2542/204263.html |accessdate=2006-12-26}}</ref> ==== Sabuk asteroid ==== {{utama|Sabuk asteroid}} [[Barakas:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|upright=1.5|thumb|Sabuk asteroid utama dan asteroid Troya]] [[Asteroid]] sacara umum adalah obyek Tata Surya nang tasusun tumatan babatuan dan mineral logam baku.<ref>{{cite web|title=Are Kuiper Belt Objects asteroids? Are large Kuiper Belt Objects planets? |publisher=Cornell University|url=http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=601|accessdate=2009-03-01}}</ref> [[Sabuk asteroid]] utama ba'andak di antara orbit [[Mars]] dan [[Yupiter]], bajarak antara 2,3 dan 3,3 SA tumatan di [[matahari]], disangka merupakan sisa tumatan bahan formasi Tata Surya nang walang manggumpal lantaran pangaruh gravitasi Yupiter.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Petit, J.-M.; Morbidelli, A.; Chambers, J. | title=The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt | journal=Icarus | year=2001 | volume=153 | pages=338–347 | url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/classes/ge133/reading/asteroids.pdf | format=PDF | accessdate=2007-03-22 | doi=10.1006/icar.2001.6702 | archive-date=2007-02-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221085835/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/classes/ge133/reading/asteroids.pdf | dead-url=yes }}</ref> Gradasi ukuran asteroid adalah ratusan kilometer sampai mikroskopis. Samunyaan asteroid, kacawali [[Ceres]] nang pangganalnya, diklasifikasikan sabagai [[Banda Halus Tata Surya|banda halus Tata Surya]]. Babarapa asteroid pariannya [[Vesta]] dan [[Hygiea]] mungkin cagaran diklasifikasi sabagai [[planet kihit]] lamun kaina tabukti sudah mandapati [[kasatimbangan hidrostatik]].<ref>{{cite web|title=IAU Planet Definition Committee|publisher=International Astronomical Union|year=2006|url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0601/newspaper/|accessdate=2009-03-01|archive-date=2009-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603001603/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0601/newspaper/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sabuk asteroid tasusun tumatan baribu-ribu, mungkin jutaan objek nang bagaris tangah asa kilometer.<ref>{{cite web |year=2002 |title=New study reveals twice as many asteroids as previously believed |work=ESA |url=http://www.esa.int/esaCP/ESAASPF18ZC_index_0.html|accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> Walau damia, massa total tumatan di sabuk utama ini kada pang labih daripada saparsaribu massa bumi.<ref name=Krasinsky2002>{{cite journal |authorlink=Georgij A. Krasinsky |first=G. A. |last=Krasinsky |coauthors=[[Elena V. Pitjeva|Pitjeva, E. V.]]; Vasilyev, M. V.; Yagudina, E. I. |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2002Icar..158...98K&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=4326fb2cf906949 |title=Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt |journal=Icarus |volume=158 |issue=1 |pages=98–105 |month=July |year=2002 |doi=10.1006/icar.2002.6837}}</ref> Sabuk utama kada pang racap, kapal ruang rakun sacara rutin ma'ambah da'irah ini tanpa manamuni kacilaka'an. Asteroid nang bagaris tangah antara 10 dan 10⁻⁴&nbsp;m disambat meteorid.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Beech, M. |coauthors=Duncan I. Steel |year=1995 |month=September |title=On the Definition of the Term Meteoroid |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=281–284 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1995QJRAS..36..281B&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=44b52c369007834 |accessdate=2006-08-31}}</ref> ===== Ceres ===== [[Barakas:Ceres - RC3 - Haulani Crater (22381131691) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Ceres]] [[Ceres]] (2,77 SA) adalah banda pangganalnya di sabuk asteroid dan diklasipikasikan sabagai planet kihit. Garis tangahnya adalah sadikit kurang daripada 1000&nbsp;km, mayu gasan ba'isi gravitasi saurang gasan manggumpal mambantuk bundaran. Ceres dianggap sabagai planet sawayah tahaba di abad ka 19, tagal di-reklasifikasi jadi asteroid di tahun 1850an limbah observasi tadudi mahaba babarapa asteroid pulang.<ref>{{cite web |title=History and Discovery of Asteroids |format=DOC |work=NASA |url=http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/1_hist_dawn/history_discovery/Development/a_modeling_scale.doc |accessdate=2006-08-29}}</ref> Ceres direklasifikasi dudinya ditahun 2006 sabagai planet kihit. ===== Galambang asteroid ===== [[Asteroid]] di sabuk utama dibagi jadi kalumpuk dan kulawarga asteroid bapandal sipat-sipat orbitnya. Bulan asteroid adalah asteroid nang mamusingi asteroid nang taganal. Bubuhannya kada gampang dibidakan lawan bulan-bulan planet, bahanu parak ai saganal gampirannya. Sabuk asteroid gin ba'isi komet sabuk utama nang mungkin merupakan sumbar banyu bumi.<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Phil Berardelli |title=Main-Belt Comets May Have Been Source Of Earths Water |work=SpaceDaily |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Main_Belt_Comets_May_Have_Been_Source_Of_Earths_Water.html |accessdate=2006-06-23 |archive-date=2011-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816083413/http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Main_Belt_Comets_May_Have_Been_Source_Of_Earths_Water.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Asteroid-asteroid Trojan ba'andak di titik L₄ atawa L₅ [[Yupiter]] (da'irah gravitasi stabil nang ada di hadapan dan balakang sabuah orbit planet), sambatan "trojan" rancak digunakan gasan objek-objek halus di [[Titik Langrange]] tumatan sabuah planet atawa satelit. Galambang Asteroid Hilda ba'andak di orbit resonansi 2:3 tumatan Yupiter, nang artinya galambang ini mamusingi matahari talu kali gasan saban dua pusingan [[Yupiter]]. Palih dalam Tata Surya gin dihibakii ulih asteroid liar, nang banyak manatak orbit-orbit planet planet palih dalam. === Tata Surya palih luar === Di palih luar tumatan di Tata Surya ta'ulih gas-gas raksasa lawan satelit-satelitnya nang ba'ukuran planet. Banyak komet baperioda handap tamasuk babarapa Centaur, ba'orbit jua di da'irah ini. Awak-awak racap di da'irah ini batian jumbelah ''volatil'' (cuntuh: banyu, amonia, metan, nang rancak disambat "es" dalam pa'istilahan ilmu kaplanetan) nang tatinggi ditanding planet batuan di palih dalam Tata Surya. ==== Planet-planet luar ==== {{utama|Raksasa gas}} [[Barakas:Gas giants and the Sun (1 px = 1000 km).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Raksasa-raksasa gas dalam Tata Surya dan Matahari, bapandal sekala]] Ka'ampat planet luar, nang disambat jua planet raksasa gas (''gas giant''), atawa [[planet jovian]], sacara kasaluruhan mencakup 99 parsin massa nang ma'orbit matahari. Yupiter dan Saturnus palihan taganalnya batian [[hidrogen]] dan [[helium]]; Uranus dan Neptunus ba'isi proporsi es nang taganal. Bubuhan astronom ma'usulkan bahua kaduanya dikategorikan batunggal sabagai raksasa es.<ref>{{cite web |title=Formation of Giant Planets |author=Jack J. Lissauer, David J. Stevenson |work=NASA Ames Research Center; California Institute of Technology |year=2006 |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/uploads/File/People/djs/lissauer%26stevenson%28PPV%29.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2009-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326060004/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/uploads/File/People/djs/lissauer%26stevenson%28PPV%29.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ka'ampat raksasa gas ini samunyaannya ba'isi utas, walau sistem utas Saturnus haja nang kawa diliat sacara gampang tumatan di bumi. ===== Yupiter ===== : [[Yupiter]] (5,2 SA), lawan 318 kali massa bumi, adalah 2,5 kali massa daripada gabungan sabarataan planet lainnya. Tianan utamanya adalah [[hidrogen]] dan [[helium]]. Sumbar panas di dalam Yupiter manyababakan cungulnya babarapa ciri semi-permanen di atmosfernya, sabagai cuntuh pita pita awan dan [[Bintik Habang Raksasa]]. Sajauh nang dikatahui Yupiter ba'isi 63 satelit. Ampat nang pangganalnya, [[Ganymede]], [[Callisto]], [[Io]], dan [[Europa (bulan)|Europa]] manampaikan kamahiripan lawan planet kabumian, pariannya gunung ba'api dan hinti nang panas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geology of the Icy Galilean Satellites: A Framework for Compositional Studies |author=Pappalardo, R T |work=Brown University |year=1999 |url=http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/SFgate/SFgate?&listenv=table&multiple=1&range=1&directget=1&application=fm99&database=%2Fdata%2Fepubs%2Fwais%2Findexes%2Ffm99%2Ffm99&maxhits=200&=%22P11C-10%22 |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2007-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930165551/http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/SFgate/SFgate?&listenv=table&multiple=1&range=1&directget=1&application=fm99&database=%2Fdata%2Fepubs%2Fwais%2Findexes%2Ffm99%2Ffm99&maxhits=200&=%22P11C-10%22 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ganymede, nang merupakan satelit pangganalnya di Tata Surya, ba'ukuran taganal daripada Merkurius. ===== Saturnus ===== : [[Saturnus]] (9,5 SA) nang dipinandui lawan sistem utasnya, ba'isi babarapa kasamaan lawan Yupiter, sabagai cuntuh komposisi atmosfernya. Walau Saturnus saganal 60% haja volume Yupiter, planet ini babaya baratnya kurang daripada sapartiga Yupiter atawa 95 kali massa bumi, ma'ulah planet ini sabuah planet nang paling kada racap di Tata Surya. Saturnus ba'isi 60 satelit nang dikatahui sajauh ini (wan 3 nang balum dipastikan) dua di antaranya [[Titan]] dan [[Enceladus]], manampaikan activitas geologis, walau babaya tasusun tumatan es wara.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cryovolcanism on the icy satellites |author=J. S. Kargel |work=U.S. Geological Survey |year=1994 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/n7435h4506788p22/ |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2013-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031202057/http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00613296 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Titan ba'ukuran taganal daripada [[Merkurius]] dan merupakan wastu sabubutingannya satelit di Tata Surya nang ba'isi atmosfer nang mayu ba'arti. ===== Uranus ===== : [[Uranus]] (19,6 SA) nang ba'isi 14 kali massa bumi, adalah planet nang pahampulnya di antara planet-planet luar. Planet ini ba'isi kalainan ciri orbit. Uranus mamusingi matahari lawan kabujuran poros 90 darajat di [[ekliptika]]. Planet ini ba'isi hinti nang liwar dingin ditanding gas raksasa nang lainnya dan sadikit haja mamancarkan energi panas.<ref>{{cite web |title=10 Mysteries of the Solar System |author=Hawksett, David; Longstaff, Alan; Cooper, Keith; Clark, Stuart |work=Astronomy Now |year=2005 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AsNow..19h..65H |accessdate=2006-01-16}}</ref> Uranus ba'isi 27 satelit nang dikatahui, nang pangganalnya adalah Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel dan Miranda. ===== Neptunus ===== : [[Neptunus]] (30 SA) walau sadikit tahalus daripada Uranus, ba'isi 17 kali massa bumi, makalaham ma'ulahnya taracap. Planet ini mamancarkan panas tumatan di dalam tagal kada sabanyak Yupiter atawa Saturnus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Post Voyager comparisons of the interiors of Uranus and Neptune |author=Podolak, M.; Reynolds, R. T.; Young, R. |work=NASA, Ames Research Center |year=1990 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990GeoRL..17.1737P |accessdate=2006-01-16}}</ref> Neptunus ba'isi 13 satelit nang dikatahui. Nang pangganalnya, [[Triton]], geologinya aktip, dan ba'isi geyser nitrogen cair.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Plausibility of Boiling Geysers on Triton |author=Duxbury, N.S., Brown, R.H. |work=Beacon eSpace |year=1995 |url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/handle/2014/28034?mode=full |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2009-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426005806/http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/handle/2014/28034?mode=full |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Triton adalah wastu sabubutingannya satelit ganal nang orbitnya tatumbalik ampah (''retrogade''). Neptunus gin dipangapiti babarapa planet minor di orbitnya, nang disambat Trojan Neptunus. Banda-banda ini ba'isi resonansi 1:1 lawan Neptunus. ==== Komet ==== {{utama|Komet}} [[Barakas:Comet c1995o1.jpg|right|thumb|Komet Hale-Bopp]] [[Komet]] adalah awak Tata Surya halus, biasanya ba'ukuran babarapa kilometer haja, dan ta'ulah tumatan [[es volatil]]<!-- (volatiles ices) -->. Awak-awak ngini ba'isi eksentrisitas orbit tinggi, sacara umum [[perihelion]]-nya ba'andak di planet-planet palih dalam dan andakan [[aphelion]]-nya tajauh daripada [[Pluto]]. Wayah sabuah komet mamasuki Tata Surya palih dalam, paraknya jarak tumatan di matahari manyababkan pamukaan esnya ba-sumblimasi dan ba-ionisasi, nang mahasilkan koma, buntut gas dan dabu panjang, nang rancak kawa dilihat pakai mata tilanjang. Komet baperioda handap ba'isi kalangsungan orbit kurang daripada dua ratus tahun. Lamun komet baperioda panjang ba'isi orbit nang balangsung ribuan tahun. Komet baperioda handap diparcaya ba'asal tumatan di [[Sabuk Kuiper]], sedangkan komet baperioda panjang, pariannya [[Hale-bopp]], ba'asal tumatan di [[Awan Oort]]. Banyak galambang komet, pariannya [[Kreutz Sungrazers]], tabantuk tumatan pacahan sabuting induk tunggal.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sekanina, Zdenek |year=2001 |title=Kreutz sungrazers: the ultimate case of cometary fragmentation and disintegration? |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic |volume=89 p.78–93}}</ref> Sapalih komet ba'orbit hiperbolik mungkin ai ba'asal tumatan di luar Tata Surya, tagal manantukan jalur orbitnya sacara pasti ai ngalih banar.<ref name="hyperbolic">{{cite journal |last=Królikowska |first=M. |year=2001 |title=A study of the original orbits of ''hyperbolic'' comets |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |volume=376 |issue=1 |pages=316–324 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20010945 |url=http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_base_ora&url=articles/aa/full/2001/34/aa1250/aa1250.right.html&access=standard&Itemid=81 |accessdate=2007-01-02}}</ref> Komet tuha nang bahan volatilesnya sudah habis lantaran panas matahari rancak dikategorikan sabagai [[asteroid]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/x0358l71h463w246/ |title=The activities of comets related to their aging and origin |author=Fred L. Whipple |accessdate=2006-12-26 |date=1992-04 |archive-date=2012-05-24 |archive-url=https://archive.ph/20120524184654/http://www.springerlink.com/content/x0358l71h463w246/?MUD=MP |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ==== Centaur ==== Centaur adalah banda-banda es mahirip komet nang poros semi-majornya taganal daripada [[Yupiter]] (5,5 SA) dan tahalus daripada Neptunus (30 SA). Centaur pangganalnya nang dikatahui adalah, [[10199 Chariklo]], badiameter 250&nbsp;km.<ref name=spitzer>{{cite web |title=Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope |author=John Stansberry, Will Grundy, Mike Brown, Dale Cruikshank, John Spencer, David Trilling, Jean-Luc Margot |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0702538v2 |year=2007 |accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> Centaur haba'an panaimbaian, [[2060 Chiron]], diklasipikasikan jua sabagai komet (95P) lantaran ba'isi koma sama nangkaya komet lamun mamaraki matahari.<ref>{{cite web |year=1995 |author=Patrick Vanouplines |title=Chiron biography |work=Vrije Universitiet Brussel |url=http://www.vub.ac.be/STER/www.astro/chibio.htm |accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> Babarapa ikung astronom mangklasipikasikan Centaurs sabagai [[objek sabuk Kuiper sasapaian-ka-dalam]] (''inward-scattered Kuiper belt objects''), ba'imbaian lawan sasapaian kaluar nang ba'andakan di [[pipiringan basapai]] (''outward-scattered residents of the scattered disc'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/Centaurs.html |title=List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects |work=IAU: Minor Planet Center |accessdate=2007-04-02}}</ref> === Da'irah trans-Neptunus === [[Barakas:Outersolarsystem objectpositions labels comp.png|right|thumb|Plot sabarataan obyek [[sabuk Kuiper]]]] [[Barakas:TheKuiperBelt Projections 55AU Classical Plutinos.svg|right|thumb|Diagram nang manampaikan pambagian sabuk Kuiper]] Da'irah nang ba'andak jauh malimpuai Neptunus, atawa da'irah trans-Neptunus, palihan taganal baluman dieksplorasi. Ma'umpati sangka'an urang da'irah ini palihan taganalnya tasusun tumatan dunia-dunia halus (nang pangganalnya ba'isi garis tangah saparlima bumi dan ba-massa jauh tahalus daripada bulan) dan ta'utama batian batu dan es. Da'irah ini dipinandui jua sabagai [[da'irah luar Tata Surya]]<!-- (outer solar system) -->, walau bamacam urang manggunakan istilah ini gasan da'irah nang ba'andak malabihi sabuk asteroid. ==== Panding Kuipar ==== {{utama|Pendeng Kuipar}} Panding Kuiper adalah sabuting utas raksasa mahirip lawan panding asteroid, tagal kumpusisi tatambaiannya adalah is. Panding ngini baandak antara 30 wan 50 SA, wan tasusun tumatan [[Banda Halus Tata Surya|banda halus Tata Surya]]. Walau damintu, babarapa upjik Kuipar nang pangganalnya, pariannya [[Quaoar]], [[20000 Varuna|Varuna]], wan [[Orcus]], mungkin cagar dikalasipikasiakan sawagai [[planet kihit|palanit kihit]]. Bubuhan ilmuwan mangira-ngira taulih bangsa 100.000 upjik Panding Kuipar nang bagaris tangah labih matan 50&nbsp;km, tagal kikira massa jumlah Panding Kuipar saparsapuluh haja massa bumi.<ref name="Delsanti-Beyond_The_Planets">{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Audrey Delsanti and David Jewitt |title=The Solar System Beyond The Planets |work=Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-01-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060525051103/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |archivedate=2006-05-25 |dead-url=no }}</ref> Banyak upjik Kuipar baisi satilit gampir wan kabanyakan baisi urbit di luar bidang iliptika. Panding Kuipar sacara kasar kawa dibagi jadi "panding kalasik" wan risunansi. Risunansi adalah urbit nang tarait lawan Neptunus (cuntuh: dua urbit gasan saban talu urbit Neptunus atawa satu gasan saban dua). Risunansi nang panambaian batumat di Neptunus saurang. Panding kalasik tasusun tumatan upjik nang kada baisi risunansi lawan Neptunus, wan baandak bangsa 39,4 SA sampai 47,7 SA.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=M. W. Buie, R. L. Millis, L. H. Wasserman, J. L. Elliot, S. D. Kern, K. B. Clancy, E. I. Chiang, A. B. Jordan, K. J. Meech, R. M. Wagner, D. E. Trilling |work=Lowell Observatory, University of Pennsylvania, Large Binocular Telescope Observatory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Hawaii, University of California at Berkeley |title=Procedures, Resources and Selected Results of the Deep Ecliptic Survey |url=http://www.citebase.org/fulltext?format=application%2Fpdf&identifier=oai%3AarXiv.org%3Aastro-ph%2F0309251 |accessdate=2006-09-07 |archive-date=2012-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118131015/http://www.citebase.org/fulltext?format=application%2Fpdf&identifier=oai%3AarXiv.org%3Aastro-ph%2F0309251 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Angguta tumatan panding kalasik dikalasipikasiakan sawagai ''cubewanos'', sawayah angguta janis panambaiannya sudah tahaba (15760) 1992QB1 <ref>{{cite web |url=http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIS/3/PDF/20.pdf |format=PDF |title=Beyond Neptune, the new frontier of the Solar System |author=E. Dotto1, M.A. Barucci2, and M. Fulchignoni |accessdate=2006-12-26 |date=2006-08-24 |archive-date=2014-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825122005/http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIS/3/PDF/20.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ===== Pluto wan Karon ===== [[Barakas:Pluto system 2006.jpg|left|thumb|[[Pluto]] wan katalu buting bulannya]] [[Pluto]] (rata-rata 39 SA), sabuting palanit kihit, adalah upjik pangganalnya sajauh ngini di Panding Kuipar. Sawayah tahaba di tahun 1930, banda ngini dianggap sawagai palanit nang kasanga, dipinisi ngini diganti di tahun 2006 lawan diangkatnya dipinisi purmal palanit. Pluto baisi kamiringan urbit sadang iksintriknya (17 darajat tumatan di bidang ikliptika) wan bajarak 29,7 SA tumatan di matahari di titik prihelion (sajarak orbit Neptunus) sampai 49,5 SA di titik aphelion. Kada pang jalas apa [[Karon]] ngitu, bulan Pluto nang pangganalnya, cagar tatap dikalasipikasiakan sawagai satilit atawa jadi sabuting palanit kihit jua. Pluto aan Karon, kaduduanya mamusingi titik ''barycenter'' garapitasi di atas pamukaannya, nang maulah Pluto-Karon sabuah sistim gampir. Dua bulan nang jauh tahalus Nix wan Hydra jua mamusingi Pluto wan Karon. Pluto baandak di panding risunan wan baisi 3:2 risunansi lawan Neptunus, nang artinya Pluto mamusingi matahari dua kali gasan saban talu pusingan Neptunus. Upjik sabuk Kuiper nang urbitnya baisi risunansi nang sama disambat [[plutino]].<ref name="Fajans_et_al_2001">{{cite science |last=Fajans |first=J. |coauthors=L. Frièdland |month=October |year=2001 |title=Autoresonant (nonstationary) excitation of pendulums, Plutinos, plasmas, and other nonlinear oscillators |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=1096–1102 |doi=10.1119/1.1389278 |url=http://scitation.aip.org/journals/doc/AJPIAS-ft/vol_69/iss_10/1096_1.html |accessdate=2006-12-26 |abstract=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=AJPIAS000069000010001096000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes}}</ref> ===== Haumea wan Makemake ===== [[Haumea]] (rata-rata 43,34 SA) dan [[Makemake]] (rata-rata 45,79 SA) adalah dua objek pangganalnya sajauh ini di dalam sabuk Kuiper klasik. Haumea adalah sabuting objek babantuk hintalu dan ba'isi dua bulan. Makemake adalah objek paling mancilang di sabuk Kuiper limbah Pluto. Tatambayannya dingarani {{mp|2003 EL|61}} dan {{mp|2005 FY|9}}, di tahun 2008 dibari ngaran dan status sabagai planet kihit. Orbit kaduanya ba-inklinasi jauh labih mambujur daripada Pluto (28° dan 29°) <ref name=Buie>{{cite web |author=[[Marc W. Buie]] |date=2008-04-05 |title=Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 136472 |publisher=SwRI (Space Science Department) |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/kbo/astrom/136472.html |accessdate=2008-07-13}}</ref> dan lain nangkaya [[Pluto]], kaduanya kada dipangaruhi ulih [[Neptunus]], sabagai palih tumatan galambang Objek Sabuk Kuiper klasik. ==== Pipiringan basapai ==== {{utama|Pipiringan basapai}} [[Barakas:TheKuiperBelt Projections 100AU Classical SDO.svg|thumb|left|Hirang: basapai; biru: klasik; hijau: resonan]] [[Barakas:Eris and dysnomia2.jpg|thumb|right|Eris wan satelitnya [[Dysnomia (satelit)|Dysnomia]]]] [[Pipiringan basapai]] (''scattered disc'') bapotongan lawan sabuk Kuiper wan basapai bakaluaran jauh labih baluas. Da'irah ini disangka merupakan sumbar komet baperioda handap. Objek pipiringan basapai disangka takipai ka orbit nang kada manantu lantaran pangaruh gravitasi tumatan garakan migrasi tatambayan Neptunus. Kabanyakan [[objek pipiringan basapai]] (''scattered disc objects'', atawa SDO) ba'isi perihelion di dalam sabuk Kuiper dan apehelion parak sajauh 150 SA tumatan di matahari. Orbit OPT gin ba'isi inklinasi tinggi di bidang ekliptika dan rancak babaya babuncu siku-siku. Babarapa ikung astronom manggolongkan pipiringan basapai sabagai palih tumatan sabuk Kuiper wara dan manggalari pipiringan basapai sabagai "objek sabuk Kuiper basapai" (''scattered Kuiper belt objects'').<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=David Jewitt |title=The 1000 km Scale KBOs |work=University of Hawaii |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb/big_kbo.html |accessdate=2006-07-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021215074450/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb/big_kbo.html |archivedate=2002-12-15 |dead-url=no }}</ref> ===== Eris ===== [[Eris]] (rata-rata 68 SA) adalah objek pipiringan basapai pangganalnya sajauh ini wan manyababakan mulainya dabat tentang definisi planet, lantaran Eris 5% haja taganal daripada Pluto wan ba'isi kikira'an garis tangah bangsa 2.400&nbsp;km. Eris adalah planet kihit pangganalnya nang dikatahui dan ba'isi sabuting bulan Dysnomia.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=Mike Brown |title=The discovery of <s>2003 UB313</s> Eris, the <s>10th planet</s> largest known dwarf planet. |work=CalTech |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ |accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> Nangkaya Pluto jua, orbitnya ba'isi eksentrisitas tinggi, lawan titik perihelion 38,2 SA (mahirip jarak Pluto ka matahari) wan titik aphelion 97,6 SA lawan bidang ekliptika liwar mambujur. === Da'irah panjauhnya === Titik ka'andakan Tata Surya ba'ahir dan ruang antar bintang bamula kada parcis pang ta-definisi. Batasan-batasan luar ini tabantuk tumatan dua gaya tikin nang tapisah: angin matahari dan gravitasi matahari. Batasan panjauhnya pangaruh angin matahari bajarak bangsa ampat kali jarak Pluto wan matahari. ''Heliopause'' ini disambat sabagai titik pamula'an medium antar bintang. Tagal ha [[Bola Roche Matahari]]<!-- (Sun's Roche sphere) -->, jarak efektif pangaruh gravitasi matahari, kikira'an mencakup bangsa saribu kali labih jauh. ==== Heliopause ==== [[Barakas:Voyager 1 entering heliosheath region.jpg|right|thumb|[[Program Voyager|Voyager]] memasuki ''[[heliosheath]]'']] ''Heliopause'' dibagi jadi dua palih tapisah. Awan angin nang bagarak di hancapan 400&nbsp;km/datik sampai marumpak plasma tumatan di medium ruang antarbintang. Rumpakan ini tajadi di rujukan terminasi<!-- (termination shock) --> nang kira-kira ba'andak di 80-100 SA tumatan di matahari di da'irah lalawanan angin dan bangsa 200 SA tumatan di matahari di da'irah sa'ampah jurusan angin. Limbah nitu angin bagalai dramatis, memampat dan ba'ubah jadi gancang, mambantuk struktur oval nang dipinandui sabagai ''[[heliosheath]]'', lawan kalakuan mahirip nangkaya buntut komet, bajuluran kaluar sajauh 40 SA di palih ampah lalawanan angin dan bakali-kali lipat tajauh daripada sabelah lainnya. Voyager 1 dan Voyager 2 dilaporkan sudah manambus rujukan terminasi ini dan mamasuki ''heliosheath'', di jarak 94 dan 84 SA tumatan di matahari. Batasan luar tumatan di heliosfer, ''heliopause'', adalah titik ka'andakan angin matahari bamandak dan ruang antar bintang bamula. Bantuk tumatan di hujung luar heliosfer saku dipangaruhi tumatan dinamika fluida tumatan interaksi medium antar bintang dan jua medan magnet matahari nang ba'ampah di sabelah selatan (maka mambari bantuk tumpul lawan hemisfer utara bajarak 9 SA, dan tajauh daripada hemisfer selatan. Salabih tumatan di ''heliopause'', di jarak bangsa 230 SA, ta'ulih rarujukan busur<!-- (bow shock) -->, jaluran umbak plasma nang ditinggalakan matahari ba'imbaian pusingannya bakuliling di Bima Sakti. Sajauh ini baluman ada kapal luar rakun nang maliwati ''heliopause'', maka kada mungkin pang mangatahui kondisi ruang antar bintang lokal sacara pasti. Bahara'an satelit NASA voyager cagaran manambus ''heliopause'' di pintangan dekade nang pacang datang dan mangirim bulik data tingkat radiasi dan angin matahari. Dalam pada itu, sabuah tim nang dibiayai NASA sudah mangambangkan konsep "Vision Mission" nang bakal husus mangirim satelit panjajak ka heliosfer. ==== Awan Oort ==== {{utama|Awan Oort}} [[Barakas:Kuiper oort-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Gambaran saikung artis pasal [[Awan Oort]]]] Sacara hiputisa, [[Awan Oort]] adalah sabuting massa baukuran raksasa nang tasusun matan batriliun-triliun upjik is, diparcaya adalah sumbar kumit bapariuda panjang. Awan ngini mangalumbuni [[matahari]] di jarak bangsa 50.000 SA (bangsa 1 tahun cahaya) sampai sajauh 100.000 SA (1,87 tahun cahaya). Dairah ngini diparcaya batian [[komet|Kumit]] nang takipai matan di dalam Tata Surya marga bahubungan lawan palanit-palanit palih luar. Upjik Awan Oort bagarak liwar galai wan kawa dikuncangkan ulih kaadaan-kaadaan langka pariannya rarumpakan, epek garapitasi matan kalaluan [[bintang]], atawa gaya pasang galaksi, gaya pasang nang ditunjul [[Bima Sakti]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2001 |author=Stern SA, Weissman PR. |title=Rapid collisional evolution of comets during the formation of the Oort cloud. |work=Space Studies Department, Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11214311&dopt=Citation |accessdate=2006-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Bill Arnett |title=The Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud |work=nineplanets.org |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/kboc.html |accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> ==== Sedna ==== [[Barakas:Sedna-NASA.JPG|right|thumb|Foto teleskop [[90377 Sedna|Sedna]]]] 90377 Sedna (rata-rata 525,86 SA) adalah sabuting banda kahabang-habangan mahirip Pluto lawan orbit raksasa nang liwar eliptis, bangsa 76 SA di perihelion dan 928 SA di aphelion dan bajangka orbit 12.050 tahun. Mike Brown, urang nang mahaba objek ini di tahun 2003, batamam-tamam mamadahakan bahua Sedna kada merupakan palih tumatan [[pipiringan basapai]] atawa jua sabuk Kuiper lantaran perihelionnya kajauhan tumatan pangaruh migrasi Neptunus. Sidin dan babarapa ikung astronom lainnya bapandapat bahua Sedna adalah objek panambayan tumatan sabuah galambang hanyar, nang mungkin ai jua mencakup 2000 CR105. Sabuah banda batitik perihelion di 45 SA, aphelion di 415 SA, dan bajangka orbit 3.420 tahun. Brown manggalari galambang ini "Awan Oort palih dalam", lantaran mungkin tabantuk liwat proses nang mahirip, walau jauh talabih parak ka matahari. Kamungkinan basar Sedna adalah sabuah planet kihit, walau bantuk kabulatannya magun harus ditantukan sacara pasti. ==== Batasan-batasan ==== {{Lihat pula|Planet X}} Banyak hal tumatan Tata Surya kita nang baluman dikatahui. Medan gravitasi matahari kikira'an mandominasi gaya gravitasi bintang-bintang sakuliling sajauh dua tahun cahaya (125.000 SA). Kikira'an bawah radius Awan Oort, di sisi lain, kada labih ganal daripada 50.000 SA.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Solar System: Third edition |author=T. Encrenaz, JP. Bibring, M. Blanc, MA. Barucci, F. Roques, PH. Zarka |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |pages=1}}</ref> Walau Sedna sudah tahaba, da'irah antara [[Sabuk Kuiper]] dan [[Awan Oort]], sabuah da'irah nang ba-radius puluhan ribu SA, kawa dikuya baluman dipetakan. Suwalih itu, ada jua studi nang rahatan bajalan, nang mampalajari da'irah antara [[Merkurius]] dan [[matahari]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2004 |author=Durda D.D.; Stern S.A.; Colwell W.B.; Parker J.W.; Levison H.F.; Hassler D.M. |title=A New Observational Search for Vulcanoids in SOHO/LASCO Coronagraph Images |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://ap/is/2000/00000148/00000001/art06520&unc=ml |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Objek-objek hanyar mungkin pagun haja bakal tahaba di da'irah nang baluman dipetakan. === Dimensi === Parbandingan babarapa ukuran panting planet-planet: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" style="font-size: 90%" |- bgcolor="#FFDEAD" ! Karakteristik ! [[Merkurius]] ! [[Venus]] ! [[Bumi]] ! [[Mars]] ! [[Yupiter]] ! [[Saturnus]] ! [[Uranus]] ! [[Neptunus]] |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Jarak orbit (juta km) ([[satuan astronomi|SA]]) | 57,91 (0,39) | 108,21 (0,72) | 149,60 (1,00) | 227,94 (1,52) | 778,41 (5,20) | 1.426,72 (9,54) | 2.870,97 (19,19) | 4.498,25 (30,07) |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Waktu pusingan (tahun) | 0,24 (88 hari) | 0,62 (224 hari) | 1,00 | 1,88 | 11,86 | 29,45 | 84,02 | 164,79 |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Jangka rotasi | 58,65 hari | 243,02 hari | 23 jam 56 menit | 24 jam 37 menit | 9 jam 55 menit | 10 jam 47 menit | 17 jam 14 menit | 16 jam 7 menit |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Eksentrisitas pusingan | 0,206 | 0,007 | 0,017 | 0,093 | 0,048 | 0,054 | 0,047 | 0,009 |- align="right" | ! align="left" | [[Buncu inklinasi]] [[orbit]] (°) | 7,00 | 3,39 | 0,00 | 1,85 | 1,31 | 2,48 | 0,77 | 1,77 |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Buncu inklinasi [[ekuator]] kapada orbit (°) | 0,00 | 177,36 | 23,45 | 25,19 | 3,12 | 26,73 | 97,86 | 29,58 |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Garis tangah ekuator (km) | 4.879 | 12.104 | 12.756 | 6.805 | 142.984 | 120.536 | 51.118 | 49.528 |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Massa (ditanding Bumi) | 0,06 | 0,81 | 1,00 | 0,15 | 317,8 | 95,2 | 14,5 | 17,1 |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Racapan panangahan (g/cm³) | 5,43 | 5,24 | 5,52 | 3,93 | 1,33 | 0,69 | 1,27 | 1,64 |- align="right" | ! align="left" | Suhu pamukaan{{br}}min.{{br}}panangahan{{br}}maks. | {{br}}-173&nbsp;°C{{br}}+167&nbsp;°C{{br}}+427&nbsp;°C | {{br}}+437&nbsp;°C{{br}}+464&nbsp;°C{{br}}+497&nbsp;°C | {{br}}-89&nbsp;°C{{br}}+15&nbsp;°C{{br}}+58&nbsp;°C | {{br}}-133&nbsp;°C{{br}}-55&nbsp;°C{{br}}+27&nbsp;°C | {{br}}{{br}}-108&nbsp;°C{{br}} | {{br}}{{br}}-139&nbsp;°C{{br}} | {{br}}{{br}}-197&nbsp;°C{{br}} | {{br}}{{br}}-201&nbsp;°C{{br}} |} == Konteks galaksi == [[Barakas:Milky Way Spiral Arm.svg|thumb|right|Ka'andakan Tata Surya di dalam galaksi Bima Sakti]] [[Barakas:Local bubble.jpg|thumb|right|Lukisan artis tumatan [[Galambung Lokal]] <!-- (''Local Bubble'') -->]] Tata Surya ba'andak di galaksi [[Bima Sakti]], sabuah galaksi spiral nang bagaris tangah bangsa 100.000 tahun cahaya dan ba'isi bangsa 200 milyar [[bintang]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Magnetic fields in cosmology |author=A.D. Dolgov |year=2003 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0306443 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Matahari balokasi di salah satu pagalangan spiral galaksi nang disambat Pagalangan Orion<!-- atawa 'Local Spur' -->.<ref>{{cite web |title=Three Dimensional Structure of the Milky Way Disk |author=R. Drimmel, D. N. Spergel |year=2001 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0101259 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Andakan [[Matahari]] bajarak antara 25.000 dan 28.000 tahun cahaya tumatan di pusat galaksi, lawan hancapan orbit mangulilingi pusat galaksi bangsa 2.200 kilumitir par datik. Saban revolusinya bajangka 225-250 juta tahun. Waktu revolusi ini dipinandui sabagai tahun galaksi Tata Surya.<ref>{{cite web |title=Period of the Sun's Orbit around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year |first=Stacy |last=Leong |url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/StacyLeong.shtml |year=2002 |work=The Physics Factbook |accessdate=2007-04-02}}</ref> Apex matahari, ampah jalur matahari di ruang samasta, parak andakannya lawan [[Herkules (rasi bintang)|konstelasi Herkules]] ta'ampah di posisi uncit bintang [[Vega]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2003 |author=C. Barbieri |title=Elementi di Astronomia e Astrofisica per il Corso di Ingegneria Aerospaziale V settimana |work=IdealStars.com |url=http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/planets/barbieri/Lezioni-AstroAstrofIng04_05-Prima-Settimana.ppt |accessdate=2007-02-12 |archive-date=2005-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050514103931/http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/planets/barbieri/Lezioni-AstroAstrofIng04_05-Prima-Settimana.ppt |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ka'andakan Tata Surya di dalam galaksi baparan panting dalam evolusi kahidupan di [[Bumi]]. Bantuk orbit bumi adalah mahirip lingkaran lawan hancapan babaya sama lawan pagalangan spiral galaksi, karananya bumi jarang bangat ma'ambah jalur pagalangan. Pagalangan spiral galaksi ba'isi konsentrasi supernova tinggi nang bapotensi babahaya'an liwar ganal kapada kahidupan di Bumi. Situasi ini mambari Bumi jangka stabilitas nang panjang nang mambada'i evolusi kahidupan.<ref name="astrobiology">{{cite web |year=2001 |author=Leslie Mullen |title=Galactic Habitable Zones |work=Astrobiology Magazine |url=http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=139 |accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> Tata Surya gin ba'andak jauh tumatan da'irah racap bintang di pusat galaksi. Di da'irah pusat, tatarikan gravitasi bintang-bintang nang baparakan kawa manggunang banda-banda di [[Awan Oort]] dan manimbakan komet-komet ka palih dalam Tata Surya. Ini kawa mahasilkan potensi barumpakan nang marusak kahidupan di Bumi. Intensitas radiasi tumatan di pusat galaksi gin mampangaruhi pakambangan bantuk hidup tingkat tinggi. Walau damintu, bubuhan ilmuwan ba-hipotesa bahua di ka'andakan Tata Surya wayahini [[supernova]] sudah mampangaruhi kahidupan di Bumi di 35.000 tahun pa'uncitan lawan cara manimbai pacahan-pacahan hinti bintang ka ampah matahari dalam bantuk dabu radiasi atawa bahan nang taganal lainnya, pariannya bamacam banda mahirip [[komet]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=|title=Supernova Explosion May Have Caused Mammoth Extinction |work=Physorg.com |url=http://www.physorg.com/news6734.html |accessdate=2007-02-02}}</ref> === Da'irah lingkungan pintangannya === Lingkungan galaksi pamaraknya matan Tata Surya adalah sasuatu nang dingarani [[Awan Antarbintang Lokal]] (''Local Interstellar Cloud'', atawa ''Local Fluff''), yaitu wilayah ba'awan kandal nang dipinandui pakai ngaran [[Galambung Lokal]] (''Local Bubble''), nang ba'andak di tangah-tangah wilayah nang jarang. Galambung Lokal ini babantuk garunggang mahirip jam pasir nang ta'ulih di medium antarbintang, dan ba'ukuran bangsa 300 tahun cahaya. Galambung ini hibak dibarubuyi [[plasma]] basuhu tinggi nang mungkin ba'asal tumatan babarapa supernova nang baluman lawas tajadi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Near-Earth Supernovas |work=NASA |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm |accessdate=2006-07-23 |archive-date=2010-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313214652/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Di dalam jarak sapuluh tahun cahaya (95 triliun km) tumatan di matahari, jumbelah bintang relatif sadikit haja. Bintang nang pamaraknya adalah sistem kambar talu [[Alpha Centauri]], nang bajarak 4,4 tahun cahaya. Alpha Centauri A dan B merupakan bintang ganda mahirip lawan matahari, mun Centauri C adalah kihit habang (disambat jua [[Proxima Centauri]]) nang mamusingi kambaran ganda panambayan di jarak 0,2 tahun cahaya. Bintang-bintang pamaraknya nang lainnya adalah sabuah kihit habang nang dingarani [[Bintang Barnard]] (5,9 tahun cahaya), [[Wolf 359]] (7,8 tahun cahaya) dan [[Lalande 21185]] (8,3 tahun cahaya). Bintang pangganalnya dalam jarak sapuluh tahun cahaya adalah [[Sirius]], sabuah bintang mancilang dikategori 'urutan utama' kira-kira ba-massa dua kali massa matahari, dan dikulilingi ulih sabuah kihit putih bangaran Sirius B. Kaduduanya bajarak 8,6 tahun cahaya. Sisa sistem salabihnya nang ba'andak di dalam jarak 10 tahun cahaya adalah sistem bintang ganda kihit habang [[Luyten 726-8]] (8,7 tahun cahaya) dan sabuah kihit habang bangaran [[Ross 154]] (9,7 tahun cahaya).<ref>{{cite web |title=Stars within 10 light years |url=http://www.solstation.com/stars/s10ly.htm |work=SolStation |accessdate=2007-04-02 |archive-date=2007-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216125505/http://www.solstation.com/stars/s10ly.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Bintang tunggal pamaraknya nang mahirip matahari adalah [[Tau Ceti]], nang ba'andak 11,9 tahun cahaya. Bintang ini kira-kira ba'ukuran 80% barat matahari, tagal kacilangannya ([[luminositas]]) 60% haja.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tau Ceti |url=http://www.solstation.com/stars/tau-ceti.htm |work=SolStation |accessdate=2007-04-02 |archive-date=2007-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103202726/http://www.solstation.com/stars/tau-ceti.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Planet luar Tata Surya pamaraknya tumatan di matahari, nang dikatahui sajauh ini adalah di bintang [[Epsilon Eridani]], sabuah bintang nang sadikit takudup dan tahabang ditanding matahari. Andakannya bangsa 10,5 tahun cahaya. Planet bintang ini nang sudah dipastikan, bangaran [[Epsilon Eridani b]], kurang labih ba'ukuran 1,5 kali massa [[Yupiter]] dan mangulilingi induk bintangnya bajarak 6,9 tahun cahaya.<ref>{{cite web |title=HUBBLE ZEROES IN ON NEAREST KNOWN EXOPLANET |work=Hubblesite |year=2006 |url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2006/32/text/ |accessdate-2008-01-13}}</ref> <!-- Palih pa'uncitnya nang baluman di ulah. == Pambantukan dan evolusi == {{utama|Pambantukan dan evolusi Tata Surya}} --> == Catatan == <div class="references-small"> <ol type="a"> <li>{{Note label|A|a|none}}[[Kapitalisasi]] istilah ini beragam. [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]], badan nang ma'urusi masalah pangaranan astronomis, mamadahakan bahua [http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/ sabarataan obyek astronomi dikapitalisasi ngarannya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922205638/http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/ |date=2009-09-22 }} ('''Tata Surya'''). Tagal, istilah ini gin rancak tahaba dalam bantuk hurup kacil ('''tata surya''')<!-- including in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/solar%20system ''Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary''], and [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110143 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']. --></li> <li>{{Note label|B|b|none}}Lihat [[Daptar bulan]] gasan samunyaan satelit alami tumatan walu buting planet dan lima planet kihit.</li> <li>{{Note label|C|c|none}}Massa Tata Surya kada tamasuk Matahari, Yupiter, dan Saturnus, kawa dihitung lawan cara manambahkan samunyaan massa obyek pangganalnya nang dihitung dan manggunakan pahitungan kasar gasan massa awan Oort (bangsa 3 kali massa Bumi),,<ref>{{cite web|title=Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoirs|author=Alessandro Morbidelli|work=CNRS, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur|year=2006|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512256v1|accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> sabuk Kuiper (bangsa 0,1 kali massa Bumi)<ref name="Delsanti-Beyond_The_Planets"/> dan sabuk asteroid (bangsa 0,0005 kali massa Bumi)<ref name="Krasinsky2002" /> lawan total massa ~37 kali massa Bumi, atawa 8,1 parsin massa di orbit di pintangan Matahari. Lamun dikurangi lawan massa Uranus dan Neptunus (kaduduanya ~31 kali massa Bumi), sisanya ~6 kali massa Bumi merupakan 1,3 parsin tumatan massa kasaluruhan.</li> <li>{{note label|D|d|none}}Astronom ma'ukur jarak di dalam Tata Surya lawan [[satuan astronomi]] (SA). Satu SA jaraknya bangsa jarak rata-rata Matahari dan Bumi, atawa 149.598.000&nbsp;km. Pluto bajarak bangsa 38&nbsp;SA tumatan di Matahari, Yupiter 5,2&nbsp;SA. Asa [[tahun cahaya]] adalah 63.240&nbsp;SA..</li></ol></div> == Jujuhutan == {{Reflist|3}} == Itihi jua == * [[Runtutan kajadian iksplurasi Tata Surya]] * [[Galaksi]] * [[Alam samasta]] * [[Alam samasta tajanaki]] * [[Kusmulugi]] == Raraitan luar == * {{id}} [http://orinetz.com/planet/viewsysblog.php?lang=2 Animasi interaktif Tata Surya dalam bahasa Indunisia] * {{id}} [http://www.lightandmatter.com/planetfinder/id/ Sebuah applet nang menunjukkan lokasi pada saat ini bintang-bintang dan planet-planet di langit malam.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212103228/http://www.lightandmatter.com/planetfinder/id/ |date=2009-12-12 }} * {{en}} [http://www.michaelschultz.de/index_en.html Animasi interaktif planet-planet (145 tingkat zoom dan sejumlah efek waktu)] * {{en}} [http://www.solarviews.com solarviews.com], tampilan multimedia Tata Surya. {{Tata Surya}} [[Tumbung:Tata Surya| ]] snybj0jp3axbtidv82s7qhqzotx9x5x 0 2926 113333 70116 2026-08-07T19:02:13Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113333 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Anatomy |Name = {{PAGENAME}} |Latin = |GraySubject = |GrayPage = |Image = Human anus-en.svg |Caption = Diagram dan kalimut |Image2 = |Caption2 = |Precursor = |System = |Artery = |Vein = |Nerve = |Lymph = |MeshName = |MeshNumber = |DorlandsPre = |DorlandsSuf = }} Dalam [[anatomi]], '''kalimut''', '''dubur''', atawa '''luang burit''' ([[Bahasa Latin|Latin]]: ''ānus'') adalah sabuah bukaan matan [[rektum]] ka lingkungan luar awak. Pambukaan wan panukupan kalimut diatur ulih otot [[sphinkter]]. [[Feses]] dibuang matan awak malalui parosés [[defekasi]] (bahira), nang marupakan fungsi utama kalimut. Kalimut rancak dianggap sabagai palih nang [[tabu]] ulih babagai galambang masyarakat. ==Pangambangan== Dalam bidang paling kada sarumit [[cacing tanah]], [[embrio]] maulah liukan di sabuting sisi nang bangaran [[blastopori]], nang bamakin jadi archenteron nang marupakan fase pamulaan dalam partumbuhan usus. Dalam [[deuterostom]], liukan asli jadi kalimut imbah ngitu usus pahabisannya manambus sakira maulah lubang lain nang bantuknya kaya [[muntung]]. [[Protostom]] dingarani kaya ngitu maraga dikira-kiraakan dalam embrio buhannya maliuk maulah muntung badahulu wan kalimut tabantuk imbahnya pas pambukaan nang diulah ulih ujung usus nang lainnya. Penelitian nang hanyar ngini, manampaiakan bahwa dalam protostom pinggir liukan manutup di tengah, maninggalakan luang di hujung nang jadi muntung wan kalimut.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Evolution of the bilaterian larval foregut |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-01-04_409_6816/page/81 |author=Arendt, D. |author2=Technau, U. |author3=Wittbrodt, J. |name-list-style=amp |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=409 |pages=81–85 |date=4 January 2001 |doi=10.1038/35051075 |pmid=11343117 |issue=6816|s2cid=4406268 }}</ref> == Catatan Batis == <references/> {{sistim pancarnaan}} [[Tumbung:Sistim pancarnaan]] [[Tumbung:WikiBaiman]] kbu8smioejno9k0i5n5pzr0bkg3w2o5 0 5242 113338 57071 2026-08-07T19:12:49Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113338 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:Oceania-map.JPG|jmpl|250px|Peta kawasan Oseania]] '''Oseania''' ({{lang-en|'''Oceania'''}}) adalah istilah nang mangacu kasabuah wilayah geografis atawa geopolitis nang tadiri matan babarapa [[kapulauan]] nang baandak di [[Samudra Pasifik]] wan sakitarnya. Oseania nintu adalah wilayah di Bumi (rancak dianggap banua) nang luas wilayah daratan paling halus wan jumlah populasi paling halus kadua imbah [[Antartika]]. Dalam artian himpit (nang didasari pada panjalajah asal [[Perancis]] bangaran [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]] tahun [[1831]], Oseania tadiri matan [[Polinesia]] (tamasuk [[Selandia Hanyar]], [[Melanesia]] (tamasuk mulai [[Maluku]] sampai [[Nugini]]) wan [[Mikronesia]]. Amun dalam artian luas Oseania jua maliputi [[Australia]] wan [[Indunisia]] bagian timur; tapi takana [[Japang]] wan [[Kapulauan Aleut]] jua dianggap masuk di kalumpuk Oseania. Sabagian ganal wilayah Oseania tadiri matan nagara-nagara pulau nang halus. Australia adalah saiikungannya nagara kontinental, amun [[Papua Nugini]] wan [[Timor Leste]] adalah nagara nang baisi parbatasan tanah, dimana kaduanya babatasan langsung lawan [[Indunisia]]. Nagara-nagara Oseania mardika sasuai katantuan nang balain-lain di nagara panjajahnya, lawan mandapat aturan konstitusional nang bamacam-macam sasuai kaadaannya. Australia misalnya, adalah nagara nang tagabung dalam [[Pasamakmuran]], nang maakui Ratu [[Elizabeth II matan Britania Raya]] sabagai Ratu, amun [[Polinesia Perancis]] adalah sabuah ''pays d'outre-mer'' ("nagara luar nagari") [[Perancis]]. Manurut [[ekologi]], Oseania adalah saikung matan dalapan [[zona ekologi]] terestrial dunia. [[Zona ekologi Oseania]] nang maliputi Mikronesia, [[Fiji]] wan Polinesia kacuali Selandia Hanyar, Papua Nugini, [[Kaledonia Hanyar]], [[Kapulauan Solomon]] wan [[Vanuatu] nang tagolong zona ekologi Australasia. == Etimologi == Istilah naya diulah ulih saurang suhu geografi bangaran [[Conrad Malte-Brun]], inya mangaraninya lawan ngaran Océanie tahun [[1812]]. Ngaran Océanie diambil matan kata [[Yunani|Bahasa Yunani]] ὠκεανός (ōkeanós), ocean. == Kapadatan panduduk == [[Barakas:Polynesian Migration.svg|jmpl|400px|Peta Migrasi Panduduk Oseania]] Sajarah kahidupan Oseania sampai wahini masih balum saluruhnya bisa dikisahakan. Panalitian panambayan manunjukakan bahwa panduduk Mikronesia wan Polinesia sacara kabahasaan wan genetis baisi kasamaan lawan panduduk asli Asia Tanggara, tautama nang tinggal di wilayah kapulauan. Sacara kabahasaan buhannya jua sabagai bagian panutur rumpun bahasa Austronesia. Lamun kapandudukan Melanesia wan Asutralia talangkap, lamun sacara panampilan atawa genetis wan linguistik tagulung balain matan urang Mikronesia wan Polinesia.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080118093728.htm Genome scan shows Polynesians have little genetic relationship to Melanesians.] ScienceDaily 23 Januari 2008.</ref> Kajian linguistik manunjukakan sabuah aruh migrasi nang dipinandui sabagai teori "Karita Capat mauju Polinesia" (''Express Train to Polynesia'') atawa ''Out of Taiwan'' nang diusulakan ulih [[Robert Blust]] wan [[Peter Belwood]].<ref name=science1>{{cite journal| author = Gray, R. D. | coauthors = A. J. Drummond, S. J. Greenhill | date = 2009 | title = Language Phylogenies Reveal Expansion Pulses and Pauses in Pacific Settlement. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2009-01-23_323_5913/page/479 | journal = Science | volume = 323 | pages = 479 - 483 | doi = 10.1126/science.1166858}}</ref> Di sisi lain, kajian genetika manunjukakan dukuran atas teori lawas barupa panyabaran matan Asia Tanggaran Daratan, imbah nintu manyabar matan wilayah [[Sumatra]] atawa [[Samanajung Malaya]] (dipinandui sabagai teori "[[Sundaland]]") nang diajuakan Oppenheimer. Teori naya jua didukung ulih kajian genetika [[babi]] wan [[ayam]], dua binatang naya dianggap dibawa ulih buhan imigran marga ditamuakan di babarapa wilayah di Oseania<ref>Chicken and Chips theory of Pacific Migration. ScienceDaily 30 Juli 2008.</ref><ref>Pig Study forces Rethink of Pacific Colonisation. ScienceDaily 13 Maret 2007.</ref> {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%;" |- bgcolor="#ECECEC"| |- style="background:#ececec;" ! Ngaran [[rigional]] wan {{br}}taritural lawan bandira ! [[Daptar nagara manurut luas wilayah|Luas]]{{br}}(km²) ! [[Daptar nagara manurut banyak panduduk|Populasi]]{{br}}(perkiraan 1 Juli 2008) ! [[Daptar nagara manurut kapadatan panduduk|Kapadatan Panduduk]]{{br}}(per km²) ! [[Ibu kota]] ! [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166-1]] |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" |'''[[Australasia]]:'''<ref name="Australasia">The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia wan Selandia Hanyar."</ref> |- | {{flag|Australia}} | align="right" | 7,686,850 | align="right" | 22,028,000 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Canberra]] | AU |- | {{flag|Selandia Baru}}<ref name="nzpol">[[Selandia Baru]] is often considered part of [[Polynesia]] rather than [[Australasia]].<br /></ref> | align="right" | 268,680 | align="right" | 4,108,037 | align="right" | 14.5 | [[Wellington]] | NZ |- |colspan=6|''Teritori Eksternal Australia'' |- | {{noflag|[[Kepulauan Ashmore dan Cartier]]}} | align="right" | 199 | align="right" | | align="right" | | | |- | {{flag|Pulau Natal}}<ref name="ccau">[[Christmas Island]] and [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] are [[States and territories of Australia|Australian external territories]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] southwest of [[Indunisia]].<br /></ref> | align="right" | 135 | align="right" | 1,493 | align="right" | 3.5 | [[Flying Fish Cove]] | CX |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Cocos (Keeling)}}<ref name="ccau" /> | align="right" | 14 | align="right" | 632 | align="right" | 45.1 | [[West Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands|West Island]] | CC |- | {{noflag|[[Kepulauan Laut Koral]]}} | align="right" | 3 | align="right" | | align="right" | | | |- | {{noflag|[[Pulau Heard dan Kepulauan McDonald]]}} | align="right" | 372 | align="right" | | align="right" | | | |- | {{flag|Pulau Norfolk}} | align="right" | 35 | align="right" | 1,866 | align="right" | 53.3 | [[Kingston, Pulau Norfolk|Kingston]] | NF |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Melanesia]]:'''<ref name="Melanesia">Excludes parts of Indunisia, island territories in [[Southeast Asia]] (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.<br /></ref> |- | {{flag|Fiji}} | align="right" | 18,270 | align="right" | 856,346 | align="right" | 46.9 | [[Suva]] | FJ |- | {{flag|Kaledonia Baru}} ([[Perancis]]) | align="right" | 19,060 | align="right" | 240,390 | align="right" | 12.6 | [[Nouméa]] | NC |- | {{flag|Papua Nugini}}<ref name="pngaus">[[Papua New Guinea]] is often considered part of [[Australasia]] and [[Melanesia]]. It is sometimes included in the [[Malay Archipelago]] of [[Southeast Asia]].<br /></ref> | align="right" | 462,840 | align="right" | 5,172,033 | align="right" | 11.2 | [[Port Moresby]] | PG |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Solomon}} | align="right" | 28,450 | align="right" | 494,786 | align="right" | 17.4 | [[Honiara]] | SB |- | {{flag|Vanuatu}} | align="right" | 12,200 | align="right" | 240,000 | align="right" | 19.7 | [[Port Vila]] | VU |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Mikronesia]]:''' |- | {{flag|Federasi Mikronesia}} | align="right" | 702 | align="right" | 135,869 | align="right" | 193.5 | [[Palikir]] | FM |- | {{flag|Guam}} ([[Amerika Serikat|AS]]) | align="right" | 549 | align="right" | 160,796 | align="right" | 292.9 | [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]] | GU |- | {{flag|Kiribati}} | align="right" | 811 | align="right" | 96,335 | align="right" | 118.8 | [[South Tarawa]] | KI |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Marshall}} | align="right" | 181 | align="right" | 73,630 | align="right" | 406.8 | [[Majuro]] | MH |- | {{flag|Nauru}} | align="right" | 21 | align="right" | 12,329 | align="right" | 587.1 | [[Yaren District|Yaren]] <small>(''de facto'')</small> | NR |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Mariana Utara}} (AS) | align="right" | 477 | align="right" | 77,311 | align="right" | 162.1 | [[Saipan]] | MP |- | {{flag|Palau}} | align="right" | 458 | align="right" | 19,409 | align="right" | 42.4 | [[Melekeok]]<ref name="Palau">On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of [[Koror]] to Melekeok, located 20 km northeast of Koror on [[Babeldaob|Babelthuap Island]].<br /></ref> | PW |- | {{flagicon|Pulau Wake}} [[Pulau Wake]] (AS) | align="right" | 2 | align="right" | 12 | align="right" | | [[Wake Island]] | UM |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Polynesia]]:''' |- | {{flag|Samoa Amerika}} (AS) | align="right" | 199 | align="right" | 68,688 | align="right" | 345.2 | [[Pago Pago]], [[Fagatogo, American Samoa|Fagatogo]]<ref name="ASamoa">[[Fagatogo, American Samoa|Fagatogo]] is the seat of government of [[American Samoa]].<br /></ref> | AS |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Cook}} (Selandia Baru) | align="right" | 240 | align="right" | 20,811 | align="right" | 86.7 | [[Avarua]] | CK |- | {{flag|Pulau Paskah}} ([[Chili]]) | align="right" | 163.6 | align="right" | 3,791 | align="right" | 23.1 | [[Hanga Roa]] | CL |- | {{flag|Polinesia Perancis}} (Perancis) | align="right" | 3,961 | align="right" | 257,847 | align="right" | 61.9 | [[Papeete]] | PF |- | {{flag|Hawaii}} (AS) | align="right" | 28,311 | align="right" | 1,283,388 | align="right" | 72.8 | [[Honolulu]] | US |- | {{flag|Niue}} (Selandia Baru) | align="right" | 260 | align="right" | 2,134 | align="right" | 8.2 | [[Alofi]] | NU |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Pitcairn}} ([[Britania Raya]]) | align="right" | 5 | align="right" | 47 | align="right" | 10 | [[Adamstown, Pitcairn Island|Adamstown]] | PN |- | {{flag|Samoa}} | align="right" | 2,944 | align="right" | 179,000 | align="right" | 63.2 | [[Apia]] | WS |- | {{flag|Tokelau}} (Selandia Baru) | align="right" | 10 | align="right" | 1,431 | align="right" | 143.1 | [[Nukunonu]] | TK |- | {{flag|Tonga}} | align="right" | 748 | align="right" | 106,137 | align="right" | 141.9 | [[Nukuʻalofa|Nuku{{Okina}}alofa]] | TO |- | {{flag|Tuvalu}} | align="right" | 26 | align="right" | 11,146 | align="right" | 428.7 | [[Funafuti]] | TV |- | {{flag|Wallis dan Futuna}} (Perancis) | align="right" | 274 | align="right" | 15,585 | align="right" | 56.9 | [[Mata-Utu]] | WF |- style="font-weight:bold;" | Total | align="right" | 8,536,716 | align="right" | 35,669,267 | align="right" | 4.2 | rowspan=2 colspan=2| |- style="font-weight:bold;" | ''Total tanpa daratan Australia'' | align="right" | 849,866 | align="right" | 13,641,267 | align="right" | 16.1 |} == Referensi == {{reflist}} == Itihi jua == * [[Daptar superbanua]] == Pranala luar == {{commonscat|Oceania}} * {{en}} [http://www.janeresture.com/ Jane's Oceania] {{Oceania}} {{bagiandunia}} {{banua}} [[Tumbung:Oseania| ]] 5vjdyayekcr95q7ef8crg5x3b5rkg2g 0 16890 113342 113169 2026-08-07T19:25:51Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 18 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet | name = Bulan | apsis = gee | alt_names = Wulan, Candra, Lunar | symbol = [[Barakas:Moon decrescent symbol (bold).svg|24px|☾]] | image = [[Barakas:FullMoon2010.jpg|frameless|alt=Full moon in the darkness of the night sky. It is patterned with a mix of light-tone regions and darker, irregular blotches, and scattered with varying sizes of impact craters, circles surrounded by out-thrown rays of bright ejecta.|Full moon]] | caption = [[Bulan purnama]] terlihat dari [[belahan utara]] Bumi | periapsis = {{val|363295|u=km}}<br>({{val|0.0024|ul=AU}}) | apoapsis = {{val|405503|u=km}} <br>({{val|0.0027|u=AU}}) | semimajor = {{val|384399|u=km}}<br> ({{val|0.00257|u=AU}})<ref name="W06"/> | eccentricity = {{val|0.0549}}<ref name="W06"/> | period = {{val|27.321582|ul=d}} {{nowrap|(27 d 7 h 43,1 min<ref name="W06"/>)}} | synodic_period = {{val|29.530589|u=d}} {{nowrap|(29 d 12 h 44 min 2,9 s)}} | avg_speed = {{val|1.022|ul=km/s}} | inclination = 5,145° ke [[ekliptika]]<ref name="Lang2011"/> (antara 18,29° dan 28,58° ke [[khatulistiwa]] Bumi)<ref name="W06"/><!--Wieczorek et al. 2006; 18.29° when the longitude of the Moon's ascending node is 180°, 28.58° when it is 0°--> | asc_node = Mundur satu [[Revolusi orbit|revolusi]] dalam 18,6&nbsp;tahun | arg_peri = Maju satu revolusi dalam 8,85&nbsp;tahun | satellite_of = [[Bumi]] | flattening = {{val|0.00125}}<!--Calculated from data below--> | equatorial_radius = {{val|1738.14|u=km}} (0,273&nbsp;Bumi)<ref name="NSSDC"/> | polar_radius = {{val|1735.97|u=km}} {{nowrap|(0,273 Bumi)}}<ref name="NSSDC"/> | mean_radius = {{val|1737.10|u=km}} {{nowrap|(0,273 Bumi)}}<ref name="W06"/><ref name="NSSDC"/> | circumference = {{val|10921|u=km}} ([[khatulistiwa]]) | surface_area = {{val|3.793|e=7|u=km2}} {{nowrap|(0,074 Bumi)}} | volume = {{val|2.1958|e=10|u=km3}} {{nowrap|(0,020 Bumi)}} | mass = {{val|7.3477|e=22|u=kg}} {{nowrap|({{val|0.012300}} Bumi<ref name="W06"/>)}} | density = {{val|3.3464|ul=g/cm3}}<ref name="W06"/> | surface_grav = {{val|1.622|ul=m/s2}} {{nowrap|({{val|0.1654|u=[[Gaya-g|g]]}})}} | escape_velocity = {{val|2.38|ul=km/s}} | sidereal_day = {{val|27.321582|u=d}} ([[Rotasi sinkron|sinkron]]) <!-- Wieczorek et al. 2006 --> | rot_velocity = {{nowrap|4,627 m/s}} | axial_tilt = 1,5424° (ke [[ekliptika]])<!-- 1.533° according to Conn 2007 --> <br> 6,687° (ke [[Bidang orbit (astronomi)|bidang orbit]])<ref name="Lang2011"/><!-- 6.4° according to<ref name="Grego2005">Grego, Peter, [http://books.google.ca/books?id=z6Pgt9xEW9gC&pg=PA48 ''The Moon and How to Observe It''], Springer, 2005</ref> 6.6783° according to<ref name="Conn2007">Conn, David (2007); ''Lednorf's Dilemma'', AuthorHouse, Bloomington (IN)</ref>--> | albedo = 0,136<ref name="Saari"/> | magnitude = −2,5 sampai −12,9{{efn|name=maxval}} <br> −12,74 (rata-rata [[bulan purnama]])<ref name="NSSDC"/> | angular_size = 29,3 sampai 34,1 [[menit busur]]<ref name="NSSDC"/>{{efn|name=angular size}} | temp_name1 = Khatulistiwa | min_temp_1 = -173º [[Celcius|C]] | mean_temp_1 = -53º C | max_temp_1 = 116º C | temp_name2 = 85°N{{lower|0.3em|<ref name="Vasavada1999"/>}} | min_temp_2 = -203&nbsp;°C | mean_temp_2 = -143º C | max_temp_2 = -43º C | atmosphere_ref =<ref name="L06"/> | surface_pressure = 10⁻⁷ [[Pascal (satuan)|Pa]] (siang) <br> 10⁻¹⁰ Pa (malam){{efn|name=pressure explanation}} | atmosphere_composition = [[Argon|Ar]], [[Helium|He]], [[Sodium|Na]], [[Potasium|K]], [[Hidrogen|H]], [[Radon|Rn]] | atmosphere = yes | adjectives = lunar, komariah }} [[Barakas:US Navy 041027-N-9500T-001 The moon turns red and orange during a total lunar eclipse.jpg|jmpl|ka|Bulan bawarna habang wan jingga, tajanak matan Bumi pas [[garaha]], wayah Bumi baandak di antara Bulan wan Matahari]] '''Bulan''' (simbol: [[file:Moon decrescent symbol (bold).svg|16px|☾]]) adalah [[satelit alami]] [[Bumi]] sabubutingannya{{efn|name=near-Earth asteroids}}<ref name="Morais2002" /> wan adalah satilit [[Daptar satilit alami|pangganalnya kalima]] dalam [[Tata Surya]]. Bulan jua adalah satelit alami pangganalnya di Tata Surya maumpat ukuran [[planet]] nang di urbitnya,{{efn|name=Charon and Pluto}} lawan diamitir 27%, kakajalan 60%, wan [[massa]] {{frac|1|81}} (1.23%) matan Bumi. Di antara satilit alami lainnya, Bulan adalah satilit pangajalnya kadua imbah [[Io (bulan)|Io]], satilit [[Jupiter|Yupiter]]. Bulan baandak di [[rotasi sinkron]] lawan Bumi, nang rancak maampaiakan higa nang sama di Bumi, lawan [[higa parak Bulan|higa parak]] ditandai ulih [[Maria Bulan|mare]] pulkanik kadap nang tadapat di antara dataran tinggi karak nang tarang wan [[kawah tubrukan]] nang manungkung. Bulan adalah banda langit nang panarangnya imbah [[Matahari]]. Saupama Bulan kaya liwar putih wan tarang, pamukaan Bulan sabujurnya kadap, lawan [[reflektansi|tingkat katarangan]] nang sadikit labih tinggi matan aspal incir. Matan jaman kunu, andaknya nang manungkung di langit wan [[pasa bulan|pasanya]] nang taatur sudah mampangaruhi banyak budaya, tamasuk [[Bulan#nama wan itimulugi|basa]], [[Almanak Bulan|pananggalan]], [[Bulan dalam piksi|sani]], wan [[Deifikasi Bulan|mitulugi]]. Pangaruh [[gravitasi]] Bulan maulah tajadinya [[pasang surut]] di lautan wan [[Aksilarasi pasang surut|pamanjangan waktu]] wayah hari di Bumi. Intang orbit Bulan matan Bumi wayah ngini adalah kikira talu puluh kali matan diamitir Bumi, nang maulah ukuran Bulan nang cungul di langit parak sama ganal lawan ukuran Matahari, jadi mambada'i Bulan gasan manukupi Matahari wan maulah tajadinya [[garaha matahari]] hibak. Intang linear Bulan matan Bumi wayah ngini banaik lawan laju 3.82±0.07&nbsp;cm satahun, saupama laju ngini kada kunstan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lasp.colorado.edu/life/GEOL5835/Moon_presentation_19Sept.pdf |title=Archive copy |access-date=2021-04-04 |archive-date=2014-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327042528/http://lasp.colorado.edu/life/GEOL5835/Moon_presentation_19Sept.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Bulan dikikiraakan tabantuk kikira 4,5 miliar tahun nang lalu, kada lawas imbah pabantukan Bumi. Saupama tadapat sajumlah hipotesis manganai asal-muasal Bulan, hiputisis nang paling ditarima wayah ngini manjalasakan bahua Bulan tabantuk matan rarapaian nang takulayak imbah sabuah banda langit saukuran [[Mars]] [[Hiputisis ranjahan ganal|baranjahan]] lawan Bumi. Bulan adalah sabubutingannya [[banda langit]] salain Bumi nang sudah [[Pandaratan di Bulan|didarati ulih manusia]]. [[Parugram Luna]] [[Uni Soviet]] adalah wahana panambaian nang sampai ka Bulan lawan [[kapal tarabang ruang angkasa]] nirawak wayah tahun 1959; [[parugram Apollo]] [[NASA]] [[Amirika Sarikat]] adalah misi luar angkasa baawak sabubutingannya nang sudah sampai ka Bulan sampai wayah ngini, dimulai lawan palungsuran misi baawak [[Apollo 8]] nang maurbit Bulan wayah tahun 1968, wan diumpati ulih anam misi pandaratan baawak antara tahun 1969 wan 1972, nang pamulaan adalah [[Apollo 11]]. Misi ngini bulik ka Bumi mambawa 380&nbsp;kg [[batuan Bulan]], nang dipakai gasan mangambangakan pamahaman [[giulugi]] manganai asal-muasal, pambantukan [[Satruktur dalam Bulan|satruktur dalam]], wan [[Giulugi Bulan|sajarah giulugi Bulan]]. Imbah misi [[Apollo 17]] wayah 1972, Bulan wastu disinggahi ulih kapal tarabang ruang angkasa nirawak. Misi-misi ngitu rancaknya adalah misi urbit; matan tahun 2004, [[Japang]], [[Tiongkok]], [[India]], [[Amirika Sarikat]], wan [[Badan Luar Angkasa Irupa]] sudah malungsurakan wahana pangurbit Bulan, nang umpat basumbangsih tahadap panamuan [[Banyu Bulan|is banyu]] di kawah kutup Bulan. Imbah Apollo, dua nagara jua sudah mangirimakan misi [[Rover (panjalajahan luar angkasa)|rover]] ka Bulan, misi [[Lunokhod]] Soviet pahabisan pas tahun 1973, wan misi basambungan [[Chang'e 3]] RRC, nang malungsurakan [[Yutu (rover)|rover Yutu]] wayah tanggal 14 Disimbir 2013. Misi baawak ka Bulan wayah masa hadapan sudah dirancanaakan ulih banyak nagara, baik nang didanai ulih pamarintah atawa swasta. Di bawah [[Pajanjian Luar Angkasa]], Bulan tatap bibas dijalajahi ulih sabarataan nagara gasan tujuan damai. == Asal usul ngaran == Dalam [[bahasa Inggris|basa Inggris]], ngaran gasan satelit alami Bumi adalah ''moon''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/#spelling|title=Naming Astronomical Objects: Spelling of Names|publisher=[[International Astronomical Union]]|access-date=29 March 2010|archive-date=22 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922205638/http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/#spelling|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="PN-FAQ" /> Kata banda ''moon'' babibit matan kata ''moone'' (kikira tahun 1380), nang jua bakambang matan kata ''mone'' (1135), babibit matan kata basa Inggris Kuno ''mōna'' (sabalum 725). Sama halnya lawan sabaratan kata kulaan dalam basa Jermanik lainnya, kata ngini babibit matan basa Proto-Jermanik ''*mǣnōn''.<ref name="barnhart1995" /> Sambatan lain gasan Bulan dalam basa Inggris mudirin adalah ''lunar'', asalnya matan basa Latin ''Luna''. Sambatan lainnya nang kada tapi awam adalah ''selenic'', matan bahasa Yunani Kuno ''Selene'' ({{Lang|el|''Σελήνη''}}), nang imbahnya jadi dasar pangaranan ''selenografi''.<ref name="oed" /> == Pambantukan == {{main|Asal mula Bulan|Hipotesis rumpakan ganal}} [[Barakas:Evolution of the Moon.ogv|jmpl|kiri|Evolusi Bulan.]] Babarapa mikanisme nang diajuakan manganai pambantukan Bulan manyatakan bahwa Bulan tabantuk pada 4,527 ± 0,010 miliar tahun nang bahari,{{efn|name=age}} kikira 30-50 juta tahun imbah pambantukan Tata Surya.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1126/science.1118842 |journal=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]] |year=2005 |volume=310 |issue=5754 |pages=1671–1674 |title=Hf–W Chronometry of Lunar Metals and the Age and Early Differentiation of the Moon |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-12-09_310_5754/page/1671 |last=Kleine |first=T. |coauthors=Palme, H.; Mezger, K.; Halliday, A.N. |pmid=16308422|bibcode = 2005Sci...310.1671K }}</ref> Panalitian pahanyarnya nang digawi ulih Rick Carlson manunjukakan bahwa Bulan baumur sakurang-kurangnya 4,4 sampai 4,45 miliar tahun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/22894-moon-age-100-million-years-younger.html |title=Carnegie Institution for Science research |accessdate=2013-10-12}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=http://phys.org/news/2013-09-moon-younger-thought.html |title=Phys.org's account of Carlson's presentation to the Royal Society |accessdate=2013-10-13}}</ref> Hipotesis naya antara lain manjalasakan bahwa fisi Bulan baasal matan karak Bumi akibat [[gaya sentrifugal]],<ref name="Binder" /><ref name="BotM" /> panangkapan [[gravitasi]] sawalum pambantukan Bulan,<ref name="Mitler" /> wan pambantukan Bumi wan Bulan sacara basamaan di [[cakram akresi]] primordial.<ref name="BotM"/> Hipotesis naya kada manjalasakan tinggi [[momentum buncu]] matan sistim Bumi-Bulan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stevenson |first=D.J. |title=Origin of the moon–The collision hypothesis |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1987 |volume=15|issue=1 |pages=271–315 |bibcode=1987AREPS..15..271S |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.15.050187.001415}}</ref> Hipotesis nang balaku damini manjalasakan bahwa sistim Bumi-Bulan tabantuk akibat [[Hipotesis rumpakan ganal|rumpukan ganal]], wayah banda langit saukuran [[Mars]] (bangaran ''[[Theia (planet)|Theia]]'') barumpakan lawan [[Sejarah Bumi|proto-Bumi]] nang hanyar tabantuk, mamuakakan matarial ka urbit di paraknya nang imbahnya bakumpul gasan mambantuk Bulan.<ref name="taylor1998" /> Hipotesis naya mungkin marupakan hipotesis nang paling manjalasakan manganai asal usul Bulan, meskipun panjalasannya kada sampurna. Rumpakan ganal diparkiraakan umum tajadi pada awal pambantukan Tata Surya. Pemodelan simulasi komputer manganai rumpakan ganal sasuai lawan ukuran momentum buncu sistem Bumi-Bulan wan ukuran inti Bulan nang halus. Simulasi naya jua manunjukakan bahwa sapalih ganal materi pada Bulan baasal matan planet nang marumpak, lain matan proto-Bumi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Canup |first=R. |coauthors=Asphaug, E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of Earth's formation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-08-16_412_6848/page/708 |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–712 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C}}</ref> Akan tetapi, pangujian pahanyarnya manunjukakan bahwa sapalih ganal matari Bulan baasal matan Bumi, lain matan nang marumpak.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/12/071219-moon-collision.html |title=Earth-Asteroid Collision Formed Moon Later Than Thought |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=28 October 2010 |accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://digitalcommons.arizona.edu/objectviewer?o=uadc%3A%2F%2Fazu_maps%2FVolume43%2FNumberSupplement%2FTouboul.pdf |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2021-02-04 |archive-date=2018-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727164701/http://digitalcommons.arizona.edu/objectviewer?o=uadc%3A%2F%2Fazu_maps%2FVolume43%2FNumberSupplement%2FTouboul.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature06428 | title = Late formation and prolonged differentiation of the Moon inferred from W isotopes in lunar metals | year = 2007 | last1 = Touboul | first1 = M. | last2 = Kleine | first2 = T. | last3 = Bourdon | first3 = B. | last4 = Palme | first4 = H. | last5 = Wieler | first5 = R. | journal = Nature | volume = 450 | issue = 7173 | pages = 1206–9 | pmid = 18097403 |bibcode = 2007Natur.450.1206T }}</ref> Bukti [[meteorit]] manunjukakan bahwa materi banda langit nang lain kaya [[Mars]] wan [[Vesta (asteroid)|Vesta]] baisi oksigen wan komposisi [[isotop]] nang balain banar lawan Bumi, sadangkan Bulan wan Bumi baisi komposisi isotop nang pina mahirip. Pancampuran matari nang manguap imbah rumpakan antara banda langit pambantuk Bulan lawan Bumi diparkiraakan manyamaakan komposisi isotop buhannya,<ref name="Pahlevan2007" /> bujur hal naya masih dirucauakan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nield |first=Ted |title=Moonwalk (summary of meeting at Meteoritical Society's 72nd Annual Meeting, Nancy, France) |journal=Geoscientist |volume=19 |page=8 |year=2009|url =http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/geoscientist/geonews/page6072.html}}</ref> Ganalnya energi nang dilapasakan wayah tajadinya rumpakan ganal wan akresi materi di orbit Bumi nang tajadi imbahnya cagar malunuhakan kulimbit hagian luar Bumi, nang imbahnya mambantuk lautan magma.<ref name="Warren1985" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Tonks|first=W. Brian|coauthors=Melosh, H. Jay|year=1993|title=Magma ocean formation due to giant impacts|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=98|issue=E3|pages=5319–5333|bibcode=1993JGR....98.5319T|doi=10.1029/92JE02726}}</ref> Bulan nang hanyar tabantuk baisi jua [[lautan magma Bulan|lautan magma]] saurang; kikira kadalamannya kisaran 500&nbsp;km matan radius kasabarataan Bulan.<ref name="Warren1985" /> Bujur akurasi dalam manjalaskan pambantukan Bulan didukung oleh banyak bukti, masih tadapat babarapa kangalihan nang kada sahibaknya kawa dijalasakan oleh hipotesis rumpakan ganal, tautama nang bakaitan lawan komposisi Bulan.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = Science | author = Daniel Clery | title = Impact Theory Gets Whacked | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2013-10-11_342_6155/page/183 | volume = 342 | page = 183 | date = 11 October 2013}}</ref> Wayah tahun 2001, tim di Carnegie Institute of Washington malaporakan panalitian nang buhannya gawi tahadap isotop batuan Bulan.<ref name=wiechert>{{Cite journal | title=Oxygen Isotopes and the Moon-Forming Giant Impact | display-authors=1 | last1=Wiechert | first1=U. | last2=Halliday | first2=A. N. | last3=Lee | first3=D.-C. | last4=Snyder | first4=G. A. | last5=Taylor | first5=L. A. | last6=Rumble | first6=D. | volume=294 | issue=12 | pages=345–348 |date=October 2001 | doi=10.1126/science.1063037 | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/294/5541/345 | accessdate=2009-07-05 | publisher=[[Science (jurnal)]] | pmid=11598294 | journal=Science |bibcode = 2001Sci...294..345W }}</ref> Tim naya mahaga bahwa batuan Bulan nang dibawa ka Bumi malalui [[Program Apollo]] baisi isotop nang mahirip lawan batuan Bumi, wan balainan lawan batuan pada kabanyakan banda langit nang lainnya di Tata Surya. Marga sapalih ganal materi nang lapas ka orbit wan mambantuk Bulan diduga baasal matan [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], pahagaan naya sama sakali kada terduga. Pada tahun 2007, bubuhan panaliti matan California Institute of Technology mamadahakan bahwa kasamaan isotop antara Bumi lawan Theia kurang matan 1%.<ref name=ps2007>{{Cite journal | last1=Pahlevan | first1=Kaveh | last2=Stevenson | first2=David | title=Equilibration in the Aftermath of the Lunar-forming Giant Impact | journal=EPSL | volume=262 | issue=3–4 |date=October 2007 | pages=438–449 | doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.07.055 | bibcode=2007E&PSL.262..438P |arxiv = 1012.5323 }}</ref> Pada tahun 2012, analisis nang digawi tahadap sampel isotop Bulan manunjukakan bahwa Bulan baisi komposisi isotop nang sama lawan Bumi,<ref name="test" /> [[Hipotesis rumpakan ganal|batantangan]] lawan hipotesis nang manjalasakan bahwa Bulan tabantuk jauh matan orbit Bumi atawa matan Theia. == Karakteristik fisik == === Struktur dalam === {{main|Struktur dalam Bulan}} [[Barakas:Moon diagram.svg|jmpl|kiri|Struktur Bulan]] {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Komposisi kimia parmukaan Bulan (baasal matan batuan kerak)<ref>{{cite book |author=Taylor, Stuart Ross |title=Lunar science: A post-Apollo view |year=1975 |page=64 |publisher=New York, Pergamon Press, Inc. |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1975lspa.book.....T/0000064.000.html |access-date=2021-10-17 |archive-date=2021-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217153346/http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1975lspa.book.....T/0000064.000.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><!-- After Turkevich, A.L. (1973) PLC 4:1159; Moon. 8:365. --> ! rowspan="2"|Sanyawa ! rowspan="2"|Rumus ! colspan="2"|Komposisi (wt %) |- ! style="font-size: smaller;" | Mare ! style="font-size: smaller;" | Dataran tinggi |- | style="text-align: left;" | [[Silikon dioksida|silika]] | SiO₂ | 45.4% | 45.5% |- | style="text-align: left;" | [[Aluminium oksida|alumina]] | Al₂O₃ | 14.9% | 24.0% |- | style="text-align: left;" | [[Kalsium oksida|kapur]] | CaO | 11.8% | 15.9% |- | style="text-align: left;" | [[besi(II) oksida]] | FeO | 14.1% | 5.9% |- | style="text-align: left;" | [[Magnesium oksida|magnesia]] | MgO | 9.2% | 7.5% |- | style="text-align: left;" | [[titanium dioksida]] | TiO₂ | 3.9% | 0.6% |- | style="text-align: left;" | [[sodium oksida]] | Na₂O | 0.6% | 0.6% |- ! colspan="2" | Total ! 99.9% ! 100.0% |} Bulan tarumbung banda langit [[Diferensiasi planet|diferensiasi]], nang sacara [[geokimia]] baisi komposisi [[Kerak (geologi)|kerak]], [[Mantel (geologi)|mantel]], wan [[Inti planet|inti]] nang balain lawan banda langit nang lain. Bulan sugih lawan wasi padat di hagian inti dalam, lawan radius kikira 240&nbsp;km, wan fluida di hagian inti luar, tautama nang taulah matan wasi cair, lawan radius kikira 300&nbsp;km. Di intang hagian inti Bulan tadapat lapisan pawatas babantuk cair lawan radius kikira 500&nbsp;km.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html|title=NASA Research Team Reveals Moon Has Earth-Like Core|publisher=NASA|date=January 6, 2011|access-date=October 17, 2021|archive-date=January 11, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111112210/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Struktur naya diparkiraakan tarbantuk akibat [[Kristalisasi fraksional (geologi)|kristalisasi fraksional]] pada [[lautan magma Bulan|lautan magma]] satumat imbah pambantukan Bulan 4,5 miliar tahun nang bahari.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1038/ngeo417|title =Timing of crystallization of the lunar magma ocean constrained by the oldest zircon|url = https://archive.org/details/nature-geoscience_2009-02_2_2/page/133|year = 2009|last1 = Nemchin|first1 = A.|last2 = Timms|first2 = N.|last3 = Pidgeon|first3 = R.|last4 = Geisler|first4 = T.|last5 = Reddy|first5 = S.|last6 = Meyer|first6 = C.|journal = Nature Geoscience|volume = 2|issue = 2|pages = 133–136|bibcode = 2009NatGe...2..133N }}</ref> Kristalisasi lautan magma naya cagar mambantuk mantel [[mafik]], nang jua disababkan ulih curah hujan wan palunuhan mineral [[olivin]], [[klinopiroksen]], wan [[ortopiroksen]]; imbah talung parampat lautan magma takristalisasi, mineral [[plagioklas]] bakapadatan randah cagar tabantuk wan maapung ka hagian atas lapisan karak.<ref name="S06" /> Cairan pahabisan nang marasani proses kristalisasi cagar tajabak di antara karak wan mantel, lawan [[Kompabilitas (geokimia)|inkompabilitas]] wan unsur panghasil panas nang balimpah.<ref name="W06" /> Sasuai lawan proses naya, pemetaan geokimia matan orbit manunjukakan bahwa sapalih ganal karak Bulan basifat [[anortosit]],<ref name="L06" /> wan pangujian nang digawi tahadap sampel [[batuan Bulan]] nang baasal matan banjir lava di parmukaan jua manjalasakan bahwa komposisi mantel mafik Bulan tasugih lawan wasi amun dibandingakan lawan Bumi.<ref name="W06" /> Teknik geofisika manjalasakan bahwa kakandalan rata-rata karak Bulan adalah ~50&nbsp;km.<ref name="W06" /> Bulan adalah satelit pamadatnya nang kadua di [[Tata Surya]] imbah [[Io (bulan)|Io]].<ref name="Schubert2004" /> tapi, inti dalam Bulan tatumbung halus, lawan radius kikira 350&nbsp;km atawa kurang;<ref name="W06" /> ukuran naya hanya ~20% matan ukuran Bulan sacara saigian, balain lawan [[Planet kebumian|benda langit kebumian]] nang lain, nang ukuran inti dalamnya parak 50% matan ukuran saigian. Komposisi Bulan balum dikatahui sacara pasti, namun diduga parpaduan matan wasi metalik lawan sajumlah halus [[sulfur]] wan [[nikel]]; analisis manganai waktu rotasi variabel Bulan manunjukakan bahwa sapalih inti Bulan babantuk cair.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Williams|first = J.G.|coauthors = Turyshev, S.G.; Boggs, D.H.; Ratcliff, J.T.|title = Lunar laser ranging science: Gravitational physics and lunar interior and geodesy|journal = Advances in Space Research|year = 2006|volume = 37|issue = 1|page = 6771|bibcode=2006AdSpR..37...67W|doi = 10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.013|arxiv = gr-qc/0412049 }}</ref> === Geologi permukaan === {{main|Geologi Bulan|Batuan Bulan}} {{See also|Topografi Bulan}} {{multiple image |align = right |width = |image1 = Moon nearside LRO.jpg |alt1 = The dark irregular mare lava plains are prominent in the fully illuminated disk. A single bright star of ejecta, with rays stretching a third of the way across the disk, emblazons the lower centre: this is the crater Tycho. |caption1 = [[Sisi parak Bulan]] |image2 = Moon Farside LRO.jpg |alt2 = This full disk is nearly featureless, a uniform grey surface with almost no dark mare. There are many bright overlapping dots of impact craters. |caption2 = [[Sisi jauh Bulan]], lawan [[mare]] kadap nang parak kadada.<ref>{{cite web|title=Landscapes from the ancient and eroded lunar far side |publisher=esa |url=http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMDWNWALPE_index_0.html |accessdate=15 February 2010}}</ref> }} [[Barakas:MoonTopoLOLA.png|jmpl|upright=1.5|alt = Topography of the Moon measured from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter on the mission [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]], referenced to a sphere of radius 1737.4&nbsp;km|Topografi Bulan]] {{multiple image |align = right |width = |image1 = LRO WAC North Pole Mosaic (PIA14024).jpg |alt1 = |caption1 = [[Kutub utara Bulan]] |image2 = LRO WAC South Pole Mosaic.jpg |alt2 = |caption2 = [[Kutub selatan Bulan]] }} [[Topografi]] Bulan sudah diukur lawan mamakai metode [[altimetri laser]] wan [[Stereoskop|analisis gambar stereo]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Topography of the South Polar Region from Clementine Stereo Imaging|author=Spudis, Paul D.; Cook, A.; Robinson, M.; Bussey, B.; Fessler, B.| bibcode=1998nvmi.conf...69S|journal=Workshop on New Views of the Moon: Integrated Remotely Sensed, Geophysical, and Sample Datasets|page=69|date=January 1998|last2=Cook|last3=Robinson|last4=Bussey|last5=Fessler}}</ref> Bantuk topografi nang panjalasanya talihat adalah [[basin Kutub Selatan Aitken]] di sisi jauh, lawan diameter kikira 2.240&nbsp;km, nang marupakan kawah pangganalnya di Bulan lawan kawah pangganalnya nang suah dihaga di Tata Surya.<ref name="Spudis1994" /><ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1029/97GL01718 |first1 = C.M.|last1 = Pieters|first2 =S.|last2 =Tompkins|first3 =J.W.|last3 =Head|first4 =P.C.|last4 =Hess|title = Mineralogy of the Mafic Anomaly in the South Pole‐Aitken Basin: Implications for excavation of the lunar mantle|journal = Geophysical Research Letters|volume = 24|issue = 15|pages = 1903–1906|year =1997|bibcode=1997GeoRL..24.1903P}}</ref> Titik parandahnya pada parmukaan Bulan bagana pada kadalaman 13&nbsp;km.<ref name="Spudis1994" /><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/July98/spa.html|title = The Biggest Hole in the Solar System|last = Taylor|first = G.J.|date = 17 July 1998|publisher = Planetary Science Research Discoveries, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology|accessdate =12 April 2007}}</ref> Sadangkan titik paningginya baandak di hagian timur laut, nang diduga maalami pangandalan marga pambantukan basin Kutub Salatan Aitken.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schultz|first=P. H.|date=March 1997|page=1259|volume=28|title=Forming the south-pole Aitken basin – The extreme games|journal=Conference Paper, 28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference|bibcode=1997LPI....28.1259S}}</ref> Basin raksasa lain, nang kaya [[Mare Imbrium|Imbrium]], [[Mare Serenitatis|Serenitatis]], [[Mare Crisium|Crisium]], [[Mare Smythii|Smythii]], wan [[Mare Orientale|Orientale]], baisi libar wan katinggian nang tarandah.<ref name="Spudis1994" /> Katinggian rata-rata sisi jauh Bulan kikira 1,9&nbsp;km tatinggi amun dibandingakan lawan sisi parak.<ref name="W06" /> ==== Fitur vulkanis ==== {{main|Mare}} Dataran Bulan nang bawarna gelap wan kawa diitihi lawan mata talanjang disambat lawan ''[[mare|maria]]'' ([[bahasa Latin]] gasan "laut"; atawa ''mare'' dalam bantuk tunggal), marga wayah bahari bubuhan astronom mangira bahwa dataran naya dihibaki ulih [[banyu]].<ref>{{cite book|author = Wlasuk, Peter|title = Observing the Moon|url = http://books.google.com/?id=TWtLIOlPwS4C|year = 2000|publisher = Springer|isbn = 978-1-85233-193-1|page = 19 }}</ref> Dataran naya barupa kulam ganal nang tabantuk matan [[lava]] [[basal]]. Bujur serupa lawan basal kebumian, basal mare baisi kandungan wasi nang tatinggi wan kandungan mineral nang kurang.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html|title = The Oldest Moon Rocks|last = Norman|first = M.|publisher = Planetary Science Research Discoveries|date = 21 April 2004|accessdate =12 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Varricchio|first = L.|title = Inconstant Moon|year = 2006|publisher = Xlibris Books|isbn = 978-1-59926-393-9 }}</ref> sahagian ganal lava naya malatus atawa mangalir malalui proses nang basamaan lawan pambantukan [[kawah rumpakan]]. Babarapa bantuk geologi parmukaan Bulan kaya [[gunung berapi perisai]] wan [[kubah Bulan|kubah]] vulkanis kawa dihaga di maria di [[sisi parak Bulan]].<ref>{{cite journal|last = Head|first = L.W.J.W.|title = Lunar Gruithuisen and Mairan domes: Rheology and mode of emplacement|journal = Journal of Geophysical Research|year = 2003|volume = 108|url = http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2003/2002JE001909.shtml|accessdate = 12 April 2007|issue = E2|doi = 10.1029/2002JE001909|page = 5012|bibcode = 2003JGRE..108.5012W|archive-date = 12 March 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070312071105/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2003/2002JE001909.shtml|dead-url = yes}}</ref> Maria kawa dihaga hampir di sabigian sisi parak Bulan, mancakup 31% matan total parmukaan di sisi parak,<ref name="worldbook" /> jauh tatinggi amun dibandingakan lawan maria pada sisi jauh, nang persentasenya hanya 2%.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Gillis|first = J.J.|coauthors = Spudis, P.D.|title = The Composition and Geologic Setting of Lunar Far Side Maria|journal = Lunar and Planetary Science|year = 1996|volume = 27|pages = 413–404|bibcode = 1996LPI....27..413G|last2 = Spudis}}</ref> Hal naya diparkirakan tajadi marga tingginya [[KREEP|konsentrasi unsur panghasil panas]] di bawah karak di sisi parak, sawagaimana nang talihat pada peta geokimia nang diperoleh matan spektrometer sinar gamma ''[[Lunar Prospector]]'', nang manyababakan mantel mangalami pamanasan, lunuh, imbahnya naik ka parmukaan wan malatus.<ref name="S06" /><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/281/5382/1484|title=Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer|author=Lawrence|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=281|issue=5382|pages=1484–1489|doi=10.1126/science.281.5382.1484|issn=1095-9203|publisher=HighWire Press|date=11 August 1998|accessdate=29 August 2009|pmid=9727970|bibcode = 1998Sci...281.1484L|author-separator=,|author2=D. J.|display-authors=2|last3=Barraclough|first3=BL|last4=Binder|first4=AB|last5=Elphic|first5=RC|last6=Maurice|first6=S|last7=Thomsen|first7=DR }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug00/newMoon.html|title = A New Moon for the Twenty-First Century|last = Taylor|first = G.J.|publisher = Planetary Science Research Discoveries, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology|date = 31 August 2000|accessdate =12 April 2007}}</ref> Sahagian ganal [[Mare|basal mare]] Bulan malatus pada periode Imbrian, kikira 3,0–3,5 miliar tahun nang bahari, meskipun hasil [[pananggalan radiometri]] manjalasakan waktunya lebih tua 4,2 miliar tahun nang lalu,<ref name="Papike" /> wan letusan pahabisan, badasarkan pananggalan [[hitungan kawah]], tajadi kikira 1,2 miliar tahun nang bahari.<ref name="Hiesinger" /> Wilayah nang bawarna tatarang pada Bulan disambat lawan ''terrae'', atawa ''dataran tinggi'' sacara umum, marga wilayah naya tatinggi matan kabanyakan maria. Badasarkan penanggalan radiometri, dataran tinggi Bulan tabantuk kikira 4,4 miliar tahun nang bahari, wan diduga merupakan [[batuan kumulasi|kumulasi]] [[plagioklas]] matan [[lautan magma Bulan]].<ref name="Papike" /><ref name="Hiesinger" /> Balain lawan Bumi, kadada gunung di Bulan nang diyakini tabentuk akibat kajadian [[tektonik]].<ref>{{cite web|last = Munsell|first = K.|publisher = NASA|work = Solar System Exploration|title = Majestic Mountains|url = http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains|date = 4 December 2006|accessdate = 12 April 2007|archive-date = 2008-09-17|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080917055643/http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains|dead-url = yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Richard Lovett |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110803/full/news.2011.456.html#B1 |title=Early Earth may have had two moons : Nature News |publisher=Nature.com |date= |accessdate=2012-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://theconversation.edu.au/was-our-two-faced-moon-in-a-small-collision-2659 |title=Was our two-faced moon in a small collision? |publisher=Theconversation.edu.au |date= |accessdate=2012-11-01}}</ref> ==== Kawah rumpakan ==== [[Barakas:Moon-craters.jpg|kiri|jmpl|alt=A grey, many-ridged surface from high above. The largest feature is a circular ringed structure with high walled sides and a lower central peak: the entire surface out to the horizon is filled with similar structures that are smaller and overlapping.|Kawah [[Daedalus (kawah)|Daedalus]] di sisi jauh Bulan]] {{See also|Daftar kawah di Bulan}} Proses geologi lain nang mamangaruhi bantuk parmukaan Bulan adalah [[kawah rumpakan]],<ref>{{cite book|last = Melosh|first = H. J.|title = Impact cratering: A geologic process|url = https://archive.org/details/impactcrateringg0000melo|year = 1989|publisher = Oxford Univ. Press|isbn = 978-0-19-504284-9 }}</ref> yaitu katika kawah-kawah tarbantuk akibat tubrukan antara [[asteroid]] wan [[komet]] lawan parmukaan Bulan. Diparkiraakan tadapat kikira 300.000 kawah lawan luas labih matan 1&nbsp;km di sisi parak Bulan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Moon Facts|url=http://planck.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31412|work=SMART-1|publisher=European Space Agency|year=2010|accessdate=12 May 2010}}</ref> Babarapa kawah naya [[Selenografi#Pemetaan wan penamaan Bulan|dingarani]] manurut nama para pakar, ilmuwan, saniman, wan panjalajah.<ref name="gazetteer" /> [[Skala waktu geologi Bulan]] didasarakan pada kajadian rumpakan nang paling harat, tamasuk [[Nectarian|Nectaris]], [[Lower Imbrian|Imbrium]], wan [[Mare Orientale|Orientale]], lawan struktur nang dicirikan ulih lingkaran nang tabantuk matan materi nang manguap, rajin badiameter ratusan hingga ribuan kilometer.<ref name="geologic" /> Kurangnya aktivitas atmosfer, cuaca, wan proses geologi pahanyarnya mambuktiakan bahwa kawah-kawah naya masih dalam kondisi baik. Maskipun hanya sadikit kawah nang dikatahui asal usul pambantukannya, kawah-kawah naya tatap baguna gasan manantuakan usia relatif Bulan. Marga kawah tubrukan manumpuk pada tingkat nang hampir konstan, mahitung jumlah kawah per satuan luas kawa dipakai gasan mamparkiraakan usia parmukaan Bulan.<ref name="geologic" /> Usia radiometrik batuan kawah nang dibawa ulih [[misi Apollo]] bakisar matan 3,8 sampai 4,1 miliar tahun; naya dipakai gasan manjalasakan waktu tajadinya rumpakan [[Pengeboman Berat Akhir]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hartmann |first=William K. |last2=Quantin |first2=Cathy |last3=Mangold |first3=Nicolas |year=2007 |volume=186|issue=1 |pages=11–23 |journal=Icarus |title=Possible long-term decline in impact rates: 2. Lunar impact-melt data regarding impact history |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.009 |postscript=<!--None--> |bibcode=2007Icar..186...11H}}</ref> Dataran nang manyalimuti hagian atas karak Bulan adalah parmukaan nang bubujuran [[Kominusi|takominusi]] (tapacah jadi partikal nang tahalus) wan lapisan parmukaan [[Pengebunan rumpakan|kebun kawah]] bangaran [[regolith]], nang tabentuk akibat proses rumpakan. Regolith nang pahalusnya, yakni [[tanah Bulan]] matan kaca [[silikon dioksida]], baisi tekstur kaya salju wan babau kaya [[mesiu]].<ref>{{cite web|date = 30 January 2006|accessdate = 15 March 2010|url = http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm|title = The Smell of Moondust|publisher = NASA|archive-date = 2010-03-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100308112332/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm|dead-url = yes}}</ref> Regolith di parmukaan nang tatuha umumnya takandal daripada parmukaan nang taanum; kakandalannya bamacam-macam, matan 10–20 m di dataran tinggi wan 3–5 m di maria.<ref>{{cite book|last = Heiken|first = G.|coauthors = Vaniman, D.; French, B. (eds.)|title = Lunar Sourcebook, a user's guide to the Moon|url = https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku00heik|year = 1991|publisher = Cambridge University Press|location = New York|isbn = 978-0-521-33444-0|page = [https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku00heik/page/n774 736] }}</ref> Di bawah lapisan regolith tadapat ''megaregolith'', lapisan batuan fraktur lawan kakandalan berkilo-kilometer.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Rasmussen|first = K.L.|coauthors = Warren, P.H.|title = Megaregolith thickness, heat flow, and the bulk composition of the Moon|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1985-01-10_313_5998/page/121|journal = Nature|year = 1985|volume = 313|issue = 5998|pages = 121–124|bibcode = 1985Natur.313..121R|doi = 10.1038/313121a0}}</ref> ==== Ketersediaan banyu ==== {{main|Banyu Bulan}} [[Barakas:Moon South Pole.jpg|jmpl|alt=Twenty degrees of latitude of the Moon's disk, completely covered in the overlapping circles of craters. The illumination angles are from all directions, keeping almost all the crater floors in sunlight, but a set of merged crater floors right at the south pole are completely shadowed.|Foto mozaik kutub selatan Bulan nang diambil oleh ''[[Clementine (pesawat luar angkasa)|Clementine]]'': perhatikan bagian gelap permanen di kutub.]] Banyu cair kada kawa batahan di parmukaan Bulan. Wayah takana radiasi Matahari, banyu ancap cagar taurai malalui proses nang dipinandui lawan [[fotodisosiasi]] wan lanyap ka luar angkasa. Namun, matan tahun 1960-an, bubuhan ilmuwan mamparkiraakan bahwa banyu es nang diangkut oleh komet wayah tajadinya rumpakan atawa nang dihasilakan ulih reaksi batuan Bulan nang kaya oksigen, wan hidrogen matan [[angin surya]], maninggalakan jejak banyu nang mungkin kawa batahan di kawah kutub salatan Bulan nang dingin wan kadap secara parmanen.<ref name="Margot1999" /><ref> {{cite journal | first = William R. | last = Ward | title = Past Orientation of the Lunar Spin Axis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1975-08-01_189_4200/page/377 | journal = Science | date = 1 August 1975 | volume = 189 | issue = 4200 | pages = 377–379 | doi = 10.1126/science.189.4200.377 | pmid = 17840827 | bibcode = 1975Sci...189..377W }} </ref> Simulasi komputer manunjukakan bahwa hampir 14.000&nbsp;km² parmukaan Bulan bagana pada hagian kutub nang kadap parmanen.<ref name="M03" /> Katarsadiaan banyu di Bulan dalam jumlah nang mayu adalah faktor panting dalam marancanaakan proses [[kolonisasi Bulan]] marga cagar maimit biaya; rancana altenatif gasan maangkut banyu matan Bumi cagar malaasakan biaya nang ganal banar.<ref name="seedhouse2009" /> Batahun-tahun nang bahari, jajak banyu sudah dihaga di parmukaan Bulan.<ref name="moonwater_18032010" /> Pada tahun 1994, [[Misi Clementine#Bistatic Radar Experiment|eksperimen radar bistatik]] di wahana ''[[Clementine (pesawat luar angkasa)|Clementine]]'' manunjukkaan adanya kantong banyu baku di kitaran parmukaan Bulan. Namun, pengamatan radar imbahnya ulih [[Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo]] manunjukakan bahwa pahagaan nitu mungkin adalah batuan nang talontar matan kawah rumpakan anum.<ref>{{cite web| last= Spudis|first = P.|title = Ice on the Moon|url = http://www.thespacereview.com/article/740/1|publisher = The Space Review|date = 6 November 2006|accessdate =12 April 2007}}</ref> Pada 1998, [[Lunar Prospector#Neutron Spectrometer (NS)|spektrometer neutron]] di wahana ''Lunar Prospector'' mahaga adanya konsentrasi [[hidrogen]] nang tinggi di lapisan regolith lawan kedalaman satu meter di wilayah kutub.<ref name="Feldman1998" /> Pada 2008, analisis nang digawi tahadap batuan lava vulkanis nang dibawa ka Bumi oleh Apollo 15 manunjukkan adanya kandungan banyu dalam jumlah halus pada interior batuan.<ref name="Saal2008" /> Pada tahun 2008, wahana ''[[Chandrayaan-1]]'' mambujurakan adanya banyu es di parmukaan Bulan lawan mamakai [[Moon Mineralogy Mapper]]. Spektrometer maitihi adanya garis parasapan [[hidroksil]] di bawah sinar Matahari, nang mambuktiakan bahwa parmukaan Bulan baisi banyu es dalam jumlah ganal. Wahana nitu manunjukakan bahwa konsentrasi banyu es mungkin sampai 1.000&nbsp;[[ppm]].<ref name="Pieters2009" /> Pada tahun 2009, ''[[LCROSS]]'' mangirim 2.300&nbsp;kg impaktor ka kawah kutub nang kadap parmanen, wan mandeteksi sadikitnya tadapat 100&nbsp;kg banyu dalam material ejektor.<ref name="Planetary" /><ref name="Colaprete" /> Analisis data LCROSS lainnya manunjukakan bahwa jumlah banyu nang tadeteksi sampai 155&nbsp;kg.<!--, or 5.6% (±2.9%) by mass.--This seems too technical for this overview--><ref name="Colaprete2010" /> Pada bulan Mei 2011, Erik Hauri malaporakan<ref name="hauri" /> adanya 615-1410 ppm [[inklusi lunuh]] banyu pada sampel Bulan 74220, "tanah kaca jingga" lawan kandungan titanium tinggi nang baasal matan kajadian vulkanis nang dikumpulakan dalam misi [[Apollo 17]] pada tahun 1972. Inklusi naya tabantuk saat tajadinya laduman ganal di Bulan kikira 3,7 miliar tahun nang bahari. Konsentrasi naya satara lawan magma di [[mantel atas]] Bumi. === Medan gravitasi === {{main|Gravitasi Bulan}} Medan gravitasi Bulan sudah diukur lawan mamakai palacakan [[Efek Doppler|pergeseran Doppler]] pada sinyal radio nang dipancarakan ulih pasawat ruang angkasa nang ma-orbit Bulan. Bantuk gravitasi Bulan nang utama adalah [[konsentrasi massa (astronomi)|konmas]], anomali gravitasi positif nang takait lawan babarapa [[Kawah rumpakan|basin rumpakan]] ganal, sahagian disababakan ulih aliran lava basaltik mare padat nang mahibaki basin nitu.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Muller|first = P.|coauthors = Sjogren, W.|title = Mascons: lunar mass concentrations|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1968-08-16_161_3842/page/680|journal = Science|volume = 161 |pages = 680–684|year = 1968|doi = 10.1126/science.161.3842.680|pmid = 17801458|issue = 3842|bibcode = 1968Sci...161..680M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal = Science | author = Richard A. Kerr | title = The Mystery of Our Moon's Gravitational Bumps Solved? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2013-04-12_340_6129/page/128 | volume = 340 | page = 128 | date = 12 April 2013}}</ref> Anomali naya babujuran mamangaruhi orbit pasawat luar angkasa di kitaran Bulan. Tadapat babarapa parucauan manganai gravitasi Bulan: lava nang maalir saurangan kada kawa manjalasakan bantuk gravitasi Bulan, wan babarapa konmas nang ada sama sakali kada takait lawan vulkanisme mare.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Konopliv|first = A.|coauthors = Asmar, S.; Carranza, E.; Sjogren, W.; Yuan, D.|title = Recent gravity models as a result of the Lunar Prospector mission|journal = Icarus|volume = 50|issue = 1|pages = 1–18|year = 2001|doi = 10.1006/icar.2000.6573|bibcode=2001Icar..150....1K}}</ref> === Medan magnet === {{Main|Medan magnet Bulan}} Bulan baisi [[medan magnet]] luar kitaran 1–100 [[Tesla (satuan)|nanotesla]], kurang matan saparsaratus [[medan magnet Bumi]]. Bulan kada baisi medan magnet [[dipole|dipolar]] global, tagal dihasilakan ulih [[geodinamo]] inti logam cair, wan baisi magnetisasi kerak wara, nang mungkin sudah ada pada awal sajarah Bulan wayah geodinamo masih bauparasi.<ref name="GB2009" /><ref>{{cite web|url = http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/magelres.htm|publisher = Lunar Prospector (NASA)|title = Magnetometer / Electron Reflectometer Results|year = 2001|accessdate = 17 March 2010|archive-date = 2010-05-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100527121330/http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/magelres.htm|dead-url = yes}}</ref> Salain nitu, babarapa sisa magnetisasi baasal matan medan magnet samantara nang dihasilakan wayah tajadinya kajadian rumpakan harat, lawan malalui parluasan plasma nang dihasilakan uleh rumpakan. Hipotesis naya didukung oleh magnetisasi kerak nang baandak di parak [[antipode]] basin rumpakan ganal.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Hood|first = L.L.|coauthors = Huang, Z.|title = Formation of magnetic anomalies antipodal to lunar impact basins: Two-dimensional model calculations|journal = J. Geophys. Res.|volume = 96|issue = B6|pages = 9837–9846|year = 1991|doi = 10.1029/91JB00308|bibcode=1991JGR....96.9837H}}</ref> === Atmosfer === [[Barakas:Apollo 17 twilight ray sketch.jpg|jmpl|Wayah matahari naik Wan tinggalam, banyak awak [[Apollo]] nang malihat cahaya tarang di parmukaan Bulan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/07dec_moonstorms/ |title=Moon Storms |publisher=Science.nasa.gov |date=2013-09-27 |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref>]] {{main|Atmosfer Bulan}} Bulan baisi [[atmosfer]] nang babujuran ranggang, malahan parak [[Hampa udara|hampa]], lawan massa total kurang matan 10 ton metrik.<ref>{{cite book|editor = Richard D. Johnson & Charles Holbrow|last = Globus|first = Ruth|title = Space Settlements: A Design Study|chapter = Chapter 5, Appendix J: Impact Upon Lunar Atmosphere|publisher = NASA|url = http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html|year = 1977|accessdate = 17 March 2010|archive-date = 2010-05-31|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100531205037/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html|dead-url = yes}}</ref> Takanan parmukaannya adalah kitaran 3{{esp|−15}}&nbsp;[[Atmosfer (satuan)|atm]] (0,3&nbsp;[[nanopascal|nPa]]); ukurannya bamacam manurut hari Bulan. Sumbar atmosfer Bulan meliputi [[pelepasan gas]] wan palapasan atom akibat bombardemen tanah Bulan oleh ion [[angin surya]].<ref name="L06" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Crotts|first=Arlin P.S.|title=Lunar Outgassing, Transient Phenomena and The Return to The Moon, I: Existing Data|year=2008|publisher=Department of Astronomy, Columbia University|url=http://www.astro.columbia.edu/~arlin/TLP/paper1.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=29 September 2009|bibcode=2008ApJ...687..692C|volume=687|page=692|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/591634|arxiv=0706.3949|archive-date=20 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220081142/http://www.astro.columbia.edu/~arlin/TLP/paper1.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Unsur-unsur nang takandung pada atmosfer Bulan adalah [[sodium]] wan [[potasium]], nang dihasilakan oleh palapasan atom; unsur naya jua dihaga pada atmosfer [[Merkurius]] wan [[Io (bulan)|Io]]. Unsur nang lain tamasuk [[helium-4]] nang dihasilakan matan angin surya; lawan [[Argon|argon-40]], [[Radon|radon-222]], wan [[polonium-210]], nang dilapasakan ka angkasa imbah dihasilakan malalui proses [[palunuhan radioaktif]] di dalam karak wan mantel.<ref name="Stern1999" /><ref>{{cite journal|last = Lawson|first = S.|coauthors = Feldman, W.; Lawrence, D.; Moore, K.; Elphic, R.; Belian, R.|title = Recent outgassing from the lunar surface: the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer|journal = J. Geophys. Res.|volume = 110|issue = E9|page=1029|year = 2005|doi = 10.1029/2005JE002433|bibcode=2005JGRE..11009009L}}</ref> Kada adanya kabaradaan spesies netral (atom atawa molekul) di atmosfer kaya [[oksigen]], [[nitrogen]], [[karbon]], [[hidrogen]] wan [[magnesium]], nang tadapat pada [[regolith]], masih belum terjelaskan.<ref name="Stern1999" /> Uap banyu tadeteksi oleh ''[[Chandrayaan-1]]'' wan kandungannya bavariasi manurut garis lintang, lawan titik maksimum ~60–70&nbsp;derajat; uap banyu naya diduga dihasilakan malalui prusis [[Sublimasi (kimia)|sublimasi]] banyu es di regolith.<ref name="Sridharan2010" /> Gas-gas naya bisa babulik ka regolith akibat gravitasi Bulan atawa hilang ka [[luar angkasa]], baik malalui tekanan radiasi surya atawa, amun taionisasi, tasapu oleh medan magnet angin surya.<ref name="Stern1999" /> === Musim === [[Kemiringan sumbu]] Bulan tahadap [[ekliptika]] hanya 1,5424°,<ref name="SolarViews" /> jauh tahaluus matan Bumi (23,44°). Marga ngini, variasi iluminasi surya pada Bulan baisi musim nang jauh tasadikit, wan detail topografi baisi paran panting dalam efek paubahan [[musim]].<ref name="bbc" /> Badasarakan gambar nang diambil ulih wahana ''[[Clementine (pasawat luar angkasa)|Clementine]]'' pada tahun 1994, tadapat ampat wilayah pagunungan di pinggiran [[Peary (kawah)|kawah Peary]] di kutub utara Bulan, nang diduga tatap ditarangi ulih Matahari di sapanjang hari Bulan, manciptaakan [[puncak cahaya abadi]]. Kadada wilayah kaya nitu nang tadapat di kutub salatan Bulan. Salain nitu, jua tadapat wilayah nang kada manarima cahaya sacara parmanin di hagian bawah kawah kutub,<ref name="M03" /> wan kawah-kawah kadap naya suhunya babujuran dingin; ''[[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]]'' mancatat suhu musim panas parandahnya di kawah kutub salatan mancapai 35&nbsp;K (−238&nbsp;°C)<ref>{{cite web |date=17 September 2009 |url=http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |title=Diviner News |publisher=UCLA |accessdate=17 March 2010 |archive-date=2010-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307031354/http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> wan parak 26&nbsp;K wayah kajadian [[titik balik matahari musim dingin]] di [[Hermite (kawah)|kawah Hermite]] di kutub utara. Naya adalah suhu pandinginnya di Tata Surya nang suah diukur ulih wahana antariksa, malahan tadingin matan suhu parmukaan [[Pluto]].<ref name="bbc" /> == Hubungan lawan Bumi == [[Barakas:Earth-Moon.PNG|jmpl|upright=1.5|alt=Earth has a pronounced axial tilt; the Moon's orbit is not perpendicular to Earth's axis, but lies close to Earth's orbital plane.|Skema sistem Bumi-Bulan (tanpa skala konsisten)]] === Orbit === {{main|Orbit Bulan|Teori Bulan}} Bulan manuntungakan [[orbit]] langkap mangulilingi Bumi saban 27,3 hari sakali{{efn|name=orbpd}} ([[periode sideris]]). Tagal marga Bumi bagarak pada orbitnya mangulilingi Matahari di wayah nang basamaan, dibutuhakan waktu nang sadikit talawas gasan Bulan cagar maitihakan [[fase Bulan|fase]] nang sama ka Bumi, yaitu kitaran 29,5 hari{{efn|name=synpd}} ([[periode sinodik]]).<ref name="worldbook"/> Kada kanya kabanyakan satelit planet nang lain, orbit Bulan taparak ka [[bidang ekliptika]] daripada ka [[bidang khatulistiwa]] planet. Orbit Bulan [[Perturbasi (astronomi)|diperturbasi]] ulih Matahari wan Bumi dalam cara nang halus wan kompleks. Misalnya, bidang pagarakan orbit Bulan sacara batahap marasani pagisiran, nang mamangaruhi aspek pagarakan Bulan nang lain. Kajadian naya sacara matematis dijalasakan oleh [[Hukum Cassini]].<ref name="Beletskii2" /> [[Barakas:Speed of light from Earth to Moon.gif|jmpl|upright=4|pus|Skala pabandingan ukuran wan jarak Bumi-Bulan. Garis kuning marupakan parjalanan cahaya matan Bumi ka Bulan (sekitar 400.000 km atau 250.000 mil) dalam 1,26 detik.]] {{clear}} === Ukuran relatif === Ukuran Bulan relatif ganal amun dibandingakan lawan ukuran Bumi, yakni saparampat matan diameter wan 1/81 matan massa Bumi.<ref name="worldbook" /> Bulan adalah [[satelit alami]] pangganalnya di Tata Surya manurut ukuran relatif planet nang diorbitnya, bujur [[Charon (bulan)|Charon]] taganal gasan ukuran [[planet katai]] [[Pluto]], yakni kitaran 1/9 matan massa Pluto.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/|title=Space Topics: Pluto and Charon|publisher=The Planetary Society|accessdate=6 April 2010|archive-date=18 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218223842/http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Bujur kaya nitu, Bumi wan Bulan masih dianggap sawagai sistem planet-satelit, lain sistem [[planet ganda]], marga [[barisentrum Bumi-Bulan|barisentrum]] kadua banda langit naya baandak 1.700&nbsp;km (kitaran saparampat radius Bumi) di bawah parmukaan Bumi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Planet Definition Questions & Answers Sheet|publisher=International Astronomical Union|year=2006|url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0601/q_answers/|accessdate=24 March 2010|archive-date=2012-03-15|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/66BdVuemz?url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0601/q_answers/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> === Panampaian matan Bumi === [[Barakas:Western Moon setting over the San Bernardino Mountains, High Desert, California.jpg|jmpl|ka|Panampaian Bulan di langit barat [[High Desert (California)]]]] {{See also|Fase Bulan|Paitihan Bulan|Cahaya bulan}} Bulan bagana pada [[rotasi sinkron]]; waktu nang dibutuhkan oleh Bulan gasan baputar pada porosnya kikira sama lawan waktu nang dibutuhkan gasan mengorbit Bumi. Marga nitu, Bulan aci manampaiakan higa nang sama pada Bumi. Panambaian seaarahnya, perputaran Bulan talambat wan kajadian [[panguncian pasang surut]] pada orientasi naya, tautama marga efek [[friksi]]onal deformasi [[pasang surut]] nang dipicu oleh Bumi.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Alexander|first = M. E.|title = The Weak Friction Approximation and Tidal Evolution in Close Binary Systems|journal = Astrophysics and Space Science|year = 1973|volume = 23|issue = 2|pages = 459–508|bibcode = 1973Ap&SS..23..459A|doi = 10.1007/BF00645172}}</ref> Higa Bulan nang mahadap Bumi disambat lawan [[higa parak Bulan|higa parak]], sedangkan higa nang mambalakangi Bumi disambat lawan [[higa jauh Bulan|higa jauh]]. Higa jauh rancaknya disalah artiakan sawagai "higa kadap", bujur pada kanyataannya higa naya ditarangi oleh cahaya nang kaya higa parak. Sakali sabulan, higa parak nang kadap kawa disaksiakan matan Bumi wayah terjadinya fase bulan hanyar.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dark Side of the Moon|author=[[Phil Plait]]|publisher=Bad Astronomy:Misconceptions |url=http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/dark_side.html |accessdate=15 February 2010}}</ref> Bulan baisi [[albedo]] nang babanaran randah, lawan tingkat katarangan nang sadikit tatarang pada aspal hitam. Bujur damintu, Bulan adalah banda langit nang panarangnya di langit imbah [[Matahari]].<ref name="worldbook" />{{efn|name=brightness}} Hal naya antara lain marga paningkatan katarangan akibat [[efek oposisi]]; pada fase bulan saparampat, babaya saparsapuluh hagian Bulan nang tarang, lain saparampat.<ref name="Moon" /> Salain nitu, [[konstansi warna]] pada [[sistem visual]] Bulan mengkalibrasi hubungan antara warna objek wan sekitarnya; marga langit di pintangan Bulan pina kadap, Bulan nang ditarangi Matahari batampai sawagai banda langit nang tarang. Hagian pinggir bulan purnama kaitihan sama tarang lawan hagian tangahnya, kada ba[[pengelaman tungkai]], marga sifat reflektif matan [[tanah Bulan]], nang merefleksikan tabanyak cahaya ke arah Matahari daripada ke arah lainnya. Bulan terlihat lebih besar saat berada parak lawan cakrawala, tagal hal naya baya efek psikologis wara, nang dipinandui lawan [[ilusi Bulan]] (panambaian dijalasakan pada abad ke-7 SM).<ref>{{cite book|last = Hershenson|first = Maurice|title = The Moon illusion|year = 1989|publisher = Routledge|isbn = 978-0-8058-0121-7|page = 5 }}</ref> Ganal busur rata-rata bulan purnama adalah pintangan 0,52° di langit, kikira sama lawan ukuran Matahari nang talihat matan Bumi (itihi [[garaha]]). [[file:Moon_phases_en.jpg|thumb|upright=4|Paubahan buncu antara arah pancahayaan ulih Matahari wan panampakan matan Bumi dalam waktu sabulan, wan fase Bulan nang dihasilakannya.]] Katinggian Bulan di langit bamacam; bujur baisi watas nang pina sama lawan Matahari, katinggiannya baubah seiring lawan fase Bulan wan paubahan musim dalam satahun, lawan katinggian paningginya tajadi pas bulan purnama pada waktu musim dingin. [[Simpul Bulan|Siklus simpul]] Bulan salawas 18,6 tahun jua baisi pangaruh; ketika [[simpul orbit|simpul naik]] orbit Bulan berada pada [[ekuinoks vernal]], [[deklinasi]] Bulan kawa bagarak sajauh 28° saban bulannya. naya berarti Bulan kawa bagarak malintasi garis lintang hingga 28° matan khatulistiwa, lain 18°. Orientasi bulan sabit jua bagantung pada garis lintang; di parak khatulistiwa, bulan sabit kawa diitih lawan teropong bintang.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=393|publisher = Curious About Astronomy|title = Is the Moon seen as a crescent (and not a "boat") all over the world?|date = 18 October 2002|first = K.| last = Spekkens|accessdate =16 March 2010}}</ref> Jarak antara Bulan lawan Bumi bamacam, bapintangan matan 356.400&nbsp;km sampai 406.700&nbsp;km pada [[apsis|perige]] (titik pamaraknya) wan apoge (titik panjauhnya). Pada tanggal 19 Maret 2011, Bulan saat fase hibak berada pada jarak pamaraknya lawan Bumi, pamaraknya sejak tahun 1993, yakni 14% taparak matan posisi panjauhnya di apoge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html|title=Full moon tonight is as close as it gets|date=18 March 2011|accessdate=19 March 2011|publisher=The Press Enterprise|archive-date=2011-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322161600/http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Fenomena naya disambat lawan "[[bulan super]]", nang balangsung salawas asa jam pada saat [[bulan purnama]], wan 30% tatarang pada rajin marga diameter buncunya 14% taganal, marga <math>\scriptstyle1.14^2\approx1.30</math>.<ref>{{cite web | title = Super Full Moon | date = 16 March 2011 | author = Dr. Tony Phillips | publisher = NASA | accessdate = 19 March 2011 | url = http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ | archive-date = 7 May 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120507035348/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ | dead-url = yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Full moon tonight is as close as it gets | date = 18 March 2011 | author = Richard K. De Atley | publisher = The Press-Enterprise | accessdate = 19 March 2011 | url = http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html | archive-date = 2011-03-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110322161600/http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html | dead-url = yes }}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/mar/19/super-moon-closest-point-years|title='Super moon' to reach closest point for almost 20 years|work=The Guardian |date=19 March 2011|accessdate=19 March 2011}}</ref> Pada tingkat parandahnya, katarangan Bulan matan Bumi cagar bakurang amun diitihi lawan mata tilanjang. Persentase tingkat katarangan Bulan ditantuakan oleh rumus naya: <ref> {{cite web |last=Georgia State University, Dept. of Physics (Astronomy) |title=Perceived Brightness |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/bright.html |work=Brightnes and Night/Day Sensitivity |publisher=Georgia State University, GA, USA |accessdate=25 January 2014 }}</ref><ref> {{cite web |last=Lutron |title=Measured light vs. perceived light |url=http://www.lutron.com/TechnicalDocumentLibrary/Measured_vs_Perceived.pdf |work=From IES Lighting Handbook 2000, 27-4 |publisher=Lutron.com |accessdate=25 January 2014 }}</ref> <math>\textrm{reduksi\ barasa \%} = 100 \times \sqrt{\textrm{reduksi\ babujuran \%} \over 100}</math> Wayah reduksi babujuran adalah 1,00 / 1,30, atau pintangan 0,770, reduksi barasa kikira 0,877, atawa 1,00 / 1,14. Hal naya maulah maningkatnya reduksi tarasa sampai 14% antara apoge wan perige Bulan pada fase nang sama.<ref> {{cite web |last=Walker |first=John |title=Inconstant Moon |url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/moon_ap_per.html |work=Earth and Moon Viewer |publisher=Fourmilab, Switzerland |accessdate=23 January 2014 |location=Fourth paragraph of "How Bright the Moonlight" |date=May 1997 |quote=14% [...] marga respons logaritma mata manusia. }}</ref> Tadapat parucauan bakanaan apakah parmukaan Bulan baubah matan waktu ka waktu. Damini, fenomena nitu dianggap sawagai ilusi wara, nang diakibatkan oleh paitihan Bulan dalam kondisi pencahayaan nang berbeda, [[penglihatan astronomi]] nang buruk, atawa gambar nang kada memadai. Tagal, [[pelepasan gas]] bahanu kajadian jua, wan diduga marupakan kajadian nang maulah [[fenomena Bulan satumat]]. Hahanyaran naya, muncul pandapat nang manyatakan bahwa pintangan 3&nbsp;km diameter parmukaan Bulan dimodifikasi oleh kajadian palapasan gas, nang kajadian pintangan sajuta tahun nang bahari.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov06/MoonGas.html|last = Taylor|first = G.J.|title = Recent Gas Escape from the Moon|publisher = Planetary Science Research Discoveries, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology|date = 8 November 2006|accessdate =4 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last = Schultz|first = P.H.|coauthors = Staid, M.I.; Pieters, C.M.|year = 2006|title = Lunar activity from recent gas release|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-11-09_444_7116/page/184|journal= Nature |volume = 444 |pages = 184–186|doi = 10.1038/nature05303|pmid = 17093445|issue = 7116|bibcode = 2006Natur.444..184S }}</ref> Panampaian Bulan, nang kaya Matahari, dipangaruhi oleh [[atmosfer]] Bumi; efek umumnya adalah [[Halo (fenomena optik)|cincin halo]] 22° nang tabantuk saat cahaya Bulan dibias-akan oleh kristal es di awan [[cirrostratus]], wan tabantuknya [[Korona (meteorologi)|cincin korona]] nang tahalus saat Bulan ditukupi oleh awan tipis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/%28Gh%29/guides/mtr/opt/ice/halo/22.rxml|title=22 Degree Halo: a ring of light 22 degrees from the sun or moon |publisher=Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref> === Efek pasang surut === {{utama|Gaya pasang surut|Akselerasi pasang surut|Pasang surut|Teori pasang surut}} [[Pasang surut]] di Bulan umumnya marga adanya kalajuan paubahan intensitas daya tarik [[gravitasi]] Bulan pada salah sabuting higa Bumi tahadap higa nang lain, atawa disambat lawan [[gaya pasang surut]]. Fenomena naya mambantuk dua binjulan pasang surut di Bumi, nang cagar talihat jalas di parmukaan laut imbah [[pasang surut|banyu surut]].<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Marga Bumi baputar 27 kali taancap pada Bulan, binjulan naya bagarak basamaan lawan parmukaan Bumi taancap pada pagarakan Bulan, nang baputar mangulilingi Bumi sakali sahari nang kaya Bulan baputar pada sumbunya.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Pasang surut jua dipangaruhi oleh efek nang lain, di antaranya [[gaya gisang]] banyu tahadap sumbu rotasi Bumi malalui lantai samudra, [[inersia]] pagarakan banyu, basin samudra nang marasani panyurutan, wan osilasi antara basin samudra balain.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Le Provost|first=C.|coauthors=Bennett, A. F.; Cartwright, D. E.|year=1995|title=Ocean Tides for and from TOPEX/POSEIDON|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-02-03_267_5198/page/n50|pages=639–42|journal=Science|pmid=17745840|volume=267|issue=5198|bibcode=1995Sci...267..639L|doi=10.1126/science.267.5198.639}}</ref> Daya tarik gravitasi Matahari tahadap samudra Bumi baya satangah matan daya tarik gravitasi Bulan, wan gravitasi kadua benda langit naya baparan panting dalam maulah [[Pasang surut musim semi|pasang surut perbani wan musim semi]].<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> [[Barakas:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007 (continuous loop).gif|jmpl|thumbtime=0:02|alt=Over one lunar month more than half of the Moon's surface can be seen from the surface of Earth.|[[Librasi]] Bulan dalam waktu sabulan.]] Interaksi gravitasi antara Bulan wan binjulan di pintangan Bulan bafungsi sawagai [[torsi]] pada rotasi Bumi, nang malaasakan [[momentum sudut]] wan [[energi kinetik]] putaran matan paputaran Bumi.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /><ref name="touma1994" /> Akibatnya, momentum buncu diumpatakan ka orbit Bulan, nang maancapi putarannya wan maulah Bulan naik ka orbit nang tatinggi wan lawan periode nang talama. Marga itu, jarak antara Bumi lawan Bulan jua cagar maningkat, wan perputaran Bumi cagar melambat.<ref name="touma1994" /> Pengukuran lawan metode [[eksperimen rentang laser Bulan|eksperimen rentang Bulan]] mamakai reflektor laser nang digawi dalam misi [[Apollo]] mahaga bahwa jarak Bulan ka Bumi maningkat sekitar 38&nbsp;mm per tahun<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chapront|first=J.|coauthors=Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.|year=2002|title=A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=387|issue=2|pages=700–709|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020420|bibcode = 2002A&A...387..700C}}</ref> (meskipun angka naya hanya 0,10 [[ppb]]/tahun matan radius orbit Bulan). [[Jam atom]] jua manunjukkan bahwa lawas hari di Bumi maningkat pintangan 15 [[mikrodetik]] per tahun,<ref>{{cite web|last = Ray|first = R.|date = 15 May 2001|url = http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html|title = Ocean Tides and the Earth's Rotation|publisher = IERS Special Bureau for Tides|accessdate = 17 March 2010|archive-date = 2010-03-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100327084125/http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html|dead-url = yes}}</ref> nang sacara bagimitan mampanjangi waktu [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] nang disasuaikan oleh [[detik kabisat]]. Tarikan pasang surut Bulan cagar tarus balanjut sampai paputaran Bumi wan periode orbit Bulan sesuai. Tagal, Matahari cagar baubah jadi [[raksasa habang]] wan mamusnahkan Bumi jauh sawalum hal nitu kajadian.<ref>{{cite book|author = Murray, C.D. and Dermott, S.F.|coauthors = Stanley F. Dermott|title = Solar System Dynamics|year = 1999|publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn = 978-0-521-57295-8|page = 184 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Dickinson|first = Terence|authorlink = Terence Dickinson|title = From the Big Bang to Planet X|url = https://archive.org/details/frombigbangtopla00unse|year = 1993|publisher = [[Camden House]]|location = Camden East, Ontario|isbn = 978-0-921820-71-0|pages = [https://archive.org/details/frombigbangtopla00unse/page/79 79]–81 }} </ref> Pamukaan Bulan jua marasani pasang surut lawan amplitudo ~10&nbsp;cm, nang balangsung salawas 27 hari labih. Fenomena naya diulah oleh dua hal, yakni marga Bulan wan Bumi berada pada [[rotasi sinkron]], wan bamacam hal nang diulah oleh [[Matahari]].<ref name="touma1994"/> Komponen Bumi nang diinduksi tabantuk marga [[librasi]], nang diakibatkan oleh eksentrisitas orbit Bulan; amun orbit Bulan bulat sempurna, maka nang cagar muncul pasang surut surya wara.<ref name="touma1994" /> Librasi jua mengubah buncu panampaian Bulan, nang maulah pintangan 59% parmukaan Bulan talihat matan Bumi.<ref name="worldbook" /> Efek kumulatif matan fenomena pasang surut memicu tajadinya [[gempa bulan]]. Gempa bulan naya kada tapi rancak kajadian wan talamah kakuatannya pada [[gempa bumi]], bujur gempa naya kawa batahan sampai sajam marga kadada banyu nang bafungsi sawagai peredam getaran seismik. Fenomena gempa bulan naya merupakan penemuan kada terduga matan [[seismometer]] nang diandak di Bulan oleh [[astronaut]] [[Apollo]] matan tahun 1969 hingga 1972.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Latham|first1 = Gary|year = 1972|last2 = Ewing|first2 = Maurice|last3 = Dorman|first3 = James|last4 = Lammlein|first4 = David|last5 = Press|first5 = Frank|last6 = Toksőz|first6 = Naft|last7 = Sutton|first7 = George|last8 = Duennebier|first8 = Fred|last9 = Nakamura|first9 = Yosio|displayauthors=9|title = Moonquakes and lunar tectonism |journal = Earth, Moon, and Planets|volume = 4|issue = 3–4| pages = 373–382|doi = 10.1007/BF00562004|bibcode = 1972Moon....4..373L}}</ref> === Garaha === {{main|Garaha matahari|Garaha bulan|Siklus garaha}} {{multiple image |width = 150 |footer = Matan Bumi, Bulan wan Matahari talihat baukuran sama. Matan satelit di orbit Bumi, Bulan kalihatan tahalus matan Matahari. |image1 =Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg |alt1 = The fiercely bright disk of the Sun is completely obscured by the exact fit of the disk of the dark, non-illuminated Moon, leaving only the radial, fuzzy, glowing coronal filaments of the Sun around the edge. |caption1 = [[Garaha matahari 11 Agustus 1999|Garaha matahari 1999]]|image2 = STEREO-B solar eclipse.jpg |alt2 = The bright disk of the Sun, showing many coronal filaments, flares and grainy patches in the wavelength of this image, is partly obscured by a small dark disk: here, the Moon covers less than a fifteenth of the Sun. |caption2 = Bulan balalu di hadapan Matahari, dikudak ulih wahana STEREO-B.<ref>{{cite web|author=Phillips, Tony|work=Science@NASA|title=Stereo Eclipse|date=12 March 2007|accessdate=17 March 2010|url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/12mar_stereoeclipse.htm|archive-date=2008-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610082213/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/12mar_stereoeclipse.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> }} [[Garaha]] kawa kajadian wayah Matahari, Bumi, wan Bulan bagana pada sabuting garis lurus (disambat lawan "[[Syzygy (astronomi)|syzygy]]"). [[Garaha matahari]] kajadian wayah [[bulan hanyar]], wayah Bulan bagana di antara Matahari wan Bulan. Sabaliknya, [[garaha bulan]] kajadian wayah [[bulan purnama]], wayah Bumi bagana di antara Matahari wan Bulan. Ukuran Bulan nang kalihatan matan Bumi kikira sama lawan ukuran Matahari. Tagal, ukuran Matahari jauh taganal pada ukuran Bulan; jarak antara Matahari wan Bulan nang jauh banar maulah ukuran kadua banda langit naya kalihatan sama matan Bumi. Variasi ukuran naya, nang diulah ulih orbit nonsirkuler, jua pina sama, bujur kajadian dalam siklus nang balain. Hal naya maulah kajadian garaha matahari [[garaha total|total]] (wayah Bulan kalihatan taganal pada Matahari) wan [[garaha cincin|cincin]] (wayah Bulan kalihatan tahalus pada Matahari).<ref>{{cite web|first = F.|last = Espenak|year = 2000|url = http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer.html|title = Solar Eclipses for Beginners|publisher = MrEclipse|accessdate =17 March 2010}}</ref> Wayah garaha total, Bulan sabigian manukupi cakram Matahari wan [[korona]] surya, nang kawa diitihi lawan [[mata tilanjang]] matan Bumi. Marga jarak antara Matahari wan Bulan maningkat sacara bagamat matan waktu ka waktu,<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> diameter buncu Bulan mangalami panurunan. Salain nitu, marga Matahari baevolusi jadi [[raksasa habang]], ukuran Matahari wan diameter tampaknya di langit jua maningkat bagamatan.{{efn|name=size changes}} Papaduan kadua kajadian naya mambuktiakan bahwa ratusan yuta tahun nang bahari, Bulan cagar saban manukupi Matahari wayah tajadinya garaha matahari, wan mungkin kadada garaha cincin nang kajadian wayah itu. Kaya nitu jua ratusan yuta tahun nang pacangan datang, Bulan kada lagi manukupi Matahari sabigian, wan garaha matahari total kada pacangan kajadian.<ref name = fourmilab>{{cite web|last=Walker|first=John|url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/peri_apo/|title=Moon near Perigee, Earth near Aphelion|publisher=Fourmilab|date=July 10, 2004|accessdate=December 25, 2013}}</ref> Orbit Bulan nang mangulilingi Bumi mangalami inklinasi kitaran 5° matan [[ekliptika|orbit Bumi mangulilingi Matahari]], jadinya garaha kada kajadian wayah saban bulan hanyar wan bulan purnama. Garaha pacangan kajadian amun Bulan bagana di parak pasimpangan dua bidang orbit.<ref name="eclipse" /> Periodisasi wan rekurs garaha matahari oleh Bulan, lawan garaha bulan oleh Bumi, kawa dijalasakan malalui teori [[Saros (astronomi)|saros]], nang baisi jangka waktu kitaran 18 tahun.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html|last = Espenak|first = F.|title = Saros Cycle|publisher = NASA|accessdate = 17 March 2010|archiveurl = https://archive.ph/20120524183445/http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/SEsaros.html|archivedate = 24 May 2012|dead-url = yes}}</ref> Marga Bulan mahalangi pandangan manusia kitaran satangah darajat lingkaran pada area langit,{{efn|name=area}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Square Degree as a Unit of Celestial Area|author=Guthrie, D.V. |year=1947|journal=Popular Astronomy|volume=55|pages=200–203|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947PA.....55..200|bibcode = 1947PA.....55..200G }}</ref> kajadian tarait kaya [[okultasi]] kajadian wayah sabuting bintang atawa planet tarang balalu di hagian balakang Bulan wan marasani okultasi, atawa tapatak matan itihan. Mahirip lawan kajadian naya, garaha matahari kajadian wayah Matahari tapatak matan itihan marga tatukupi Bulan. Marga jarak Bulan taparak lawan Bumi, okultasi bintang tunggal kada kawa talihat matan wadah mana haja di parmukaan Bumi pada waktu nang basamaan. [[Presesi]] pada orbit Bulan jua maulah kajadian okultasi nang balainan saban tahun. == Talaah wan pamiritan == {{See also|Penjelajahan Bulan|Kolonisasi Bulan|Daftar benda buatan manusia di Bulan}} [[Berkas:Moon by Johannes hevelius 1645.PNG|jmpl|alt=On an open folio page is a carefully drawn disk of the full moon. In the upper corners of the page are waving banners held aloft by pairs of winged cherubs. In the lower left page corner a cherub assists another to measure distances with a pair of compasses; in the lower right corner a cherub views the main map through a handheld telescope, whereas another, kneeling, peers at the map from over a low cloth-draped table.|Peta Bulan karya [[Johannes Hevelius]] dari ''[[Selenographia]]'' (1647), peta pertama yang menyertakan zona [[librasi]] Bulan.]] === Talaah panambaian === {{main|Penjelajahan Bulan#Sejarah awal|l1=Penjelajahan Bulan: Sejarah awal|Selenografi|Teori Bulan}} Pamahaman bakanaan ulaian Bulan manandai panambaian pakambangan ilmu [[astronomi]]; wayah abad ka-5 SM, [[astronomi Babilonia|astronom Babilonia]] sudah mancatat [[siklus Saros]] 18 tahunan pada [[garaha bulan]],<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1006543|title=Saros Cycle Dates and Related Babylonian Astronomical Texts|first1=A. |last1 = Aaboe|first2= J. P. |last2 =Britton|first3= J. A. |last3 =Henderson, |first4= Otto|last4 = Neugebauer| authorlink4 = Otto Neugebauer |first5= A. J. |last5 =Sachs|journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=81|issue=6 |year=1991|pages=1–75 |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|quote=One comprises what we have called "Saros Cycle Texts", which give the months of eclipse possibilities arranged in consistent cycles of 223&nbsp;months (or 18&nbsp;years).|postscript=<!--None-->|jstor=1006543}}</ref> <!--The texts discussed in that article are more recent than 490 BC and, as mentioned in the paper, the observations can have occurred no earlier than that. The earliest reference for the Metonic cycle in Neugubauer's (1957) ''The Exact Sciences in Antiquity'' is 380 BC (p. 140).--> wan [[Astronomi bangsa India|astronom India]] sudah manjalasakan bakanaan kajadian elongasi Bulan.<ref name="Sarma-Ast-Ind" /> [[Astronomi bangsa Tiongkok|Astronom Tiongkok]] [[Shi Shen]] (abad ke-4 SM) mambari pitunjuk nang baraitan lawan cara mangira garaha matahari wan bulan.{{sfn|Needham|1986|p=411}} Imbahnya, bantuk fisik Bulan wan sumbar [[cahaya bulan]] mulai dikatahui. Filsuf [[Yunani kuno]] [[Anaxagoras]] (w. 428 SM) manyambat pada Matahari wan Bulan marupakan dua buting batu bulat yaksa nang mahasilakan cahaya.<ref>{{cite web|last = O'Connor|first = J.J.|coauthors = Robertson, E.F.|date=February 1999|url = http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Anaxagoras.html|title = Anaxagoras of Clazomenae|publisher = University of St Andrews|accessdate =12 April 2007}}</ref>{{sfn|Needham|1986|p=227}} Bangsa Tiongkok pada masa [[Dinasti Han]] parcaya pada energi Bulan sama lawan ''[[qi]]'', wan pamikiran buhannya bakanaan pangaruh radiasi Bulan manjalaskan bahwa cahaya Bulan baasal matan Matahari. [[Jing Fang]] (78–37&nbsp;SM) mancatat kabulatan Bulan gasan panambaian.{{sfn|Needham|1986|p=413–414}} Pada abad ka-2 M, [[Lucian]] manulis sabuting novel nang bakisah bakanaan saurang pahlawan nang manggawi bajalanan ka Bulan nang baurang. Pada tahun 499 M, astronom India [[Aryabhata]] manulis dalam bukunya ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' pada cahaya Matahari maulah Bulan kalihatan tarang.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Aryabhata_I.html|title=Aryabhata the Elder |last1 =Robertson|first1 = E. F.|date = November 2000|publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews|accessdate=15 April 2010|location=Scotland}}</ref> Astronom dan fisikawan [[Alhazen]] (965-1039) manyingkai pada [[cahaya matahari]] kada dipancarakan matan Bulan kaya sabuting caramin, tagal cahaya nitu dipancarakan ka sabarataan ampah matan saban hagian parmukaan Bulan nang ditarangi ulih cahaya matahari.<ref>{{cite book|location=Detroit|year=2008|publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons|title = Dictionary of Scientific Biography|chapter= Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan|author=A. I. Sabra|pages=189–210, at 195}}</ref> [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095) matan [[Dinasti Song]] mamadahakan sabuting alegori nang maibaratakan kajadian basinar wan mamudarnya cahaya Bulan lawan sabuting bal nang baputar; wayah diandaki lawan bubuk putih wan ditiring matan higa, maka pacangan kalihatan bantuk harit..{{sfn|Needham|1986|p=415–416}} Dalam [[On the Heavens|panjalasan alam semesta]] ulahan [[Aristoteles]] (384-322 SM), Bulan manandai watas antara unsur nang kawa barubah (bumi, banyu, udara, wan api) lawan bintang-bintang abadi [[aether (unsur klasik)|aether]], pamikiran [[Fisika Aristoteles|filsafat bapangaruh]] nang mandominasi sains salawas berabad-abad imbahnya.<ref>{{cite book|last = Lewis|first = C. S.|authorlink = C. S. Lewis|title = The Discarded Image|url = https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi_i1c3|year = 1964|publisher = Cambridge University Press|location = Cambridge|isbn = 978-0-521-47735-2|page = [https://archive.org/details/discardedimagein0000lewi_i1c3/page/108 108] }}</ref> Wayah abad ka-2 SM, [[Seleucus matan Seleucia]] mamadahakan pamikiran pada [[pasang surut]] kajadian marga kakuatan juhut Bulan, wan katinggian banyu pasang ditantuakan ulih posisi relatif Bulan tahadap [[Matahari]].<ref>{{cite journal|first = Bartel Leendert|last = van der Waerden| authorlink = Bartel Leendert van der Waerden|year = 1987|title = The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-the-new-york-academy-of-sciences_1987_500/page/n34|journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume = 500|pages = 1–569|pmid = 3296915|bibcode = 1987NYASA.500....1A |doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37193.x }}</ref> Pada abad nang sama, [[Aristarchus matan Samos|Aristarchus]] [[Aristarchus On the Sizes and Distances|mahitung ukuran wan jarak]] Bulan matan Bumi, lawan jarak pintangan dua puluh kali [[radius Bumi]]. Pamikiran ngini imbahnya dikambangakan ulih [[Ptolemy]] (90–168&nbsp;M): inya bapandapat bahwa jarak rata-rata Bulan matan Bumi adalah 59 kali radius Bumi wan diameter 0,292 matan diameter Bumi. Angka ngini pina mamaraki jarak wan diameter nang sabujurnya, yakni pintangan 60 gasan jarak wan 0,273 gasan diameter.<ref>{{cite book|last = Evans|first = James|title = The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy|url = https://archive.org/details/historypracticeo0000evan|year = 1998|publisher = Oxford University Press|location = Oxford & New York|isbn = 978-0-19-509539-5|pages = [https://archive.org/details/historypracticeo0000evan/page/71 71], 386 }}</ref> [[Archimedes]] (287–212 SM) marancang sabuting planetarium nang kawa mahitung laju pagarakan Bulan wan objek nang lain di [[Tata Surya]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp|work=The New York Times|title=Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C.|date=31 July 2008|accessdate=27 March 2010}}</ref> Pada [[Abad Panangahan]], sawalum dihaganya [[teleskop]], Bulan diyakini sabagai sabuting bal batu, bujur banyak jua nang parcaya pada parmukaan bulan "lanik banar".<ref>{{cite web|last = Van Helden|first = A.|year = 1995|url = http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/moon.html|title = The Moon|publisher = Galileo Project|accessdate = 12 April 2007|archive-date = 23 June 2004|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040623085326/http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/Moon.html|dead-url = yes}}</ref> Pada tahun 1609, [[Galileo Galilei]] gasan panambaian maulah sabuting gambar teleskopis Bulan dalam bukunya nang bajudul {{lang|la|''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]''}} wan manjalasakan pada parmukaan Bulan kada lanik, tagal baisi pagunungan lawan kawah. Pamitaan teleskopis Bulan batarusan di sapanjang Abad Panangahan; pada abad ka-17, [[Giovanni Battista Riccioli]] wan [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]] kawa maulah sabtung pangaranan geologi Bulan nang tatap dipakai sampai wayahini. {{lang|la|''Mappa Selenographica''}} ulahan [[Wilhelm Beer]] wan [[Johann Heinrich Mädler]] (1834-1836), lawan buku {{lang|de|''Der Mond''}} (1837), marupakan buku panambaian nang bujur manjalasakan talaah bakanaan Bulan matan buncu itih [[trigonometri]], tamasuk katinggian labih pada saribu gunung di Bulan, wan maminanduakan talaah Bulan lawan tingkat akurasi nang kawa diukur ulih geografi Bumi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Consolmagno|first=Guy J.|year=1996|title=Astronomy, Science Fiction and Popular Culture: 1277 to 2001 (And beyond) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_leonardo_1996_29_2/page/128|journal=Leonardo|publisher=The MIT Press|volume=29|issue=2|page=128|jstor=1576348|doi=10.2307/1576348}}</ref> Kawah Bulan panambaian dicatat ulih Galileo, wan pamulaannya dianggap sawagai [[gunung baapi]] sampai tahun 1870-an, wan imbahnya [[Richard Proctor]] manjalaskan pada kawah-kawah nitu tabantuk marga rumpakan.<ref name="worldbook" /> Pandapatnya naya didukung ulih pacubaan nang digawi ulih geolog [[Grove Karl Gilbert]] pada tahun 1892, wan imbah pakambangan balajar pambandingan pada 1920-an sampai 1940-an,<ref name="Hall1977" /> [[skala waktu geologi Bulan|stratigrafi Bulan]] jadi cabang ilmu [[astrogeologi]] hanyar pada tahun 1950-an.<ref name="worldbook" /> === Pamiritan langsung panambaian: 1959–1976 === ==== Misi Uni Soviet ==== {{main|Program Luna|Program Lunokhod}} [[Perang Dingin]] manunjul kajadian [[Perlombaan Angkasa]] antara [[Uni Soviet]] wan [[Amerika Serikat]], nang maulah adanya akselerasi kapantingan dalam [[pamiritan Bulan]]. Imbah paluncur baisi kamampuan nang diparluakan, kadua nagara ngini mangirim wahana nirawak malalui misi orbit atawa misi pandaratan di Bulan. Wahana ulahan Soviet, [[Program Luna|''Luna'']], adalah wahana pertama nang bahasil mancapai tujuan. Imbah maluncurakan tiga misi nirawak wan marasani kajajungan pada tahun 1958,<ref name="Zak 2009">{{cite web|url= http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_lunar.html| first = Anatoly|last = Zak |year = 2009|title = Russia's unmanned missions toward the Moon|accessdate=20 April 2010}}</ref> banda ulahan manusia panambaian nang kaluar matan gravitasi Bumi wan malintas di parah Bulan adalah ''[[Luna 1]]''; banda ulahan manusia panambaian nang marumpak parmukaan Bulan adalah ''[[Luna 2]]'', wan foto panambaian [[sisi jauh Bulan]] dikudak ulih ''[[Luna 3]]'', sabarataan digawi pada tahun 1959.<ref name="Zak 2009"/> Wahana antariksa panambaian nang bahasil manggawi [[Lander (pesawat luar angkasa)|pendaratan lunak]] di permukaan Bulan adalah ''[[Luna 9]]'', wan wahana nirawak panambaian nang mengorbit Bulan adalah ''[[Luna 10]]'', kaduanya terjadi pada tahun 1966.<ref name="worldbook" /> [[Batuan Bulan|Sampel tanah wan batuan Bulan]] dibawa ka Bumi oleh talu [[misi pambulikan sampel]] ''Luna'', yakni ''[[Luna 16]]'' pada 1970, ''[[Luna 20]]'' pada 1972, wan ''[[Luna 24]]'' pada 1976, nang bahasil mambawa 0,3&nbsp;kg batuan wan tanah Bulan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/index.cfm|title=Rocks and Soils from the Moon|publisher=NASA|accessdate=6 April 2010}}</ref> Dua [[rover (penjelajahan luar angkasa)|rover]] robotika bubuhan nang bausaha pamulaan mandarat di Bulan pada tahun 1970 wan 1973 sawagai hagian matan [[program Lunokhod]] Soviet. ==== Misi Amerika Serikat ==== {{main|Program Apollo|Pendaratan di Bulan}} [[Berkas:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|jmpl|alt=The small blue-white semicircle of Earth, almost glowing with colour in the blackness of space, rising over the limb of the desolate, cratered surface of the Moon.|Gambar panambaian [[Bumi]] matan orbit Bulan, nang dikudak ulih [[Apollo 8]] pada malam Natal 1968. Afrika baandak di [[Terminator surya|terminator]] matahari tinggalam, Amerika ditukupi awan, wan Antarktika baandak di buncu kiri terminator.]] [[Berkas:As11-40-5886, uncropped.jpg|jmpl|[[Neil Armstrong]] wan bandira Amerika Serikat di Bulan.]] [[Amerika Serikat]] maluncurkan wahana kada baurang gasan mangambangakan pamahaman bakanaan parmukaan Bulan gasan kapantingan pandaratan baurang di hari kainahnya; [[Program Surveyor|program ''Surveyor'']] [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] mandaratkan [[Surveyor 1|wahana panambaiannya]] ampat bulan imbah paluncuran ''Luna 9''. [[Program Apollo]] baurang [[NASA]] dikambangkan sacara paralel; imbah sarangkaian panaraian kada baawak wan baawak pada wahana Apollo di orbit Bumi, wan didorong oleh rancana paluncuran [[Program Bulan baawak Soviet|panarbangan Bulan Soviet]], [[Apollo 8]] mangirimakan misi baurang panambaian ka orbit Bulan pada tahun 1968. Misi imbahnya bahasil mandaratkan manusia gasan panambaian di parmukaan Bulan, nang dipandang ulih banyak pihak sawagai puncak [[Perlombaan Angkasa]].<ref name="CNN" /> [[Neil Armstrong]] manjadi manusia pamulaan nang bajalan di parmukaan Bulan sebagai pemimpin misi [[Apollo 11]] Amerika Serikat; inya manjajak kajajakan panambaian di parmukaan Bulan pada pukul 02:56&nbsp;UTC tanggal 21 Juli 1969.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html|title=Record of Lunar Events, 24 July 1969|work=Apollo 11 30th anniversary|publisher=NASA.|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref> Misi Apollo 11 sampai 17 (kecuali [[Apollo 13]], nang pandaratannya diwalangiakan) bahasil babulik ka Bumi pada mambawa 382&nbsp;kg tanah wan batuan Bulan dalam 2.196 sampel tapisah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec09/PSRD-Apollo-lunar-samples.pdf|title=Celebrated Moon Rocks --- Overview and status of the Apollo lunar collection: A unique, but limited, resource of extraterrestrial material.|last=Martel|first=Linda M. V.|date=21 December 2009|publisher=Planetary Science and Research Discoveries|accessdate=6 April 2010}}</ref> [[Pendaratan di Bulan|Pendaratan Bulan]] Amerika Serikat dipicu ulih kamajuan teknologi nang pina hancap pada pahabisan 1960-an, misalnya kimia [[ablasi]], [[rekayasa perangkat lunak]], wan teknologi [[Proses penetrasi atmosfer|penetrasi atmosfer]], lawan manajemen nang babujuran kompeten sahubungan lawan upaya teknis nang ganal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/legacy.htm|title=The Legacy of Project Apollo|last=Launius|first=Roger D.|date=July 1999|publisher=NASA History Office|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=SP-287 What Made Apollo a Success? A series of eight articles reprinted by permission from the March 1970 issue of Astronautics & Aeronautics, a publication of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.|publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Office, National Aeronautics and Space Administration|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1971}}</ref> Sajumlah instrumen ilmiah dipasang di parmukaan Bulan salawas misi pendaratan Apollo. [[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package|Stasiun instrumen]] baumur panjang, tamasuk kapsul baaliran panas, [[seismometer]], wan [[magnetometer]], dipasang di lokasi pandaratan [[Apollo 12]], [[Apollo 14|14]], [[Apollo 15|15]], [[Apollo 16|16]], wan [[Apollo 17|17]]. Transmisi data langsung ka Bumi diampihi pada tahun 1977 marga partimbangan anggaran,<ref>{{cite press release| title = NASA news release 77-47 page 242| date = 1 September 1977| url = http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83129main_1977.pdf| accessdate = 16 March 2010| format = PDF}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629121829/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83129main_1977.pdf |date=29 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Miscellaneous/Archived_spaceflight_news.htm|accessdate = 29 August 2007|location = NASA Turns A Deaf Ear To The Moon|year = 1977|title = OASI Newsletters Archive|last = Appleton|first = James|coauthors = Radley, Charles; Deans, John; Harvey, Simon; Burt, Paul; Haxell, Michael; Adams, Roy; Spooner N.; Brieske, Wayne|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071210143103/http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~ipswich/Miscellaneous/Archived_spaceflight_news.htm|archivedate = 2007-12-10|deadurl = yes}}</ref> tagal imbah stasiun [[rentang laser Bulan]] manjadi instrumen pasif, transmisi data masih batarusan digawi. Komunikasi jarak di stasiun sacara rutin ditarima oleh stasiun Bumi lawan akurasi babarapa sentimeter, wan data matan eksperimen naya dipakai gasan manantuakan ukuran inti Bulan.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Dickey|first = J.|year = 1994|title = Lunar laser ranging: a continuing legacy of the Apollo program|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1994-07-22_265_5171/page/482|journal = Science|volume = 265 |pages = 482–490|doi = 10.1126/science.265.5171.482|pmid = 17781305|issue = 5171|bibcode=1994Sci...265..482D|display-authors = 1|last2 = Bender|first2 = P. L.|last3 = Faller|first3 = J. E.|last4 = Newhall|first4 = X X|last5 = Ricklefs|first5 = R. L.|last6 = Ries|first6 = J. G.|last7 = Shelus|first7 = P. J.|last8 = Veillet|first8 = C.|last9 = Whipple|first9 = A. L.}}</ref> === Misi damini: 1990–damini=== <imagemap> File:Moon Soft Landings.svg|jmpl|ka|450px|Andak pandaratan di Bulan. Tanggal pandaratan dalam [[UTC]]. rect 15 5 92 31 [[Luna 9|]] rect 415 5 500 33 [[Surveyor 1|]] rect 15 35 101 61 [[Luna 13|]] rect 414 32 500 56 [[Surveyor 3|]] rect 415 58 500 84 [[Surveyor 5|]] rect 416 85 501 110 [[Surveyor 6|]] rect 416 112 501 138 [[Surveyor 7|]] rect 415 138 493 163 [[Apollo 11|]] rect 415 165 500 192 [[Apollo 12|]] rect 8 65 101 91 [[Luna 16|]] rect 7 94 101 122 [[Luna 17|]] rect 408 192 490 218 [[Apollo 14|]] rect 408 218 496 244 [[Apollo 15|]] rect 7 124 99 151 [[Luna 20|]] rect 406 246 500 271 [[Apollo 16|]] rect 407 272 501 297 [[Apollo 17|]] rect 7 155 97 182 [[Luna 21|]] rect 7 185 93 212 [[Luna 23|]] rect 7 215 102 242 [[Luna 24|]] rect 6 271 100 297 [[Chang'e 3|]] desc bottom-left </imagemap> Imbah Apollo wan ''Luna'', magin banyak nagara nang uumpatan dalam pamiritan Bulan sacara langsung. Pada tahun 1990, [[Jepang]] jadi nagara ka-talu nang mangirimakan pasawat luar angkasa ka orbit Bulan lawan maluncurakan wahana ''[[Hiten]]''. Wahana naya diluncurakan lawan kapsul nang tahalus bangaran ''Hagoromo'' di urbit Bulan, tagal transmisi data walang digawi, jadinya misi naya diampihakan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hiten-Hagomoro|publisher=NASA|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Hiten&Display=ReadMore|accessdate=29 March 2010|archive-date=2011-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614115823/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Hiten&Display=ReadMore|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pada tahun 1994, Amerika Serikat maluncurakan wahana ''[[Clementine (pesawat luar angkasa)|Clementine]]'' ka orbit Bulan, nang marupakan misi gabungan antara Departemen Pertahanan wan [[NASA]]. Misi naya bahasil mangudak peta topografi Bulan dalam jarak parak wan maambil gambar [[foto multispektral|multispektral]] parmukaan Bulan gasan panambaian.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clementine information|publisher=NASA|year=1994|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/cleminfo.html|accessdate=29 March 2010|archive-date=25 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925095846/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/cleminfo.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Misi naya diumpati misi ''[[Lunar Prospector]]'' pada tahun 1998, nang bahasil mahaga adanya kalabihan [[hidrogen]] di kutub Bulan, nang diduga diulah marga adanya banyu es babarapa meter di atas regolith di dalam kawah kadap parmanin.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lunar Prospector: Neutron Spectrometer|publisher=NASA|url=http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/neutron.htm|year=2001|accessdate=29 March 2010|archive-date=2010-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527105801/http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/neutron.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> ''[[SMART-1]]'', pasawat luar angkasa Eropa nang marupakan wahana [[propulsi ion|bertenaga ion]] kadua, baandak di orbit Bulan matan tanggal 15 November 2004, wan diampihakan imbah pangandalinya marumpak Bulan pada tanggal 3 September 2006. Misi ngini marupakan misi panambaian nang bahasil manyurvei sacara rinci unsur kimia di parmukaan Bulan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMSDE1A6BD_0.html|title=SMART-1 factsheet|date=26 February 2007|publisher=European Space Agency|accessdate=29 March 2010}}</ref> [[Tiongkok]] jua babujuran handak banar gasan maluncurakan [[Program Penjelajahan Bulan Tiongkok|program pamiritan Bulan]], dimulai lawan ''[[Chang'e 1]]'', nang bahasil maorbit Bulan matan tanggal 5 November 2007 sampai kaakhirannya marumpak Bulan tanggal 1 Maret 2009.<ref name="xinhua_20090301" /> Dalam misi salawas anam walas bulan, wahana ngini bahasil maambil foto Bulan sacara sabarataan. Tiongkok manyambung kabahasilan ngini lawan maluncurakan ''[[Chang'e 2]]'' pada bulan Oktober 2010, nang hampai di Bulan dua kali taancap pada ''Chang'e 1''. Misi ngini bahasil mamitaakan Bulan dalam resolusi nang tatinggi dalam waktu kikira walu bulan, imbahnya maninggalakan orbit Bulan gasan maitihi paluasan [[titik Lagrangian]] L2 Bumi-Matahari. Wahana ngini tarabang malintasi asteroid [[4179 Toutatis]] pada 13 Desember 2012, wan imbahnya langlam ka angkasa luar. Pada tanggal 14 Disimbir 2013, ''[[Chang'e 3]]'' manyambung misi pandahulunya lawan mangirimakan sabuting [[Lander (pesawat luar angkasa)|pendarat]] ka parmukaan Bulan, nang kaakhirannya maluncurakan saikung [[penjelajah Bulan]] bangaran ''Yutu'' (Mandarin: 玉兔; sacara tunggal hurufan artinya "Kelinci"). Damintu, ''Chang'e 3'' marupakan wahana panambaian nang manggawi pandaratan lunak di parmukaan Bulan matan ''[[Luna 24]]'' pada tahun 1976, wan jua misi panambaian nang maluncurkan [[rover (penjelajahan luar angkasa)|pamirit]] matan ''[[Lunokhod 2]]'' pada 1973. Tiongkok barancana gasan maluncurakan misi pamirit lainnya (''[[Chang'e 4]]'') pada tahun 2015, lawan misi paambilan sampel (''[[Chang'e 5]]'') pada tahun 2017. Antara tanggal 4 Oktober 2007 wan 10 Juni 2009, [[JAXA|Badan Penjelajahan Antariksa Jepang]] maluncurakan misi ''[[SELENE|Kaguya]] (Selene)'', pangorbit Bulan nang dilangkapi lawan kamera [[video definisi tinggi|video berdefinisi tinggi]] wan dua satelit pamancar radio halus. Misi ngini bahasil maulihi data geofisika Bulan wan maambil video berdefinisi tinggi matan luar orbit Bumi gasan panambaian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.selene.jaxa.jp/en/profile/index.htm|title=KAGUYA Mission Profile|publisher=JAXA|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2007/11/20071107_kaguya_e.html|title=KAGUYA (SELENE) World's First Image Taking of the Moon by HDTV|date=7 November 2007|publisher=Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation)|accessdate=13 April 2010|archive-date=2010-03-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316190341/http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2007/11/20071107_kaguya_e.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Misi pamiritan Bulan panambaian [[India]], ''[[Chandrayaan-1|Chandrayaan I]]'', maorbit Bulan matan tanggal 8 November 2008 sampai kahilangan kontak pada 27 Agustus 2009, nang manggawi pamitaan fotogeologi wan mineralogi parmukaan Bulan dalam resolusi tinggi. Misi ngini jua mahaga adanya molekul-molekul banyu di dalam tanah Bulan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isro.org/Chandrayaan/htmls/mission_sequence.htm|title=Mission Sequence|date=17 November 2008|publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref> [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] barancana gasan maluncurakan ''[[Chandrayaan II]]'' pada tahun 2013, nang jua dikawani lawan sabuting robot pamiritan Bulan ampun [[Rusia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isro.org/scripts/futureprogramme.aspx#Space|title=Indian Space Research Organisation: Future Program|publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://isro.org/pressrelease/Nov14_2007.htm|title=India and Russia Sign an Agreement on Chandrayaan-2|date=14 November 2007|publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation|accessdate=13 April 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217203828/http://isro.org/pressrelease/Nov14_2007.htm|archivedate=2007-12-17|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Tagal, kagagalan misi ''[[Fobos-Grunt]]'' Rusia maulah proyek ngini magalami panundaan. Misi Bulan masa hadapan nang lain adalah ''[[Luna-Glob]]'' Rusia; nang maliputi sabuting pandarat kada baurang, rangkaian seismometer, wan pengorbit nang sarupa lawan misi ''[[Fobos-Grunt]]'' Mars nang tawalangi.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/aw060506p2.xml|title = Russia Plans Ambitious Robotic Lunar Mission|last = Covault|first = C.|publisher = Aviation Week|date = 4 June 2006|accessdate = 12 April 2007|archive-date = 12 June 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060612215659/http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news%2Faw060506p2.xml|dead-url = yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/Top_News/2009-02-25/Russia_to_send_mission_to_Mars_this_year__Moon_in_three_years_.html|title=Russia to send mission to Mars this year, Moon in three years |date=25 February 2009|publisher="TV-Novosti"|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref> Pamiritan Bulan nang didanai swasta dikambangakan oleh [[Google Lunar X Prize]], diumumakan pada 13 Siptimbir 2007, nang manawarakan duit sanilai US$20&nbsp;juta gasan siapa haja nang kawa mandaratakan sabuting robot pamiritan di Bulan wan nang mahibaki katantuan nang lain.<ref>{{cite web|title=About the Google Lunar X Prize|publisher=X-Prize Foundation|url=http://www.googlelunarxprize.org/lunar/about-the-prize|year=2010|accessdate=24 March 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228024532/http://www.googlelunarxprize.org/lunar/about-the-prize|archivedate=2010-02-28|dead-url=no}}</ref> [[Shackleton Energy Company]] lagi mangambangakan sabuting program gasan manggawi operasi di kutub salatan Bulan dalam rangka mangumpulakan banyu gasan memasok [[Propellant Depot]] ampun buhannya.<ref>{{cite web | title = Mining the Moon's Water: Q&A with Shackleton Energy's Bill Stone | publisher = Space News | last = Wall | first = Mike | date = 14 January 2011 | url = http://www.spacenews.com/10619-mining-moon-water-bill-stone-110114.html }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Agustus 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> NASA [[Masa Depan Penjelajahan Luar Angkasa|barancana gasan manyambung misi baurang]] imbah adanya saruan matan Presiden AS [[George W. Bush]] pada tanggal 14 Januari 2004 gasan maluncurkan misi berawak ka Bulan pada tahun 2019, lawan maulah sabuting pangkalan di Bulan pada tahun 2024.<ref>{{cite press release|url = http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/bush_vision.html|title = President Bush Offers New Vision For NASA|date = 14 December 2004|publisher = NASA|accessdate = 12 April 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510062228/http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/bush_vision.html |date=10 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title = NASA Unveils Global Exploration Strategy and Lunar Architecture|publisher = NASA|date = 4 December 2006|url = http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/dec/HQ_06361_ESMD_Lunar_Architecture.html|accessdate = 12 April 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823131906/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/dec/HQ_06361_ESMD_Lunar_Architecture.html |date=23 August 2007 }}</ref> Tagal, program nitu diwalangi gasan rancana pandaratan baurang di sabuting asteroid pada tahun 2025 wan misi pengorbit [[Mars]] berawak nang rancananya pacangan diluncurakan pada tahun 2035.<ref>{{cite web|author=NASAtelevision |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rNn_cUrlmE |title=President Obama Pledges Total Commitment to NASA |publisher=YouTube |date=15 April 2010 |accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref> [[India]] jua manyatakan niatnya gasan mangirimakan misi baurang ka Bulan pada tahun 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.space.com/news/061110_india_mannedspace.html| publisher = SPACE.com|title = India's Space Agency Proposes Manned Spaceflight Program| date = 10 November 2006| accessdate =23 October 2008}}</ref> == Astronomi matan Bulan == Salawas batahunan, Bulan diakui sawagai lokasi nang bagus gasan [[teleskop]].<ref>{{cite web | last = Takahashi | first = Yuki | title = Mission Design for Setting up an Optical Telescope on the Moon | publisher = California Institute of Technology | date = September 1999 | url = http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/MoonTelescope/ | accessdate = 27 March 2011 | archive-date = 2015-11-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151106142659/http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/MoonTelescope/ | dead-url = yes }}</ref> Andakannya pina parak sampai [[panglihatan astronomi]] kada pacangan jadi masalah; kawah tatentu di parak kutub kadap wan dingin sacara permanen, wan lawan damintu babujuran bamanfaat gasan [[teleskop inframerah]]; wan [[teleskop radio]] di hadapan jauh pacangan talindung matan pamandiran radio di Bumi.<ref>{{cite web | last = Chandler | first = David | title = MIT to lead development of new telescopes on moon | work = MIT News | date = 15 February 2008 | url = http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/moonscope-0215.html | accessdate =27 March 2011}}</ref> [[Tanah Bulan]], meskipun menjadi kendala bagi bagian teleskop yang bergerak, bisa dicampur dengan [[karbon nanotube]] dan [[epoksi]].<ref>{{cite web | last = Naeye | first = Robert | title = NASA Scientists Pioneer Method for Making Giant Lunar Telescopes | publisher = Goddard Space Flight Center | date = 6 April 2008 | url = http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/lunar_telescopes.html | accessdate = 27 March 2011 | archive-date = 22 December 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101222142443/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/lunar_telescopes.html | dead-url = yes }}</ref> Sebuah [[teleskop zenith]] Bulan bisa dibuat dengan mudah menggunakan [[cairan ion]].<ref>{{cite web | last = Bell | first = Trudy | title = Liquid Mirror Telescopes on the Moon | work = Science News | publisher = NASA | date = 9 October 2008 | url = http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/09oct_liquidmirror/ | accessdate =27 March 2011}}</ref> Pada bulan April 1972, misi [[Apollo 16]] maambil babagai gambar astronomi wan spektrum [[ultraungu]] lawan mamakai [[Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_16/experiments/f_ultra/ |title=Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph |publisher=Lpi.usra.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> == Status hukum == {{main|Hukum ruang angkasa}} Bujur bandira ''[[Program Luna|Luna]]'' Uni Soviet tasabar di Bulan, wan [[bendera Amerika Serikat]] sacara simbolis ditajak di lokasi pandaratan oleh [[Daftar astronaut Apollo|astronaut Apollo]], kadada sabubuting nagara nang manyambat jadi ampun bagian parmukaan Bulan sampai wayah ini.<ref name="unoosa_q6" /> Rusia wan Amerika Serikat marupakan dua nagara nang manikin [[Perjanjian Luar Angkasa]] pada tahun 1967,<ref name="unoosa_q4" /> nang manyataakan bahwa Bulan wan kasabarataan luar angkasa adalah "[[warisan bersama umat manusia|prupinsi gasan sabarataan umat manusia]]".<ref name="unoosa_q6" /> Parjanjian ngini jua mawatasi pamanfaatan Bulan gasan tujuan damai, sacara eksplisit kada mambulihakan pamasangan sarana militer wan [[sanjata pamusnah massal]] di Bulan.<ref name="unoosa_q5" /> [[Perjanjian Bulan]] 1979 batujuan gasan mambatasi eksploitasi sumber daya Bulan oleh sabuting nagara, tagal parjanjian naya balum ditikin sabubuting nagara pamirit luar angkasa.<ref name="unoosa_moon" /> Bujur barapa urang sudah mangaku ampunnya sabaraan atawa sapalih parmukaan Bulan, tagal kadada sabubuting nang dianggap bujuran.<ref name="unoosa_q7" /><ref name="iisl_2004" /><ref name="iisl_2009" /> == Dalam budaya == {{Further|Bulan dalam fiksi|Almanak bulan|Deifikasi bulan|Efek bulan|Bulan biru|Bulan (pananggalan)}} [[Berkas:Moon-bonatti.png|jmpl|Luna, sang Rembulan, dari ''Liber astronomiae'' edisi 1550 karya [[Guido Bonatti]].]] [[Fase Bulan]] nang taatur manjadiakan inya sawagai panunjuk waktu nang pas banar, wan wayah muncul wan hilangnya Bulan di langit maulah dasar gasan sawagian ganal pananggalan bahari. [[Tongkat hitungan]], artefak tulang nang baumur pintangan 20-30.000 tahun, diparcaya oleh babarapa pihak sawagai pananda fase Bulan.<ref name="Marshack" /><ref>Brooks, A. S. and Smith, C. C. (1987): "Ishango revisited: new age determinations and cultural interpretations", ''The African Archaeological Review'', 5 : 65–78.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Duncan|first = David Ewing|title = The Calendar|url = https://archive.org/details/calendar5000year0000dunc_l8r5|year = 1998|publisher = Fourth Estate Ltd.|isbn = 978-1-85702-721-1|pages = [https://archive.org/details/calendar5000year0000dunc_l8r5/page/10 10]–11 }}</ref> ~30 hari dalam sabulan marupakan waktu pangiraan [[siklus Bulan]]. Dalam bahasa Inggris, kata banda ''month'' wan kata badangsanak dalam [[rumpun bahasa Jermanik|bahasa Jermanik]] lainnya baasal matan kata Proto-Jermanik ''*mǣnṓth-'', nang manunjukakan adanya pamakaian [[kalender bulan]] oleh [[bangsa Jermanik]] ([[kalender Jermanik]]) sabalum pamakaian [[almanak matahari]].<ref name="barnhart-and-germania" /><ref>{{cite book|author = Smith, William George|title = Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Oarses-Zygia|url = http://books.google.com/?id=PJ0YAAAAIAAJ|accessdate = 29 March 2010|volume = 3|year = 1849|publisher = J. Walton|page = 768 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author = Estienne, Henri|title = Thesaurus graecae linguae|url = http://books.google.com/?id=0qQ_AAAAcAAJ|accessdate = 29 Marit 2010|volume = 5|year = 1846|publisher = Didot|page = 1001 }}</ref> [[Berkas:Moonstar.jpg|jmpl|kiri|[[Bintang dan bulan sabit|Bulan sabit]] wan "bintang" (disini adalah planet [[Venus]]) marupakan [[simbol Islam]], ditampaiakan pada bandira nagara nang kaya: {{flag|Turkey|name=(Turki)}}, {{flag|Algeria|name=(Aljazair)}} wan {{flag|Pakistan|name=(Pakistan)}}.]] Bulan sudah manjadi pamandiran matan banyak ulahan seni wan sastra, lawan inspirasi gasan bidang seni lainnya. Bulan dijadiakan sawagai motif dalam seni visual, seni partunjukan, syair, prosa, wan musik. Sabuting ukiran batu baumur 5.000 tahun di [[Knowth]], [[Irlandia]], diduga manggambarakan Bulan, nang marupakan panggambaran Bulan paling pamulaan tahaga.<ref name="spacetoday" /> Palainan visual antara dataran tinggi nang tarang wan kawah ''[[Mare|maria]]'' nang kadap malahirkan pola nang diitih ulih sajumlah budaya sabagai sosok [[Manusia di Bulan]], [[Kalinci Bulan|kalinci]], hadangan, dan lain samacamnya. Dalam sahagian ganal budaya kuno wan prasajarah, Bulan diumpamakan sawagai [[Deifikasi bulan|saikung dewi]] atawa kajadian [[supernatural]] nang lain, wan [[Bulan (astrologi)|pandangan astrologi tahadap Bulan]] tatap tasabar sampai wayah ini. Bulan baisi paran panting dalam [[Islam]]; [[almanak Islam]] didasarakan pada pariode Bulan, wan di sahagian ganal nagara Muslim, pamulaan atawa pahabisan bulan ditantuakan oleh panampakan [[hilal]], atawa bulan sabit pamulaan, di atas cakrawala.<ref>{{cite web|title=Islamic Calendars based on the Calculated First Visibility of the Lunar Crescent|publisher=University of Utrecht|url=http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/islam_tabcal_hilal.htm|accessdate=2014-01-11}}</ref> [[Bintang wan bulan sabit]], nang pamulaannya marupakan simbol [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]], wayah ini dipakai sawagai simbol masyarakat Muslim. [[Mambalah bulan]] ({{lang-ar|انشقاق القمر}}) diparcaya oleh umat Muslim sawagai mukjizat nabi [[Muhammad]].<ref>"Muhammad." [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, p.13</ref> Bulan baisi hubungan nang panjang lawan kagilaan wan macam-macam nang kada masuk akal; dalam bahasa Inggris, kata ''lunacy'' wan ''lunatic'' (secara populer disingkat ''loony'', artinya gila) baasal matan kata [[bahasa Latin]] ''Luna'', nang baarti Bulan. Filsuf [[Aristoteles]] wan [[Pliny the Elder]] bapandapat pada [[bulan purnama]] manularakan kagilaan pada uurang nang rantan. Buhannya parcaya pada otak manusia, nang sahagian ganalnya tadiri matan banyu, dipangaruhi oleh Bulan nang manguasai [[pasang surut]], tagal gravitasi Bulan talalu halus gasan mamangaruhi saikung urang.<ref name="sciam" /> Malahan wayahini, uurang parcaya pada pasien rumah sakit jiwa, kacalakaan lalu lintas, kasus pambunuhan atawa bunuh diri pacangan maningkat wayah bulan purnama, bujur kadada bukti ilmiah nang mandukung parnyataan tarsabut.<ref name="sciam" /> {{clr}} == Itihi jua == {{Portal|Tata Surya}} {{Wikipedia books |1=Bulan |3=Tata Surya }} * [[Bulan Bumi nang lain]] * [[Ilusi bulan]] * [[Satelit alami]] * [[2006 RH120]] == Referensi == === Catatan === {{notes | notes = {{efn | name = maxval |''Nilai maksimum'' didasarakan pada skala katarangan matan nilai -12,74 nang dibariakan gasan jarak khatulistiwa ka pusat Bulan, atawa 378.000 manurut NASA, hingga jarak minimum Bumi-Bulan nang dicantumakan disini, imbah disasuaiakan lawan radius khatulistiwa Bumi, yakni 6.378, sahingga jaraknya adalah 350.600 km. Nilai minimum (wayah [[bulan hanyar]]) didasarakan pada skala nang sama lawan mamakai jarak Bumi-Bulan maksimum, atawa 407.000 km, wan lawan mahitung katarangan cahaya bulan wayah bulan hanyar. Katarangan cahaya bulan adalah {{nowrap|[[Albedo]] Bumi ×}} {{nowrap|([[radius bumi]] /}} Radius [[orbit Bulan]])²&nbsp;] rilatif tahadap pancahayaan langsung dari Matahari nang tajadi saat bulan purnama. ({{nowrap|Albedo Bumi {{=}} 0.367}}; {{nowrap|Radius Bumi {{=}} radius (kutub}}&nbsp;× {{nowrap|radius khatulistiwa)^½ {{=}} 6 367 km}}.) }} {{efn | name = angular size | Kisaran nilai ukuran buncu nang dicantumakan badasarakan pada skala sederhana matan nilai nang tadapat dalam referensi: jarak khatulistiwa Bumi ka pusat Bulan adalah 378.000 km, ukuran sudutnya adalah 1.896 [[detik busur]]. Referensi nang sama mancantumakan jarak ekstrem Bumi-Bulan adalah 407.000 km wan 357.km 000. Gasan manantuakan ukuran buncu maksimum, jarak minimum harus dikoreksi sasuai lawan radius khatulistiwa bumi, yakni 6.378 km, supaya hasilnya 350.600 km. }} {{efn | name = pressure explanation | Lucey ''et al.'' (2006) manyataakan {{nowrap|10⁷ partikel cm⁻³}} wayah siang hari wan {{nowrap|10⁵ partikel cm⁻³}} pada malam hari. Marga suhu permukaan khatulistiwa nang mencapai 390&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] pada siang hari wan 100&nbsp;K pada malam hari, [[hukum gas ideal]] mahasilakan tikinan nang sawagaimana nang dicantumakan pada kotak info (dibulatakan sampai mamaraki [[urutan magnitudo]]): 10⁻⁷&nbsp;[[Pascal (satuan)|Pa]] pada siang hari wan 10⁻¹⁰&nbsp;Pa pada malam hari. }} {{efn | name = near-Earth asteroids | Tadapat sajumlah [[asteroid parak Bumi]], tamasuk [[3753 Cruithne]], nang ma[[ko-orbit]] Bumi: orbit buhannya manjauhi Bumi gasan beberapa periode waktu tagal imbahnya manggawi paorbitan dalam waktu lawas (Morais et al, 2002). Adapula [[quasi-satelit]]&nbsp;– buhannya lain satelit marga buhannya kada maorbit Bumi. Gasan informasi talanjut, itihi [[Satelit Bumi nang lain]]. }} {{efn | name = Charon and Pluto | [[Charon (bulan)|Charon]] secara proporsional taganal gasan ukuran [[Pluto]], tagal Pluto imbah direklasifikasi sawagai [[planet katai]]. }} {{efn | name = age | Usia naya dihitung matan pananggalan isotop batuan Bulan. }} {{efn | name = orbpd | Nang pasnya, periode sidereal Bulan (bintang tatap ka bintang tatap) adalah 27,321661&nbsp;hari {{nowrap|(27h 07j 43m 11,5d)}}, wan periode orbit tropis rata-ratanya (dari ekuinoks ke ekuinoks) adalah 27,321582&nbsp;hari {{nowrap|(27h 07j 43m 04,7d)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, pada hal.107). }} {{efn | name = synpd | Nang pasnya, periode sinodis rata-rata Bulan (antara rata-rata konjungsi matahari) adalah 29,530589&nbsp;hari {{nowrap|(29h 12j 44m 02,9d)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, pada hal.107). }} {{efn | name = brightness | [[Magnitudo tampak]] Matahari adalah −26.7, wan magnitudo tampak bulan purnama adalah −12.7. }} {{efn | name = area | Sacara rata-rata, Bulan maliputi area saluas 0,21078 derajat parsagi di langit malam. }} {{efn | name = size changes | Itihi gambar di [[Matahari#Fase hidup]]. Wayah ini, diameter Matahari maningkat lawan laju pintangan lima parsen par miliar tahun. Angka ngini pina sama lawan laju diameter buncu Bulan nang bakurang marga surut matan Bumi. }} }} === Kutipan === {{reflist |colwidth = 30em |refs = <ref name="W06"> {{cite journal |last1 = Wieczorek |first1 = M. |title = The constitution and structure of the lunar interior |journal = Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume = 60 |issue = 1 |pages = 221–364 |year = 2006 |doi = 10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 |display-authors = 1 |author2 = <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> }} </ref> <ref name="Lang2011"> Lang, Kenneth R. (2011); [http://books.google.ca/books?id=S4xDhVCxAQIC&pg=PA184 ''The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System''], 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press </ref> <ref name="NSSDC">{{cite web |last = Williams |first = Dr. David R. |title = Moon Fact Sheet |publisher = [[NASA]] (National Space Science Data Center) |url = http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |date = 2 February 2006 |accessdate = 31 December 2008 |archive-date = 21 May 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200521064556/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |dead-url = yes }}</ref> <ref name="Saari"> {{cite journal |doi = 10.1364/AO.47.004981 |title = Celestial body irradiance determination from an underfilled satellite radiometer: application to albedo and thermal emission measurements of the Moon using CERES |year = 2008 |last1 = Matthews |first1 = Grant |journal = Applied Optics |volume = 47 |pages = 4981–93 |pmid = 18806861 |issue = 27 |bibcode = 2008ApOpt..47.4981M }} </ref> <ref name="Vasavada1999"> {{cite journal |author=A.R. 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What about non-governmental entities active in outer space, like companies and even individuals? |publisher = United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |accessdate =28 March 2010 }} </ref> <ref name="iisl_2004">{{cite web |url = http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |title = Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Property Rights Regarding The Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (2004) |year = 2004 |publisher = International Institute of Space Law |accessdate = 28 March 2010 |archive-date = 22 December 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091222021426/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |dead-url = yes }}</ref> <ref name="iisl_2009">{{cite web |url = http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |title = Further Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Lunar Property Rights (2009) |date = 22 March 2009 |publisher = International Institute of Space Law |accessdate = 28 March 2010 |archive-date = 22 December 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091222022107/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |dead-url = yes }}</ref> <ref name="Marshack"> Marshack, Alexander (1991): ''The Roots of Civilization'', Colonial Hill, Mount Kisco, NY. </ref> <ref name="barnhart-and-germania"> For etymology, see {{cite book|last = Barnhart|first = Robert K.|title = The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology|year = 1995|publisher = Harper Collins|isbn = 978-0-06-270084-1|page = 487 }} For the lunar calendar of the Germanic peoples, see {{cite book|last = Birley|first = A. R. (Trans.)|title = ''Agricola and Germany''|url = https://archive.org/details/agricolagermany00taci|series = Oxford World's Classics|year = 1999|publisher = Oxford|location = USA|isbn = 978-0-19-283300-6|page = [https://archive.org/details/agricolagermany00taci/page/108 108] }} </ref> <ref name="spacetoday"> {{cite web |url = http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Earth/OldStarCharts.html |title = Carved and Drawn Prehistoric Maps of the Cosmos |publisher = Space Today Online |year = 2006 |accessdate =12 April 2007 }} </ref> <ref name="sciam"> {{cite web |title = Lunacy and the Full Moon |publisher = Scientific American |year = 2009 |first1 =Scott O. |last1 = Lilienfeld |first2 = Hal |last2 = Arkowitz |url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=lunacy-and-the-full-moon |accessdate =13 April 2010 }} </ref> }} === Bibliografi === {{Refbegin}} * {{Anchor|CITEREFNeedham1986}}{{cite book|last = Needham|first = Joseph|title = Science and Civilization in China, Volume III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth|url = http://books.google.com/?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC|year = 1986|publisher = Caves Books|isbn = 978-0-521-05801-8|place = Taipei }} {{Refend}} {{Tata Surya}} [[Tumbung:Tata Surya]] [[Tumbung:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] hw88m6nlutxt84ncsmf7zzv7ga1jfph 0 18560 113340 65565 2026-08-07T19:15:15Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113340 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |image = Mimo pigra 080209-4579 ckoep.jpg |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] |ordo = [[Fabales]] |familia = [[Fabaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Caesalpinioideae]]<ref name="6subfamilies">{{cite journal | author = The Legume Phylogeny Working Group (LPWG). | year = 2017 | title = A new subfamily classification of the Leguminosae based on a taxonomically comprehensive phylogeny | url = https://archive.org/details/taxon_2017-02_66_1/page/44 | journal = [[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–77 | doi = 10.12705/661.3}}</ref> | unranked_tribus = [[Mimosoideae|Mimosoid clade]]<ref name="6subfamilies"/> |genus = ''[[Mimosa]]'' |species = '''''M. pigra''''' |binomial = ''Mimosa pigra'' |binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |}} '''''Mimosa pigra''''', nang dikanal sabagai '''susupan gunung''', adalah spesies matan genus ''[[Mimosa]]'', dalam kulawarga [[Fabaceae]]. Tanaman ngini asli [[Neotropics]], tetapi telah terdaftar sebagai salah satu dari 100 [[spesies invasif]] nang pamburuknya wan bantuknya padat, landap, baduri, kada tatambus, tautama di wilayah basah. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Tumbung:Mimosa|pigra]] [[Tumbung:Puhun matan Brazil]] 3vc0gz9nw80vtsb4262l6fd4w9sxubo 0 18602 113327 112492 2026-08-07T18:54:02Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |name = Ganja |image = Cannabis Plant.jpg |image_caption = | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Urticales]] | familia = [[Cannabaceae]] | genus = ''[[Cannabis]]'' | species = '''''C. sativa''''' | binomial = ''Cannabis sativa'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Subspesies]] | subdivision = ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa''{{br}}''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' |}} ''Ganja'' atawa '''mariyuana''' marupakan psikotropika nang mangandung tetrahidrokanabinol<ref name="Russo2013">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qH-2Lj9x7L4C&pg=PP28|title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential|last=Ethan B Russo|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-61493-4|page=28}}</ref> wan kanabidiol nang maulah pamakainya marasa'akan euforia. Ganja biasanya diulah manjadi ruku gasan dihisap supaya efek matan zatnya bariaksi. Tanaman samusim ngini tingginya kawa mancapai 2 mitir. Badaun manjari lawan kambang laki wan bini ada di tanaman balain (barumah dua). Kambangnya halus-halus dalam garumbungan di hujung ranting. Ganja kawa tumbuh di pagunungan tropis haja lawan katinggian di atas 1.000 meter di atas parmukaan laut. Ganja manjadi simbul budaya hippie nang suah tarkanal di [[Amirika Serikat|Amerika Serikat]]. Hal ngini biasanya dilambang'akan wan daun ganja nang bantuknya khas. Lain pada ngitu, ganja wan opium rancak jua disambat sabagai simbul balawan lawan arus galubalisasi nang dipaksa'akan nagara kapitalis gasan nagara bakambang. Di India, sapalih Sadu nang manyambah dewa Siwa mamakai produk ganja gasan manggawi ritual panyambahan lawan cara mahisap hasis lewat bong wan minum bhang. Mulai [[10 Disimbir|10 Desember]] [[2013]], Uruguay mambulihakan ganja gasan dijual wan ditukar wan dikonsumsi di nagara ngitu.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.metrotvnews.com/metronews/read/2013/12/11/7/200549/Uruguay-Legalkan-Konsumsi-Ganja|title=Uruguay Legalkan Konsumsi Ganja|date=11 Desember 2013|publisher=MetroTV News}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://internasional.kompas.com/read/2013/12/11/1347476/Uruguay.Negara.Pertama.yang.Legalkan.Perdagangan.Ganja|title=Uruguay Negara Pertama yang Legalkan Perdagangan Ganja|date=11 Desember 2013|publisher=Kompas}}</ref> == Kontroversi == Sapalihan nagara manggolong'akan tanaman ngini sabagai narkotika, biar kadada bukti bahwa pamakainya timbul jadi kacanduan, balain lawan ubat-ubatan tarlarang jenis lain nang mangguna'akan bahan-bahan sintetis atawa semisintetis nang merusak sel-sel otak. Di antara pangguna ganja, bamacam efek nang ditimbulakan, tarutama euforia. Maskipun dampak panggunaan ganja gasan kesehatan masih mamarluakan panalitian tarus manarus, tapi kadar tetrahidrokanabinol nang ada di ganja nang makin tinggi dari tahun ka tahun patut dijanaki. Kadar tetrahidrokanabinol nang ada di daun ganja dahulu bakisar antara 1% sampai 4%, wayah ini kadarnya kawa mancapai 7%. Bamakin maningkatnya kadar tetrahidrokanabinol kawa maulah urang makin lakas marasa'akan katargantungan lawan ganja.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/hidup-sehat/fakta-unik/apa-yang-terjadi-jika-mengisap-ganja-dalam-jangka-panjang/|title=Apa yang Terjadi Jika Rutin Mengisap Ganja Dalam Jangka Panjang? • Hello Sehat|date=2016-06-15|website=Hello Sehat|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> Efek nang kada baik sacara umum adalah pangguna timbul jadi koler wan otak timbul jadi lambat bapikir. Tapi, masalah ngini masih manjadi kontroversi, gara-gara kada sabarataan disapakati oleh babarapa kalumpuk tartantu nang mandukung ganja gasan medis wan ganja gasan rekreasi. Salain disambat kawa gasan paradam rasa sakit, wan pangubatan gasan panyakit tartantu (tamasuk kanker), banyak jua urang nang manyambat ada kanaikan kreativitas dalam bapikir lawan dalam bakarya apalagi babuhan seniman nang kaya palukis wan musisi. Kanaikan kreativitas dipangaruhi jua oleh jenis ganja nang dipakai. Efek nang ditimbul'akan bamacam-macam gasan satiap urang. Ada nang meaasa'akan efek nang maulah inya jadi koler, kalumpuk nang lain ada nang jadi cangkal, apalagi dalam bapikir kreatif (kada aktif sacara fisik nang kaya efek nang dihasilakan metamfetamin). Ngitu samunyaan tagantung kadar tetrahidrokanabinol nang takandung dalam ganja. Bamakin tinggi kadar tetrahidrokanabinol di dalam ganja, baarti bamakin ganal paubahan otak nang timbul wan risiko kacanduan pun makin banaik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://makassar.tribunnews.com/2015/08/02/kalau-remaja-konsumsi-ganja-begini-otaknya|title=Kalau Remaja Konsumsi Ganja, Begini Otaknya|website=Tribun Timur|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> Ganja kada tabukti sabagi sabab kamatian gara-gara zat nang takandung dalam ganja. Apalagi pas jaman bahari dianggap sabagai tanaman nang luar baisa nang parak samunya'an kawa dipakai gasan bamacam-macam kaparluan. Tapi, akibat ganja nang kadar tetrahidrokanabinol tinggi kawa maulah darah randah wan maulah hilang ingatan nang bawaktu satumat, percepatan detak jantung, bakurangnya kamampuan motorik, wan efek samping lain nang mahalangi kinerja awak dalam banyak kagiatan. Amun ngini tajadi haratan kundisi wan situasi lingkungan nang kawa mambahaya'akan kaya bakandaraan nang parlu kunsintrasi. Maka kacalakaan kawa timbul nang bapaluang ganal manimbulakan kamatian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rumahcemara.or.id/benarkah-overdosis-ganja-tidak-menyebabkan-kematian/|title=Benarkah Overdosis Ganja Tidak Sebabkan Kematian?|last=H|first=Patri|last2=oyo|website=Rumah Cemara|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> Pamakaian nang aman adalah mahitung batas wajar zat psikoaktif nang jangan sampai di atas kasanggupan awak ma'ambil zat ngitu, wan kada manggawi aktivitas nang mambahaya'akan jiwa gara-gara efek mamabuk'akan ganja nang malabihi mabuk alkohol atawa narkoba nang lain amun kadar tetrahidrokanabinol talalu tinggi gasan dihadapi oleh awak pamakainya. Dalam panalitian ilmiah nang mamakai mitudi tinjauan sistematis nang mambandingkan efektivitas ganja sanagai antimuntah, didapati hasil ganja dasar efektif gasan antiemetik dari pada prochlorperazine, metoclopramide, chlorpromazine, thiethylperazine, haloperidol, domperidone, atawa alizapride. Tapi pamakaiannya dibatasi banar dosisnya, gara-gara sapalih pasien ma'alami gajala efek psikotropika dari ganja nang babahaya banar kaya sakit kapala, depresi, halusinasi, paranoia, wan jua ''arterial hypotension''. == Pamanfaatan == [[Barakas:World-cannabis-laws.png|jmpl|450x450px|Ganja kada ditangati gasan wilayah bawarna biru, wan wilayah bawarna habang masih bastatus dilarang banar lawan aturan hukum nang katat wan barat]] Tumbuhan ganja sudah dikanal manusia mulai bahari wan dipakai gasan bahan tekstil gara-gara serat nang dihasil'akannya kuat. Biji ganja kawa jua dipakai gasan sumber minyak. Tapi, ganja dikanal jua sabagai sumber narkotika wan kagunaan ngini labih banilai ekonomi, karana dominan pemanfaatannya gasan hal nang basifat rekreasional. Di sapalih nagara pananaman wan kabaisian ganja sabarata'annya kada dibulihakan. Di sapalihan nagara lain, pananaman ganja dibulihakan gasan kapantingan medis wan baramian lawan syarat wan katantuan nang dipakai di nagara atawa wilayah ngitu. Sabalum ada larangan nang karas gasan pananaman wan kapamilikan lawan panggunaan ganja pas tahun 1976, di Aceh daun ganja manjadi komponen sayur nang umum disadiakan. Bagi nang mamakainya, daun ganja karing dibakar wan dihisap nang kaya ruku, wan kawa jua dihisap lawan alat khusus nang disambat bong. Di Indunisia, ganja digulung'akan narkutika gulungan satu manurut parundang-undangan nang balaku mulai tahun 1976 badasar'akan Undang-undang Nomor 9 Tahun 1976. Wayah ini, Undang-undang Nomor 35 Tahun 2009 dijadi'akan paduman hukum nang masih dipakai sampai wayah ini. Bamakin dunia bamaju pas jaman globalisasi, Indunisia kena maumpati jua lawan parkambangan jaman gasan mambulihakan pamakaian ganja gasan kaparluan medis nang kaya pamulaannya. Imbah ngitu, kaparluannya gasan pamakaian ekreasional pahabisannya. Indunisia pacangan mambulihakan ganja amun bangsanya sudah siap nang kaya kasiapan bangsa di nagara-nagara nang sudah mambulih'akannya. Amun balum tapanuhi kesiapannya, maka susunan kahidupan timbul jadi bamakin kacau. Hal nang kaya ngini nang ditakutan'akan oleh babuhan atau gulungan nang kahidupannya dalam status aman, nyaman, wan tantram hidupnya. Pambulihan alkohol haja di Indunisia saja masih maulah kaributan maskipun miras sudah dibulih'akan di Indonesia. Sapalih babuhan atawa urang urang nang mandukung dibulih'akannya ganja tarinspirasi gara-gara garaman nagara-nagara nang sudah mambulih'akan ganja, nang kaya Kanada wan sapalih nagara bagian di Amerika Sarikat. Tapi, buhannya ni bapikir gasan kaparluan rekreasinya wara, wan kada mamikirakan akibatnya amun nyaman banar baisi ganja nang kaya baisi tambakau gara-gara dibulih'akan di Indunisia. == Budidaya == Tanaman ngini kawa didapati dihampir sabarataan nagara tropis. Bahkan saaplih nagara baiklim dingin wahini sudah mulai mambudidaya'akannya dalam rumah kaca. Di [[Indunisia]], ganja dibudidaya'akan sacara ilegal di Aceh. Biasanya ganja ditanam pas pamulaan musim panghujan, imbah parak musim kamarau sudah kawa dipanen hasilnya. Hasil panen ganja bababtun daun berikut ranting wan kambang lawan buahnya barupa biji-biji nang halus. Campuran daun, ranting, kambang, wan buah nang sudah dikaringakan ngini nang biasa dilinting urang jadi nang kaya ruku. Amun kambang biniannya diekstrak, kawa mahasilakan damar kandal nang dingarani hasis. Deputi Pencegahan Badan Narkotika Nasional (BNN) Irjen Polisi Ali Djohardi Wirogiotoanja manyambat bahwa ganja nang tumbuh di Indunisia baisi kadar tetrahidrokanabinol paling tinggi di dunia, biar kada dibudidaya'akan sacara modern nang kaya di nagara-nagara maju nang sudah mambulihakan pamakaian ganja.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beritasatu.com/nasional/401493/bnn-ganja-indonesia-punya-thc-tertinggi|title=BNN: Ganja Indonesia Punya THC Tertinggi|last=BeritaSatu.com|website=beritasatu.com|language=id|access-date=2020-02-21|archive-date=2021-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330071900/https://www.beritasatu.com/nasional/401493/bnn-ganja-indonesia-punya-thc-tertinggi|dead-url=yes}}</ref> ‎Menteri Dalam Negeri (Mendagri), Tjahjo Kumolo manyambat ganja kualitasnya paling baik di dunia baasal matam Aceh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2017/10/18/ganja-aceh-terbaik-kualitasnya-di-dunia|title='Ganja Aceh Terbaik Kualitasnya di Dunia' - Tribunnews.com|website=m.tribunnews.com|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> Salain Aceh sabagai paringkat pamulaan panghasil ganja, ada Bengkulu sabagai paringkat kadua, [[Jambi]] paringkat katalu, wan Sumatra Utara sabagai provinsi nang ada diparingkat kaampat pemasok ganja di dunia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.riauonline.co.id/riau/kota-pekanbaru/read/2017/03/29/astaga-4-daerah-di-indonesia-ini-jadi-pemasok-ganja-dunia|title=Astaga, 4 Daerah di Indonesia Ini Jadi Pemasok Ganja Dunia|last=www.riauonline.co.id|website=RiauOnline|language=id|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> Kapolda Bengkulu Brigadir Jenderal Polisi M. Ghufron manyambat Bengkulu baisi lahan nang subur banar gasan ditanami ganja. Bahkan, ganja-ganja nang dihasilakan baisi kualitas tarbaik dibandingakan tanaman nang kaya itu jua dari daerah lain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pedomanbengkulu.com/2016/03/ganja-terbaik-dari-bengkulu-polda-giatkan-pemberantasan/|title=Ganja Terbaik Dari Bengkulu, Polda Giatkan Pemberantasan|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-02-21|archive-date=2020-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221214557/http://pedomanbengkulu.com/2016/03/ganja-terbaik-dari-bengkulu-polda-giatkan-pemberantasan/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Panalitian == Panalitian ganja marupakan sabuting hal manantang maraga tanaman ngini iligal di sapalihan nagara.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ponto LL | title = Challenges of marijuana research | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_brain_2006-05_129_5/page/1081 | journal = Brain | volume = 129 | issue = Pt 5 | pages = 1081–3 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16627464 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awl092 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Sampel obat gasan panalitian ngalih dicari, kacuali dibariakan di bawah lambaga pamarintah sasuai peraturan nasional, misalnya kaya ''Food and Drug Administration'' di Amirika Sarikat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Commissioner|first=Office of the|date=2020-10-01|title=FDA and Cannabis: Research and Drug Approval Process|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-and-cannabis-research-and-drug-approval-process|journal=FDA|language=en}}</ref> Masalah nang lainnya dalam manaliti efek ganja adalah banyak urang nang meruku pakai ganja, maruku tambakau jua.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peters EN, Budney AJ, Carroll KM | title = Clinical correlates of co-occurring cannabis and tobacco use: a systematic review | journal = Addiction | volume = 107 | issue = 8 | pages = 1404–17 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22340422 | pmc = 3377777 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03843.x }}</ref> Masalah ngini maulah panalitian jadi perancu, yaitu matan mana kanker timbul apakah tembakau, ganja, atawa kaduanya. Kesulitan nang lain nang dialami peneliti adalah mancari urang nang maruku ganja gasan ditaliti maraga ganja adalah ubat iligal di banyak nagara jadinya urang bisa koler jadi subjek panalitian wan amun satuju jadi subjek panalitianan, buhannya mungkin kada manyambatakan barapa banyak ganja nang sabujurnya buhannya hisap.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-08-30|title=About Cancer|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer|website=Cancer Research UK|language=en-gb|access-date=2021-02-14}}</ref> Sabuting tinjauan pas tahun 2015 manamuakan bahwa pamakaian ganja CBD wan THC nang tinggi manampaikan gajala pusitif nang jauh tasadikit, nang kaya delusi wan halusinasi, fungsi kognitif nang tabagus wan risiko nang tarandah gasan mangembangakan psikosis, lawan umur parlwanan lawan panyakit nang tatuha dibandingakan lawan ganja nang baisi rasio CBD wan THC randah.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Iseger TA, Bossong MG | title = A systematic review of the antipsychotic properties of cannabidiol in humans | journal = Schizophrenia Research | volume = 162 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 153–61 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25667194 | doi = 10.1016/j.schres.2015.01.033 | s2cid = 3745655 }}</ref> Panalitian pas tahun 2019 manamuakan bahwa penelitian tidak cukup untuk menentukan kaamanan wan kamanjuran pamakaian ganja gasan maubati skizofrenia, psikosis, atawa gangguan mental lainnya.<ref name="black">{{Cite journal|last1=Black|first1=Nicola|last2=Stockings|first2=Emily|last3=Campbell|first3=Gabrielle|last4=Tran|first4=Lucy T.|last5=Zagic|first5=Dino|last6=Hall|first6=Wayne D.|last7=Farrell|first7=Michael|last8=Degenhardt|first8=Louisa|date=December 2019|title=Cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=The Lancet. Psychiatry|volume=6|issue=12|pages=995–1010|doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30401-8|issn=2215-0374|pmc=6949116|pmid=31672337}}</ref><ref name="mayo">{{Cite journal|last1=VanDolah|first1=Harrison J.|last2=Bauer|first2=Brent A.|last3=Mauck|first3=Karen F.|date=September 2019|title=Clinicians' Guide to Cannabidiol and Hemp&nbsp;Oils|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=94|issue=9|pages=1840–1851|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2019.01.003|issn=1942-5546|pmid=31447137|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ada bukti pamulaan bahwa ganja mangganggu sifat antikoagulan ubat resep nang dipakai gasam maubati pambakuan darah.<ref name="Greger">{{cite journal | last1=Greger | first1=Jessica | last2=Bates | first2=Vernice | last3=Mechtler | first3=Laszlo | last4=Gengo | first4=Fran | title=A review of cannabis and interactions with anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents | journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology | volume=60 | issue=4 | pages=432–438 | issn=0091-2700 | doi=10.1002/jcph.1557 | pmid=31724188| year=2020 | s2cid=208019237 }}</ref> Pas tahun 2019, mekanisme gasan anti-inflamasi wan kamungkinan efek mahilangakan rasa sakit matan ganja kada ditantuakan wan kadada parsatujuan paraturan pamarintah atawa praktik klinis gasam pamakaian ganja sabagai ubat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=VanDolah|first=Harrison J.|last2=Bauer|first2=Brent A.|last3=Mauck|first3=Karen F.|date=2019-09-01|title=Clinicians’ Guide to Cannabidiol and Hemp Oils|url=https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(19)30007-2/abstract|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|language=English|volume=94|issue=9|pages=1840–1851|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2019.01.003|issn=0025-6196|pmid=31447137}}</ref> == Lihat jua == * Ganja di Indunisia * Kanabis * Hasis == Jujuhutan == {{Reflist}} == Pranala luar == * [https://www.leafly.com/sativa/aceh Ganja Aceh di situs web Leafly] * [https://www.cnnindonesia.com/laporanmendalam/nasional/20160919/demamganja-di-indonesia/index.php CNN Indonesia: Bersiasat dengan Ganja] [[Tumbung:Mariyuana]] [[Tumbung:Tanaman]] [[Tumbung:WikiBaiman]] nm1kloxbesu8t0810i55naog7piod87 0 18773 113326 102313 2026-08-07T18:53:14Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113326 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox spesies|subdivision_ranks=Genus|subdivision=* ''[[Alphacoronavirus]]''<br /> * ''[[Betacoronavirus]]''<br /> * ''[[Gammacoronavirus]]''<br /> * ''[[Deltacoronavirus]]''}}'''Koronavirus'''<ref name="glosarium-koronavirus">{{Id icon}} Glosarium Pusat Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia {{Cite web|url=http://bahasasastra.kemdikbud.go.id/glosarium/index.php?gloss_asing=&jenis=exact&Bidang=all&infocmd=Cari&gloss_indonesia=koronavirus|title=Entri lema '''koronavirus'''|access-date=3 Februari 2020|archive-date=2020-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403235133/http://bahasasastra.kemdikbud.go.id/glosarium/index.php?gloss_asing=&jenis=exact&Bidang=all&infocmd=Cari&gloss_indonesia=koronavirus|dead-url=yes}}</ref> atawa '''''coronavirus ''''' (istilah takanalnya: '''virus korona''', '''virus ''corona''''', atawa '''virus ''Corona''''') adalah sagarumbungan pirus matan subpamili ''Orthocoronavirinae'' dalam kulawarga ''Coronaviridae'' wan urdu ''Nidovirales''.<ref name="groot">{{Cite book|title=Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|vauthors=de Groot RJ, Baker SC, Baric R, Enjuanes L, Gorbalenya AE, Holmes KV, Perlman S, Poon L, Rottier PJ, Talbot PJ, Woo PC, Ziebuhr J|publisher=Elsevier|year=2011|isbn=978-0-12-384684-6|veditors=King AM, Lefkowitz E, Adams MJ, Carstens EB, ((International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)), ((International Union of Microbiological Societies. Virology Division))|location=Oxford|pages=806–828|chapter=Family ''Coronaviridae''|author-link2=Susan Baker (virologist)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://talk.ictvonline.org/files/ictv_documents/m/msl/1231/download.aspx|title=ICTV Master Species List 2009 – v10|last=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|date=24 Agustus 2010|format=xls|access-date=2020-03-26|archive-date=2013-04-15|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415045936/http://talk.ictvonline.org/files/ictv_documents/m/msl/1231/download.aspx|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Kalumpuk pirus ngini nang kawa maulah [[Garing|panyakit]] lawan [[burung]] wan mamalia (tamasuk [[manusia]]).<ref name="c">{{En}} {{Cite book|title=Viral membrane proteins: structure, function, and drug design|last=Wolfgang B. Fischer|first=|publisher=Springer|year=2005|location=|id=ISBN 978-0-306-48495-7|author-link=|coauthors=}}Page.49-52</ref> Pada manusia, koronavirus maulah panjangkitan saluran pahinakan nang rancaknya kada parah, nang kaya salismaan, saupama sapalih tawas panyakit kaya babarapa SARS, MERS, wan COVID-19 sipatnya labih mamati'i. Manipistasi kalinis nang timbul bamacam-macam pada sapasias nang lain: pada [[hayam]], koronavirus maulah panyakit saluran pahinakan atas, amun [[sapi]] wan babi maulah bahiraan. Koronavirus adalah pirus basalubung lawan ginum RNA utas tunggal plus wan nukleokapsid batawas hiliks simitris. Jumlah ginum koronavirus kikira antara 27–34 kilu pasangan basa, pangganalnya di antara virus RNA nang dikatahuani.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Sexton NR, Smith EC, Blanc H, Vignuzzi M, Peersen OB, Denison MR|date=Agustus 2016|title=Homology-Based Identification of a Mutation in the Coronavirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase That Confers Resistance to Multiple Mutagens|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=90|issue=16|pages=7415–7428|quote=CoVs also have the largest known RNA virus genomes, ranging from 27 to 34 kb (31, 32), and increased fidelity in CoVs is likely required for the maintenance of these large genomes (14).}}</ref> Ngaran koronavirus babibit matan basa Latin ''corona'' nang baarti mahkuta, nang marujuk lawan ampaian partikal pirus (virion): pirus ngini baisi pinggiran nang maingatakan lawan mahkuta atawa kuruna [[matahari]]. == Panamuan == Koronavirus ditamu'akan pas 1960-an.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.caringlyyours.com/coronavirus/|title=Coronavirus: Common Symptoms, Preventive Measures, & How to Diagnose It|date=2020-01-28|website=Caringly Yours|language=en-US|access-date=28 Januari 2020|archive-date=2020-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306140702/https://www.caringlyyours.com/coronavirus/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Virus nang paling pamulaan ditamui adalah virus bronkitis infeksius pada ayam wan dua virus dari rongga hidung manusia lawan flu biasa nang kenanya dibari ngaran ''human coronavirus 229E'' wan ''human coronavirus OC43''.<ref name="pmid23202515">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Geller C, Varbanov M, Duval RE|date=November 2012|title=Human coronaviruses: insights into environmental resistance and its influence on the development of new antiseptic strategies|journal=Viruses|volume=4|issue=11|pages=3044–68}}</ref> Imbah nnag itu, anggota koronavirus nang lain mulai diidentifikasi, tamasuk ''SARS-CoV'' pas 2003, ''HCoV NL63'' paa 2004, ''HKU1'' pas 2005, ''MERS-CoV'' (panambayannya dikanal sabagai 2012-nCoV) pas 2012, dan ''SARS-CoV-2'' (panambayannya dikanal sabagai 2019-nCoV) pas 2019; sapalih dari virus-virus ini kabanyakan takait lawan infeksi saluran pahinakan nang sarius. == Nama wan morfologi == Nama koronavirus ba'asal matan basa Latin ''corona'' aan bahasa Yunani κορώνη (korṓnē, "lingkaran, untaian"), nang ba'arti mahkota atawa lingkaran cahaya. Namanya ba'acuan lawan panampilan karakteristik virion (bantuk infektif virus) dalam mikroskop elektron, nang memproyeksikan pinggiran parmukaan virus nang ganal wan bulat nang mahasil'akan gambar nang maingatakan lawan mahkota atau korona matahari. Morfologi ngiini diulah oleh peplomer tonjolan protein permukaan virus (S), nang manantu'akan tropisme inang. Protein nang manyusun struktur koronavirus yaitu protein tonjolan (''spike'') (S), amplop (E), membran (M), wan nukleokapsid (N). Khusus pada virus SARS, andak pangikatan reseptor pada protein S memediasi perlekatan virus ke reseptor sel inangnya yaitu, enzim pengubah angiotensin (ACE2).<ref name="li">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Li F, Li W, Farzan M, Harrison SC|date=September 2005|title=Structure of SARS coronavirus spike receptor-binding domain complexed with receptor|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/bbedaafec1ea70e9ae405d1f2ac4c143951630bc|journal=Science|volume=309|issue=5742|pages=1864–8}}</ref> Sapalih koronavirus (khususnya anggota ''Betacoronavirus'' garis katurunan A) baisi jua tonjolan protein pendek nang dingarani hemaglutinin esterase (HE).<ref name="groot"/> == Panularan == Panularan koronavirus dari manusia ke manusia diparkirakan tajadi malalui tatamuan langsung dalam jarak nang paraka lewat tetesan kihit atawa percikan (''droplet'') matan saluran pahinakan nang dihasilakan panderita haratan wahin wan batuk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/transmission.html|title=Transmission of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) {{!}} CDC|date=2020-01-31|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=1 Februari 2020}}</ref> == Taksonomi == Nama ilmiah gasan koronavirus adalah ''Orthocoronavirinae'' atawa ''Coronavirinae''.<ref name="2017.012-015S">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/2017.012_015S.A.v1.Nidovirales.zip|title=2017.012-015S|date=October 2018|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en|format=xlsx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514162836/https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/2017.012_015S.A.v1.Nidovirales.zip|archive-date=14 May 2019|access-date=24 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="OrthocoronavirinaeICTV">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org//taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201851847|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: ''Orthocoronavirinae''|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en|access-date=24 January 2020|archive-date=25 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125012731/https://talk.ictvonline.org//taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201851847|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="FanZhao2019">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fan Y, Zhao K, Shi ZL, Zhou P|date=March 2019|title=Bat Coronaviruses in China|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=3|pages=210}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Genus !Subgenus !Spesies !Inang |- | rowspan="17" |''Alphacoronavirus'' |''Colacovirus'' |''Bat coronavirus CDPHE15'' |kelelawar |- | rowspan="2" |''Decacovirus'' |''Bat coronavirus HKU10'' |kelelawar |- |''Rhinolophus ferrumequinum alphacoronavirus HuB-2013'' |kelelawar |- |''Duvinacovirus'' |''Human coronavirus 229E'' |manusia |- |''Luchacovirus'' |''Lucheng Rn rat coronavirus'' |rodensia |- | rowspan="2" |''Minacovirus'' |''Ferret coronavirus'' |''ferret'' |- |''Mink coronavirus 1'' |''mink'' |- | rowspan="2" |''Minunacovirus'' |''Miniopterus bat coronavirus 1'' |kelelawar |- |''Miniopterus bat coronavirus HKU8'' |kelelawar |- |''Myotacovirus'' |''Myotis ricketti alphacoronavirus Sax-2011'' |kelelawar |- |''Nyctacovirus'' |''Nyctalus velutinus alphacoronavirus SC-2013'' |kelelawar |- | rowspan="2" |''Pedacovirus'' |''Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus'' |babi |- |''Scotophilus bat coronavirus 512'' |kelelawar |- |''Rhinacovirus'' |''Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2'' |kelelawar |- | rowspan="2" |''Setracovirus'' |''Human coronavirus NL63'' |manusia |- |''NL63-related bat coronavirus strain BtKYNL63-9b'' |kelelawar |- |''Tegacovirus'' |''Alphacoronavirus 1'' |anjing, kucing, babi |- | rowspan="12" |''Betacoronavirus'' | rowspan="4" |''Embecovirus'' |''Betacoronavirus 1'' |manusia, sapi, kuda, babi |- |''China Rattus coronavirus HKU24'' |rodensia |- |''Human coronavirus HKU1'' |manusia |- |''Murine coronavirus'' |rodensia |- |''Hibecovirus'' |''Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013'' |kelelawar |- | rowspan="4" |''Merbecovirus'' |''Hedgehog coronavirus 1'' |landak susu |- |''Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' |manusia, unta |- |''Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5'' |kelelawar |- |''Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4'' |kelelawar |- | rowspan="2" |''Nobecovirus'' |''Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1'' |kelelawar |- |''Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9'' |kelelawar |- |''Sarbecovirus'' |''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' |manusia, kelelawar, ''viverridae'' |- | rowspan="2" |''Gammacoronavirus'' |''Cegacovirus'' |''Beluga whale coronavirus SW1'' |paus |- |''Igacovirus'' |''Avian coronavirus'' |burung |- | rowspan="7" |''Deltacoronavirus'' |''Andecovirus'' |''Wigeon coronavirus HKU20'' |burung |- | rowspan="4" |''Buldecovirus'' |''Bulbul coronavirus HKU11'' |burung |- |''Coronavirus HKU15'' |babi |- |''Munia coronavirus HKU13'' |burung |- |''White-eye coronavirus HKU16'' |burung |- |''Herdecovirus'' |''Night heron coronavirus HKU19'' |burung |- |''Moordecovirus'' |''Common moorhen coronavirus HKU21'' |burung |} == Koronavirus manusia == Koronavirus diyakini maulah 15-30% matan samunyaan salismaan urang tuha wan [[kakanakan]].<ref name="pmid25720466">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fehr AR, Perlman S|year=2015|title=Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis|journal=Methods in Molecular Biology|volume=1282|pages=1–23|isbn=978-1-4939-2437-0}}</ref> Koronavirus meayababkan salismaan lawan gajala utama nang kaya panas awak wan sakit tanggorokan gara-gara pambangkakan adenoid, tautama pas musim dingin wan pamulaan musim semi.<ref>{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|vauthors=Liu P, Shi L, Zhang W, He J, Liu C, Zhao C, Kong SK, Loo JF, Gu D, Hu L|date=November 2017|title=Prevalence and genetic diversity analysis of human coronaviruses among cross-border children|journal=Virology Journal|language=En|volume=14|issue=1|pages=230}}</ref> Koronavirus kawa manyababkan pneumonia, baik pneumonia virus langsung atawa pneumonia bakterial sekunder, dan dapat menyebabkan bronkitis, baik bronkitis virus langsung atawa bronkitis bakterial sekunder.<ref name="pmid19199189">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Forgie S, Marrie TJ|date=February 2009|title=Healthcare-associated atypical pneumonia|journal=Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine|volume=30|issue=1|pages=67–85}}</ref> Koronavirus manusia nang ditamu'akan paa tahun 2003, SARS-CoV, nang maulah sindrom ngalih banar bahinak (SARS), baisi patogenesis nang unik karena manyababkan infeksi saluran pernapasan bagian atas wan bawah. Balum ada vaksin atawa obat antivirus gasan mancagah atawa maobati infeksi koronavirus manusia.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Habibzadeh P, Stoneman EK|date=February 2020|title=The Novel Coronavirus: A Bird's Eye View|journal=The International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine|volume=11|issue=2|pages=65–71}}</ref> Tujuh jenis koronavirus manusia nang wayah ini dikatahui: # ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-229E) # ''Human coronavirus OC43'' (HCoV-OC43) # Koronavirus sindrom pernapasan akut berat (SARS-CoV) # ''Human coronavirus NL63'' (HCoV-NL63, New Haven coronavirus) # ''Human coronavirus HKU1'' # Koronavirus terkait sindrom pernafasan Timur Tengah (MERS-CoV), nang panambayannya dikenal sabagai ''novel coronavirus 2012'' dan HCoV-EMC # Koronavirus sindrom pernapasan akut berat 2 ([[SARS-CoV-2]]), panambayannya dikenal sabagai ''2019-nCoV'' atawa "novel coronavirus 2019" Koronavirus HCoV-229E, -NL63, -OC43, wan -HKU1 batambah tarus dalam populasi manusia aan manyababkan infeksi pahinakan apda urang tuha wan kakanakan di samunyaan dunia.<ref name="pmid29551135">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Corman VM, Muth D, Niemeyer D, Drosten C|date=2018|title=Hosts and Sources of Endemic Human Coronaviruses|journal=Advances in Virus Research|volume=100|issue=|pages=163–188}}</ref> == Wabah panyakit == Sapalih wabah koronavirus lawan mortalitas nang relatif tinggi adalah sabagai barikut: {| class="wikitable" !Wabah !Jenis virus !Kematian |- |Wabah SARS 2003 |SARS-CoV |774<ref name="PMID 16978751">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith RD|date=Desember 2006|title=Responding to global infectious disease outbreaks: lessons from SARS on the role of risk perception, communication and management|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-science-medicine_2006-12_63_12/page/3113|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=63|issue=12|pages=3113–23}}</ref> |- |Wabah MERS 2012 |MERS-CoV |Lebih dari 400<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/csr/disease/coronavirus_infections/MERSCoVCaseControlStudyofExposures28March2014.pdf?ua=1|title=Case‐control study to assess potential risk factors related to human illness caused by the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV)|date=28 Maret 2014|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> |- |Wabah MERS 2015 di Korea Selatan |MERS-CoV |36<ref name="who">{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/csr/don/25-october-2015-mers-korea/en/|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) – Republic of Korea|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|access-date=1 Desember 2016}}</ref> |- |Wabah MERS 2018 |MERS-CoV |41 |- |Pandemi koronavirus 2019–2020 |SARS-CoV-2 |Paling tidak 19.700++[23] |} ==Infeksi pada binatang== Koronavirus sudah dipinandui wan dikatahui jadi panyabab kondisi patologi di [[kedokteran hewan]] mulai matan tahun 1930. Buhannya mainfiksi bamacam binatang tamasuk babi, sapi, kuda, unta, kucing, anjing, tikus, burung wan kalalawar.<ref name=":14">{{cite book |title=Fenner's Veterinary Virology |date=2017 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-800946-8 |pages=435–461 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128009468000246 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 24 - Coronaviridae|edition=Fifth |s2cid=219575461 }}</ref> Kabanyakannya binatang nang kana koronavirus tainfeksi di [[Saluran panagukan]] wan manyabar muntung lawan tahi.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Murphy FA, Gibbs EP, Horzinek MC, Studdart MJ |title=Veterinary Virology |publisher=Academic Press |location=Boston |year=1999|pages=495–508 |isbn=978-0-12-511340-3}}</ref> Panalitian nang ada labih fokus gasan manjalasakan [[Patogen Vital]] nang ada dalam binatang nang takana koronavirus, apalagi [[virologis]] nanag tatarik lawan kaduktiran lawan panyakit nang ada di binatang.<ref name="pmid20627412">{{cite journal|vauthors=Tirotta E, Carbajal KS, Schaumburg CS, Whitman L, Lane TE|date=July 2010|title=Cell replacement therapies to promote remyelination in a viral model of demyelination|journal=Journal of Neuroimmunology|volume=224|issue=1–2|pages=101–07}}</ref> == Catatan Batis == {{Reflist|2}} [[Tumbung:WikiBaiman]] dynvqvh4aymsnbnsivdt5d9m0gucu8r 0 21064 113339 105706 2026-08-07T19:13:54Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113339 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:QuasarStarburst.jpg|jmpl|Sabuting banda kawa disambat kuasar amun inya kawa mamancarakan energi ganal dalam galumbang elektromagnetik nang lain.]] '''Kuasar''' ([[bahasa Inggris]]: '''''quasar''''', dipinandui jua lawan ngaran '''quasi-stellar object''', disingkat '''QSO''') marupakan hinti galaksi aktif nang énérgétik banar wan kuat banar. Objék ngini mamancarakan énérgi nang liwar ganalnya. Tapi maraga jaraknya nang liwar jauhnya matan [[bumi]], kuasar pacangan nang kaya bintang biasa amun diitihi pakai teleskop. Sabuting kuasar kawa mahasilakan tarang saratus kali labih banyaknya pada sabarataan galaksi Bimasakti dalam ruang nang kada tapi ganal pada tata surya. Haratan gas tahisap wan mamaraki [[lubang hirang]], gas ngitu bapanas maraga friksi, wan bapijar nyarak banar nang maulah cahaya ngini kawa diitihi matan sisi alam samasta lainnya. Kuasar rancak tanyarak amun dibandingakan lawan kasamunyaan galaksi andak kuasar nang ngitu. Karaktaristik kuasar masih manjadi mistérius, tapi mulai tahun 1980-an, Babuhan astronom sudah mancubai manguaknya.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Angkasa|first=Pengembara|date=2012-08-03|title=Apa itu Quasar?|url=https://langitselatan.com/2012/08/03/apa-itu-quasar/|website=langitselatan|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref> == Asal ngaran == Istilah ''quasar'' diambil matan singkatan gasan ''quasi-stellar [star-like] radio source'' ("sumber (gelombang) radio nang kaya bintang"), maraga pas pamula'an ditamui pas dékadé 1950-an, kuasar dianggap sabagai sumber émisi galumbang radio nang kawa dipinandui asal-usul fisiknya, wan pas sudah diidéntifikasi malalui citra fotografi di panjang-galumbang kaliatan panampakannya manyarupai titik cahaya bintang nang kirip. Istilah ngini pamulaannnya dipakai dalam artikel saurang [[astrofisikawan]] bangaran [[Hong-Yee Chiu]] pas bulan Mei 1964 di ''[[Physics Today]]'', gasan manjalasakan sapalihan teka-teki objék astronomi:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiu |first1=Hong-Yee |title=Gravitational collapse |url=https://archive.org/details/physics-today_1964-05_17_5/page/21 |journal=Physics Today |volume=17 |issue=5 |page=21 |doi=10.1063/1.3051610 |year=1964 |bibcode=1964PhT....17e..21C }}</ref> {{quote|Gasan pahadangan ini, ngaran panjang nang pina canggung "quasi-stellar radio sources" dipakai gasan manjalasakan objek ngini. Maraga sifat matan objek ngini masih kada dipinandui, ngalih rasanya amun manyiapakan masalah kisah objek ngini dalam waktu nang lakas wan tata ngaran nang sasuai gasan buhannya sakira sifat hinti matan objek ngini jalas wan sasui. Sakira nyaman singkatan "quasar" dipakai gasan objek ngini disamunyaan makalah ngini.}} == Peran kuasar di sistem referensi antariksa == [[Barakas:Quasar HE 0109-3518.tiff|jmpl|Radiasi énérgi matan kuasar maulah galaksi nang kadap talihat bacahaya, hal ngini mambantu babuhan astronom mamahami formasi pambantukan awal galaksi. <ref>{{cite news|title=Dark Galaxies of the Early Universe Spotted for the First Time |url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1228/|access-date=13 July 2012|newspaper=ESO Press Release}}</ref> ]] Maraga kuasar jaraknya liwar jauhnya, tarang banar, lawan pas dilihati pina halus, kuasar bamanfaat banar gasan jadi titik referensi dalam maukur jaringan di galaksi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/ICRS_doc.php |title=ICRS Narrative |access-date=2012-06-07 |publisher=<!---http://aa.usno.navy.mil/index.php--->U.S. Naval Observatory Astronomical Applications |archive-date=2011-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709100504/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/ICRS_doc.php |dead-url=yes }}</ref> [[International Celestial Reference System]] (ICRS) diulah badasarakan matan ratusan sumber radio ekstra nang kabanyakannya baasal matan kuasar nang ada disakaliling samunyaan galaksi. Maraga jarak kuasar nang liwar jauhnya, kuasar talihat kaya kadada bagarak amun mamakai téknologi kita wayah ini, tapi andak buhannya kawa diukur lawan akurasi nang tinggi mamakai rumus [[very-long-baseline interferometry]] (VLBI). Andaknya biasanya mamakai skala 0.001 [[arc minute|arcsekon]] atawa nang tabaik pada ngitu nang dipakai gasan paukurang nang tahawas pada alat ukur optik nang lainnya. == Catatan Batis == <references /> == Pranala luar == * [http://www.aavso.org/vstar/vsots/ 3C 273: Variable Star Of The Season] * [http://www.sky-map.org/?object=3C%20273&zoom=12&img_source=SDSS SKY-MAP.ORG SDSS image of quasar 3C 273] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127170706/http://www.sky-map.org/?object=3C%20273&zoom=12&img_source=SDSS |date=2020-11-27 }} * [http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-DSO-Quasars.htm Expanding Gallery of Hires Quasar Images] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170208212333/http://classic.sdss.org/gallery/ Gallery of Quasar Spectra from SDSS] * [http://cas.sdss.org/dr6/en/proj/advanced/quasars/default.asp SDSS Advanced Student Projects: Quasars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717210614/http://cas.sdss.org/dr6/en/proj/advanced/quasars/default.asp |date=2011-07-17 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080517091731/http://hubblesite.org/go/blackholes Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull] Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute * [http://www.astronomycast.com/astronomy/galaxies/ep-98-quasars/ Audio: Fraser Cain/Pamela L. Gay – Astronomy Cast. Quasars – July 2008] * {{Cite web|last=Merrifield|first=Michael|last2=Copland, Ed|title=z~1.3 – An implausibly large structure [in the Universe]|url=http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/largest_structure_universe.htm|website=Sixty Symbols|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]}} [[Tumbung:Astronomi radio]] 8lqtois7htwebedqa00a1j4v5zh2hq5 0 21069 113332 91203 2026-08-07T19:01:08Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113332 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:Jupiter New Horizons.jpg|jmpl|[[Jupiter|Musytari]] dikudak ulih [[New Horizons]] pas bulan Januari 2007]] [[Barakas:Saturn Equinox 09212014.jpg|jmpl|[[Saturnus|Zuhal]] di equinox dikudak ulih ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' pas bulan Agustus 2009]] '''Rakasasa gas''' adalah [[planet raksasa]] nang utamanya tardiri matan [[hidrogen]] wan [[helium]].<ref name="dl2018">{{cite book|last=D'Angelo|first=G.|author2=Lissauer, J. J.|chapter=Formation of Giant Planets | title=Handbook of Exoplanets |publisher=Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature| editor=Deeg H., Belmonte J. |pages= 2319–2343|date=2018|s2cid=116913980}}</ref> Raksaaa gas kadang dipinandui jua lawan ngaran '''bintang gagal''' maraga planet ngini baisi kandungan elemen dasar nang sama lawan [[bintang]]. [[Jupiter|Musytari]] wan [[Saturnus|Zuhal]] marupakan raksasa gas nang ada di [[Tata Surya|Tata Suria]]. Istilah "raksasa gas" pamulaannya adalah parsamaan kata "planet raksasa", tapi pas tahun 1990-an dipinandui bahwa [[Uranus]] wan [[Neptunus]] marupakan planet raksasa nang kalasnya balain,sapalihan ganal tabantuk matan zat volatil nang tabarat (nang disambat sabagai "es"). Maraga hal ngini, Uranus wan Neptunus wayah ini tarancak diklasifikasiakan di kategori nang balain, yaitu sabagai [[raksasa es]].<ref>National Aeronautics and Space Administration website, [https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/neptune/overview/#ten_things_to_know_about_neptune_otp Ten Things to Know About Neptune]</ref> == Terminologi == Istilah ''raksasa gas'' diulah pas tahun 1952 ulih panulis sains fiksi [[James Blish]]<ref>Science Fiction Citations, [http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/52 Citations for gas giant n.]</ref> wan awalnya dipakai gasan manjalasakan sabarataan [[planet raksasa]]. Hal ngini kawa disambat sabagai sasuatu nang salah pangartian maraga dalam barataan volume planet raksasa takanannya tinggi banar jadi kada sabarataan materinya babantuk gas.<ref name=ddl2011> {{cite book | last = D'Angelo | first = G. | author2 = Durisen, R. H. | author3 = Lissauer, J. J. | date = 2011 | chapter = Giant Planet Formation | editor = S. Seager. | title = Exoplanets | chapter-url = http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/Books/bid2263.htm | publisher = University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ | pages = 319–346 | arxiv = | bibcode = }}</ref> Lain pada kandungan material solid di hinti wan lapisan pamukaan atmosfirnya, sabarataan materinya diatas [[poin kritis (thermodynamics)#Liquid–vapor critical point|poin kritis]], dimana disana kadada jarak antara cairan wan gas.<ref name=dangelo2021>{{cite journal|last=D'Angelo|first=G.|author2=Weidenschilling, S. J. |author3=Lissauer, J. J. |author4=Bodenheimer, P. |title=Growth of Jupiter: Formation in disks of gas and solids and evolution to the present epoch|journal=Icarus|date=2021|volume=355|pages=114087}}</ref> Tapi istilah ngini jadi tarkanal, maraga ilmuwan planet biasanya mamakai "babatuan", "gas", wan "es" gasan singkatan matam kalas unsur wan sanyawa nang umumnya ditamui sabagai konstituen planet, talapas matan apa [[fase materi | fase]] materi nang kawa cungul di Tata Suria bagian luar, hidrogen wan helium disambat sabagai "gas"; banyu, mitana, wan amunia sabagai "es"; wna silikat wan lugam sabagai "batu". Maraga Uranus wan Neptunus kabanyakan tardiri matan materi nang solid maka dalam terminologi ini es tapas dipakai pada gas, buhannya makin rancak disambat sabagai [[raksasa es]] wan tapisah matan raksasa gas. == Tata suria Ekstra == [[File:Artist's impression of a gas giant planet forming in the disc around the young star HD 100546.jpg|thumb|Panggambatan palukis masalah furmasi raksasa gas di parak bintang [[HD 100546]]]] === Raksasa gas dingin === Raksasa gas nang sugih hidrogennya taganal pada planet Musytari tapi kada tabarat pada {{Earth mass|link=yes|500}} ({{Jupiter mass|link=yes|1.6}}) pacangan taganal sadikit di volumenya pada Musytari.<ref name=Seager2007> {{cite journal | last = Seager | first = S. | author2 = Kuchner, M. | author3 = Hier-Majumder, C. A. | author4 = Militzer, B. | date = 2007 | title = Mass-Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-11-10_669_2/page/1279 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 669 | issue = 2 | pages = 1279–1297 | arxiv = | bibcode = | doi = | s2cid = 8369390 }}</ref> Gasan massa nang labih pada {{Earth mass|500}}, [[gravitasi]] pacangan maulah planet bakihit (itihi [[degenerate matter|materi nang bakihit]]).<ref name=Seager2007/> [[Mekanisme Kelvin–Helmholtz|Pamanasan Kelvin–Helmholtz]] kawa maulah raksasa gas gasan maradiasi energi nang tabanyak pada energi nang didapatakannya matan bintang nang jadi rumahnya.<ref> {{cite book | author = Patrick G. J. Irwin | date = 2003 | title = Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&q=%22kelvin+helmholtz+mechanism%22&pg=PA63 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-3-540-00681-7 }}</ref><ref name=bagenal>{{cite web |url = http://lasp.colorado.edu/~bagenal/3750/ClassNotes/Class12/Class12.html |title = Class 12 – Giant Planets – Heat and Formation |date = 2004 |publisher = Colorado University, Boulder |work = 3750 – Planets, Moons & Rings |access-date = 2008-03-13 |archive-date = 2008-06-21 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080621120100/http://lasp.colorado.edu/~bagenal/3750/ClassNotes/Class12/Class12.html |dead-url = yes }}</ref> === Liliput gas === {{Main|Liliput gas}} Biaf ngaran "gas" wan "raksasa" rancak dipakai baimbaian, hidrogen planet kada parlu saganal lawan raksasa planet biasanya nang baasal matan tata suria. Tapi jua, planet-planet gas nang tahalus wan planet nang taparak lawan bintangnya pacangan kahilangan massa atmosfer nang tahancap malalui [[pambukahan hidrodinamis]] pada planet nang taganal wan planet nang tajauh pada bintangnya.<ref> {{cite journal | author1 = Feng Tian | first2 = Owen B. | last2 = Toon | first3 = Alexander A. | last3 = Pavlov | first4 = H. | last4 = De Sterck | date = March 10, 2005 | title = Transonic hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen from extrasolar planetary atmospheres | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2005-03-10_621_2/page/1049 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 621 | issue = 2 | pages = 1049–1060 | bibcode = | citeseerx = | doi = }}</ref><ref>[https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.4851 Mass-radius relationships for exoplanets], Damian C. Swift, Jon Eggert, Damien G. Hicks, Sebastien Hamel, Kyle Caspersen, Eric Schwegler, and Gilbert W. Collins</ref> Sabuting liliput gas kawa dipinandui sabagai planet nang baisi hinti pina babatu nang sudah maakumulsi sarubung kandal hidrogen, helium, wan zat nang nyaman manguap lainnya, nang dihasilakan radius total antara 1,7 wan 3,9 jari-jari bumi.<ref>[https://arxiv.org/abs/1405.7695 Three regimes of extrasolar planets inferred from host star metallicities], Buchhave et al.</ref><ref name=dangelo_bodenheimer_2016> {{cite journal | last = D'Angelo | first = G. | author2 = Bodenheimer, P. | year = 2016 | title = In Situ and Ex Situ Formation Models of Kepler 11 Planets | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 1606 | issue = 1 | pages = in press | arxiv = | bibcode = | doi = | s2cid = }}</ref> Planet tata suria ekstra nang paling kihit nang mirip banat lawan "planet gas" adalah [[Kepler-138d]], nang baisi massa nang sama lawan bumi tapi 60% taganal wan baisi kasasakan nang manampaiakan sarubung gas nang kandal.<ref> {{cite journal | first = Ron | last = Cowen | year = 2014 | title = Earth-mass exoplanet is no Earth twin | url = http://www.nature.com/news/earth-mass-exoplanet-is-no-earth-twin-1.14477 | journal = Nature | doi = 10.1038/nature.2014.14477 | s2cid = 124963676 }}</ref> Planet gas nang baisi massa randah masih kawa baisi radius nang manandai bahwa inya raksasa gas amun baisi temperatus nang pas.<ref>*[https://arxiv.org/abs/1304.5157 Mass-Radius Relationships for Very Low Mass Gaseous Planets], [[Konstantin Batygin]], David J. Stevenson, 18 Apr 2013</ref> ==Catatan Batis== <references/> [[Tumbung:Sains Planet]] [[Tumbung:Planet]] gn4jm6ku7gzb2ipvhxt0kut9bzjgfq8 0 21163 113351 70861 2026-08-07T19:37:39Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113351 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:M101 hires STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg|thumb|Contoh galaksi spiral, An example of a spiral galaxy, [[Galaksj kincir]] (dipinandui jua lawan ngaran Messier 101 atawa NGC 5457)|285x285px]] '''Galaksi spiral''' mambantuk [[klasifikasi morfologi galaksi|kelas matan galaksi]] nang pamulaannya dijalasakan ulih [[Edwin Hubble]] di buku nang ditulisnya pas tahun 1936 nang bajudul ''The Realm of the Nebulae''<ref name="Hubble-1936">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kgiXdDGLpFUC|title=The realm of the nebulae|last=Hubble|first=E.P.|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=1936|isbn=9780300025002|series=Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman memorial lectures, 25|location=New Haven|author-link=Edwin Hubble}} [https://archive.org/details/TheRealmOfTheNebulae Alt URL](pp.&nbsp;124–151)</ref> wan maulah bagian matan [[sistim klasifikasi Hubble]]. Kabanyakannya, galaksi spiral bantuknya rata, baputar kaya [[Cakram (galaksi)|cakram]], baisi [[bintang]], [[Awan antar bintang|gas wan dabu]], wan hintinya nang marupakan gabungan bintang-bintang nang banyak nang biasanya dipinandui lawan ngaran [[Binculan (astronomy)|binculan]]. Galaksi nhinj biasanya dikalilingi jua lawan [[Halo galaksi|halo]] nang takadap matan bintang-bintang, kabanyakannya galaksi ngini baandak di [[gugus bola]]. Galaksi spiral dingarani sasuia lawan struktur spiralnya nang bapanjang mulai hinti sampai ka cakram galaksinya. Tangan matan galaksi spiral marupakan tampat formasi bintang nang hanyar wan tatarang pada cakram di sakulilingnya maraga [[Bintang OB]] masih anum, wan panas baandak disana. Kabanyakannya dua pertalu matan galaksi spiral nang diobservasi baisi kumpunen tambahan nang struktur bantuknya nang kaya batang,<ref name="mihalas1968">{{Cite book| author=D. Mihalas | date=1968 | title=Galactic Astronomy | publisher=W. H. Freeman | isbn=978-0-7167-0326-6}}</ref> bapanjang mulai matan binculan ditangahnya, di hujungnya tangan galaksi spiral dimulai. Proporsi [[Galaksi spiral bapalang|spiral bapalang]] nang tagantung lawan [[Galaksi spiral nang kada bapalang|spiral kada bapalang]] pinanya sudah barubah sapanjang sajarah matan [[alam samasta]], 10% haja spiral nang baisi palang 8&nbsp;miliar tahun bahari, sampai sakitar saparapatnya 2,5&nbsp;miliar tahun bahari. Sampai wayah ini, kira-kira dua pertalu [[galaksi|galaksi-galaksi]] nangbkawa diitihi di alam samasta ([[Volume Hubble]]) baisi palang.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140116085103.htm |title= Hubble and Galaxy Zoo Find Bars and Baby Galaxies Don't Mix |date= 16 January 2014 |website= [[Science Daily]] }}</ref> [[Galaksi Bima Sakti]] marupakan spiral bapalang, biar palangnya surang nagalih banar diitihi mulai Bumi maraga andak planetnya nang aparak cakram galaksi.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=3BC08F0C-2B35-221B-67A9F2AE04AFC79A|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906193501/http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=3BC08F0C-2B35-221B-67A9F2AE04AFC79A|title=Ripples in a Galactic Pond|magazine=Scientific American|date=October 2005|archive-date=6 September 2013}}</ref> Bukti paling manjanjiakan matan bintang nang mambantuk palang di tangah galaksi baasal matan sapalihan survei nang hanyar digawi, tamasuk nang baasal matan [[Teleskop luar angkasa Spitzer]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2005|title=First GLIMPSE Results on the Stellar Structure of the Galaxy|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters|volume=630|issue=2|pages=L149–L152|author1=R. A. Benjamin|author2=E. Churchwell|author3=B. L. Babler|author4=R. Indebetouw|author5=M. R. Meade|author6=B. A. Whitney|author7=C. Watson|author8=M. G. Wolfire|author9=M. J. Wolff|author10=R. Ignace|author11=T. M. Bania|author12=S. Bracker|author13=D. P. Clemens|author14=L. Chomiuk|author15=M. Cohen|author16=J. M. Dickey|author17=J. M. Jackson|author18=H. A. Kobulnicky|author19=E. P. Mercer|author20=J. S. Mathis|author21=S. R. Stolovy|author22=B. Uzpen}}</ref> Basamaan lawan [[Galaksi kada baaturan|galaksi kada baaturan]], galaksi mambantuk 60% galaksi nang ada di alam samasta.<ref>{{cite journal|date=February 1996|title=The APM Bright Galaxy Catalogue|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_monthly-notices-of-the-royal-astronomical-society_1996-02-15_278_4/page/1025|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=278|issue=4|pages=1025–1048|author=Loveday, J.}}</ref> Buhannya biasanya kawa ditamui di dairah nang kapadatannya randah wan jarang ditamui ditangah -tangah kumpulan galaksi.<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 1980|title=Galaxy morphology in rich clusters&nbsp;— Implications for the formation and evolution of galaxies|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1980-03-01_236_2/page/351|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=236|pages=351–365|author=Dressler, A.}}</ref> == Bima Sakti == Bima Sakti suah dianggap sabagai galaksi spiral biasa. Buhan astronom pamulaannya mulai mangira bahwa Bima Sakti adalah [[galaksi spiral bapalang]] pas 1960-an.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Vaucouleurs|first=G.|date=1964|title=Interpretation of velocity distribution of the inner regions of the Galaxy|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900052578|journal=Symposium - International Astronomical Union|volume=20|pages=195–199}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Wan|last2=Gehrels|first2=Neil|last3=Diehl|first3=Roland|date=1995-02|title=Understanding COMPTEL Al-26 1.8 MeV map features|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/187760|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=440|pages=L57}}</ref> Kacurigaan buhannya dikunfirmasi ulih pangamatan [[Teleskop Luar Angkasa Spitzer]] pas tahun 2005,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mckee|first=Maggie|title=Bar at Milky Way's heart revealed|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7854-bar-at-milky-ways-heart-revealed/|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> nang manampaiakan bahwa batang pusat Bima Sakti taganal pada nang dikira baharinya. ==Catatan Batis== <references/> [[Tumbung:Astronomi]] 1onxp47fadg7zcc2jsduuozognq5rs2 0 21212 113343 113242 2026-08-07T19:27:32Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113343 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox spesies |item = Q20980826 <!--taksonomi untuk Felis catus dari Wikidata https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20980826--> |synonyms= *''[[Felis silvestris]] catus'' <small>([[sinonim subyektif]])</small><ref name="Driscoll" /> *''[[Felis catus]] domestica'' <small>([[sinonim junior]] tidak valid)</small><ref name="ITIS F.c.d.">{{cite web |url= http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=727487 |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis catus domestica |work=ITIS Online Database |accessdate=14 December 2011}}</ref> *''F. catus domesticus'' {{small|Erxleben, 1777}}<ref name=Erxleben>{{Cite book |last=Erxleben |first=J. C. P. |year=1777 |title=Systema regni animalis per classes, ordines, genera, species, varietates cvm synonymia et historia animalivm. Classis I. Mammalia |location=Lipsiae |publisher=Weygandt |pages=520–521 |chapter=Felis Catus domesticus |chapterurl=https://archive.org/details/iochristpolycerx00erxl/page/520}}</ref> *''F. angorensis'' {{small|[[Karl Christian Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788}} *''F. vulgaris'' {{small|Fischer, 1829}} }} '''Kucing''' disambat jua '''kucing domestik'''<ref name="MSW3fc">{{MSW3 Carnivora|id=14000031 |pages=534–535 |heading=Species ''Felis catus''}}</ref><ref name="ITIS F.c.">{{cite web |url= http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=183798 |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis catus |work=ITIS Online Database |year=2011 |publisher=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]] |location=Reston, Virginia |accessdate=14 December 2011}}</ref> atawa '''kucing rumah''' ([[ngaran ilmiah]]: ''Felis silvestris catus'' atawa ''Felis catus'') yaitu huaran [[mamalia]] [[karnivora]] matan [[Familia|kulawarga]] [[Felidae]]. Kata "kucing" rajin maampah gasan "kucing" nang sudah dimimakakan,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/housecat |title="Housecat" in the American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=Education.yahoo.com |accessdate=6 Oktober 2010 |archive-date=2013-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022174554/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/housecat |dead-url=yes }}</ref> tagal kawa jua marujuk gasan "[[kucing ganal]]" nang kaya [[singa]] wan [[harimau]]. Kucing sudah babaur lawan kahidupan [[manusia]] paling kada matan 6.000 tahun SM, matan [[karangka]] kucing di [[Siprus|Pulau Siprus]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Meet Helen and Aphrodite, Cyprus's indigenous cats|url =http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/life/2009-11/03/content_8904093.htm|work=China Daily|accessdate = 3 November 2009}}</ref> Urang [[Masir Kuno]] matan 3.500 SM sudah mamakai kucing gasan maugahakan [[tikus]] atawa [[binatang pangarat]] lain matan [[kindai]] nang manyimpani kulihan mangatam.<ref name="9500 years">{{cite web| title = Oldest Known Pet Cat? 9500-Year-Old Burial Found on Cyprus|url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0408_040408_oldestpetcat.html|accessdate = 6 March 2007 |date=8 April 2004|publisher=National Geographic News}}</ref> Wayah ngini, kucing adalah saikung [[binatang gaduhan]] nang pupulir di dunia.<ref name=SciAm>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-taming-of-the-cat |title=The Evolution of House Cats |publisher=Scientific American |author=Carlos A. Driscoll, Juliet Clutton-Brock, Andrew C. Kitchener and Stephen J. O'Brien |accessdate=26 August 2009}}</ref> Kucing nang garis katurunannya tacatat sacara rasmi sawagai kucing [[trah]] atawa galur murni (''pure breed''), nang kaya [[kucing persia|persia]], [[Kucing siam|siam]], [[kucing manx|manx]], wan [[kucing sphinx|sphinx]]. Kucing nang kaya ngini rajin dianakakan di wadah panggaduhan binatang rasmi. Jumlah kucing ras wastu 1% matan sabarataan kucing di dunia, sisanya adalah kucing lawan katurunan kambuhan nang kaya kucing liar atawa kucing kampung. == Taksonomi wan evolusi == [[Berkas:AfricanWildCat.jpg|jmpl|Kucing liar Afrika, ''Felis silvestris lybica'', adalah nenek moyang kucing domestik.]] Felidae adalah familia mamalia nang berevolusi lakas banar nang babagi datu nini nang sama 10–15&nbsp;juta tahun bahari wara<ref name="Johnson 1997">{{Cite journal |title=Phylogenetic Reconstruction of the Felidae Using 16S rRNA and NADH-5 Mitochondrial Genes |last=Johnson |first=Warren |last2=O'Brien |first2=Stephen J. |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |year=1997 |volume=44 |issue=0 |pages=S98–S116 |doi=10.1007/PL00000060 |pmid=9071018 }}</ref> wan tabuat [[singa]], [[harimau]], [[cougar]] wan banyak lagi nang lain. Dalam familia ini, kucing domestik (''Felis catus'') merupakan hagian matan [[genus]] ''[[Felis]]'', nang merupakan galambang kucing halus nang baisi kikira tujuh spesies (tagantung pada skema klasifikasi).<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="ITIS F.">{{cite web |url= http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=180586 |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis |work=ITIS Online Database |accessdate=14 December 2011 }}</ref> Anggota matan genus ini didapat di sabarataan dunia wan tamasuk [[kucing hutan]] (''Felis chaus'') matan tenggara Asia, [[kucing liar Eropa]] (''F. silvestris silvestris''), [[kucing liar Afrika]] (''F. s. lybica''), [[kucing gunung Cina]] (''F. bieti''), wan [[kucing pasir]] Arab (''F. margarita''), antara lain.<ref name="Stefoff">{{Cite book |publisher=Benchmark Books |location=New York |isbn=0-7614-1577-7 |last=Stefoff |first=Rebecca |title=Cats |url=https://archive.org/details/cats00stef |date=November 2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cats00stef/page/34 34] }}</ref> Kucing domestik panambaian diklasifikasikan sawagai ''Felis catus'' oleh [[Carolus Linnaeus]] dalam [[edisi ke-10 Systema Naturae|edisi ke-10 ''Systema Naturae'']]-nya nang diterbitkan pada tahun 1758.<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="hasilan otomatis1">{{Cite book|last=Linnaeus |first=Carolus |authorlink=Carl Linnaeus |title=''Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis'' |publisher=Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii) |year=1766 |page=62 |url= http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k99004c/f62.chemindefer |accessdate=2 April 2008 |language=la |volume=1 |edition=12th |origyear=1758}}</ref> Marga [[filogenetika]] modern, kucing domestik rajin dianggap sawagai subspesies matan kucing liar, ''F. silvestris''.<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="Driscoll" /><ref name="MSW3fs">{{MSW3 Carnivora|pages=536–537|id=14000057|heading=Species ''Felis silvestris''}}</ref> Hal naya maulah pamakaian istilah nang bacampur, marga kucing domestik kawa disambat lawan ngaran subspesiesnya, ''Felis silvestris catus''.<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="Driscoll" /><ref name="MSW3fs" /> Kucing liar jua sudah disambat sawagai babagai subspesies ''F. catus'',<ref name="MSW3fs" /> tetapi pada tahun 2003, [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] menetapkan ngaran gasan kucing liar sawagai ''F. silvestris''.<ref name="ICZN">{{Cite journal |title=Opinion 2027 |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume=60 |publisher=[[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] (ICZN) |year=2003 |url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110609014212/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm |archivedate= 9 June 2011 }}</ref> Ngaran nang paling umum dipakai gasan kucing domestik tetap ''F. catus'', maumpati [[Konvensi (norma)|konvensi]] gasan hiwan gaduhan mamakai [[Sinonim (taksonomi)|sinonim]] pamulaan (senior) nang diusulkan.<ref name="ICZN" /> Bahanu, kucing domestik disambat sawagai ''Felis domesticus''<ref name="MacDonald">{{Cite journal |title=Nutrition of the domestic cat, a mammalian carnivore |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-nutrition_1984_4/page/521 |last=MacDonald |first=M. L. |last2=Rogers |first2=Q. R. |last3=Morris |first3=J. G. |journal=Annual Review of Nutrition |volume=4 |pages=521–562 |year=1984 |pmid=6380542 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.002513 }}</ref> atawa ''Felis domestica'',<ref name="MSW3fc" /> kaya nang diusulakan oleh naturalis Jerman [[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|J. C. P. Erxleben]] pada tahun 1777 tetapi ini lain ngaran-ngaran taksonomi valid wan kada tapi dipakai dalam literatur ilmiah,<ref name="MacDonald"/> marga binomial Linnaeus diutamakan.<ref name="Vella">{{Cite book |title=Robinson's Genetics for Cat Breeders and Veterinarians |edition=4th |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=0-7506-4069-3 |last=Vella |first=Carolyn M. |author2=Shelton, Lorraine M. |author3=McGonagle, John J. |author4= Stanglein, Terry W. |year=1999 |page=3}}</ref> Sabuting galambang kucing liar hirang [[Transkaukasus|Transkaukasia]] suah diklasifikasikan sawagai ''Felis daemon''<small> ([[Konstantin Alekseevich Satunin|Satunin]] 1904)</small> tapi damini galambang naya dianggap menjadi hagian matan kucing domestik.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://caucasian-large-mammalian.narod.ru/ |title=Catalogue of the Specimens of Caucasian Large Mammalian Fauna in the Collection of The National Museum of Georgia |publisher=Caucasian-large-mammalian.narod.ru |accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> Sabarataan kucing dalam genus naya babagi datu nini nang sama nang bisa haja hidup kikira 6–7&nbsp;juta tahun bahari di Asia.<ref name="Johnson">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1122277 |volume=311 |issue=5757 |pages=73–77 |title=The Late Miocene Radiation of Modern Felidae: A Genetic Assessment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-01-06_311_5757/page/73 |journal=Science |year=2006 |pmid=16400146 |last=Johnson |first=Warren E. |last2=Eizirik |first2=E. |last3=Pecon-Slattery |first3=J. |last4=Murphy |first4=W. J. |last5=Antunes |first5=A. |last6=Teeling |first6=E. |last7=O'Brien |first7=Stephen J. |bibcode = 2006Sci...311...73J }}</ref> Hubungan nang pas dalam Felidae parak tapi masih balum pasti,<ref name="Mattern" /><ref name="Masuda 1996">{{Cite journal |title=Molecular Phylogeny of Mitochondrial Cytochrome b and 12S rRNA Sequences in the Felidae: Ocelot and Domestic Cat Lineages |last=Masuda |first=R. |author2=Lopez, J. V. |author3=Slattery, J. P. |author4=Yuhki, N. |author5= O'Brien, Stephen J. |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |year=1996 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=351–365 |doi=10.1006/mpev.1996.0085 |pmid=8975691 }}</ref> misalnya kucing gunung Cina bahanu diklasifikasikan (lawan ngaran ''Felis silvestris bieti'') sawagai [[upaspesies]] kucing liar, nang kaya varietas Afrika Utara ''F. s. lybica''.<ref name="Driscoll" /><ref name="Mattern">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2000.tb00354.x |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=232–253 |last=Mattern |first=Michelle Y. |title=Phylogeny and Speciation of Felids |journal=Cladistics |year=2000 |last2=McLennan |first2=Deborah A. }}</ref> Dibandingakan lawan hadupan, kucing kada marasani paubahan ganal salawas proses domestikasi, marga bantuk wan perilaku kucing domestik kada secara radikal balain matan kucing liar wan kucing domestik kawa banar batahan di alam liar.<ref name="Lipinski">{{Cite journal |title=The Ascent of Cat Breeds: Genetic Evaluations of Breeds and Worldwide Random-bred Populations |last=Lipinski |first=Monika J. |author2=Froenicke, Lutz |author3=Baysac, Kathleen C. |author4=Billings, Nicholas C. |author5=Leutenegger, Christian M. |author6=Levy, Alon M. |author7=Longeri, Maria |author8=Niini, Tirri |author9= Ozpinar, Haydar |journal=Genomics |date=January 2008 |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009 |pmid=18060738 |pmc=2267438 }}</ref><ref name="CameronBeaumont">{{Cite journal|title=Evidence Suggesting Pre-adaptation to Domestication throughout the Small Felidae |last=Cameron-Beaumont |first=Charlotte |last2=Lowe |first2=Sarah E. |last3=Bradshaw |first3=John W. S. |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |year=2002 |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00028.x |url=http://www.neiu.edu/~jkasmer/Biol498R/Readings/essay1-06.pdf |accessdate=29 September 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609020351/http://www.neiu.edu/~jkasmer/Biol498R/Readings/essay1-06.pdf |archivedate=9 June 2011 }}</ref> Kucing rumah nang sabigian dimanakakan rancak kawin silang lawan populasi ''F. catus'' [[liar]].<ref name="Bradshaw1999">{{Cite journal |title=Feral Cats: Their Role in the Population Dynamics of ''Felis catus'' |last=Bradshaw|author2=Horsfield, G. F. |author3=Allen, J. A. |author4= Robinson, I. H. |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |year=1999 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=273–283 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00086-6 }}</ref> Evolusi tabatas salawas domestikasi naya baarti bahwa hibridisasi kawa [[Hibrida Felidae#Kucing domestik wan hibridisasi|terjadi lawan banyak Felidae nang lain]], terutama [[kucing leopard]] Asia.<ref name="Oliveira">{{Cite journal|last=Oliveira |first=R. |author2=Godinho, R. |author3=Randi, E. |author4= Alves, P. C. |title=Hybridization Versus Conservation: Are Domestic Cats Threatening the Genetic Integrity of Wildcats (''Felis silvestris silvestris'') in Iberian Peninsula? |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=363 |issue=1505 |page=295329861 |year=2008 |pmid=18522917 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0052 |pmc=2606743}}</ref> Beberapa perilaku alami wan karakteristik kucing liar bisa haja sudah [[Preadaptasi|memengaruhi]] buhannya gasan didomestikasi sawagai hiwan gaduhan.<ref name="CameronBeaumont" /> Karakter naya tamasuk ukuran kecil, sifat sosial, bahasa tubuh nang jelas, katuju bagaya wan kapintaran relatif tinggi.<ref name="Fogle">{{Cite book |last=Fogle |first=Bruce (ed.) |title=Interrelations Between People and Pets |year=1981 |publisher=Charles C. Thomas Publications |isbn=0-398-04169-5}}</ref>{{rp|12–17}} Babarapa spesies Felidae halus bisa haja baisi kecenderungan bawaan terhadap kejinakan.<ref name="CameronBeaumont" /> Kucing baisi baik hubungan [[mutualisme|mutualistik]] atawa [[komensalisme|komensal]] lawan manusia. Dua teori utama dibariakan tentang kaya apa kucing didomestikasi. Dalam satu teori, urang singhaja mamanakakan kucing dalam proses [[seleksi buatan]] marga buhannya adalah predator dari hama.<ref name="OConnor">{{Cite journal |title=Wild or Domestic? Biometric Variation in the Cat ''Felis silvestris'' |last=O'Connor |first=T. P. |journal=International Journal of Osteoarchaeology |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=581–595 |doi=10.1002/oa.913 }}</ref> Ngini sudah dikritik sawagai kada masuk akal, marga hadiah gasan usaha kaya itu bisa haja talalu sadikit; kucing umumnya kada manggawi perintah wan bujur buhannya makan hiwan pangarat, spesies lain kaya ''[[ferret]]'' atawa [[terrier]] bisa haja tabaik dalam mengendalikan hama-hama ini.<ref name="Driscoll">{{Cite journal |title=In the Light of Evolution III: Two Centuries of Darwin Sackler Colloquium: From Wild Animals to Domestic Pets&nbsp;– An Evolutionary View of Domestication |last=Driscoll |first=C. A. |last2=MacDonald |first2=D. W. |last3=O'Brien |first3=Stephen J. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=106 |issue=S1 |pages=9971–9978 |year=2009 |pmid=19528637 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901586106 |pmc=2702791 |bibcode = 2009PNAS..106.9971D }}</ref> == Referensi == <references /> luxf7az95dz7oaa1u6dnc9t3o4o0i29 0 21218 113341 112540 2026-08-07T19:15:56Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox nebula | name = Orion Nebula | image = [[File:Orion Nebula - Hubble 2006 mosaic 18000.jpg|300px]] | caption = Samunyaan Nebula Orion dalam gabungan gambar cahaya nang kawa talihat wan infrahabang; diambil oléh [[Teleskop Luar Angkasa Hubble]] pas tahun 2006 | type = difusi | subtype= [[Nebula refleksi|Refléksi]]/[[Nebula Emisi|Émisi]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gater|first1=Will|last2=Vamplew|first2=Anton|title=The Practical Astronomer|date=2010|publisher=DK Pub.|location=London|isbn=978-0-7566-7324-6|page=242|edition=1st American|url=https://books.google.com/?id=R9tGGSX9eHcC&pg=PA242}}</ref> | epoch = [[Epoch (astronomy)#Julian years and J2000|J2000]] | ra = {{RA|05|35|17.3}}<ref name="simbad">{{cite simbad | title=NGC 7538 | access-date=20 Oktober 2006 }}</ref> | dec = {{DEC|-05|23|28}}<ref name="simbad" /> | dist_ly = 1,344±20 | dist_pc = 412 | appmag_v = +4,0<ref name="SEDS"> {{cite web | title=NGC 1976 = M42 | work=SEDS.org | url=http://spider.seds.org/ngc/ngc.cgi?NGC+1976 | access-date=13 Desember 2009 }}</ref> | size_v = 65×60&nbsp;[[Menit busur|arcmins]]<ref name="revised_ngc">[http://spider.seds.org/ngc/revngcic.cgi?NGC1976 Revised NGC Data for NGC 1976] per Wolfgang Steinicke's [http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/rev2000/Explan.htm Revised New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue].</ref> | constellation = [[Orion (konstelasi)|Orion]] | radius_ly = 1.2{{Ref label|A|a|none}} | absmag_v = — | notes = [[Trapesium (astronomi)|Gugus Trapesium]] | names = [[New General Catalogue|NGC]] 1976, M42,<br />LBN 974, [[Katalog Sharpless|Sharpless]] 281 }} '''Nebula Orion''' (dipinandui jua lawan ngaran '''Messier 42''', '''M42''', atawa '''NGC 1976''') adalah sabuah [[nebula bauran]] nang ada di [[bima sakti]], baandak di subalah salatan [[Pandéng Orion]] di [[Orion (konstelasi)|konstelasi Orion]].{{Ref label|B|b|none}} Nebula ngini marupakan salah sabuting [[nebula]] paling tarang, wan kawa diitihi pakai [[mata kasar|mata talanjang]] di langit malam. Jaraknya {{convert|1,344|+/-|20|ly|pc|lk=on}} jauhnya<ref name=arxiv0902> {{cite journal | last1=Reid | first1=M. J. | last2=Menten | first2=K. M. | last3=Zheng | first3=X. W. | last4=Brunthaler | first4=A. | last5=Moscadelli | first5=L. | last6=Xu | first6=Y. | last7=Zhang | first7=B. | last8=Sato | first8=M. | last9=Honma | first9=M. | last10=Hirota | first10=T. | last11=Hachisuka | first11=K. | last12=Choi | first12=Y. K. | last13=Moellenbrock | first13=G. A. | last14=Bartkiewicz | first14=A. | display-authors=1 | date=2009 | title=Trigonometric Parallaxes of Massive Star Forming Regions: VI. Galactic Structure, Fundamental Parameters and Non-Circular Motions | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2009-07-20_700_1/page/137 | journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] | volume=700 | issue=1 | pages=137–148 | arxiv=0902.3913 | doi=10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/137 | bibcode=2009ApJ...700..137R }}</ref><ref name=pasj59_5> {{cite journal | last1=Hirota | first1=Tomoya | last2=Bushimata | first2=Takeshi | last3=Choi | first3=Yoon Kyung | last4=Honma | first4=Mareki | last5=Imai | first5=Hiroshi | last6=Iwadate | first6=Kenzaburo | last7=Jike | first7=Takaaki | last8=Kameno | first8=Seiji | last9=Kameya | first9=Osamu | last10=Ryuichi | first10=Kamohara | last11=Kan-Ya | first11=Yukitoshi | last12=Kawaguchi | first12=Noriyuki | last13=Kijima | first13=Masachika | last14=Kim | first14=Mi Kyoung | last15=Kobayashi | first15=Hideyuki | last16=Kuji | first16=Seisuke | last17=Kurayama | first17=Tomoharu | last18=Manabe | first18=Seiji | last19=Maruyama | first19=Kenta | last20=Matsui | first20=Makoto | last21=Matsumoto | first21=Naoko | last22=Miyaji | first22=Takeshi | last23=Nagayama | first23=Takumi | last24=Nakagawa | first24=Akiharu | last25=Nakamura | first25=Kayoko | last26=Oh | first26=Chung Sik | last27=Omodaka | first27=Toshihiro | last28=Oyama | first28=Tomoaki | last29=Sakai | first29=Satoshi | last30=Sasao | first30=Tetsuo | last31=Sato | first31=Katsuhisa | last32=Sato | first32=Mayumi | last33=Shibata | first33=Katsunori M. | last34=Shintani | first34=Motonobu | last35=Tamura | first35=Yoshiaki | last36=Tsushima | first36=Miyuki | last37=Yamashita | first37=Kazuyoshi | date=2007 | title=Distance to Orion KL Measured with VERA | journal=[[Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan]] | volume=59 | issue=5 | pages=897–903 | bibcode=2007PASJ...59..897H |arxiv = 0705.3792 | display-authors=1 | doi=10.1093/pasj/59.5.897 }}</ref> wan nebula ngini jua marupakan wilayah ganal [[formasi bintang]] paling parak lawan [[bumi]]. Nebula M42 diparkira'akan jaraknya 24&nbsp;tahun cahaya. Nebula ngini baisi massa 2000 kali lipat ganalnya pada [[Matahari]]. Naskah-naskah bahari rancak manyambat Nebula Orion lawan ngaran '''Nebula Ganal''' di Orion atawa '''Nebula Orion Ganal'''. Nebula Orion marupakan objék di langit malam nang paling rancak ditaliti wan paling rancak di kodak, wan marupakan salah sabuting banda langit nang paling banyak dipalajari.<ref name="successor">Press release, "[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/press/pr0605.html Astronomers Spot The Great Orion Nebula's Successor] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218083305/http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/press/pr0605.html |date=2006-02-18 }}", Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 2006.</ref> Nebula ngini sudah banyak bakontribusi dalam maungkapakan kaya apa proses [[bintang|bintang-bintang]] wan [[planet|planet-planet]] tabantuk matan runtuhnya awan gas wan dabu. Buhan astronom sudah sacara langsung maobservasi [[cakram protoplanet]] wan [[kihit coklat]] nang ada dalam nebula, inténsitas wan [[Pargulakan|garak bagulak]] matan gas, wan efek [[Fotoionisasi|foto-ionisasi]] ganal bintang-bintang nang parak lawan nebula. == Karaktaristik Fisik == [[File:Hubble Snaps View of the Orion Nebula.ogv|thumb|300px|left| andak Nebula Orion, talihat di dalam wilayah pambantukan bintang, wan pangaruh angin antarbintang dalam maulah nebula]] [[File:Backyard photo of the Orion Nebula.jpg |thumb|250x250px|Gambar amatir matan Nebula Orion diambil oléh kamera digital jarak manangah]] [[File:Orion and Running Man Nebulea and nebulosity imaged in LRGB 384mm 1600MM.jpg|thumb|Nebula Orion wan Nebula Manusia Bukah wan gambar nebulositas dalam LRGB 384&nbsp;mm refraktor]] Nebula Orion kawa diitihi pakai mata talanjang, biar diitihi di daérah nang kana [[polusi cahaya]] nebula ngini tatap kawa diitihi. Nebula Orion talihat nang kaya "bintang" di tangah "pedang" Orion, nang marupakan talu bintang nang baandak di salatan pandéng Orion. Bintang talihat kabur bagi buhan pangamat nang baisi mata nang hawas, wan nebulositasnya talihat jalas pas mamakai [[taroponh]] atawa [[téléskop]] halus. Kanyarakan puncak muka matan wilayah tangah adalah sakitar 17 Mag/arcsec² (about 14 [[mili]] [[nit (ukuran)|nits]]) wan nyarak kabiruan luarnya baisi kacarahan puncak parmukaan sakitar 21,3 Mag/arcsec² (sakitar 0,27 milinits).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.clarkvision.com/astro/surface-brightness-profiles/introduction.html |title = Surface Brightness of Deep Sky Objects |date = March 28, 2004 |first = Roger |last = Clark |access-date = June 29, 2013 |archive-date = July 23, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230723110600/https://clarkvision.com/astro/surface-brightness-profiles/introduction.html |dead-url = yes }}. ==Catatan Batis== <references/> [[Tumbung:Astronomi]] [[Tumbung:Nebula]] 6zi5uusgb0cd33hq0wvgid9q6n6mxcu 0 21249 113324 102968 2026-08-07T18:47:25Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113324 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Pahoehoe toe.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Lava]] mangalir di [[Hawaii (pulau)|Hawaii]]. Lava adalah [[batuan ekstrusif]] yang setara dengan magma.]] '''Magma''' (baasal matan kata [[Yunani Bahari]] μάγμα (''mágma'') nang baarti "[[salap]] kandal"<ref name="MerriamWebsterDict">{{cite web | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/magma | title=Definition of Magma | publisher=Merriam-Webster | work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary | access-date=28 October 2018}}</ref>) adalah bahan alami cair atawa semi-cair nang matan sana samunyaan [[batuan baku]] tabantuk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=BOWEN|first=NORMAN L.|date=1947|title=MAGMAS|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_geological-society-of-america-bulletin_1947-04_58_4/page/263|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|volume=58|issue=4|pages=263|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1947)58[263:M]2.0.CO;2|issn=0016-7606}}</ref> Magma kawa ditamui dibawah parmukaan planét [[bumi]], wan bukti matan [[magmatisme]] kawa jua ditamui di [[planet kabumian]] wan sapalihan satélit alami.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greeley|first1=Ronald|last2=Schneid|first2=Byron D.|date=1991-11-15|title=Magma Generation on Mars: Amounts, Rates, and Comparisons with Earth, Moon, and Venus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1991-11-15_254_5034/page/996|journal=Science|volume=254|issue=5034|pages=996–998|doi=10.1126/science.254.5034.996|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17731523|bibcode=1991Sci...254..996G|s2cid=206574665}}</ref> Lain pada batuan cair, magma kadang mangandung kristal tasuspénsi wan [[gas vulkanis|galombongan gas]].<ref name="eov">{{Citation|last=Spera|first=Frank J.|title=Physical Properties of Magma|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Volcanoes|pages=171–190|year=2000|editor-last=Sigurdsson|editor-first=Haraldur (editor-in-chief)|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=978-0126431407}}</ref> Magma di diulah matan [[mantel (geologi)|mantel]] nang mancair atawa [[Karak (geologi)|karak]] di bamacam andak [[tektonik]], nang di bumi tamasuk [[zona subduksi]], zona [[celah (geologi)|celah]] banua,<ref name="Foulger">{{cite book|url=http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405161485.html|title=Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy|author=Foulger, G.R.|publisher=Wiley–Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-6148-0|access-date=2021-04-26|archive-date=2017-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171125195240/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405161485.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[balukuk tangah laut]] wan [[Titik panas (geologi)|titik panas]]. Mantel wan karak nang lunyut bamigrasi ka atas lewat karak dimana buhannya tadi dianggap tasimpan di [[kantong magma]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Detrick|first1=R. S.|last2=Buhl|first2=P.|last3=Vera|first3=E.|last4=Mutter|first4=J.|last5=Orcutt|first5=J.|last6=Madsen|first6=J.|last7=Brocher|first7=T.|date=1987|title=Multi-channel seismic imaging of a crustal magma chamber along the East Pacific Rise|journal=Nature|volume=326|issue=6108|pages=35–41|doi=10.1038/326035a0|bibcode=1987Natur.326...35D|s2cid=4311642|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> atawa zona karak paralihan nang sugih matan [[bubur kristal|kristal nang bacampur magma]].<ref name="Sparks 2017 35–40">{{Cite journal|last1=Sparks|first1=R. Stephen J.|last2=Cashman|first2=Katharine V.|date=2017|title=Dynamic Magma Systems: Implications for Forecasting Volcanic Activity|journal=Elements|volume=13|issue=1|pages=35–40|doi=10.2113/gselements.13.1.35|issn=1811-5209}}</ref> Hafatan panyimpanan magma di kantong magma di karak, campuran magma tadi bisa tamodifikasi lawan [[Kristalisasi pacahan (geology)|kristalisasi pacahan]], takontaminasi lawan lunuhan kristal, pancampuran magma, wan degasifikasi. Imbah magma tadi naik lewat karak bumi, magma kawa masuk kadalam [[gunung barapi]] gasan diékstrusi sabagai [[lava]], atawa mangaras di bawah tanah gasan mambantuk [[intrusi]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=MCBIRNEY|first1=A. R.|last2=NOYES|first2=R. M.|date=1979-08-01|title=Crystallization and Layering of the Skaergaard Intrusion|url=https://academic.oup.com/petrology/article-abstract/20/3/487/1515390|journal=Journal of Petrology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=487–554|doi=10.1093/petrology/20.3.487|bibcode=1979JPet...20..487M|issn=0022-3530}}</ref> nang kaya [[Dike (geologi)|dike barapi]] atawa [[Sill (geologi)|sill]]. Badasarakan sajarah, sudi masalah magma maandalakan observasi matan magma dalam bantuk [[aliran lava]], magma sudah parnah ditamui atawa dipalajari dalam [[ilmu bumi wan atmosfer]] sabanyak tiga kali haratan [[Energi Geotermal|proyek pamboran geotermal]]; dua kali di [[Islandia]] (itihi [[#Pamakaian gasan mamproduksi energi|Pamakaian gasan mamproduksi énérgi]]), wan sakali di Hawaii.<ref>[https://www.ucdavis.edu/news/scientists-drill-hits-magma-only-third-time-record/ Scientists' Drill Hits Magma: Only Third Time on Record], UC Davis News and Information, June 26, 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news148664988.html Magma Discovered in Situ for First Time]. Physorg (December 16, 2008)</ref> ==Properti fisik wan kimia== Magma tardiri matan cairan nang biasanya marupakan kristal kandal tasuspensi.<ref name="philpotts-ague-phenocrysts">{{cite book |last1=Philpotts |first1=Anthony R. |last2=Ague |first2=Jay J. |title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9780521880060 |pages=19–20 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Pas magma baparak ka parmukaam, wan [[takanan mambarati]] cungul, gas nang ada dalam magma mulai bapisah matan cairan magma lalu jadi gelombong-gelombong, sahingga magma nang ada di parak parmukaan isinya material kandal, cair, wan dalam fase gas.<ref name="schmincke-2003">{{cite book |last1=Schmincke |first1=Hans-Ulrich |title=Volcanism |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |isbn=9783540436508 |pages=49–50}}</ref> ==Catatan Batis== <references/> mdlp7k9394jp7dwgj7gc7om2e5ie0p2 0 21270 113353 91188 2026-08-07T19:41:14Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113353 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pendéng Kuiper''' ({{IPAc-en|'|k|aɪ|p|ər|,_|'|k|ʊ|ɪ|-}})<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/kuiper_belt|title=Kuiper belt &#124; Definition of Kuiper belt by Lexico|website=Lexico Dictionaries &#124; English|access-date=2021-04-27|archive-date=2021-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126215312/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/kuiper_belt|dead-url=yes}}</ref> adalah sabuah [[piringan lingkar bintang]] nang ada diluar [[sistém tata surya]], mambantang matan [[orbit]] planet [[Neptunus]] di 30 [[satuan astronomi]] (AU) sampai ka kisaran 50 AU matan [[Matahari]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alan |last1=Stern |title=Collisional erosion in the primordial Edgeworth-Kuiper belt and the generation of the 30–50&nbsp;AU Kuiper gap |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1997-12-01_490_2/page/879 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=490 |issue=2 |pages=879–882 |date=1997 |doi=10.1086/304912 |last2=Colwell |first2=Joshua E. |bibcode=1997ApJ...490..879S|doi-access=free }}</ref> Pendéng Kuiper ngini mirip nang kaya [[pendéng asteroit]], tapi taganal – 20&nbsp;kali lipat ligarnya wan 20–200&nbsp;kali lipat [[Massa|massanya]].<ref name="beyond">{{cite book |title=The Solar System beyond the Planets |first1=Audrey |last1=Delsanti |first2=David |last2=Jewitt |name-list-style=amp |department=Institute for Astronomy |publisher=University of Hawaii |url=http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |access-date=March 9, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925203400/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2007 |bibcode=2006ssu..book..267D |year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Georgij A. Krasinsky |first1=G. A. |last1=Krasinsky |last2=Pitjeva |first2=E. V. |bibcode=2002Icar..158...98K |title=Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt |journal=Icarus |volume=158 |issue=1 |pages=98–105 |date=July 2002 |doi=10.1006/icar.2002.6837 |author2-link=Elena V. Pitjeva |last3=Vasilyev |first3=M.V. |last4=Yagudina |first4=E.I.}}</ref> Kaya pendéng asteroit nang tardiri matan [[banda tata surya halus|banda-banda nang halus]] atawa sisa-sisa matan [[formasi wan evolusi sistim tatam surya|tabantuknya tata surya]]. Amun kabanyakan asteroit tardiri matan [[batu (geologi)|batu]] wan lugam, pendéng kuiper kabanyakannya tardiri matan [[volati]] baku (disambat "es"), nang kaya [[metana]], [[amonia]], wan [[banyu]]. Pendéng kuiper marupakan rumah gasan talu [[planet kihit]] nang diakui sacara rasmi: <!-- Please do not add Eris here. Eris is often called a Kuiper belt object but Wiki convention treats it strictly as a scattered-disc object --> [[Pluto]], [[Haumea]] wan [[Makemake]]. Sapalihan [[satélit alami|bulan]] di tata surya, nang kaya bulannya Neptunus nang bangaran [[Triton (bulan)|Triton]] wan bulannya [[Saturnus|Zuhal]] nang bangaran [[Phobe (bulan)|Phobe]], kamungkinan baasal matan dairah ngitu.<ref>Johnson, Torrence V.; and Lunine, Jonathan I.; ''Saturn's moon Phoebe as a captured body from the outer Solar System'', Nature, Vol. 435, pp. 69–71</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Neptune's capture of its moon Triton in a binary-planet gravitational encounter |author1=Craig B. Agnor |author2=Douglas P. Hamilton |name-list-style=amp |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7090 |pages=192–4 |url=http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~cagnor/papers_pdf/2006AgnorHamilton.pdf |date=2006 |access-date=June 20, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621182809/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~cagnor/papers_pdf/2006AgnorHamilton.pdf |archive-date=June 21, 2007 |url-status=dead |bibcode=2006Natur.441..192A |doi=10.1038/nature04792 |pmid=16688170|s2cid=4420518 }}</ref> == Pendéng Kuiper ekstrasurya == {{Main|Debris disc}} [[File:Kuiper belt remote.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Cakram Debris disakuliling bintang-bintang [[HD 139664]] wan [[HD 53143]] – bulatan hirang matan [[koronografi|kamera]] manyambunyiakan bintang sakira cakram talihat.]] Pas tahun 2006, buhan astronom manamuakan cakram dabu nang mirip lawan pendéng Kuiper di sambilan bintang lain pada Matahari. Cakram ngini tabagi manjadi dua kataguri: pendéng ligar, nang jari-jarinya sakitara 50 AU wan kakimpitan pendéng (tentatif nang kaya tata surya) lawan jari-jari di kisaran 20 wan 30 AU lawan baisi batas nang relatif tajam.<ref name="Kalas et al. 2006"/> Di luar pada inj, 15–20% bintang nang kaya Matahari baisi [[kalabihan infrahabang]] nang taitihi, nang manampaiakan struktur ganal nang kaya pendéng Kuiper.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Debris Disks around Sun-like Stars |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2008-02-20_674_2/page/1086 |author=Trilling, D. E. |author2=Bryden, G. |author3=Beichman, C. A. |author4=Rieke, G. H. |author5=Su, K. Y. L. |author6=Stansberry, J. A. |author7=Blaylock, M. |author8=Stapelfeldt, K. R. |author9=Beeman, J. W. |author10=Haller, E. E. |volume=674 |issue=2 |pages=1086–1105 |date=February 2008 |bibcode=2008ApJ...674.1086T |doi=10.1086/525514 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |arxiv=0710.5498|s2cid=54940779 }}</ref> Kabanyakannya, [[cakram debris]] nang ada di bintang nang lain baisi umur nang masih anum, tapi dua buting foto disubalah kanan nang diambil teleskop luar angkasa Hubble pas Januari 2006, manandakan umur nang lumayan tuha (sakitar 300 miliar tahun) gasan masuk ka konfigurasi stabil. Gambar di subalah kiwa marupakan "tampilan atas" matan ligar pendéng wan gambar disubalah kanan marupakan "tampilan higa" matan kakimpitan pendéng.<ref name="Kalas et al. 2006">{{cite journal |bibcode=2006ApJ...637L..57K |arxiv=astro-ph/0601488 |title=First Scattered Light Images of Debris Disks around HD 53143 and HD 139664 |last1=Kalas |first1=Paul |last2=Graham |first2=James R. |last3=Clampin |first3=Mark C. |last4=Fitzgerald |first4=Michael P. |volume=637 |issue=1 |date=2006 |pages=L57 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |doi=10.1086/500305|s2cid=18293244 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dusty Planetary Disks Around Two Nearby Stars Resemble Our Kuiper Belt |url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2006/05/image/a |date=2006 |access-date=July 1, 2007}}</ref> Simulasi komputer matan dabu di pendéng Kuiper manandakan kamungkinan pas masih anum, pendéng Kuiper kamungkinan bantuknya nang kaya cincin kimpit nang talihat di sakitar bintang nang masih ta'anum .<ref>{{cite journal |title=Collisional Grooming Models of the Kuiper Belt Dust Cloud |author=Kuchner, M. J. |author2=Stark, C. C. |volume=140 |issue=4 |pages=1007–1019 |date=2010 |bibcode=2010AJ....140.1007K |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/140/4/1007 |journal=The Astronomical Journal |arxiv=1008.0904|s2cid=119208483 }}</ref> ==Catatan Batis== <references/> irvepd2nua7r0485z0a0x6wiev47j95 0 21585 113331 99530 2026-08-07T18:59:46Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113331 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sistim imun''' atawa '''sistim kataguhan''' adalah sel-sel wan banyak susunan biologis lainnya nang batanggung jawap atas '''imunitas''', yaitu patahanan pada [[urganisma]] gasan malindungi awak tumatan pangaruh [[biologis]] luar lawan cara maminandui wan mambunuh [[patogen]]. Pahadangan ngitu, tanggapan kolektif wan takurdinasi matan sistim imun awak ka paminanduan zat asing disambat '''respons imun'''. Sakira kawa baguna baik, sistim ngini cagar maminandui bamamacam pangaruh biologis luar nangkaya matan [[jangkitan]], [[bakteri]], [[virus]] sampai [[parasit]], wan mahancurakan zat-zat asing lain wan mamusnahakan bubuhannya matan [[sel]] wan [[jaringan]] urganisma nang wigas sakira tatap baguna sacara nurmal. [[Manusia]] wan vertebrata barahang lainnya baisi mekanisme partahanan nang kompleks, nang kawa dibagi manjadi [[sistim imun bawaan]] wan [[sistim imun adaptif]]. Sistim imun bawaan marupakan bantuk partahanan panambaian nang maumpatakan panghalang parmukaan, tanggapan paradangan, sistim komplémén, wan komponén sélulér. Sistem imun adaptif bakambang maraga diaktipakan ulih sistim imun bawaan wan mamarluakan waktu gasan kawa maampahakan réspons partahanan nang labih kuat wan khusus. Imunitas adaptif (atawa dapatan) membentuk [[memori imunologis]] setelah respons awal kapada patogen wan maulah parlindungan nang labih ditingkatakan pada partamuan lawan patogen nang sama limbah itu. Tindakan imunitas dapatan ngini manjadi dasar matan [[pamaksinan]]. Gangguan pada sistim imun kawa barupa [[imunodefisiensi]], [[penyakit autoimun]], [[panyakit inflamasi]], wan [[kanker]].<ref name="pmid11506482">{{cite journal|date=Aug 2001|title=Chronic immune activation and inflammation as the cause of malignancy|journal=British Journal of Cancer|volume=85|issue=4|pages=473–83|doi=10.1054/bjoc.2001.1943|pmc=2364095|pmid=11506482|vauthors=O'Byrne KJ, Dalgleish AG}}</ref> [[Imunodefisiensi]] kawa tajadi wayah sistim imun kurang aktip sahingga kawa manimbulakan jangkitan baulang wan kawa mangancam jiwa. == Sajarah imunologi == [[Imunologi]] adalah ilmu nang mampalajari struktur wan fungsi sistim imun. Imunologi awalnya asalnya tumatan ilmu [[mikrobiologi]]. Imunitas panambaiannya dikatahui wayah ada [[wabah Athena]] pada 430 SM. [[Thukidides]] mancatat urang nang wigas matan panyakit sabalumnya kawa batahan wan kada takana panyakit pulang.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Retief F, Cilliers L | title = The epidemic of Athens, 430-426 BC | journal = S Afr Med J | volume = 88 | issue = 1 | pages = 50-3 | year = 1998 | id = PMID 9539938}}</ref> Lambat laun, diciptaakan istilah "immunity" nang diturunakan matan istilah Latin "immunitas" gasan manggambarakan resistensi samacam itu. Pada abad ka-10, duktur Iran [[Muhammad bin Zakariya ar-Razi|Al-Razi]] marupakan urang panambaian nang mambidaakan antara [[variola|cacar]] (''smallpox'') wan [[campak]] (''measles'') wan jua mancatat kamungkinan teori panambaian pasla imunitas dapatan (''acquired immunity''). Pada abad ka-11, duktur wan filsuf [[Ibnu Sina]] mausulakan jua teori labih lanjut gasan imunitas dapatan.<ref name="early_trends">{{Cite journal|last=Doherty|first=M|last2=Robertson|first2=M|date=2004-12|title=Some early Trends in Immunology|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1471490604003114|journal=Trends in Immunology|volume=25|issue=12|pages=623–631|doi=10.1016/j.it.2004.10.008|issn=1471-4906|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Pada tahun 1000 M, bangsa Cina dilapurakan sudah mampraktikakan bantuk imunisasi ngini lawan mahirup bubuk karing nang asalnya tumatan kulimbit [[lesi]] cacar. Pada awal abad ka-18 mancungul minat hanyar pada imunitas dapatan malalui pamakaian [[variolasi]] sabagai tindakan pancagahan, yaitu lawan mamasukakan sapalih matan lesi pandarita cacar ka dalam tubuh urang nang wagas. Praktik variolasi gin magin umum dilakukan Inggris pada tahun 1720-an maraga usaha [[Mary Wortley Montagu]], bininya duta basar Inggris gasan [[Konstantinopel]] (sakarang Istanbul), nang maamati akibat positifnya wan manggawiakannya ka kakanakannya. Pada tahun 1798 [[Edward Jenner]] mampublikasiakan hasil vaksinasinya nang panambaian, mamakai nanah matan pandarita [[cacar sapi]] (''cowpox'') wan disuntikakan ka saurang kanak bangaran James Phipps.<ref name="early_trends" /> Pangamatan imunitas dapatan salanjutnya ditaliti ulih [[Louis Pasteur]] pada tahun 1880 pasal [[vaksinasi]] wan pambuktian [[teori kuman panyakit]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Plotkin S | title = Vaccines: past, present and future | journal = Nat Med | volume = 11 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = S5–11 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15812490}}</ref> Teori itu baujar lamun panyakit disababakan ulih mikroorganisme, wan teori ngini marupakan parlawanan matan teori panyakit wayah itu, nangkaya [[teori miasma]] nang baujar panyakit disababakan ulih uap atawa kabut baracun nang diyakini tadiri matan partikal-partikal matan bahan pambusuk wan kawa diidentifikasi lawan baunya nang busuk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karamanou|first=Marianna|last2=Panayiotakopoulos|first2=George|last3=Tsoucalas|first3=Gregory|last4=Kousoulis|first4=Antonis A.|last5=Androutsos|first5=George|date=2012-3|title=From miasmas to germs: a historical approach to theories of infectious disease transmission|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22475662|journal=Le Infezioni in Medicina: Rivista Periodica Di Eziologia, Epidemiologia, Diagnostica, Clinica E Terapia Delle Patologie Infettive|volume=20|issue=1|pages=58–62|issn=1124-9390|pmid=22475662}}</ref> Labih lanjut, [[Robert Koch]] mambuktiakan teori kuman ngini pada 1891, gasan itu inya diberikan [[pangharagaan Nobel]] pada 1905. Inya mambuktiakan amun [[mikroorganisme]] marupakan panyebab matan panyakit infeksi.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905] Nobelprize.org, Diakses 8 Januari 2007.</ref> Virus dikonfirmasi sabagai patogen manusia pada 1901 lawan panamuan virus [[garing kuning]] ulih [[Walter Reed]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071023070838/http://www.wramc.amedd.army.mil/welcome/history/ Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U.S. Army] Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Diakses [[8 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref> Imunologi maalami parkambangan luar biasa pada uncit abad ka-19 pada panalitian [[imunitas humoral]] wan [[Sistim kakabalan dimediasi sel|imunitas diparantarai sel]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doherty|first=Michelle|last2=Robertson|first2=Morag J.|date=2004-12|title=Some early Trends in Immunology|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15530829|journal=Trends in Immunology|volume=25|issue=12|pages=623–631|doi=10.1016/j.it.2004.10.008|issn=1471-4906|pmid=15530829}}</ref> [[Paul Ehrlich]] mausulakan [[teori rantai higa]] nang manjelasakan spesifisitas [[interaksi antigen-antibodi]]. Sumbangannya dalam mamahami imunitas humoral diakui lawan pangharagaan Nobel pada 1908, nang baimbaian lawan pangharagaan gasan pandiri imunologi seluler, [[Elie Metchnikoff]].<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908] Nobelprize.org, Diakses 8 Januari 2007.</ref> == Palindungan balapis == Sistim imun awak malindungi organisme matan [[infeksi]] lawan palindungan balapis nang sasain dalam sasain tinggi spesifisitasnya (kakhususannya ka janis infeksi). Palindung fisik mancagah patogen nangkara [[bakteri]] dan [[virus]] mamasuki awak. Amun patogen maliwati palindung itu, [[sistim imun bawaan]] manyediaakan palindungan lawan situ saini dalam hitungan menit hingga jam. Sistim imun bawaan didapati pada samua janis tumbuhan wan binatang.<ref name=Litman>{{cite journal | author = Litman G, Cannon J, Dishaw L | title = Reconstructing immune phylogeny: new perspectives. | journal = Nat Rev Immunol | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = 866-79 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16261174}}</ref> Lamun patogen kawa maliwati réspons bawaan, vértébrata baisi lapisan palindungan salanjutnya yaitu [[sistim imun adaptif]] nang diaktifakan ulih réspons imun bawaan. Di sini, sistim imun maadaptasi réspons itu salawas inféksi gasan maningkatakan paminanduan patogén itu. Réspons ngini lalu dipartahanakan imbah patogén dimusnahakan dalam wujud [[mémori imunologis]] sahingga pada hari kaina sistim imun adaptif kawa malawan patogén nang sama wan labih lakas wan éféktif.<ref name="Kurosaki_2015">{{cite journal|date=Maret 2015|title=Memory B cells|journal=Nature Reviews. Immunology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=149–59|doi=10.1038/nri3802|pmid=25677494|vauthors=Kurosaki T, Kometani K, Ise W}}</ref> Sistim imun bawaan wan sistim imun adaptif kaduanya baisi komponén sélulér wan humoral, wan masing-masing mambariakan [[Sistim imun dimédiasi sél|imunitas diparantarai sél]] wan [[imunitas humoral]]. Imunitas diparantarai sél digawi ulih sél-sél imun nangkaya [[neutrofil]], [[Makrofaga|makrofag]], [[sél NK]], wan [[limfosit]], walau imunitas humoral digawi ulh komponen talarut nangkaya [[antibodi]] wan protéin [[Sistim komplémén|komplémén]]. Antibodi adalah protéin nang marupakan produk matan [[sel B]] nang taaktivasi nang gawiannya dalam manétralakan patogén wan ma-inisiasi prosés imunologi nang lain nangkaya paaktifan sistim komplémén, paaktifan pambunuhan sél NK, sél T sitotoksik, wan sél-sél éféktor lainnya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forthal|first=Donald N.|date=2014-08-15|title=Functions of Antibodies|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25215264|journal=Microbiology Spectrum|volume=2|issue=4|pages=1–17|issn=2165-0497|pmc=PMC4159104|pmid=25215264}}</ref> <div align="center"> {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Komponen sistim imun''' ! style="background:#ccccff;" |[[#Imunitas bawaan|Sistim imun bawaan]]||style="background:#ccccff;" |[[#Imunitas adaptif|Sistim imun adaptif]] |- | Réspons kada rinci || Réspons rinci patogén wan [[antigén]] |- | Paparan manyababakan réspons maksimal lakas|| Palambatan waktu antara paparan wan réspons maksimal |- | Komponen [[imunitas selulér|imunitas diparantarai sél]] dan [[imunitas humoral]]|| Komponen [[imunitas selulér|imunitas diparantarai sél]] wan imunitas humoral |- | Kadada memori imunologis || Paparan manyababakan adanya mémori imunologis |- | Ditamuakan hampir pada samua bantuk kahidupan||Hanya ditamukan pada [[vértébrata barahang]] |} </div> Baik imunitas bawaan wan adaptif bagantung pada kamampuan sistim imun gasan mambidaakan [[molekul]] ''self'' wan ''non-self''. Dalam [[imunologi]], molekul ''self'' adalah komponen awak organisma nang kawa dibidaakan matan bahan asing ulih sistim imun. Sabaliknya, molekul ''non-self'' adalah nang dianggap sabagai molekul asing. Satu kalas matan molekul ''non-self'' adalah [[antigen]] (handapnya matan bahasa Inggris ''antibody generator'' atawa "pambangkit antibodi") yaitu bahan-bahan nang maikat [[réséptor imun]] tartantu wan mambangkitakan réspons imun.<ref>Smith A.D. (Ed) ''Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology.'' (2000) [1997] Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854768-4, hlm. 592</ref> Bayi nang hanyak diranakakan mandapat babarapa lapisan palindungan pasif nang disadiaakan ulih umanya. Salawas [[batianan]], janis antibodi nang disambat [[Antibodi G|IgG]] nang dikirim matan uma ka bayi sacara langsung maliwati [[plasénta]], sahingga bayi baisi antibodi tinggi bahkan wayah diranakakan, lawan rentang spésifisitas antigén (fragmén halus patogén) nang sama lawan umanya.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Saji F, Samejima Y, Kamiura S, Koyama M|year=1999|title=Dynamics of immunoglobulins at the feto-maternal interface.|url=http://ror.reproduction-online.org/cgi/reprint/4/2/81.pdf|journal=Rev Reprod|volume=4|issue=2|pages=81-9|id=PMID 10357095|access-date=2007-11-09|archive-date=2008-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624234912/http://ror.reproduction-online.org/cgi/reprint/4/2/81.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[Banyu susu uma]] atawa [[kolostrum]] gin mangandung antibodi nang dikirim ka [[sistim pancarnaan]] bayi wan malindungi bayi ka inféksi baktéri sampai bayi kawa manyintésis antibodinya saurang.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Van de Perre P|year=2003|title=Transfer of antibody via mother's milk.|journal=Vaccine|volume=21|issue=24|pages=3374–6|id=PMID 12850343}}</ref> Hal ini disambat imunitas pasif marga [[fétus]] kada maulah sél mémori atawa antibodi saurang. Pada ilmu kadukturan, imunitas pasif protéktif gin kawa dikirim matan satu individu ka individu lainnya malalui [[plasma darah|serum]] nang sugih antibodi.<ref name="Keller">{{cite journal|author=Keller, Margaret A. and E. Richard Stiehm|year=2000|title=Passive Immunity in Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Diseases.|url=http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/content/full/13/4/602|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=13|issue=4|pages=602–614|id=PMID 11023960}}</ref> == Sistim imun bawaan == {{main|Sistim imun bawaan}} Mikroorganisme atwa racun nang bahasil mamasuki organisme akan bahadapan lawan mekanisme [[sistim imun bawaan]]. Respons bawaan biasanya dijalanakan wayah mikrob taridentifikasi ulih [[reseptor pengenal pola]] (''pattern recognition receptor'', PRR) nang maminandui komponen nang disambat [[pola molekuler tarait patogen]] (''pathogen-associated molecular pattern'', PAMP),<ref name="pmid179431182">{{cite journal|date=Oct 2007|title=Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2007-10-18_449_7164/page/819|journal=Nature|volume=449|issue=7164|pages=819–26|bibcode=2007Natur.449..819M|doi=10.1038/nature06246|pmid=17943118|vauthors=Medzhitov R}}</ref> atawa [[pola molekuler terkait kerusakan]] (''damage-associated molecular pattern'', DAMP).<ref name="pmid11951032">{{cite journal|date=Apr 2002|title=The danger model: a renewed sense of self|url=http://www.scs.carleton.ca/~soma/biosec/readings/matzinger-science.pdf|journal=Science|volume=296|issue=5566|pages=301–5|bibcode=2002Sci...296..301M|doi=10.1126/science.1071059|pmid=11951032|vauthors=Matzinger P}}</ref> Sistim ngini kada mambariakan palindungan nang batahan lawas ka sarangan patogen, sahingga diparluakan sistim imun lain yaitu sistim imun adaptif. Sistim imun bawaan marupakan sistim dominan patahanan awak pada kabanyakan organisme.<ref name=Litman/> == Gangguan pada imunitas == Sistim imun marupakan struktur nang luar biasa efektif dalam hal spesifisitas, indusibilitas, wan adaptasi. Tagal, kagagalan patahanan kawa jua tajadi wan dibagi manjadi talu bubuhan ganal: [[imunodefisiensi]], autoimunitas, wan hipersensitivitas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Giardino|first=Giuliana|last2=Gallo|first2=Vera|last3=Prencipe|first3=Rosaria|last4=Gaudino|first4=Giovanni|last5=Romano|first5=Roberta|last6=De Cataldis|first6=Marco|last7=Lorello|first7=Paola|last8=Palamaro|first8=Loredana|last9=Di Giacomo|first9=Chiara|date=2016|title=Unbalanced Immune System: Immunodeficiencies and Autoimmunity|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27766253|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|volume=4|pages=107|doi=10.3389/fped.2016.00107|issn=2296-2360|pmc=PMC5052255|pmid=27766253}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weiss|first=R. B.|date=1992-10|title=Hypersensitivity reactions|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1384149|journal=Seminars in Oncology|volume=19|issue=5|pages=458–477|issn=0093-7754|pmid=1384149}}</ref> === Imunodefisiensi === [[Imunodefisiensi]] tajadi wayah satu atawa labih komponen sistim imun kada aktif. Kamampuan sistim imun gasan marespons patogen bakurang ka kakanakan wan urang tuha, pada kasus urang tuha sababnya ulih [[imunosenesens]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Aw D, Silva A, Palmer D |title=Immunosenescence: emerging challenges for an ageing population |journal=Immunology |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=435–446 |year=2007 |pmid=17313487}}</ref><ref name="nutrition">{{cite journal| last = Chandra | first = RK| title = Nutrition and the immune system: an introduction | journal = American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = Vol 66 | pages = 460S-463S | date = 1997 | id = PMID 9250133 |url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/66/2/460S}}</ref> Di nagara-naara bakambang, sabab malamahnya sistim imun yaitu [[obesitas]], [[panyalahgunaan alkohol]], wan pamakaian tatamba.<ref name="nutrition" /> Namun, [[malnutrisi]] adalah panyabab paling umum nang mamicu imunodefisiensi di nagara bakambang.<ref name="nutrition" /> Diet lawan protein nang kada mayu diraitakan lawan gangguan imunitas seluler, aktivitas komplemen, fungsi fagosit, konsentrasi antibodi [[Antibodi A|IgA]], wan produksi [[sitokin]]. Salain itu, ketiadaan [[timus]] pada usia dini malalui mutasi genetik atawa pangangkatan malalui operasi mangakibatakan imunodefisiensi nang parah wan karantanan tinggi ka infeksi.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller JF | title = The discovery of thymus function and of thymus-derived lymphocytes | journal = Immunological Reviews | volume = 185 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–14 | date = Jul 2002 | pmid = 12190917 | doi = 10.1034/j.1600-065X.2002.18502.x }}</ref> Imunodefisiensi gin kawa mancungul akibat faktor turunan atawa pakulihan (dihaga). [[Panyakit granuloma kronik|Panyakit granuloma kronis]], yaitu panyakit lawan randahnya kamampuan [[fagosit]] gasan mahancurakan patogen, adalah cuntuh matan imunodefisiensi turunan. Sementara itu, [[AIDS]] dan beberapa jenis [[kanker]] marupakan cuntuh imunodefisiensi dapatan.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Joos L, Tamm M | title = Breakdown of pulmonary host defense in the immunocompromised host: cancer chemotherapy | url=http://pats.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/2/5/445 | journal = Proc Am Thorac Soc | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 445-8 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16322598}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Copeland K, Heeney J | title = T helper cell activation and human retroviral pathogenesis | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=239461&blobtype=pdf | journal = Microbiol Rev | volume = 60 | issue = 4 | pages = 722-42 | year = 1996 | id = PMID 8987361 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> === Autoimunitas === Autoimunitas adalah respons imun talalu aktif tamasuk fungsi imun nang kada bafungsi bujur sahingga ayungannya ada gangguan ka [[autoimunitas|autoimun]]. Sistim imun kada mampu bujur mambidaakan antara ''self'' wan ''non-self'', sahingga kawa manyarang bagian matan awak. Pada kaadaan nang nurmal, banyak sel T wan antibodi bariaksi lawan peptida ''self''.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Miller J | title = Self-nonself discrimination and tolerance in T and B lymphocytes | journal = Immunol Res | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 115-30 | year = 1993 | id = PMID 8254222}}</ref> Tahaga sel khusus (baandak di timus wan [[sumsum tulang]]) nang manyajiakan limfosit anum lawan antigen ''self'' nang dihasilakan pada awak wan gasan mambunuh sel nang dianggap antigen ''self'', ayungannya mancagah autoimunitas.<ref name=Sproul/> Babarapa cuntuh penyakit autoimun yaitu [[rheumatoid arthritis|artritis rematoid]], [[diabetes melitus tipe 1]], [[Tiroiditis Hashimoto|penyakit Hashimoto]], wan [[lupus erythematosus|lupus eritematosus sistemik]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cho|first=Judy H.|last2=Feldman|first2=Marc|date=2015-7|title=Heterogeneity of autoimmune diseases: pathophysiologic insights from genetics and implications for new therapies|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26121193|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=21|issue=7|pages=730–738|doi=10.1038/nm.3897|issn=1546-170X|pmc=PMC5716342|pmid=26121193}}</ref> === Hipersensitivitas === [[Hipersensitivitas]] adalah respons imun nang balabihan nang kawa marusak jaringan awak saurang. Hipersensitivitas tabagi manjadi ampat kalas (Tipe I – IV) badasarakan mekanisme nang umpat wan lawasnya waktu reaksi hipersensitif. Hipersensitivitas tipe I atawa reaksi lakas atawa reaksi [[anafilaksis]] rancak diraitakan lawan [[alergi]]. Gajala kawa bervariasi matan kakadanyamanan sampai kamatian. Hipersensitivitas tipe I diparantarai ulih [[Antibodi E|IgE]], nang mamicu degranulasi [[sel mast]] wan [[basofil]] wayah [[Antibodi E|IgE]] bababatan silang lawan antigen. Hipersensitivitas tipe II tajadi wayah antibodi mambabat antigen sel inang wan manandai buhannya gasan panghancuran. Janis ngini jua disambat hipersensitivitas sitotoksik, wan diparantarai ulih antibodi [[Antibodi G|IgG]] wan [[Antibodi M|IgM]]. Kompleks imun (kompleks antara antigen, protein komplemen wan antibodi [[Antibodi G|IgG]] wan [[Antibodi M|IgM]]) takumpul pada babagai jaringan nang mamicu reaksi hipersensitivitas tipe III. Hipersensitivitas tipe IV (dikanal jua sabagai hipersensitivitas diparantarai sel atawa hipersensitivitas janis tatunda) biasanya mamarluakan waktu antara dua sampai talu hari gasan bakembang. Reaksi tipe IV umpat dalam babagai panyakit autoimun wan panyakit infeksi, tapi jua dalam umpat dalam [[Dermatitis kontak iritan|dermatitis kontak]] (misalnya disababakan ulih racun tumbuhan [[jalatang]]). Reaksi itu diparantarai ulih [[sel T]], [[monosit]], wan makrofag.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Uzzaman A, Cho SH |title=Chapter 28: Classification of hypersensitivity reactions |journal=Allergy Asthma Proc.|volume=Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=96-99 |year=2012 |pmid=22794701}}</ref> == Manipulasi pada kadukturan == [[Barakas:Dexamethasone structure.svg|jmpl|ka|200px|[[Tatamba imunosupresif]] [[deksametason]]]] Respons imun kawa dimanipulasi gasan manikin respons nang kada dikahandaki akibat [[autoimunitas]], [[alergi]], atawa panulakan [[Transplantasi organ|transplantasi]]. Manipulasi gin kawa dilakukan gasan marangsang respons palindungan ka patogen nang sapalih ganal mahindari sistim imun (lihat [[imunisasi]]) atawa kanker. === Tatamba imunosupresif === [[Tatamba imunosupresif]] dipakai gasan pamantauan gangguan autoimun atawa [[inflamasi]] wayah kajadian karakaian jaringan nang balabihan, wan gasan mancagah panulakan [[transplantasi]] limbah [[transplantasi organ]].<ref name= Jan/><ref name= Taylor>{{cite journal | author = Taylor A, Watson C, Bradley J | title = Immunosuppressive agents in solid organ transplantation: Mechanisms of action and therapeutic efficacy | journal = Crit Rev Oncol Hematol | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–46 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16039869}}</ref> == Bahan acuan == {{reflist}} [[Tumbung:Imunologi]] 16nff0ke3csykd1q30z6vhworoth6a0 0 21587 113347 113213 2026-08-07T19:33:28Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox spesies | binomial_authority = [[Peter Ouwens|Ouwens]], [[1912]] | range_map = Komodo dragon distribution id.png }} '''Komodo''' atawa disambat jua '''biawak komodo''' (''Varanus komodoensis''), adalah [[janis]] [[biawak]] ganal nang tadapat di [[Komodo (pulau)|Pulau Komodo]], [[Rinca]], [[Pulau Flores|Flores]], [[Gili Motang]], wan [[Gili Dasami]] di Parupinsi [[Nusa Tenggara Timur|Nusa Tunggara Timur]], [[Indunisia]].<ref name="itis">{{ITIS|ID=202168|taxon=Varanus komodoensis|year=2007|date=19 June}}</ref><ref name="komo">{{cite book|author=Trooper Walsh; Murphy, James Jerome; Claudio Ciofi; Colomba De LA Panouse|title=Komodo Dragons: Biology and Conservation (Zoo and Aquarium Biology and Conservation Series)|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/komododragonsbio0000unse|publisher=Smithsonian Books|location=Washington, D.C|pages=|isbn=1-58834-073-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Biawak ngini ulih panggana asli pulau Komodo jua disambat lawan ngaran satampat '''ora'''.<ref name="amnh">[http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/Endangered/ora/ora.html Endangered! Ora] URL diakses pada [[15 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref> Komodo adalah janis pangganalnya matan kulawarga [[Varanidae]], sakaligus [[bingkarungan]] pangganalnya di dunia, lawan rata-rata panjang 2-3 [[mitir]] wan baratnya kawa sampai 100&nbsp;kg. Komodo adalah pamangsa puncak di habitatnya marga sajauh ngini kada dikatahui adanya binatang pamakan daging ganal lain suwalih biawak ngini.<ref name="world">{{cite book|author=Chris Mattison,|title=Lizards of the World (Of the World)|url=https://archive.org/details/lizardsofworld0000matt|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|year=1989 & 1992|pages= pp. 16, 57, 99, 175|isbn=0-8160-5716-8|oclc=|doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Burness G, Diamond J, Flannery T |title=Dinosaurs, dragons, and dwarfs: the evolution of maximal body size |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=98 |issue=25 |pages=14518-23 |year=2001 |pmid=11724953}}</ref><ref name="firefly">{{cite book|author=Tim Halliday (Editor), Kraig Adler (Editor)|title=Firefly Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7/page/112 112], 113, 144, 147, 168, 169|isbn=1-55297-613-0|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Awaknya nang ganal wan ngaran baiknya nang mambari gair maulah bubuhannya jadi salah sabuting binatang paling dipinandui di dunia. Wayah ngini, habitat komodo nang sabujurnya sudah manyusut marga gagawian manusia, sampai lambaga [[IUCN]] mamasukakan komodo jadi janis nang [[Janis rantan|rantan]] tahadap kapunahan. Biawak komodo sudah ditatapakan jadi binatang nang dilindungi ulih pamarintah Indunisia wan habitatnya dijadiakan [[taman nasiunal]], yaitu [[Taman Nasiunal Komodo]], nang tujuannya didiriakan gasan malindungi bubuhannya. == Ilmu wiwir wan bantuk kata == [[Barakas:Komodo dragon skin.jpg|jmpl|kiri|240px|Kulimbit komodo.]] [[Barakas:KDragon1mj.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Batis wan buntut komodo.]] [[Barakas:Varanus komodoensis3.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Komodo nang bajamur.]] Komodo [[marau]] tuha rancaknya baisi barat kikira 70&nbsp;kg,<ref name="animal" />, tagal komodo nang diharagu di pakurungan rancak baisi bubut nang tabarat. Cuntuh marau pangganalnya nang suah didapati panjangnya sampai 3.13 mitir lawan barat kikira 166&nbsp;kg, tamasuk barat makanan nang balum dicarna di dalam parutnya.<ref name="sciam">Ciofi, Claudia. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000EFE16-865C-1CD6-B4A8809EC588EEDF The Komodo Dragon]. ''Scientific American'', March 1999. URL diakses pada [[21 Desember]] [[2006]]</ref> Komodo baisi buntut nang sama panjang lawan awaknya. Magun komodo tacatat jadi bingkarungan pangganalnya di dunia, tagal lain janis nang pamanjangnya. Ngaran baik panjang awak (kada tamasuk barat awak) diingkuti ulih [[biawak Papua]] (''Varanus salvadorii'').<ref name="biz">{{cite web |url=http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet |title=Komodo Dragon - An Information Resource - Fact Sheet |accessdate=2008-03-13 |format= |work= |archive-date=2008-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307024159/http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Komodo lalakian taganal daripada komodo bibinian, lawan kalir kulimbit matan dauk kadap sampai habang batu bata, wan komodo bibinian rancaknya bakalir hijau kasuklatan wan baisi talutuhan halus kuning di rakungannya. Komodo anum labih bamacam-macam kalirnya, lawan kalir kuning, hijau, wan putih lawan latar balakang hirang.<ref name="location"/> Di dalam muntung komodo tuha, tadapat kikira 60 buting gigi nang barigit curing sapanjang kikira 2.5 [[sintimitir|cm]], nang rancak tapacul.<ref name="location"/><ref name="whozoo">[http://whozoo.org/students/amabau/komodo_dragon.htm Whozoo Komodo Dragon] URL accessed December 21, 2006.</ref> Komodo baisi [[ilat]] nang panjang, bakalir kuning kasuklatan wan bacikang.<ref name="sciam"/> Banyu liur komodo adalah sabuting hal nang rancak dipandirakan banyak urang marga kabanyakan urang maanggapnya baracun kaya wisa ular atawa bingkarungan baracun, bahkan dianggap kadada tatambanya, kawa gasan mancagah atawa jua mambarasihakan racun ngitu. Magun, hal ngini jadi pahualan panjang di antara bubuhan ahli binatang di dunia.<ref name="docent">[http://szgdocent.org/resource/rr/c-komodo.htm Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214110617/http://szgdocent.org/resource/rr/c-komodo.htm |date=2005-02-14 }} URL accessed [[December 21]], 2006.</ref> == Ilmu pisiulugi == [[Barakas:Komodo Dragons in the wild on Rinca island Indonesia..jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Komodo di Rinca.]] [[Barakas:Komodo Dragon Eating Rinca.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Komodo anum di Rinca nang makan bangkai hadangan.]] Komodo kawa manjanak sampai sajauh 300 m, tagal marga [[ritina]]nya wastu baisi [[sel karucut]], binatang ngini kada kawa manjanak lawan baik wayah malam kadap. Komodo kawa mambidaakan kalir, tagal kada talalu kawa mambidaakan upjik nang kada bagarak.<ref name="nzpfactsheet">{{cite web |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Komododragon.cfm |title=Komodo Dragon Fact Sheet - National Zoo| FONZ |accessdate=2007-11-25 |format= |work=}}</ref> Komodo kada baisi indra pandangaran, saupama baisi luang talinga.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/336feature1.shtml |title=BBC - Science & Nature - Articles - The Komodo conundrum |accessdate=2007-11-25 |format= |work= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321094818/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/336feature1.shtml |archivedate=2005-03-21 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Komodo mamakai ilatnya gasan mancium bau mangsanya kaya halnya sapalih ganal [[Squamata]]. Ilat komodo manangkap partikel bau di udara, imbah ngitu maandaknya ka urgan di langit-langit muntungnya nang disambat [[urgan Jacobson]] nang baguna gasan maanalisis tanda-tanda matan bau ngitu.<ref name="draconian"/> Lawan patulung angin wan kabiasaannya manulihakan kapalanya ka kanan wan ka kiwa wayah bajalan, komodo kawa malacak kaandakan daging bangkai sajauh 4—9.5&nbsp;km.<ref name="location"/> Luang hidung komodo wastu baguna gasan bahinak wan lain mancium bau marga komodo kada baisi salaput panarima bau di hidungnya.<ref name="zipcode">[http://zipcodezoo.com/animals/v/varanus_komodoensis.asp Zipcodezoo.com - Varanus komodoensis] URL accessed February 1, 2007.</ref> Komodo jua kada baisi urgan parasa di ilatnya, wastu ada sahikit hujung-hujung sarap parasa di rakungan dalam.<ref name="draconian">[http://www.draconian.com/dragons/komodo-dragon-background.php Komodo Dragon - Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212824/http://www.draconian.com/dragons/komodo-dragon-background.php |date=2021-06-02 }} URL accessed April 13, 2007</ref> Komodo sawat dianggap [[dakak]] wayah [[paitihan]] mandapatakan bahua bisikan, suara nang maningkat wan kuciakan sakalinya kada maujaki komodo ngitu. Hal ngini imbah ngitu tabantahakan wayah kariawan [[Kabun Binatang London ZSL]], Joan Proctor malatih biawak komodo gasan kaluar makan lawan suaranya, bahkan jua wayah inya kada talihat ulih si biawak.<ref name="liz"/> == Kalakuan == [[Barakas:Varanus komodoensis.JPG|jmpl|ka|250px|Di gambar ngini, buntut wan [[karukut]] komodo kawa tajanak lawan jalas.]] [[Barakas:KomodoDragon.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Komodo nang guring. Cuba itihi kukunya nang ganal. Kukunya dipakai gasan batampur wan makan.]] [[Barakas:Komodo coin, Indonesia Dscn0057.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Koin [[Rupiah]] Indunisia nang bagambar komodo.]] [[Barakas:Komodo-dragon-1.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Dua ikung komodo di Pulau Komodo.]] Komodo marau wastu tadapat wan wastu kawa didapati di [[Indunisia]] di [[Nusa Tunggara Timur]], pasnya di [[pulau Komodo]], [[pulau Rinca|Rinca]] wan sapalih pulau halus di intangannya wan jua di pasisir barat [[pulau Flores]].<ref name="sczkd">[http://www.scz.org/animals/d/komodo.html Sedgewick County Zoo information about Varanus Komodoensis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208055018/http://www.scz.org/animals/d/komodo.html |date=2007-12-08 }} Pranala diakses pada [[21 Desember]] [[2006]].</ref> Habitat komodo adalah padang kumpai tabuka (sabana) wan hutan sabat, bahanu jua di pasisir pantai. Komodo bakagiatan wayah [[tangah hari]] sampai [[kamarian]], tagal tatap banaung bila suhu udara liwar panas.<ref name="gateway-faq"/><ref name="southsea"/> Komodo adalah binatang nang katuju manyaurangan wan wastu [[bakumpulan]] wayah makan atawa bakambang biak. Biawak ngini kawa bukah laju sampai 20&nbsp;km/jam pada intangan nang handap. Komodo harat [[bakunyung]] jua wan kawa manyalam sadalam 4.5 mitir<ref name="jung">[http://www.sfsu.edu/~geog/bholzman/courses/316projects/komodo.htm The Biogeography of the Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901163637/http://www.sfsu.edu/~geog/bholzman/courses/316projects/komodo.htm |date=2012-09-01 }} URL diakses pada [[24 Februari]] [[2007]].</ref> wan jua harat manaiki puhun mamakai karukut bubuhannya nang kuat.<ref name="animal">{{cite book |last = Burnie |first = David |coauthors = Don E. Wilson |title = Animal |url = https://archive.org/details/animal0000unse_m2z3 |publisher = DK Publishing, Inc. |date = 2001 |location = New York, New York |pages = 417, 420 |id = ISBN 0-7894-7764-5}}</ref> Gasan manangkap mangsa nang baandak di luar jangkauannya, komodo kawa badiri lawan batis balakangnya wan mamakai buntutnya jadi panunjang.<ref name="liz"/> Sairing batambahnya umur wan ukuran awak, komodo tarancak mamakai karukutnya jadi sanjata, marga ukuran awak nang ganal mangalihakannya manaiki puhun. Gasan tampat balindung, komodo kawa manabuk luang salibar 1–3 mitir lawan urat bayang muka wan karukutnya nang kuat.<ref name="cogger"/> Marga ukuran awaknya wan kabiasaan guring di dalam luang, komodo kawa manjaga panas awaknya salawas malam hari wan mangurangi waktu bajamur wayah [[baisukan]] imbahnya.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eric R. Pianka and Laurie J. Vitt; with a foreword by Harry W. Greene|title=Lizards: windows to the evolution of diversity|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=2003|page=244|isbn=0-520-23401-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> === Makanan === Komodo adalah binatang pamakan binatang lain ([[karnivora]]). Tagal, biawak ngini tarancak mamakan daging bangkai.<ref name="world"/> [[Paitihan]] nang ada manunjukakan bahua biawak komodo baburu mangsa hidup lawan cara batabun-tabun diumpati lawan sarangan tiba-tiba tahadap kurbannya. Wayah mangsa ngitu sudah dalam jangkauannya, komodo langsung manyarangnya lawan maigut di higa bawah awak atawa rakungan.<ref name="location"/> Komodo mandapati mangsanya lawan mamakai ilatnya nang kawa marasaakan [[bau]] mangsa, binatang mati atau sakarat pada intangan sampai 9,5 kilumitir.<ref name="location"/> Komodo mamakan buruannya lawan cara marabit putungan ganal matan daging, imbah ngitu managuknya bulat-bulat, pahadangan tungkai mukanya manahan awak mangsanya. Gasan mangsa baukuran halus sampai saganal [[kambing]], bahanu komodo langsung mahabisakannya sakali taguk.<ref name="southsea"/> Banyu liur di muntung komodo mambantunya managuk mangsanya. Saupama damintu, runtutan managuk tatap mamarluakan waktu nang panjang, rancaknya 15–20 manit diparluakan gasan managuk saikung kambing. Komodo bahanu bausaha mahancapi runtutan managuk ngitu lawan manikin daging mangsanya ka [[puhun]] atawa batu, gasan mamaksa daging "masuk" malalui rakungannya.<ref name="southsea"/> Gasan mahindari panyumbatan udara wayah managuk, komodo bahinak malalui sabuting handil halus di bawah ilat, nang bahubungan langsung lawan [[hampau]]nya.<ref name="location"/> Wihangnya komodo kawa dibuka sakahandak marga utut tangkuraknya nang linak, mamungkinakan komodo kawa malahap mangsa nang ganal sampai saganal 80% bubut awaknya saurang dalam sakali makan.<ref name="firefly"/><ref name="reptilis"/> Mangsa komodo tuha di antaranya [[reptilia]] halus (tamasuk janisnya saurang), [[babi hutan]], [[kambing]], [[minjangan]], [[kuda]], wan [[hadangan]]. Sadangakan komodo anum mamangsa [[karangga]], hintalu, [[mamalia]], wan [[reptilia]] halus.<ref name="world"/><ref name="reptilis">[http://reptilis.net/lacertilia/varanidae/komodo.html The Reptipage: Komodo dragons] URL accessed February 13, 2007.</ref> Imbah makan, komodo bajalan manyirit awaknya nang kakanyangan mancari tampat tabuka gasan bajamur wan mahancapi runtutan pancarnaan. Lamun kada, makanan ngitu kawa mambusuk dalam parutnya wan maracuni awaknya saurang. Marga [[mitabulisma]]nya nang lambat, komodo ganal kawa batahan lawan wastu makan kikira 12 kali satahun atawa sakali sabulan.<ref name="location"/> Imbah daging mangsanya tacarna, komodo mamuntahakan sisa-sisa tanduk, rambut, wan gigi mangsanya, dalam gumpalan-gumpalan bacampur lawan landir babau haruk. Imbahnya, komodo manyapuakan muhanya ka tanah atawa ka padang sabat gasan mambarasihakan sisa-sisa landir nang masih tatikap di muntungnya.<ref name="location"/> Wayah makan sacara bakalumpuk, komodo nang baukuran pangganalnya rancaknya makan badahulu, diumpati lawan komodo lain nang baukuran tahalus. Jantan pangganalnya manunjukakan duminasinya malalui basa awak wan dasisannya, nang imbahnya disambut lawan basa nang sama ulih jantan-jantan lain nang tahalus gasan manampaiakan pangakuan bubuhannya atas kakuasaan komodo ganal ngitu. Komodo-komodo nang baukuran sama kawa cagar bakalahi maadu kakuatan, lawan cara badiri pada dua batis balakang, imbah ngitu saling mamukul wan manunjul lawan batis muka, sampai sasaikung mangaku kalah wan mundur walau bahanu nang kalah kawa tabunuh dalam pakalahian wan dimangsa ulih si pamanang.<ref name="location"/> Bahanu komodo mamangsa [[manusia]] jua wan mayat nang ditabuk matan luang makam nang dangkal.<ref name="liz"/> Kabiasaan ngini maulah panggana pulau Komodo mahindari tanah bapasir wan mamilih mangubur mayat di tanah liat, wan manukupi atasnya lawan batu-batu sakira kada kawa ditabuk ulih komodo.<ref name="southsea">{{cite book|author=Alison Ballance; Morris, Rod|title=South Sea Islands: A Natural History|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/southseaislandsn0000ball|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=|isbn=1-55297-609-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Ada jua nang manduga bahua komodo baubah gasan mamangsa [[gajah kihit]] ''[[Stegodon]]'' nang suah hidup di [[Flores]].<ref name = "Diamond">Diamond, J (1987) "Did Komodo dragons evolve to eat pygmy elephants?" ''Nature'' '''326'''(6116): 832-832</ref> Komodo dikatahui suah jua mangajutakan wan manakutani minjangan-minjangan bibinian nang rahatan batianan, lawan harapan supaya kaguguran wan bangkai janinnya kawa dimangsa, sabuting kalakuan nang didapati jua di binatang-binatang pamangsa ganal di [[Aprika]].<ref name="Diamond"/> === Wisa wan kuman === Wayah warih 2005, paitih matan Uniparsitas Melbourne, [[Australia]], manyimpulakan bahua [[biawak Perentie]] (''Varanus giganteus'') wan biawak-biawak lainnya, wan jua bingkarungan-bingkarungan matan suku Agamidae, kamungkinan baisi samacam [[wisa]]. Salawas ngini, dikatahui bahua luka-luka marga igutan binatang-binatang ngini liwar rawan [[paradangan]] marga adanya kuman nang hidup di muntung bingkarungan-bingkarungan ngini, tagal bubuhan paitih ngini manunjukakan bahua [[ujak]] langsung nang cungul di luka-luka igutan ngitu dimargaakan masuknya wisa bakakuatan manangah. Bubuhan paitih ngini sudah manjanaki luka-luka di tangan manusia marga igutan biawak ''Varanus varius'', ''V. scalaris'' wan komodo, wan sabarataan manampaiakan tanggapan nang sarupa: bangkak sacara hancap dalam babarapa manit, gangguan pambakuan darah, rasa sakit sampai ka siku, diumpati lawan babarapa gajala nang batahan sampai babarapa jam imbahnya.<ref>{{cite web |author=Fry, Brian G., et al. |url=http://www.naherpetology.org/pdf_files/467.pdf |title=Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes |accessdate=2008-03-13 |format=PDF |work= |archive-date=2017-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010191815/http://www.naherpetology.org/pdf_files/467.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Sabuting kalanjar nang baisi wisa nang liwar baracun sudah bakulih dijuhut matan muntung saikung komodo di [[Kabun Binatang Singapura]], wan mayakinakan bubuhan paitih lawan kandungan wisa komodo<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20090519/sc_afp/scienceanimalkomodoaustralia_20090519073836 Scientists discover deadly secret of Komodo's bite], Yahoo News diakses pada 20/05/2009</ref>. Kuman nang liwar mamatiakan di banyu liur komodo dikikiraakan adalah kuman ''[[Pasteurella multocida]]''.<ref>Feldman, Ruth Tenzer. "Dragon drool!(Animal Angles)(komodo dragons)(Brief article)." Odyssey 16.2 (Feb 2007): 49(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 23 Oct. 2007 [http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS].</ref> Suwalih manian wisa, banyu liur komodo baisi bamamacam kuman mamatiakan jua di dalamnya; labih matan 28 kuman [[Gram-nigatip]] qan 29 [[Gram-pusitip]] sudah diasingakan matan banyu liur ngini.<ref>Montgomery JM, Gillespie D, Sastrawan P, Fredeking TM, Stewart GL (2002) "Aerobic salivary bacteria in wild and captive Komodo dragons" ''Journal of Wildlife Diseases'' ''' 38''' (3): 545-551</ref> Kuman-kuman ngitu maulah [[Sepsis|septikemia]] lawan kurbannya. Lamun igutan komodo kada langsung mambunuh mangsa wan mangsa ngitu kawa bukah, awamnya mangsa nang kada bauntung ngini cagar mati dalam waktu sahari atawa saminggu marga paradangan, marga komodo kamungkinan taguh tahadap mikrubanya saurang, banyak [[paitihan]] digawi gasan manggagai molekul antibaktiri lawan harapan kawa dipakai gasan [[patambaan]] manusia.<ref name="nwf"/> == Pakambangbiakan == Musim kawin komodo rancaknya balangsung antara bulan [[Mai]] sampai [[Agustus]].<ref name="jung"/> Salawas pariuda ngini, komodo jantan rancak bakalahi lawan pajantan lain gasan marabutkan batina wan wilayah kakuasaannya. Dua pajantan "baudar" lawan jantan lainnya sambil badiri mamakai batis balakang imbah ngitu batutunjulan wan mamukul lawan batis muka. Komodo nang kalah cagar tarabah wan "tasunduk" ka tanah. Kadua komodo jantan ngitu kawa muntah atawa bahira wayah basiap gasan bakalahi.<ref name="liz"/> Pamanang patarungan cagar manjulurakan [[ilat]] panjangnya di awak si batina gasan manjanak panarimaan sang batina.<ref name="firefly" /> Komodo batina bakalakuan [[antagunis]] wan malawan pakai gigi wan karukut bubuhannya salawas pamulaan pasa bagampiran. Imbahnya, jantan musti mangandaliakan batina salawas bahajuk anggaran kada taluka. Salawas pakawinan, si jantan manggusukakan dagu bubuhannya di batina, diumpati garukan karas di atas balukuk wan manjilat.<ref name="library">[http://library.sandiegozoo.org/Fact%20Sheets/komodo_dragon/Komodo.htm Komodo Dragon: Varanus komodoensis 1998] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216073115/http://library.sandiegozoo.org/Fact+Sheets/komodo_dragon/Komodo.htm |date=2005-12-16 }} URL accessed January 24, 2007.</ref> Pakawinan tajadi wayah jantan mamasukakan sasabuting [[hemipenis]]nya ka kloaka batina.<ref name="nzpfactsheet"/> Komodo bakalakuan [[munugami|munugamus]] wan mambantuk "gampiran" sabuting kalakuan nang langka gasan bingkarungan.<ref name="liz"/><ref name="reptilis"/> Komodo batina rancaknya maandak hintalunya di luang tanah, cakungan di tabing bukit atawa gundukan sarang burung [[hangit babatis-jingga]] nang sudah ditinggalakan. Tagal, komodo takatuju manyimpan hintalu-hintalunya di sarang nang sudah ditinggalakan.<ref>Jessop TS, Sumner J, Rudiharto H, Purwandana D, Imansyah MJ, Phillips JA (2004) "Distribution, use and selection of nest type by Komodo Dragons" ''Biological Conservation'' '''117''' (5): 463-470</ref> Sarang komodo rata-rata baisi 20 hintalu.<ref name="liz"/> Batina barabah di atas hintalu-hintalu ngitu gasan maharami wan malindunginya sampai mamacah imbah diharami salawas 7–8 bulan.<ref name="jung"/> Runtutan pamacahan adalah usaha malapahi gasan anak komodo, nang kaluar matan cangkang hintalu imbah manguyaknya lawan [[gigi hintalu]] nang cagar pacul imbah gawian barat ngini tuntung. Imbah bakulih manguyak kulimbit hintalu, bayi komodo kawa barabah di cangkang hintalu bubuhannya gasan babarapa jam sabalum mulai manabuk kaluar sarang bubuhannya. Wayah mamacah, bayi-bayi ngini liwar rantan dimakan ulih pamangsa.<ref name="location"/> Komodo anum mahabisakan tahun-tahun panambaiannya di atas puhun, tampat bubuhannya kada mutlak aman matan pamangsa, tamasuk matam komodo tuha nang kanibal, nang bahanu mamangsa biawak-biawak anum nang bakulih diburu.<ref name="liz"/><ref name="factsheet"/> Komodo mamarluakan talung sampai lima tahun gasan jadi tuha, wan kawa hidup labih matan 50 tahun.<ref name="liz"/><ref name="reptilis"/> .<ref name="cogger">{{cite book|author=consultant editors, Harold G. Cogger & Richard G. Zweifel; illustrations by David Kirshner|title=Encyclopedia of reptiles & amphibians|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_h2i0|publisher=Academic Press|location=Boston|year=1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_h2i0/page/132 132], 157-8|isbn=0-12-178560-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> === Partenogenesis === [[Barakas:Aa komodo dragon baby.jpg|jmpl|ka|Bayi komodo [[partenogenesis|partenogenetik]] di [[Kabun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggris]].]] [[Barakas:Parthkomodo.jpg|jmpl|ka|Bayi komodo [[partenogenesis|partenogenetik]] di [[Kabun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggris]].]] Di higa runtutan pakambangbiakan nang sasuai, tadapat sapalih cuntuh kajadian komodo batina mangulihakan anak kadada kadatangan pajantan ([[partenogenesis]]), kajadian nang dikatahui cungul jua di sapalih janis riptil lainnya kaya di [[Cnemidophorus]].<ref name="animal"/> "Sungai", saikung komodo di [[Kabun Binatang London]], bahintalu wayah pamulaan tahun [[2006]] imbah dihalat matan jantan salawas labih matan dua tahun. Ilmuwan pamulaannya mangira lamun komodo ngini kawa manyimpan [[sperma]] babarapa lawas matan kulih pakawinan lawan komodo jantan wayah waktu sabalumnya, sabuting panyasuaian nang dipinandui lawan istilah [[suparpikundasi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metafilter.com/58040/Virgin-Birth-No-Virgin-Hatch|title=Virgin Birth? No, Virgin Hatch.|website=www.metafilter.com}}</ref> Wayah tanggal [[20 Disimbir]] [[2006]], dilapurakan lamun "Flora", komodo nang hidup di [[Kabun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggris]] adalah komodo kadua nang dikatahui mangulihakan hintalu kadada [[fertilisasi]] (pambuahan matan pakawinan). Inya mangaluarakan 11 hintalu, wan 7 di antaranya bakulih mamacah.<ref>Catatan kandangnya di [[Kebun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggris]]</ref> Paitih matan [[Uniparsitas Liverpool]] di Inggris utara manggawi tes genetika lawan talung hintalu nang kada jadi pacah imbah diugah ka inkubatur wan tabukti lamun "Flora" kada baisi kuntak awak lawan komodo jantan. Imbah dapatan nang mangajutakan ngini, panaraian digawi tahadap hintalu-hintalu "Sungai" wan dikatahui lamun hintalu-hintalu ngitu jua dikulihakan kadada pambuahan matan luar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article759338.ece |title=Wise men testify to Dragon's virgin birth - Times Online |accessdate=2007-11-26 |format= |work= |archive-date=2020-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528134302/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Komodo baisi [[sistim panantuan seks]] kromosomal [[sistim panantuan seks ZW|ZW]], lain [[sistim panantuan seks XY]]. Katurunan "Flora" nang bakalamin jantan, manunjukakan tajadinya babarapa hal, lamun hintalu "Flora" nang kada dibuahi basipat [[haploid]] pamulaannya, imbah ngitu manggampirakan kromosomnya saurang jadi [[diploid]]. Ngini manunjukakan lamun inya kada mangulihakan hintalu diploid, sabadimapa tajadi lamun sasabuting runtutan pambalahan-riduksi [[meiosis]] di [[uparium]]nya jajung. Wayah komodo batina (baisi kromosom seks ZW) mangulihakan anak lawan cara ngini, inya mawarisakan wastu sasabuting matan gampiran-gampiran kromosom ampunnya, tamasuk sabuting matan dua kromosom seksnya. Sabuting set kromosom tunggal ngini imbahnya dirangkapi dalam hintalu, nang bakambang sacara partenogenetika. Hintalu nang manarima kromosom Z cagar jadi ZZ (jantan) wan nang manarima kromosom W cagar jadi WW wan jajung gasan bakambang.<ref name="ZW">''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6196225.stm Virgin births for giant lizards]''</ref> Diduga lamun panyasuaian ripruduktip samacam ngini mamungkinakan saikung binatang batina mamasuki sabuah [[relung ekologi]] nang taukung (kaya halnya pulau) wan cara partenogenesis imbahnya mangulihakan katurunan jantan. Malalui pakawinan lawan anaknya ngitu pada wayah nang imbahnya binatang-binatang ngini kawa mambantuk pupulasi nang bakambang biak sacara siksual, marga dapat mangulihakan katurunan jantan wan batina.<ref name="ZW" /> Saupama panyasuaian ngini basipat mauntungakan, kabun binatang parlu waspada marga partenogenesis mungkin kawa mangurangi kabamacaman genetika.<ref name="pmid">{{cite journal |author=Watts PC, Buley KR, Sanderson S, Boardman W, Ciofi C, Gibson R |title=Parthenogenesis in Komodo Dragons |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_december-21-28-2006_444_7122/page/1021 |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7122 |pages=1021-2 |year=2006 |pmid=17183308 |doi=10.1038/4441021a}}</ref> Wayah 31 Januari 2008, Kabun Binatang Sedgwick County di Wichita, [[Kansas]] jadi kabun binatang nang pamulaan mandukumintasi partenogenesis lawan komodo di Amirika. Kabun binatang ngini baisi dua komodo batina tuha, nang sasabuting di antaranya mangulihakan 17 butir hintalu wayah 19-20 Mai 2007. Wastu dua hintalu nang diinkubasi wan dipacahakan marga masalah katasadiaan wadah; nang pamulaan mamacah wayah 31 Januari 2008, diumpati ulih nang kadua wayah 1 Pibuari 2008. Kadua anak komodo itu bakalamin jantan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scz.org/n_recent.html |title=Recent News - Sedgwick County Zoo |accessdate=2008-02-12 |format= |work= |archive-date=2008-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080211184900/http://www.scz.org/n_recent.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23058689/ |title=Komodo dragons hatch with no male involved - Science - MSNBC.com |accessdate=2008-02-12 |format= |work=}}</ref> == Paubahan == Pakambangan paubahan komodo dimulai lawan genus [[Varanus]], nang cungul di [[Asia]] kikira 40 juta tahun hampau nang imbah ngity baugah ka [[Australia]]. Kikira 15 juta tahun hampau, padapatan limping banua Australia wan [[Asia Tunggara]] mangawaakan bubuhan biawak bagarak bamara wilayah nang damini dipinandui sawagai [[Nusantara]]. Komodo diyakini baubah matan padatuan Australianya wayah kikira 4 juta tahun hampau, wan manyabar ka timur sampai sajauh [[Timor]]. Paubahan katinggian pamukaan laut matan [[jaman Is]] sudah maulah agihan komodo bakurang wan damini wastu didapati di sapalih pulau haja.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.komododragon.biz/Evolution |title=Komodo Dragon - Evolution theory of the Komodo Dragon |accessdate=2008-03-13 |format= |work=}}</ref> == Komodo wan manusia == [[Barakas:KdragonT.zoo.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Komodo di Kabun Binatang [[Toronto]].]] [[Barakas:Makan_bareng.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Sagarumbungan komodo rahatan makan saikunh kambing di [[Kabun Binatang Surabaya]].]] === Padapatan === Komodo panambaian kali dicatatakan ulih urang [[Irupa]] wayah tahun 1910. Ngarannya maligar imbah tahun 1912, wayah [[Pieter Antonie Ouwens]], diriktur Museum Zoologi di [[Buitenzorg]] (damini [[Kuta Bogor|Bogor]]), mancungulakan jurnal pasal komodo imbah manarima gambar wan kulimbit reptil ngini.<ref name="liz">{{cite book|author=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref><ref name="factsheet">[http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet Facts and Data on the Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080104225849/http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet |date=2008-01-04 }} URL diakses pada [[5 Januari]] [[2006]].</ref> Imbahnya, komodo adalah panyabab digawinya pakujukan ka [[pulau Komodo]] ulih W. Douglas Burden wayah tahun 1926. Imbah bulik lawan 12 cuntuh nang diawitakan wan 2 ikung komodo hidup, pakujukan ngini mambariakan inspirasi gasan pilim [[King Kong (pilim 1933)|King Kong]] tahun 1933.<ref>[http://www.unmuseum.org/burden.htm The Virtual Exploration Society: the Burden Expedition to Komodo Island] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730000717/http://www.unmuseum.org/burden.htm |date=2021-07-30 }} URL accessed March 18, 2007.</ref> W. Douglas Burden adalah urang panambaian nang mangarani ''"Komodo dragon"'' gasan binatang ngini.<ref name="gateway-faq">{{cite web |url=http://www.komodo-gateway.org/faq1.html |title=Komodo National Park | Komodo Island | Frequently Asked Questions |accessdate=2007-10-25 |format= |work=}}</ref> Talung matan cuntuh komodo nang dikulihinya diawitakan jadi binatang tampaian wan sampai damini masih disimpan di [[Musium Sajarah Alam Amirika]].<ref>[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/expeditions/treasure_fossil/Treasures/Komodo_Dragons/komodo.html?aa American Museum of Natural History: Komodo Dragons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123040040/http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/expeditions/treasure_fossil/Treasures/Komodo_Dragons/komodo.html?aa |date=2010-11-23 }}. Retrieved 7 June 2007.</ref> === Paitihan === Marga manyadari bakurangnya jumlah binatang ngini di alam bibas, bubuhan ilmuwan wan pahimpunan antarabangsa kada mambariakan paburuan komodo wan mawatasi jumlah binatang nang diambil gasan paitihan ilmiah. Pakujukan komodo tamandak sawayah [[Parang Dunia II]] wan kada disambung sampai tahun 1950-an wan 1960-an, wayah digawi paitihan-paitihan tahadap kalakuan makan, pakambangbiakan, wan suhu awak komodo. Wayah tahun-tahun ngitu, sabuah pakujukan nang lain dirancang gasan maitihi komodo dalam jangka panjang. Tugas ngini gugur ka tangan kulawarga Auffenberg, nang imbahnya bagana salawas 11 bulan di Pulau Komodo wayah tahun 1969. Salawas wayah ngitu, Walter Auffenberg wan Putra Sastrawan sawagai patulungnya, bakulih manangkap wan manandai labih matan 50 ikung komodo.<ref name="nwf">{{cite web |url=http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?articleId=810&issueId=63 |title=Chasing the Magic Dragon - National Wildlife Magazine |accessdate=2007-11-06 |format= |work= |archive-date=2009-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220164644/http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?articleId=810&issueId=63 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Kulih pakujukan ngini sakalinya liwar baujak tahadap mahingkatnya pakurungan komodo.<ref name="komo"/> Paitihan-paitihan imbahnya mambariakan gambaran nang labih tarang wan jalas pasal parangai-parangai alami komodo, jadi bubuhan biolog kaya halnya Claudio Ciofi kawa manyambung kajian nang tadalam.<ref name="natgeo"/> === Palastarian === Biawak komodo adalah binatang nang rantan tahadap kapunahan wan digarumbungakan jadi binatang Rentan dalam daptar [[IUCN Red List]].<ref>{{IUCN2006|assessors=World Conservation Monitoring Centre|year=1996|id=22884|title=Varanus komodoensis|downloaded=11 May 2006}} Listed as Vulnerable (VU B1+2cde v2.3) URL accessed December 21, 2006</ref> Kikira 4.000–5.000 ikung komodo dikikiraakan masih hidup di alam marau. Garumbung ngini tawatas manyabar di pulau-pulau Rinca (1.300 ekor), Gili Motang (100), Gili Dasami (100), Komodo (1.700), wan Flores (kikira 2.000 ekor).<ref name="komo"/> Walau kaitu, ada kagairan manganai garumbung ngini marga dikikiraakan matan sabarataan ngitu wastu tauna 350 ikung batina nang mangulihakan wan kawa bakambang biak.<ref name="amnh" /> Marga kagairan ngini, wayah tahun 1980 Pamarintah Indunisia manatapakan badirinya [[Taman Nasiunal Komodo]] gasan malindungi garumbung komodo wan ikusistimnya di sapalih pulau tamasuk Komodo, Rinca, wan Padar.<ref name="knp">{{cite web |url=http://www.komodonationalpark.org/ |title=The official website of Komodo National Park, Indonesia. |accessdate=2007-02-02 |format= |work= |archive-date=2017-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906181650/http://www.komodonationalpark.org/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Balakangan, ditatapakan jua Cagar Alam Wae Wuul wan Wolo Tado di Pulau Flores gasan mambantu palastarian komodo.<ref name="natgeo"/> Tagal, ada bukti-bukti nang manunjukakan lamun komodo, sakadanya sapalih, sudah tabiasa lawan kahadiran manusia. Komodo-komodo ngini tabiasa dimakani karkas binatang tarnak, sawagai panampaian gasan manarik wisatawan di sapalih tampat ilangan.<ref name="world"/> Gawian [[vulkanis]], [[lindu]], karusakan habitat, kamandahan (garumbung komodo di Pulau Padar parak punah marga kamandahan alami suah tajadi di sana), bakurangnya mangsa, mahingkatnya pariwisata, wan paburuan kadap, maulah komodo sasain rantan tahadap kapunahan. [[CITES]] (''the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species'') sudah manatapakan lamun padagangan komodo, kulimbit atawa jua palihan-palihan lain matan binatang ngini kada dibariakan.<ref name="location">{{cite book|author=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|year=1997|url=https://archive.org/details/komododragon00tara|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref><ref name="zipcode"/><ref name="natgeo">{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0129_030129_komodo.html |title=Trapping Komodo Dragons for Conservation |accessdate=2007-11-08 |format= |work=}}</ref> Walau kada rancak tajadi, komodo dikatahui kawa mambunuh manusia. Wayah tanggal 4 Juni 2007, saikung komodo dikatahui manyarang saurang anak lalakian baumur walung tahun. Anak ngini imbahnya maninggal marga pandarahan nang bangat. Ngini adalah catatan panambaian pasal sarangan nang baakibat kamatian wayah 33 tahun ngini.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19026658/ |title=Komodo dragon kills boy in Indonesia - Asia-Pacific - MSNBC.com |accessdate=2007-06-07 |format= |work=}}</ref> === Pakurungan === Sudah lawas komodo jadi tuntunan nang manarik di bamamacam [[kabun binatang]], marga ukuran awak wan ngaran baiknya, nang maulahnya liwar tasuhur. Saupama damintu, binatang ngini kada rancak ditampaiakan di kabun binatang, marga komodo rantan tahadap jangkitan wan panyakit marga parasit, wan ngalih bakambang biak.<ref name="amnh" /> Komodo nang panambai ditampaiakan adalah di [[Kabun Binatang Smithsonian]] wayah tahun 1934, tagal binatang ngini wastu batahan hidup salawas dua tahun. Ihtiar gasan maharagu riptil ngini disambung tarus, tagal umur binatang ngini dalam pakurungan kada tapi panjang, rata-rata wastu 5 tahun di kabun binatang ngitu. [[Paitihan]] nang digawi ulih Walter Auffenberg di atas, nang kulihnya imbahnya dicungulakan sawagai buku ''The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor'', kawarihannya mamungkinakan paharaguan wan pambiakan satwa langka ngni di pakurungan.<ref name="komo" /> Imbah dijanaki, lamun banyak cuntuh komodo nang diingu manampaiakan parangai mimak gasan jangka waktu tatantu. Di sapalih kajadian, dikaduakan lamun bubuhan pawang bakulih mambawa kaluar komodo matan kandangnya gasan bahubugan lawan pailang, tamasuk kakanakan di antaranya, kadada bakas nang mambahayaakan pailang.<ref name="procter">Procter, J. B. 1928. On a living Komodo Dragon ''Varanus komodensis'' Ouwens, exhibited at the Scientific Meeting, October 23rd, 1928. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1928:1017-1019.</ref><ref name="lederer">Lederer, G. 1931. Erkennen wechselwarme Tiere ihren Pfleger? Wochenschr. Aquar.-Terrarienkunde 28: 636-638.</ref> Komodo kamungkinan kawa maminandui urang saikung-saikung. Ruston Hartdegen matan Kabun Binatang [[Dallas]] manyambat lamun komodo-komodo nang diingunya batanggapan balain lamun bahadapan lawan pawang nang rancak maingunya, lawan pawang lain nang kurang labih sudah patuh, atawa lawan pawang nang sama sakali balum patuh.<ref name="dragons">Murphy, J., and Walsh, T., 2006. Dragons and Humans. Herpetological Review, 37: 269-275.</ref> Paitihan tahadap komodo inguan mambuktiakan lamun binatang ngini katuju bamain. Sabuting kajian pasal komodo nang hakun manunjul sakup nang ditinggalakan ulih pawangnya, nyata-nyata manampaiakan lamun binatang ngitu tatarik lawan suara nang ditimbulakan sakup wayah bakitar sapanjang pamukaan babatu. Saikung komodo batina anum di Kabun Binatang Nasiunal di [[Washington, D.C.]] katuju maraih wan manguncang bamamacam banda tamasuk [[hampatung]], balik-balik kinuman, bulatan palastik, wan salimput. Komodo ngini katuju jua mamasuk-masukakan kapalanya ka dalam kutak, sipatu, wan bamamacam upjik lainnya. Komodo ngitu lain kada kawa mambidaakan banda-banda tadi lawan makanan; inya hanyar mamakannya lamun banda-banda tadi dimumuri lawan darah tikus. Parangai bamain-main ngini kawa dibandingakan lawan parangai bamain mamalia.<ref name="firefly" /> Catatan lain pasal kakatujuan bamain komodo didapatakan matan Uniparsitas [[Tennessee]]. Saikung komodo anum nang dingarani "Kraken" bamain lawan galang-galang palastik, sipatu, imbir, wan balik, lawan cara manunjulnya, mamukul-mukulnya, wan mambawanya lawan maigutnya di muntung. "Kraken" mamparlakuakan banda-banda ngitu balain lawan apa nang jadi makanannya.<ref>"Such jokers, those Komodo dragons. (Reptiles)." Science News 162.5 (August 3, 2002): 78(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 8 Oct. 2007 [http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS].</ref> Komodo nang pina mimak banar jua kawa baparangai panyarang sacara kada taduga, hususnya lamun wilayahnya dimasuki ulih urang nang kada dipinanduinya. Wayah bulan Juni 2001, sarangan saikung komodo manimbulakan luka-luka bangat lawan Phil Bronstein—editor iksikutip harian ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' wan bakas laki [[Sharon Stone]], saurang aktris Amirika tasuhur—wayah inya mamasuki kandang binatang ngitu atas saruan pawangnya. Bronstein diigut komodo ngitu di batisnya nang tilanjang, imbah si pawang mamadahiakannya supaya mambuka sipatu putihnya, nang digairakan kawa maunjun pahatian si komodo.<ref>''[https://web.archive.org/web/20010630213115/http://www.time.com/time/sampler/article/0,8599,133163,00.html Transcript: Sharon Stone vs. the Komodo Dragon]''</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Phillip T. Robinson|title=Life at the zoo: behind the scenes with the animal doctors|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeatzoobehind00robi|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|year=2004|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeatzoobehind00robi/page/79 79]|isbn=0-231-13248-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Maski lalakian ngitu salamat, tagal inya mamarluakan pambadahan gasan manyambung baasa [[tendon]] ututnya nang luka.<ref>"Tale of the Dragon. (World News)." National Geographic World (Nov 2001): 7(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 23 Oct. 2007 <http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS>.</ref> == Bahan acuan == {{reflist}} [[Tumbung:Biawak]] dfawkjpzfef2uv575jztiej9evvf1nd 0 21608 113335 74817 2026-08-07T19:07:47Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113335 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|jmpl|upright=1.35|Saikung muslim badu-a ka ampah [[Ka'bah]], kiblat umat Islam, di [[Masjidil Haram]].]] [[Barakas:US Army 51420 Soldiers celebrate end of Ramadan.jpg|jmpl|upright=1.35|Jamaah [[sambahyang]] nang wayah [[sujud]] ka ampah nang sama, yaitu ampah kiblat.]] '''Kiblat''' (matan {{lang-ar|قبلة|qiblah}} nang baarti "ampah") adalah ampah nang dituju umat Islam dalam sawagian pamaknaan ibadah, tamasuk dalam [[sambahyang]]. Ampah naya manuju ka bangunan [[Ka'bah]] di [[Masjidil Haram]], [[Makkah]], [[Arab Saudi]], nang manurut umat Islam adalah bangunan suci nang diulah dua Nabi, yaitu [[Ibrahim]] wan anak sidin [[Isma'il|Ismail]]. Maumpat kaparcayaan umat Islam, ampah kiblat ngini disuruh ulih [[Allah]] dalam [[Al-Qur'an]], Surat [[Al-Baqarah]] ayat 144, 149, wan 150 nang diwahyuakan gasan Nabi [[Muhammad]] pada tahun ka-2 [[Hijriyah]]; sawalum naya Muhammad wan nang maumpati sidin [[Madinah]] bakiblat ka ampah [[Yerusalem]]. Suwalih gasan sambahyang, kiblat jua marupakan ampah [[ihram|baihram]] dalam [[haji]], ampah wajah hiwan wayah disumbalih, ampah janazah saikung Muslim wayah dikubur, ampah nang dianjurakan gasan badu'a, lawan ampah nang dijauhi gasan bakamih, bahira, lawan buang dahak. Dalam rancangan [[masigit]], rajin ada [[mihrab]], yaitu [[relung]] pada salah sabuting tawing masigit gasan manunjukakan sisi nang mahadap ka kiblat. Pada paraktiknya, dipinandui dua cara mahadap kiblat, yaitu ''<nowiki>'ainul ka'bah</nowiki>'' (pas banar mahadap Ka'bah) atawa ''jihatul ka'bah'' (kikira maarah ka Ka'bah kada harus pas banar). Kabanyakan ulama bapandapat ''<nowiki>'ainul ka'bah</nowiki>'' wastu dituntut lamun kawa (misalnya di tampat Masjidil Haram wan parak situ), wan lamun kada ''jihatul ka'bah'' kawa digawi. Sacara tiknis, makna kiblat nang pambanyaknya dipakai ilmuwan Muslim adalah ampah nang ditunjukakan [[lingkaran ganal]] pada bal dunia nang mahubungakan sabuting tampat lawan Ka'bah. ampah ini menunjukkan jarak pahandapnya nang kawa dijuhut matan tampat ngitu ka ampah Ka'bah. Makna ngini maulah kawa pahitungan (''[[hisab]]'') ampah kiblat pas banar pakai rumus [[trigonometri]] badasarakan pakai koordinat lintang wan bujur satampat lawan koordinat Ka'bah. Rumus trigonometri ngini jua mandasari [[pakakas bayut]] nang kaya [[aplikasi]] [[talipun pintar]] panunjuk ampah kiblat, wan gasan manyusun tabel-tabel nang kawa dipakai dalam alat bantu nang kaya [[kumpas kiblat]]. Suwalih ngitu, dalam dua kali satahun (yaitu 28 Mai pukul 12.18 [[Waktu Arab Saudi]]/17.18 Waktu Indunisia Tangah wan 16 Juli pukul 12.27 WAS/17.27 WITA) Ka'bah baandak pas di bawah matahari jadi bayangan banda tagak pada kadua wayah ngitu [[Panjanakan ampah kiblat malalui humbayang|manunjukakan ampah kiblat]]. Sawalum [[astronomi]] atawa ilmu falak dipinandui di [[Dunia Islam]], umat Islam sawat jua mamakai bamacam cara gawi taradisiunal gasan manantuakan ampah kiblat, nang kaya maumpati kabiasaan [[sahabat Nabi]], maumpati kaandakan cungul wan tinggalam banda langit, atawa ampah angin. Imbah masuknya karya-karya astrunumi Yunani, rumus-rumus matematis gasan manggagai ampah kiblat mulai dikambangakan ilmuwan Muslim, wan wayah abat ka-9 wan ka-10 cara-cara gawi nang satara lawan rumus kiblat mudirin sudah dihaga ulih bubuhan ilmuwan tamasuk [[Habasy al-Hasib]], [[An-Nayrizi|An-Nairizi]], wan [[Ibnu Yunus]]. Awalnya, cara gawi matematis ngini dipakai basamaan lawan babagai cara gawi taradisiunal jadi kuta-kuta Muslim banyak baisi masigit lawan bamacam-macam ampah kiblat. Matan abat ka-18 wan ka-19 cara gawi panantuan kaandakan koordinat nang akurat sudah tasadia, sahingga mangawaakan pahitungan ampah kiblat sacara matematis lawan hasil nang tabujur dibanding sawalumnya. Tagal, masigit-masigit lawan bamamacam ampah kiblat lawas masih badiri di kuta-kuta bapanduduk Muslim sampai wayah ngini. Mamaraki misi antariksawan Malaysia [[Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor]] ka [[Satasiun Luar Angkasa I]] (ISS) wayah Uktubir 2007, muncul pembahasan mengenai ampah kiblat matan luar angkasa. Mananggapi pamintaan panduan matan Muszaphar, bubuhan ulama Malaysia maurutakan prioritas ampah nang kawa diumpati lamun kawa: 1) Ka'bah 2) "proyeksi Ka'bah" ka luar angkasa 3) Bumi 4) "ka mana haja". Bubuhannya jua manyambat pantingnya manambaiakan "napa nang kawa", sanada lawan pandapat babarapa pamikir Muslim lainnya. == Andak kiblat == {{Location map+|Middle East2| relief = yes |float=right|caption=Makkah, Madinah, dan Yerusalem|places= {{Location map~|Middle East2|lat=21.4228714|long=39.823546 |label=[[Makkah]]}} {{Location map~|Middle East2|lat=24.4672105|long=39.6089423|label=[[Madinah]]}} {{Location map~|Middle East2|lat=31.7760692|long=35.2335915|label=[[Yerusalem]]}} }} [[Ka'bah]], nang baandak di tatangahan [[Masjidil Haram]], [[Makkah]], adalah andak kiblat umat [[Islam]]. Salain manjadi kiblat, tampat suci umat Islam nang jua disambat Baitullah ("Rumah Allah") naya adalah tampat manggawi [[tawaf]] (salah sabuting rangkaian ibadah dalam [[haji]] wan [[umrah]]). Ka'bah babantuk bangunan sagi ampat, wan kaampat buncu tawingnya kikira saarah lawan ampat panjuru [[mata angin]].{{sfn|Wensinck|1978|p=317}} Al-Qur'an manyambat bahwa bangunan Ka'bah didiriakan oleh [[Ibrahim]] wan anak sidin [[Isma'il|Ismail]] (kaduanya adalah [[Nabi wan Rasul|Nabi dalam Islam]]).{{sfn|Wensinck|1978|p=318}} Pada generasi sawalum Muhammad, Ka'bah dipakai sawagai pusat paribadahan [[Agama di Arab pra-Islam|agama Arab pra-Islam]], tapi kada banyak catatan sajarah pasal Ka'bah sawalum munculnya Islam.{{sfn|Wensinck|1978|p=318}} Status Ka'bah atawa Masjidil Haram sawagai kiblat umat Islam baasal matan Al-Qur'an Surat Al-Baqarah ayat 144, 149, wan 150, nang sabarataan baiisi parintah "palingakan muhamu ka ampah Masjidil Haram" (''fawalli wajhaka syathra l-masjidil haram'').{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|pp=97–98}} Manurut tradisi Islam, ayat naya diwahyuakan pada bulan Rajab atawa Syakban tahun ke-2 Hijriyah (624 M),{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=104}}{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=82}} pas lawan kikira 15 atawa 16 bulan imbah [[hijrah]]nya Muhammad ka kuta [[Madinah]]. Sawalum turunnya ayat naya, dikatahui salawas di Madinah umat Islam bakiblat ka ampah [[Yerusalem]], sama [[mizrah|nang kaya umat Yahudi Madinah wayah itu]]. Menurut riwayat nang diparcayai umat Islam, wayah suruhan maugah kiblat ngini diwahyuakan, Muhammad wan bubuhan nang maumpati nang wayahnya sambahyang langsung mamutar arah. tampat kajadian naya dipinandui lawan ngaran [[Masjid Qiblatain]] ("Masjid Dua Kiblat").{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=82}} Tadapat babarapa riwayat nang balain tentang ampah kiblat wayah masa Muhammad di Mekkah (sawalum hijrah ka Madinah). Manurut sabuting riwayat (disambat oleh sejarawan [[Ibnu Jarir ath-Thabari]] wan ahli tafsir [[Al-Baidhawi]]), Muhammad sambahyang mahadap Ka'bah, sadangkan riwayat lain (jua disambat oleh ath-Thabari lawan [[Ahmad bin Yahya bin Jabir al-Baladzuri|Ahmad al-Baladzuri]]) manyambat bahwa wayah di Makkah sidin bakiblat ka Yerusalem. Ada jua riwayat (disambat dalam [[sirah]] karya [[Ibnu Hisyam]]) nang manyambat pada masa nitu, Muhammad salalu sambahyang sedemikian rupa jadinya sakalian mahadap Ka'bah wan Yerusalem.{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=82}} Damini umat Islam, baik [[Sunni]] maupun [[Syiah]], sabarataan bakiblat ka Ka'bah. Sabuting pangacualian ganal dalam sejarah adalah bubuhan [[Qaramitah|Qaramithah]], sabuting aliran pacahan Syiah nang wayah tahun 930 sawat manyarang Ka'bah wan mancuntan batu [[Hajar Aswad]] matan Ka'bah ka pusat kakuasaannya di [[Al-Hasa|Al-Ahsa]] lawan niat manambai era hanyar dalam Islam.{{sfn|Wensinck|1978|p=321}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|p=149}}{{efn|Tindakan naya disariki babujuran baik oleh [[Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah|Khalifah Abbasiyah]] nang Suni maupun [[Kekhalifahan Fatimiyah|Khalifah Fatimiyah]] nang Syiah. Pamimpin bubuhan Qaramithah [[Abu Thahir al-Jannabi]] mawalangi parmintaan kadua khalifah nitu gasan mambulikakan Hajar Aswad, wan batu nitu hanyar dibulikakan wayah 951 imbah kamatian Abu Thahir wan pambayaran duit matan Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah.{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=149–151}}}} == Dalam ibadah wan adab Islam == [[Barakas:Samarcanda, Shah-i-Zinda 28 (cropped).jpg|upright=1.3|jmpl|alt="Babarapa jamaah sadang sambahyang mahadap mihrab atawa calung nang dipakai imam gasan mamimpin sambahyang . Mihrab bawarna hirang wan dihiasi dengan kaligrafi"|[[Mihrab]] nang baandak di hagian muka masigit manunjukakan ampah kiblat gasan manggawi sambahyang. Gambar matan Masigit [[Shah-i-Zinda|Syahizindah]] di [[Samarkand]], Uzbekistan.]] Sacara bahasa, kata ''kiblat'' baasal matan kata bahasa Arab {{lang|ar|قبلة|qiblah}} ({{transl|ar|qiblah}}) nang berarti "ampah", tapi dalam pamandiran Islam istilah naya mengacu kepada ampah baistilah nang takait lawan ibadah.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=103}} Buhan ulama sapakat bahwa dalam kaadaan normal, [[sambahyang]] hanya sah amun digawi maampah kiblat.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=103}} Pangacualian gasan syarat naya di antaranya sambahyang dalam kaadaan takutan atawa paparangan, atawa [[sambahyang sunah]] dalam parjalanan.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=91}} Salain ampah salat, hadis jua manyambatakan parlunya maampah kiblat wayah [[ihram|barihram]] dalam [[haji]], wan imbah manawak [[Lempar jumrah|jumratul wustha]].{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=82}} Manurut aturan [[adab]], kiblat jua menjadi ampah muha hewan wayah disumbalih, lawan ampah muha jenazah wayah ditanam.{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=82}} Hadis jua maanjurakan badoa ka ampah kiblat wan melarang bakamih, bahira atawa mambuang dahak ka ampah kiblat.{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=82}} Dalam arsitektur [[masigit]], ampah kiblat rajin ditunjukakan oleh sabuting calung atawa lingkukan di tawing masigit nang maampah ka muka. Calung naya disambat ''[[mihrab]]''; di sinilah imam badiri di muka barisan makmum wayah mamimpin sambahyang bajamaah.{{sfn|Kuban|1974|p=3}} Mihrab hanyar mulai manjadi hagian arsitektur masigit [[Kekhalifahan Umayyah|masa Umayyah]] wan bantuknya diseragamkan pada awal [[Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah|masa Abbasiyah]]. Sawalum nitu, ampah kiblat kawa dikatahui matan ampah sabuting tawing masigit. Kata mihrab kada muncul di dalam Al-Qur'an wan hadis; satu-satunya panyambatan kata naya hanya mengacu pada tampat beribadat kaum [[Bani Israil]].{{sfn|Kuban|1974|p=3}}{{efn|Panyambatan naya ada dalam Surat Maryam, {{Pranala Quran id|19|11}}}} [[Masjid Amru bin Ash|Masjid Amr bin al-Ash]] di Fustat, Mesir, salah sabuting masigit panuhanya dalam sajarah Islam, pamulaannya diulah kada ba-mihrab, tagal damini calung nitu ditambahakan.{{sfn|Kuban|1974|p=4}} {{anchor|Ainul ka'bah}}{{anchor|Jihatul ka'bah}} === ''<nowiki>'Ainul ka'bah</nowiki>'' wan ''jihatul ka'bah'' === ''<nowiki>'Ainul ka'bah</nowiki>'' adalah cara maampah kiblat lawan pas sehingga amun ditarik garis saampah posisi muka urang nitu, garis nitu cagar manganai bangunan Ka'bah. Hal naya kawa digawi lawan nyaman di Masjidil Haram wan nang parak, tatapi gasan andak nang jauh matan Mekkah hal naya ngalih banar digawi maingat libar Ka'bah nang walasan mitir wara.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|pp=104–105}} Magin jauh sabuting andak matan Ka'bah maka makin ganal paluang kada bujur ampah ''<nowiki>'ainul ka'bah</nowiki>''.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|p=134}} matan Jakarta, Indonesia nang bajarak kikira 7.900&nbsp;km matan Mekkah, pagisiran ampah saganal 1 [[detik busur]] {{nowrap|({{frac|1|3600}} derajat)}} haja cagar maulah basimpang sajauh >100 meter matan bangunan Ka'bah.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|p=136}} Pagisiran saganal 1°, nang kamungkinan kada tarasa oleh saikung nang lagi sambahyang wan jauh tahalus matan rintang kasalahan alat-alat pangukuran, mahasilakan pagisiran >100&nbsp;km.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|p=134}} sawagai perbandingan, dalam proses maulah masigit lumrah haja terjadi pagisiran sampai 5° matan ampah nang dikahandaki (tagantung teknik nang dipakai), wan dalam maampar hambal atawa sajadah dapat kajadian pulang pagisiran ampah hingga 5°.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|p=136}} Sahagian ulama nang kaya [[Ibnu Arabi]] maanggap bahwa ''<nowiki>'ainul ka'bah</nowiki>'' wajib dilakukan dalam sambahyang, sadangkan ulama-ulama lain hanya mawajibakannya amun kawa. Gasan lokasi nang jauh matan Mekkah, ulama nang kaya [[Abu Hanifah|Imam Hanafi]] wan [[Al-Qurthubi]] mambulihakan cara ''jihatul ka'bah'', yaitu sahibar maampah ka kiblat.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|pp=92, 95}} Menurut sahagian panafsiran, saurang sudah kawa disambat mahadap kiblat gasan kaparluan ibadah salawas bangunan Ka'bah masih bagana di dalam sektor proyeksi panglihatan orang nitu (midan penglihatan manusia rajin sampai labih matan 90° atawa saparapat matan sabuting lingkaran hibak).{{sfn|King|1996|p=134}} Misalnya, sahagian ulama [[Al-Andalus]] (Spanyol wan Portugal pada masa Islam) maanggap sabuting kuadran hibang (matan timur ka salatan saampah putaran jarum jam) sawagai ampah kiblat nang sah.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=134–135}} Di antara alasan nang dikamukaakan ulama nang mandukung ''jihatul ka'bah'' adalah bunyi naskah Al-Qur'an nang hanya manyuruhakan "palingakanlah muhamu ke ampah Masjidil Haram", wan mahindari baban nang kada kawa digawi jaka ''<nowiki>'ainul ka'bah</nowiki>'' dianggap wajib di sabarataan tampat.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=95}} [[Mazhab Syafi'i]], sabagaimana ditulis dalam ''[[Kitab al-Tanbih fil-Fiqh]]'' oleh [[Abu Ishaq asy-Syirazi]], maharusakan maumpati kiblat nang sudah ada di masjid amun kada bagana di parak Mekkah, wan batakun pada orang nang kawa diparcaya amun bagana di parak masigit. Amun kada ada jua, manurut mazhab Syafi'i sasaurang kawa [[ijtihad|berijtihad]] (manggagai saurang) atawa mamakai alat-alat saadanya.{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=83}}{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=94}} == Panantuan ampah kiblat == === Landasan teoretis: "lingkaran ganal" === {{seealso|Lingkaran ganal}} [[Barakas:Great circle passing through two points.svg|jmpl|Jalur nang dilalui lingkaran ganal manampaiakan jarak pahandapnya nang mahubungakan dua titik pada sabuting bal. Pada gambar naya, lingkaran ganal nang mahubungakan titik A wan B ditandari warna habang, wan jarak pahandapnya nitu dibari arsiran kandal.]] Secara teoretis, model nang paling umum dipakai dalam panantuan ampah kiblat sacara ilmiah adalah mamakai ampah [[lingkaran ganal]] nang mahubungakan lokasi satampat lawan lokasi kiblat.{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}}{{sfn|King|2004|p=166}} Lingkaran ganal (disambat jua ortodrom) adalah lingkaran pada parmukaan bal nang titik pusatnya sama lawan titik pusat bola nitu. Saban lingkaran nang dibantuk [[garis bujur]] adalah contoh lingkaran ganal, tetapi garis lintang kada mambantuk lingkaran ganal (marga pusatnya baandak di utara atawa selatan pusat bumi) kacuali garis [[khatulistiwa]].{{sfn|Abo-Zahhad|Ahmed|Mourad|2013|p=172}} Salah sabuting sifat istimewa matan lingkaran ganal adalah jalur pahandapnya nang kawa mahubungakan dua titik pada sabuting bal ditunjukakan oleh lingkaran ganal nang mahubungakan kadua titik naya. Selain gasan manggagai ampah kiblat, sifat naya dimanfaatakan misalnya gasan mahaga jalur pesawat pahandapnya nang mahubungakan dua tampat. Marga nitu, ampah kiblat matan sabuting tampat nang dihitung badasarakan model lingkaran besar rajin mahirip lawan ampah penerbangan langsung matan kota nitu ka Mekkah.{{sfn|Almakky|Snyder|1996|p=31}} Marga bentuk bumi sabujurnya lain bal bujuran wan sadikit babantuk [[elipsoid]], buhan peneliti modern jua mamakai model-model sesuai bantuk elipsoid gasan mahitung kiblat, yaitu lawan mangganti lingkaran ganal lawan [[geodesik]] elipsoid. Hal naya membutuhkan parhitungan nang jauh lebih rumit, sedangkan peningkatan keakuratannya jauh tahalus dibandingakan ketepatan nang kawa dicapai wayah maampar sajadah atawa membangun masjid.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|pp=132–134}} Sebagai contoh, parhitungan mamakai model elipsoid [[GRS 80]] menghasilkan kiblat lawan ampah 18°47′06″ gasan sabuting lokasi di [[San Francisco]], Amerika Serikat, sedangkan parhitungan menggunakan model lingkaran besar mahasilakan ampah nang kada jauh balain yaitu 18°51′05″.{{sfn|Almakky|Snyder|1996|p=35}} === Hisab lawan trigonometri bal === Model lingkaran ganal nang disambat di atas diterapkan dalam hisab atawa parhitungan ampah kiblat nang mamakai rumus-rumus [[trigonometri bola]]. Trigonometri bola adalah cabang [[geometri]] nang manyangkut hubungan antara buncu wan sisi sagitiga nang dibentuk oleh lingkaran-lingkaran ganal pada permukaan bal (alih-alih [[trigonometri]] biasa nang manyangkut segitiga datar). Dalam gambar bal bumi di bawah naya, lokasi sabuting tampat disambat <math>T</math>, lokasi kiblat adalah <math>Q</math>, wan kutub utara adalah <math>U</math>, wan katiga titik nitu membentuk sebuah segitiga pada permukaan bumi. Ampah kiblat adalah ampah <math>TQ</math>, atawa searah [[lingkaran besar]] nang maliwati <math>T</math> wan <math>Q</math>. ampah naya kawa jua dinyatakan sebagai sudut terhadap ampah utara (''inhiraf al-qiblat'') yaitu <math>\angle UTQ</math> atawa <math>\angle q</math>. Ampah naya kawa dihitung sawagai [[fungsi (matematika)|fungsi]] matan posisi lintang satampat <math>L_T</math>, posisi lintang kiblat <math>L_Q</math>, lawan sulisih bujur antara lokasi satampat <math>\Delta B</math>.{{sfn|King|1986|p=83}} Fungsi naya diturunakan matan rumus umum segitiga bal lawan talung buncu <math>A</math>, <math>B</math>, <math>C</math> wan talung sisi <math>a</math>, <math>b</math>, <math>c</math> (disambat jua hukum [[kotangen]]): <math>\cos a\,\cos C=\cot b\,\sin a - \cot B \,\sin C</math><ref>Rumus ekivalen terdapat dalam {{harvnb|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=119}}</ref> Lawan mamakai rumus tersebut terhadap segitiga bal <math>\triangle UTQ</math> (substitusi <math>B = \angle q = \angle UTQ</math>){{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=119}} kawa diturunakan: <math>\cot q = \frac{\sin L_T \cos \Delta B - \cos L_T \tan L_Q}{\sin \Delta B}</math>, atau<br/> <math>q = \cot^{-1} \frac{\sin L_T \cos \Delta B - \cos L_T \tan L_Q}{\sin \Delta B}</math>{{sfn|King|1986|p=83}} [[Barakas:Qibla from Yogyakarta on globe, Indonesian labels.svg|jmpl|pus|upright=1.2|Ilustrasi ampah kiblat matan Yogyakarta, Indonesia.]] Contoh nitu mahitung ampah kiblat matan [[Kota Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] (7.801389° LS, 110.364444° BT) lawan lokasi Ka'bah diketahui 21.422478° LU, 39.825183 BT. Sulisih bujur <math>\Delta B</math> kedua tampat adalah 110.364444° - 39.825183° = 70.539261°. Lawan mamasukakan angka-angka naya ka dalam rumus <math>q = \cot^{-1} \frac{\sin -7.801389^{\circ} \cos 70.539261^{\circ} - \cos -7.801389^{\circ} \tan 21.422478^{\circ} }{\sin 70.539261^{\circ} }</math>. sehingga:<br/> <math>q \approx 295^{\circ}</math>,<br/> artinya ampah kiblat matan Yogyakarta adalah kikira 295° (searah jarum jam matan utara), atawa mahiring kikira 25° matan titik barat ka ampah utara.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=123}} Rumus naya diturunakan pada masa modern, tapi metode-metode nang ekivalen lawan rumus naya sudah diketahui oleh bubuhan ahli falak Muslim matan abad ke-3 Hijriyah (abad ke-9 Masehi). Ilmuwan-ilmuwan awal nang mahaga cara-cara nitu diantaranya adalah [[Habasy al-Hasib]] (aktif di Damaskus dan Bagdad sekitar 850 M),{{sfn|King|1986|p=85}} [[An-Nayrizi|An-Nairizi]] (Bagdad, sekitar 900 M),{{sfn|King|1986|pp=85–86}} [[Ibnu Yunus]] (abad 10-11 M),{{sfn|King|1986|p=85}} [[Ibnu al-Haitsam]] (abad ke-11 M),{{sfn|King|1986|p=85}} wan [[Al-Biruni]] (abad ke-11 M).{{sfn|King|1986|p=86}} Penggunaan trigonometri bola menjadi dasar hampir sabarataan aplikasi atawa situs panghitung ampah kiblat.{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}} Imbah ganal buncu naya dihitung, ampah [[utara sejati]] perlu diketahui gasan menunjukkan ampah nitu di lapangan. Di antara cara nang dipakai adalah maitih bayangan wayah matahari tepat melintasi [[Meridian (geografi)|garis meridian]] satampat (garis khayal nang mahubungakan kutub utara wan kutub selatan). Wayah nitu bayangan benda cagat cagar pas baisi orientasi utara-selatan. Hasil pengamatan naya mayu akurat tetapi mamarluakan parhitungan akurat waktu tajadinya perlintasan meridian di tampat nitu, wan pengamatan hanya kawa digawi tepat pada waktu tersebut.{{sfn|Ilyas|1984|pp=171–172}} Cara lainnya adalah mamakai [[kompas]], nang kawa digawi wayahapa haja, tetapi kendalanya adalah ampah nang ditunjukakan kutub utara magnet kada sama lawan ampah utara sejati.{{sfn|Ilyas|1984|p=172}} Ganal deklinasi (penyimpangan) naya kawa mencapai 20° wan balain matan tampat ka tampat wan matan tahun ka tahun.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|p=136}} === Maitihi hambaya === [[Barakas:Direction of qibla using shadow.svg|jmpl|kiri|Dua kali satahun, matahari baandak pas di atas Ka'bah jadinya hambaya benda cagat manampaiakan ampah kiblat.]] {{main|Maitih ampah kiblat matan hambaya}} Matan saban lokasi di bumi, matahari maalami [[gerak semu harian]] yaitu talihat bagarak matan timur ka barat saban hari. Wayah batantu di tangah hari, tajadi titik [[kulminasi]] atas atawa transit meridian atas, yaitu saat matahari baada di titik puncaknya wan matahari malalui garis bujur satampat. Namun, matahari jua baisi [[Garak samu tahunan matahari|garak samu tahunan]] yaitu bagarak antara 23,5° lintang utara wan 23,5° lintang salatan ([[titik balik matahari]]), sehingga wayah kulminasi atas matahari kada salalu baandak pas banar di atas, wan tarancak baandak pas di utara atawa salatannya. Gasan saban tampat lawan lokasi di bawah 23,5° lintang utara atawa selatan, wayah batantu dalam satahun posisi lintang matahari cagar sama lawan andak lintang satampat. Wayah nitu wara, wayah kulminasi atas tajadi, matahari baandak pas banar di atas tampat nitu.{{sfn|Raharto|Surya|2011|p=25}} Kota Mekkah tamasuk tampat nang maalami hal naya, marga andaknyanya ada di kitaran 21°25’ lintang utara. Peristiwa naya tajadi dua kali satahun, wayah 28 Mei kitaran pukul 12.18 [[Waktu Arab Saudi]] (WAS) atau 17.18 [[Waktu Indonesia Tangah|WITA]] wan 16 Juli pukul 12.27 WAS (17.27 WITA).{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=125}}{{sfn|Raharto|Surya|2011|p=25}} Wayah dua nitu, matahari baada kikira di atas Ka'bah sahingga sabarataan banda cagat nang kana cahaya matahari cagar baisi hambaya nang manampaiakan ampah Ka'bah (''lihat gambar'').{{sfn|Raharto|Surya|2011|p=25}} Dalam ilmu falak, kajadian naya disambat ''istiwa a'zham'' (kulminasi utama), wan metode manggagai ampah kiblat naya disambat ''rashd al-qiblat'' ("maitihi ampah kiblat").{{sfn|Raharto|Surya|2011|p=24}}{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=123}} Kikira sapalih bumi (tamasuk [[Indonesia Timur]], [[Australia (benua)|Australia]], [[Samudra Pasifik]] wan kabanyakan [[Benua Amerika]]) maalami malam wayah kajadian naya jadinya kada kawa maitihi hambaya.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|pp=125–126}} Di palih bumi nitu, hambaya nang manampaiakan ampah kiblat kawa diitihi wayah matahari baada pas di bawah kiblat (atawa pas baandak di atas titik [[antipode]] matan Ka'bah).{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|pp=126–127}} Ampah hambaya nang tabantuk pas balawanan lawan ampah hambaya wayah ''rashd al-qiblat''.{{sfn|Raharto|Surya|2011|p=25}} Kajadian naya wayah 14 Januari 00.30 WAS (05.30 [[Waktu Indonesia Tangah|WITA]]) wan 29 November 00.09 WAS (05.09 WITA).{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=127}}{{efn|Wayah itu, ada kamungkinan matahari balum muncul jadi baiknya mamakai WIT haja.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|pp=126–127}}}} Gasan wayah ''rashd al-qiblat'' atawa sabaliknya, rentang waktu kurang labih lima manit pada hari nang sama, atawa kurang labih dua hari wayah nang sama masih manunjukakan paitihan ampah kiblat nang pina bujur.{{sfn|Raharto|Surya|2011|p=25}}{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=125}} === Pamakaian peta datar === {{multiple image | total_width = 400 | footer = Pamakaian peta bumi datar dapat mahasilakan ampah nang balain lawan ampah kiblat nang umum diikuti Muslim badasarakan bumi nang babantuk bal. Misalnya, dalam proyeksi Mercator (''kiri'') Mekkah talihat baandak di ampah tenggara Amerika Utara, sedangkan lawan manarik garis lurus di sabuting bal, kiblat baandak di ampah timur laut (''kanan''). | image1 = Mercator projection SW.jpg | alt1 = Proyeksi Mercator | image2 = Mecca Direction Equidistant (-90 rotation).jpg | alt2 = Bumi diproyeksikan dalam lingkaran }} Metode trigonometri bal mahasilakan garis lurus pamaraknya nang mahubungakan Ka'bah lawan lokasi napa kah di dunia, tatapi ampah naya bahanu tarasa aneh amun mambayangakan bumi dalam bantuk peta datar. Contohnya, ampah kiblat [[Alaska]] (dekat kutub utara) malahan parak lurus ka utara.{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}} Garis lurus antara dua tampat dalam peta dunia [[Proyeksi Mercator|berproyeksi Merkator]] (disebut [[loksodrom]] atawa ''rhumb line'') rancak balain lawan ampah kiblat nang ditunjukakan kalkulasi (ortodrom atawa ''great circle'').{{sfn|Almakky|Snyder|1996|pp=31–32}} Palainan naya tampak di lokasi nang kaya sapalih Amerika Utara (peta datar manunjukakan Mekkah di ampah tenggara sedangkan parhitungan kiblat manunjukakan timur laut){{sfn|Di Justo|2007}} atawa Jepang (peta datar manunjukakan barat daya sadangkan kalkukasi manunjukakan barat laut).{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2015|p=110}} kabanyakan umat Muslim maumpati ampah ortodrom (sesuai hasil kalkulasi) wan hanya sapalih kecil nang maumpati ampah loksodrom (garis lurus peta bumi datar).{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}}{{efn|Contohnya, sabubuhan Muslim Amerika Utara maumpati ampah loksodrom, lihat hagian [[#Kiblat matan Amerika Utara]].}} === Metode tradisional non-astronomi === Catatan sejarah maupun bukti masigit-masigit tuha manunjukakan bahwa kiblat jua rancak ditantuakan lawan metode-metode sederhana badasarakan tradisi atawa ilmu populer nang kada badasarakan astronomi. Sapalih Muslim awal aci bakiblat ka ampah selatan marga sacara harfiah maumpati hadis bahwa Muhammad bakiblat ka ampah selatan wayah baandak di Madinah. Babarapa masigit tuha di Al-Andalus (damini Spanyol) wan Asia Tengah maarah ka selatan walaupun kadua tampat nitu baandak jauh di barat wan timur Mekkah (sehingga matan tampat nitu selatan kada maarah ka Mekkah).{{sfn|King|1996|p=130}} Selain nitu, terdapat "kiblat bubuhan sahabat" (''qiblat ash-shahabah''), yaitu ampah kiblat nang suah dipakai bubuhan [[sahabat Nabi]] (generasi Muslim panambaian nang dianggap panutan oleh umat Islam) di tampat nitu. Ampah naya rancak tatap diumpati salawas berabad-abad, walaupun bubuhan ahli falak Muslim imbahnya mamakai parhitungan astronomi wan mahaga ampah kiblat nang balain. Contohnya, kiblat bubuhan sahabat di Syam wan Palestina maarah ka selatan,{{sfn|King|1996|pp=130–131}} di Mesir maarah ka ampah terjauh [[matahari terbit]] musim dingin, wan di Irak maarah ka [[matahari terbenam]] di wayah nang sama.{{sfn|King|1996|p=132}} ampah matahari terbenam wan matahari terbit di musim dingin jua dipilih marga kedua ampah naya pintang lawan orientasi tawing Ka'bah.{{sfn|King|1996|p=132 wan gambar 4.2 di hal. 131}} == Alat gani == {{multiple image | total_width = 300 | image1 = QiblaMat.jpg | image2 = Turkish and Islamic Museum 0951.jpg | footer = Sabuting [[sajadah]] nang dilengkapi lawan [[kompas kiblat]] modern (''kiri''), kompas kiblat matan [[Turki Utsmani]] tahun 1738 (''kanan'').}} Umat Islam mamakai bamacam alat gani gasan manantuakan ampah kiblat amun kada bagana parak masigit. [[Kompas kiblat]] adalah sabuting kompas biasa nang dilangkapi tabel atawa daftar ampah kiblat matan kota-kota ganal. Selain nitu tadapat kompas elektronik nang mamakai satelit gasan mandapatakan koordinat satampat cagar kawa manunjukakan ampah kiblat sacara otomatis.{{sfn|King|2004|p=177}} Kompas kiblat sudah diulah paling kada matan kikira 1300, dikawani ampah kiblat matan babagai kuta nang ditulis atawa diukir pada kompas-kompas nitu.{{sfn|King|2004|p=171}} Pada bangunan-bangunan nang kaya hotel lawan banyak tamu Muslim, stiker batanda panah nang manunjukakan arah kiblat rancak dilikap di lalangitan atawa sabuting laci di ruangan.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|p=136}} Lawan parkambangan [[teknologi informasi]], bamacam [[aplikasi]] [[telepon cerdas]] wan situs web diulah gasan manunjukakan ampah kiblat nang dihitung lawan rumus.{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}}{{sfn|MacGregor|2018|p=130}} == Parkambangan ilmu panantuan ampah kiblat == === Pra-astronomi === Umat Muslim dituntut mangatahui ampah kiblat gasan salat nang digawi saban hari, maupun gasan manantuakan ampah bangunan masigit. Marga nitu, panantuan ampah kiblat adalah masalah panting nang bausaha dipacahakan bubuhan-bubuhan Islam dalam sajarah.{{sfn|King|1996|p=128}} Wayah Muhammad hidup basamaan umat Islam di Madinah (nang masih bagana di daerah [[Hijaz]] nang kaya halnya Mekkah), sidin sambahyang ka ampah salatan, sasuai ampah Makkah nang sudah dikatahui matan Madinah.{{sfn|King|1996|p=130}} Dalam babarapa ganarasi imbah maninggalnya Muhammad pada tahun 632, umat Islam sudah manjangkau tampat-tampat nang jauh matan Mekkah jadi diparluakan mitudi gasan manantuakan ampah kiblat.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=130–132}} Mitudi-mitudi matematis badasarakan ilmu falak hanyar mulai dihaga di pahabisan abad ka-8 atawa awal abad ka-9 (wan pada awalnya mitudi-mitudi nitu kada pina populer), jadi wayah panambaian umat Muslim mamakai mitudi-mitudi tradisional.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=128–129}} Mitudi-mitudi tradisional nang bakambang wayah pamulaan masa parluasan Islam pina bamacam wan mahasilakan ampah kiblat nang balain jua. Di antara ampah-ampah nang umum dipakai adalah ampah salatan (sasuai ampah Muhammad sambahyang di Madinah) atawa ampah nang suah dipakai sahabat Nabi di tampat nitu ("kiblat bubuhan sahabat", balain tagantung tampat).{{sfn|King|1996|pp=130–132}} Bangsa Arab jua maminandui ilmu-ilmu parbintangan tradisional (disambat ''folk astronomy'' atawa "astronomi rakyat" ulih David A. King gasan malainakan lawan astronomi sabujurnya nang basifat [[ilmu pasti]]) nang baasal matan tradisi sawalum masa Islam.{{sfn|King|1996|p=132}} Ilmu-ilmu naya mamakai fenomena alam, nang kaya maitihi matahari, bulan, bintang-bintang, wan angin tanpa didasari parhitungan matematika. Babagai tampat baisi pitunjuk ampah kiblatnya saurang badasarakan posisi naik atawa tinggalam bintang-bintang batantu (nang naik atawa tinggalam di andak nang sama sapanjang tahun di tampat nang sama), maupun posisi naik atawa tinggalamnya matahari wayah [[ekuinoks]] (manunjukakan ampah pas timur wan barat) atawa [[titik balik matahari|titik balik]] (manunjukakan buncu-buncu batantu tahadap timur atawa barat).{{sfn|King|1996|p=133}} Ampah kiblat nang kaya naya nang tacatat dalam naskah nang dihaga di antaranya: kiblat di [[Arab Maghrib|Afrika Maghrib]] ka ampah naiknya matahari wayah ekuinoks (lurus ka timur), matan Yaman ka ampah bintang [[Polaris]] atawa ka ampah asal angin utara (manunjukakan utara), matan Syam ka ampah naiknya bintang ''Suhail'' ([[Canopus]]), matan Irak ka ampah tinggalamnya matahari wayah titik balik salatan di musim dingin, wan matan India ka ampah tinggalamnya matahari wayah ekuinoks (lurus di barat).{{sfn|King|1996|p=133}} Pitunjuk-pitunjuk naya banyak ditulis di teks-teks fikih maupun teks astronomi rakyat, wan di tampat nang sama kawa haja tadapat banyak pitunjuk ampah lawan sumber nang balain. Bubuhan ahli astronomi (di luar astronomi rakyat) rajin kada bakumintar pasal mitudi-mitudi naya, tapi mitudi naya kada ditantang ulih bubuhan ahli fikih.{{sfn|King|1996|p=132–133}} Mitudi naya malahan dipakai tarus wayah bubuhan ahli astronomi mulai mahaga cara mahitung ampah ka Mekkah mamakai matematika, nang balain lawan ampah kiblat nang dikatahui sawalumnya. Ampah kiblat lawan mitudi-mitudi naya jua banyak dihaga di masigit-masigit tuha nang masih badiri damini.{{sfn|King|1996|p=130–131}} === Lawan astronomi === [[Barakas:Al-Khalili qibla table, Damascus copy 15th-16th century.jpg|jmpl|upright=1.6|Cuplikan tabel ampah kiblat nang disusun ilmuwan sakalian ''[[muwaqqit]]'' Damaskus [[Syamsuddin al-Khalili]] pada abad ka-14 M. Ampah kiblat dicantumakan dalam notasi [[seksagesimal]] (basis-60) Arab.]] Ilmu astronomi nang sabujurnya (disambat ilmu falak) mulai dipalajari di Dunia Islam pada pahabisan abad ka-8, tautama di [[Bagdad]], kota utama [[Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah]]. Awalnya, ilmuwan-ilmuwan Muslim mampalajari astronomi matan karya-karya panulis India, tapi pada abad ka-9 karya-karya ahli falak Yunani nang kaya [[Klaudius Ptolemaeus|Ptolemaeus]] mulai ditarjamahakan wan manjadi rujukan utama di bidang naya.{{sfn|Morelon|1996b|p=20–21}} Ilmu falak nang dikambangakan Ptolemaeus dianggap tautama ulih bubuhan ilmuwan di Dunia Islam marga didukung ulih panjalasan teoretis jadi kawa dikambangakan batarus sawagai ilmu pasti, tagal astronomi India tatap baisi pangaruh baarti tautama dalam bidang panyusunan tabel-tabel astronomi.{{sfn|Morelon|1996b|p=21}} Mitudi panantuan ampah kiblat mulai dikambangakan badasarakan ilmu naya. Konsep utama nang dipakai adalah koordinat lintang wan bujur nang dipinanduiakan Ptolemaeus dalam buku ''[[Geografi (Ptolemaeus)|Geografi]]'', lawan rumus-rumus [[trigonometri]] nang dikambangakan para ilmuwan Muslim wan dipakai gasan mahitung ampah kiblat.{{sfn|King|1996|p=141}} Kabanyakan buku-buku teks astronomi nang ditulis di Dunia Islam pada [[Abad Pertengahan]] mangandung sabuting bab nang mambahas masalah panantuan ampah kiblat, nang dianggap sawagai salah satu matan banyak hal nang mahubungakan ilmu astronomi lawan [[syariah Islam]].{{sfn|King|1986|p=83}}{{sfn|Morelon|1996a|p=15}} Manurut sajarawan astronomi David A. King, barbagai solusi nang dihaga bubuhan ilmuwan Muslim "manjadi saksi parkambangan mitudi matematika matan abad ka-3 hingga ka-8 H (abad ka-9 hingga ka-14 M) wan tingkat kacanggihan trigonometri wan teknik parhitungan nang dicapai oleh ilmuwan-ilmuwan naya."{{sfn|King|1986|p=83}} Mitudi-mitudi matematis nang pamulaannya dihaga pada awal abad ka-9 adalah mitudi hampiran (bukan mitudi akurat, tagal mahasilakan ampah nang mamaraki ampah sabujurnya wara) nang umumnya mamakai peta datar atawa geometri dua dimensi sadarhana. Marga bumi babantuk talung dimensi, hasil parhitungan naya kada sama banar lawan ampah sabujurnya, tapi gasan lokasi nang masih parak lawan Mekkah (nang kaya Mesir atawa Iran) mitudi naya kawa mahasilakan ampah nang hanya luput 1°–2° matan ampah sabujurnya.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=142-143}} Mitudi-mitudi nang akurat nang didasarakan geometri talung dimensi atawa trigonometri bola muncul matan pertengahan abad ka-9.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=143–144}} Habasy al-Hasib (hidup kikira 850 M) mancatat salah satu cuntuh awal mitudi nang kaya naya, yaitu lawan mamakai "analema" (kini disebut [[proyeksi ortografi]]) yaitu pamakaian bidang datar gasan manurunakan rumus-rumus rumit dalam trigonometri bola. Dalam mitudi naya, sajumlah titik wan garis digambar pada sabuting lingkaran lawan teknik batantu, wan hasilnya kawa dibuktiakan sesuai lawan ampah kiblat nang dihitung melalui rumus modern.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=144–145}}{{efn|Rincian mitudi naya wan pembuktiannya dijalasakan dalam {{harvnb|King|1996|pp=144–145}}}} Imbahnya dihaga pamakaian rumus-rumus trigonometri gasan mahaga ampah kiblat lawan parhitungan. An-Nayrizi (hidup kikira 900 M) menulis contoh awal mitudi naya, nang mamakai aturan sinus matan [[Menelaos matan Aleksandria|Menelaos]] dalam ampat langkah sehingga ampah kiblat akhirnya kawa dihitung matan posisi lintang wan bujur satampat.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=145–146}}{{efn|Rincian mitudi naya wan pembuktiannya dijelaskan dalam {{harvnb|King|1996|pp=145–146}}}} Ilmuwan-ilmuwan Muslim imbahnya (nang kaya Ibnu Yunus, Abu al-Wafa, Ibnu al-Haitsam, wan Al-Biruni) mahaga mitudi-mitudi lainnya nang jua kawa dibuktikan akurat, baik lawan mamakai analema maupun mamakai rumus matematika sacara langsung.{{sfn|King|1996|p=147}} Badasarakan mitudi-mitudi hisab nitu, para ilmuwan Muslim maulah tabel-tabel nang manunjukakan ampah kiblat matan babagai tampat di dunia, nang disusun manurut selisih bujur (''ΔB'') wan lintang (''ΔL'') matan Mekkah.{{sfn|King|2004|pp=169–170}} Contoh panuhanya nang dikatahui adalah tabel nang diulah di Bagdad kikira abad ka-9 gasan saban [[Derajat (satuan sudut)|darajat]] wan [[menit busur]] matan 1° hingga 20°.{{sfn|King|2004|p=170}} Pada abad ka-14 [[Syamsuddin al-Khalili]], ilmuwan nang manjabat sawagai ''[[muwaqqit]]'' (ahli waktu) di [[masigit Agung Umayyah|masigit Agung Damaskus]], maulah tabel ampah kiblat gasan saban titik koordinat lawan rentang ''ΔB'' matan 1° hingga 60° wan lintang matan 10° hingga 50° {{abbr|LU|lintang utara}}.{{sfn|King|1996|p=147}}{{sfn|King|2004|p=170}} Manurut King, tabel naya adalah "nang paling mengesankan matan segi kelengkapan wan ketepatan", wan sahagian ganal angkanya sudah tepat sesuai parhitungan modern.{{sfn|King|2004|p=170}} Walaupun mitudi parhitungan nang tepat sudah dihaga matan abad ka-9, ketepatan hasil parhitungan gasan lokasi batantu jua tergantung data koordinat bujur wan lintang nang dimasukakan ka dalam rumus-rumus nitu. Wayah nitu, posisi lintang suatu lokasi kawa ditantuakan lawan ketepatan hingga beberapa menit, tapi posisi bujur nang belum kawa ditentukan lawan tepat.{{sfn|King|1996|p=153}} Salah sabuting cara nang dipakai gasan mahitung ''ΔB'' adalah membandingkan waktu tajadinya [[gerhana bulan]] di Mekkah wan lokasi satampat, atawa mahitung jarak rute [[kafilah]] dagang.{{sfn|King|1996|p=147}}{{sfn|King|1986|p=86}} Ilmuwan Asia Tengah Al-Biruni merata-ratakan data ΔB matan babagai mitudi nang diketahui.{{sfn|King|1996|p=147}} marga kurang tepatnya data koordinat bujur pada masa nitu, masigit-masigit tua (bahkan nang telah dibangun badasarakan parhitungan matematika nang bujur) umumnya baisi ampah kiblat nang balain lawan hasil parhitungan modern. Misalnya, [[masigit al-Azhar]] di Kairo dibangun sesuai hisab ilmiah mamakai rumus nang tabujur, tapi marga nilai ''ΔB'' nang dipakai luput saganal 3° matan nilai nang bujur, ampah kiblat masigit nitu (127°) balain lawan ampah hasil parhitungan modern (135°).{{sfn|King|1996|pp=153–154}} Angka koordinat bujur nang akurat di Dunia Islam hanyar dihaga pada abad ka-18 wan ka-19 lawan penerapan [[Ilmu ukur wilayah|ilmu ukur]] [[kartografi]]. Angka koordinat modern naya, beserta teknologi modern nang kaya [[satelit buatan|satelit]] [[Sistem Pemosisi Global|GPS]] wan alat-alat elektronik, mangawaakan paulahan alat-alat nang kawa mahitung kiblat sacara praktis.{{sfn|King|2004|p=177}} ampah naya kawa balain lawan ampah masigit-masigit nang ada marga babagai sebab, misalnya marga masigit nitu dibangun sebelum munculnya data-data wan parhitungan modern atawa marga masigit nitu kada dibangun secara akurat.{{sfn|King|2004|p=177}}{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=83}} Kadang ampah mihrab masigit nitu tatap diumpati, atawa bahanu diulah pananda nang kaya garis atawa tali sehingga jemaah sambahyang maumpati pananda nitu alih-alih sasuai ampah mihrab masigit.{{sfn|Wensinck|1986|p=83}} {{multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = Mosques in Cairo showing different direction.png | image2 = Berbagai arah kiblat Mesir tercatat pada abad ka-15.png | footer = ''Kiri'': Peta modern sabuting kawasan di [[Kairo]] manunjukakan masigit-masigit lawan ampah kiblat balain. ''Kanan'': Babagai ampah kiblat pada masigit-masigit di Kairo nang dicatat [[Al-Maqrizi]] pada abad ka-15 (hitam), beserta ampah kiblat modern (biru).}} == Keragaman == === Dunia Islam awal === Marga sapanjang sajarah tadapat bamacam mitudi panantuan ampah kiblat, masigit nang didiriakan (tamasuk masigit-masigit nang badiri sampai wayah ini) baisi kiblat nang balainan pula.{{sfn|Almakky|Snyder|1996|p=29}} Mitudi-mitudi nang dihaga ilmuwan kada aci dipakai dalam pambangunan masigit.{{sfn|King|2004|p=175}} Parhitungan matematika lawan prinsip nang sama gen kawa baisi hasil nang balain marga palainan kaakuratan data atawa parhitungan.{{sfn|Almakky|Snyder|1996|p=32}} Misalnya, sajarawan Mesir [[Al-Maqrizi]] (wafat 1442 M) mancatat bamacam ampah kiblat nang dipakai masigit-masigit di Kairo pada wayah nitu: 90° (lurus ka timur), 117° (posisi panjauhnya matahari naik di musim dingin, sasuai "kiblat bubuhan sahabat"), 127° (hasil parhitungan ilmuwan, misalnya [[Ibnu Yunus]]), 141° ([[masigit Ibnu Thulun]]), 156° (posisi terbit bintang Suhail/[[Canopus]]), 180° (lurus ka salatan, sasuai ampah sambahyang Muhammad matan Madinah), wan 204° (posisi tinggalam Canopus).{{sfn|King|2004|pp=175–176}} Selain nitu, kiblat manurut hasil parhitungan modern adalah 135°, nang kada dikatahui pada wayah itu.{{sfn|King|1996|p=146}} Sapalih palainan naya kawa ditihi wayah naya matan palainan orientasi masigit-masigit maupun jalanan-jalanan kota Kairo nang rancak diatur cagar sasuai lawan ampah kiblat. Catatan sajarah bubuhan panulis Muslim manyambatakan adanya bamacam-macam nang kaya naya di kuta-kuta Muslim lain nang kaya [[Kordoba, Spanyol|Kordoba]] wan [[Samarkand]].{{sfn|King|2004|pp=175–176}} Manurut konsep ''[[#Jihatul ka'bah|jihatul ka'bah]]'', bamacam ampah nang masih baparakan naya kada dianggap sawagai masalah marga nang diwajibakan dalam ibadah hanya badampah kikira ka ampah Ka'bah kada usah harus pas banar.{{sfn|King|1996|pp=134–135}} === Nusantara === Di [[Nusantara]], variasi ampah kiblat jua tajadi marga pangatahuan tradisional nang maanggap Makkah baandak di ampah barat sahingga masigit didiriakan lurus ka barat atawa sasuai ampah matahari tinggalam (nang kada pas banar di barat tagal bakitar tarus sapanjang tahun), atawa bahanu disasuaiakan ampah jalan wan tanah nang tasadia. Kiblat hasil parhitungan astronomi bakisar antara 291°—295° (serong 21°–25° mamaraki utara matan ampah barat), tagantung andakan bujur.{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2014|pp=59–60}} Bubuhan ahli falak Indonesia baisi tanggapan balain tahadap hal naya: Tono Saksono ''et al.'' bapandapat bahwa parsyaratan mahadap kiblat adalah "parsyaratan spiritual" alih-alih parsyaratan fisika wan panantuan ampah nang pas banar ka bangunan Ka'bah matan jarak ribuan kilometer mamarluakan kabujuran talalu tinggi nang kada mungkin tahibaki dalam pambangunan masigit maupun saat badiri sambahyang.{{sfn|Saksono|Fulazzaky|Sari|2018|p=136}} Satumat nitu, Muhammad Hadi Bashori bapandapat bahwa "malurusakan ampah kiblat sabujurannya hal nang bujuran panting", wan kawa dipandu lawan mitudi sadarhana nang pina bujur nang kaya [[#Maitih hambaya|mitudi maitih hambaya]].{{sfn|Hadi Bashori|2014|pp=60–61}} Dalam sajarah, parucauan ampah kiblat nang babujuran suah kajadian di Yogyakarta pada tahun 1890-an. [[Ahmad Dahlan]] nang bulik imbah mampalajari ilmu Islam wan astronomi di Mekkah mandapati bahwa masigit-masigit di Yogyakarta baisi ampah kiblat nang kada pas, tamasuk [[masigit Gedhe Kauman]] nang mahadap lurus ka barat. Upaya Dahlan maubah ampah kiblat sawat ditantang karas oleh bubuhan ulama tradisional [[Keraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat|keraton]], wan masigit hanyar nang dibangun Dahlan lawan ampah kiblat nang sidin hitung dihancurakan oleh warga. Kainahnya, masigit nitu didiriakan baasa wan ampah kiblat masigit Gedhe Kauman pun diubah sasuai hasil parhitungan astronomi.{{sfn|Kersten|2017|p=130}}{{sfn|Nashir|2015|p=77}} {{anchor|Kiblat matan Amerika Utara}} === Amerika Utara === [[Barakas:01 05 Street WDC 8jul05.jpg|jmpl|kiri|[[Islamic Center of Washington]] (didirikan 1953), salah sabuting masigit panambaian di Amerika Serikat, nang kiblatnya baampah ka timur laut sasuai parhitungan astronomi.{{sfn|May|1953|p=367}}]] Di tampat-tampat nang sudah lawas didiami bubuhan Muslim, parsoalan ampah kiblat rajin sudah kada dirucauakan pulang. Babarapa tampat, kaya Amerika Serikat wan Kanada, hanyar baisi bubuhan Islam nang ganal pada babarapa dasawarsa kaakhiran sahingga ampah kiblat bahanu manjadi sabuting parsualan.{{sfn|Bilici|2012|p=54}} Sabuting masigit nang didirikan di [[Washington, D.C.]] pada 1953 mahadap timur laut sasuai parhitungan astronomi wan sawat mambingungakan jamaah marga kuta nitu baandak di posisi ta-ka utara dibandingakan lawan Mekkah.{{sfn|May|1953|p=367}} Kabanyakan masigit nang didiriakan bubuhan imigran Muslim panambaian di Amerika Serikat mahadap ka timur atawa tunggara, sasuai lawan ampah nang tampak pada peta datar.{{sfn|Bilici|2012|p=54}} Pada tahun 1978, seiring batumbuhnya jumlah Muslim wan masigit di Amerika Utara, S. Kamal Abdali, saikung ilmuwan Muslim Amerika Serikat, manulis hasil kajiannya nang manyambat bahwa kiblat nang pas gasan Amerika Utara adalah ampah utara atawa timur laut, sasuai lawan garis pamaraknya nang mahubungkan Mekkah lawan tampat-tampat di banua nitu (garis "lingkaran ganal").{{sfn|Bilici|2012|pp=54–55}}{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}} Kasimpulan naya ditarima luas ulih bubuhan Muslim wan masigit-masigit maubah ampah kiblatnya.{{sfn|Bilici|2012|p=54}} Pada 1990, dua ulama bangaran Riad Nachef wan Samir Kadi manulis sabuting buku nang bapandapat bahwa ampah nang bujur adalah tunggara, sasuai lawan nang talihat dalam peta bumi datar. Kadua panulis manyambat sambahyang lawan kiblat utara atawa timur laut kada sah wan diakibatakan ulih kurangnya ilmu agama.{{sfn|Bilici|2012|pp=55–56}}{{sfn|Almakky|Snyder|1996|p=31}} Hal naya maulah barucau antara kadua versi panantuan ampah kiblat naya.{{sfn|Bilici|2012|pp=55–56}} Pada kaakhirannya, kabanyakan ulama wan umat Islam di Amerika Serikat mamilih ampah kiblat utara/timur laut, walaupun sapalih nang sadikit masih maumpati kiblat timur/tunggara.{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}}{{sfn|Bilici|2012|p=57}} === Luar angkasa === {{multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = Muszaphar Salat.jpg | image2 = ISS Aug2005.jpg | footer = Antariksawan Malaysia [[Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor]] lagi [[sambahyang]] (''kiri'') wayah bagana di [[Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]] (''kanan'', foto tahun 2005) wayah Oktober 2007. Tulaknya inya ka luar angkasa mamicu pamandiran manganai palaksanaan ibadah Islam matan luar angkasa, tamasuk panantuan ampah kiblat wayah sambahyang.}} Panantuan kiblat matan luar angkasa panambayan mangamuka manjalang misi [[Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor]], saikung dokter bedah Malaysia nang baagama Islam, ka [[Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]] (ISS) pada Oktober 2007.{{sfn|Lewis|2013|p=114}} ISS adalah fasilitas penelitian luar angkasa nang maurbit di atas parmukaan bumi lawan kacapatan tinggi, sahingga ampah Ka'bah baubah matan datik ka datik.{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}} Sawalum tulak Sheikh Muszaphar maminta panduan matan ulama Malaysia mengenai cara manantuakan ampah kiblat wan aspek-aspek ibadah Islam lainnya nang kaya panantuan waktu sambahyang wan puasa. Manganai ampah kiblat, Majlis Fatwa Kebangsaan Malaysia bapandapat bahwa panantuan ampah kiblat haruslah badasarakan "napa nang kawa" gasan saurang antariksawan, wan manyambatakan urutan prioritas sawagai berikut: 1) Ka'bah 2) "proyeksi Ka'bah" ka luar angkasa 3) Bumi 4) "ka mana haja" (''wherever'').{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}} Fatwa naya sudah ditarjamahakan ka bamacam bahasa, wan bubuhan panulisnya bamaksud cagar panduan naya kawa dipakai antariksawan-antariksawan Muslim imbahnya.{{sfn|Lewis|2013|p=114}} Sanada lawan fatwa ulama Malaysia, cendekiawan-cendekiawan Muslim lainnya manikinakan parlunya fleksibilitas wan manyasuaiakan ampah kiblat lawan napa nang kawa digawi saurang antariksawan. Khaleel Mohammed, pakar agama matan [[Universitas Negeri San Diego]] manyambat "Tuhan kada mambabani urang di luar kasanggupannya", wan Abdali manikinakan bahwa khusyuk atawa bubujur dalam sambahyang tapanting matan mampasakan ampah matan luar angkasa, wan "sambahyang bukanlah olahraga akrobat".{{sfn|Di Justo|2007}} Sabalum Sheikh Muszaphar, sudah ada paling kada {{tooltip|walung|8}} urang Muslim nang tulak ka luar angkasa, tatapi buhannya kada mamandirakan isu-isu takait manjalankan ibadah di luar angkasa sacara tarbuka.{{sfn|Lewis|2013|p=109}} == Kaki == === Catatan === <references group="lower-alpha" /> === Referensi === <references /> === Daftar pustaka === * {{cite journal|title=Services and Applications Based on Mobile User’s Location Detection and Prediction|first1=Mohammed|last1=Abo-Zahhad|first2=Sabah M.|last2=Ahmed|first3=Mohamed|last3=Mourad|journal=International Journal of Communications, Network and System Sciences|volume=6|issue=4|year=2013|doi=10.4236/ijcns.2013.64020|issn=1913-3723 |ref=harv|publisher=Scientific Research Publishing|pages=167–175}} * {{cite journal|title=Calculating an Azimuth from One Location to Another A Case Study in Determining the Qibla to Makkah|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cartographica_summer-1996_33_2/page/29|first1=Ghazy|last1=Almakky|first2=John|last2=Snyder|journal=Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization | volume =33| issue =2 | year = 1996 | publisher = [[University of Toronto Press]] | issn=0317-7173 | pages = 29–36 | ref=harv |doi = 10.3138/C567-3003-1225-M204}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Bilici|first=Mucahit|title=Finding Mecca in America: How Islam Is Becoming an American Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLAV-KTtQ0C|year=2012|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-92287-4}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Daftary|first=Farhad|title=The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSO9zh61AGEC|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-46578-6}} * {{cite magazine | title = A Muslim Astronaut's Dilemma: How to Face Mecca From Space | magazine = [[WIRED (majalah)|WIRED]] | first=Patrick | last=Di Justo | year = 2007 | url = https://www.wired.com/2007/09/mecca-in-orbit/ | ref = harv}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Hadi Bashori|first=Muhammad|title=Penanggalan Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YhKDwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Elex Media Komputindo|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-02-3675-9}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Hadi Bashori|first=Muhammad|title=Pengantar Ilmu Falak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=erLqDAAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Pustaka Al Kautsar|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-979-592-701-3}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|first=Mohammad |last=Ilyas|title=A modern guide to astronomical calculations of Islamic calendar, times & qibla|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mrvAAAAMAAJ|year=1984|location=Kuala Lumpur|publisher=Berita Publishing|oclc=13512629|isbn=9789679690095}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Kersten|first=Carool |title=History of Islam in Indonesia: Unity in Diversity|year=2017|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-8187-7}} * {{Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition|volume=5|title=Ḳibla: Astronomical Aspects |page=83–88|first=David A.|last=King|authorlink=David A. 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Sainsbury's north London Coronavirus Covid 19 pandemic - 30 March 2020.jpg|jmpl|upright=1.5|Urang-urang mancuntuhakan pawatasan susial wayah maantri gasan mamasuki pasar swalayan di [[London]] salawas pandimi COVID-19 tahun 2020. Gasan mamastiakan bubuhan panukar kawa manjaga jarak sasampainya di tuku, wastu sajumlah urang nang diwatasi wan dibariakan masuk sakaligus.]] [[Berkas:Covid-19-Transmission-graphic-01-id.gif|jmpl|upright=1.5|Pawatasan susial mangurangi tingkat pajangkitan panyakit wan kawa maampihakan wabah.]] '''Pawatasan susial''' ({{lang-en|social distancing}}), disambat jua '''pawatasan awak''' (''physical distancing''),<ref name="WHO_20200320">{{cite web |title=COVID-19 |author-first1=Margaret |author-last1=Harris |author-first2=Tedros |author-last2=Adhanom Ghebreyesus |author-link2=Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus |author-first3=Tu |author-last3=Liu |author-first4=Michael "Mike" J. |author-last4=Ryan |author-link4=Michael J. Ryan (doctor) |author5=Vadia<!-- Nowruz, Iran --> |author-first6=Maria D. |author-last6=Van Kerkhove |author-link6=Maria D. Van Kerkhove |author7=Diego<!-- Vortex --> |author-first8=Imogen |author-last8=Foulkes |author-first9=Charles |author-last9=Ondelam |author-first10=Corinne |author-last10=Gretler |author11=Costas<!-- ERT, Greece --> |date=20 March 2020 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/transcripts/who-audio-emergencies-coronavirus-press-conference-full-20mar2020.pdf?sfvrsn=1eafbff_0 |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325084602/https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/transcripts/who-audio-emergencies-coronavirus-press-conference-full-20mar2020.pdf?sfvrsn=1eafbff_0 |archive-date=25 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Hensley_20200323">{{cite web |author-first=Laura |author-last=Hensley |title=Social distancing is out, physical distancing is in – here's how to do it |work=[[Global News]] |date=23 March 2020 |publisher=[[Corus Entertainment Inc.]] |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/6717166/what-is-physical-distancing/ |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326180136/https://globalnews.ca/news/6717166/what-is-physical-distancing/ |archive-date=27 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Venske_20200326">{{cite web |title=Die Wirkung von Sprache in Krisenzeiten |language=de |trans-title=The effect of language in times of crisis |date=26 March 2020 |editor-first=Andrea |editor-last=Schwyzer |author-first=Regula |author-last=Venske |author-link=:de:Regula Venske |type=Interview |publisher=[[Norddeutscher Rundfunk]] |series=NDR Kultur |url=https://www.ndr.de/kultur/Corona-Die-Wirkung-von-Sprache-in-Krisenzeiten,venske118.html |access-date=27 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327214038/https://www.ndr.de/kultur/Corona-Die-Wirkung-von-Sprache-in-Krisenzeiten,venske118.html |archive-date=27 March 2020}} (NB. Regula Venske is president of the [[PEN Centre Germany]].)</ref>, atawa sacara kada rasmi '''jaga jarak''', adalah sarangkaian upaya lainparmasi nang dimaksutakan gasan mancagah panyabaran [[panyakit manjangkit]] lawan manjaga jarak awak antara saikung urang wan urang lain, wan jua mangurangi jumlah urang nang manggawi kuntak parak saikung sama lain.<ref name="WHO_20200320"/><ref name="JohnsonSunFreedman 2020">{{Cite news |author-last1=Johnson |author-first1=Carolyn Y. |author-last2=Sun |author-first2=Lena |author-last3=Freedman |author-first3=Andrew |title=Social distancing could buy U.S. valuable time against coronavirus |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=10 March 2020 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/03/10/social-distancing-coronavirus/ |access-date=11 March 2020 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327163232/https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/03/10/social-distancing-coronavirus/ |archive-date=27 March 2020}}</ref> Tindakan ngini rancaknya digawi lawan manjaga jarak tatantu matan urang lain (jarak nang ditantuakan mungkin lain matan waktu ka waktu wan matan sabuah nagara lawan nagara lain) wan mahindari bakumpul baimbai dalam garumbung ganal.<ref name="Pearce2020"/><ref name="CDC22March2020"/> Pawatasan susial pacangan mangurangi kamungkinan kuntak antara urang nang kada tajangkit lawan urang tajangkit, jadi kawa mangurangi [[pajangkitan panyakit]], wan paling tatambaian, [[kamatian]].<ref name="WHO_20200320"/> Tindakan ngini digabungakan lawan manarapakan [[pandirian kabarasihan]] pahinakan nang baik wan kabiasaan [[babasuh tangan]] dalam sabuah garumbung.<ref name="WHO2May2009"/><ref name="gov.ukSD">{{Cite web |title= Guidance on social distancing for everyone in the UK |author-last= |author-first= |date= |website=GOV.UK |language=en |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-guidance-on-social-distancing-and-for-vulnerable-people/guidance-on-social-distancing-for-everyone-in-the-uk-and-protecting-older-people-and-vulnerable-adults |access-date= 29 March 2020 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200324214400/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-guidance-on-social-distancing-and-for-vulnerable-people/guidance-on-social-distancing-for-everyone-in-the-uk-and-protecting-older-people-and-vulnerable-adults |archive-date= 24 March 2020 }}</ref> Salawas [[pandemi Covid-19]], [[Urganisasi Kasihatan Dunia|Pahimpunan Kawigasan Dunia]] (WHO) mamadahakan pamakaian istilah "pawatasan awak" lain "pawatasan susial", sasuai lawan pakta lamun jarak awaklah nang mancagah pajangkitan; pahadangan urang-urang kawa tatap tasambung sacara susial malalui tiknulugi.<ref name="WHO_20200320"/><ref name="Hensley_20200323"/><ref name="Tangermann_20200324">{{cite web |title= It's Officially Time to Stop Using The Phrase 'Social Distancing'<!-- The WHO Wants You to Ditch the Phrase "Social Distancing" --> |date= 24 March 2020 |orig-year= 2020-03-20 |author-first= Victor |author-last= Tangermann |work= science alert (Futurism / The Byte) |url= https://www.sciencealert.com/who-is-no-longer-using-the-phrase-social-distancing |access-date= 29 March 2020 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200326180149/https://www.sciencealert.com/who-is-no-longer-using-the-phrase-social-distancing |archive-date= 29 March 2020}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20200326180155/https://futurism.com/the-byte/who-ditch-phrase-social-distancing]</ref><ref name=Kumar>{{Cite journal|last= Kumar|first= Satyendra|date= 28 March 2020|title= Corona Virus Outbreak: Keep Physical Distancing, Not Social Distancing |language= en|location= Rochester, NY|ssrn= 3568435}}</ref> Gasan malambati panyabaran panyakit manjangkit wan mancagah tampat layanan kawigasan tabaruncuti, hususnya salawas [[pandimi]], sapalih tindakan pawatasan susial ditarapakan, tamasuk panutupan sakulah wan tampat bagawi, [[isulasi (kawigasan)|isulasi]], [[karantina]], pawatasan pakujukan urang, wan pamasahan [[padapatan urang banyak]].<ref name="JohnsonSunFreedman 2020"/><ref name="cdc2007"/> Walau istilah ngini hanyar dipatuhakan wayah abat ka-21,<ref>{{cite web |title=social distancing |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social%20distancing |website=Merriam-Webster |accessdate=7 May 2020}}</ref> langkah-langkah pawatasan susial paling kada sudah ada matan abat kalima SM. Salah sabuting rujukan panambaian pasla pawatasan susial didapatakan dalam [[Kitab Imamat]], 13:46: "Wan paharit kusta nang takana wabah ngitu … inya cagat tinggal saurangan; [di luar] tampat bagananya".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus+13&version=AKJV|title=Bible Gateway passage: Leviticus 13 - Authorized (King James) Version|website=Bible Gateway}}</ref> Salawas [[wabah Yustinianus]] matan tahun 541 sampai 542, kaisar [[Yustinianus I]] manarapakan karantina nang kada ampuh di [[Kakaisaran Romawi Timur]], tamasuk mambuang mayat ka laut; inya manumpalak luasnya panyabaran tatambaian lawan "[[urang Yahudi]], [[urang Samaria|Samaria]], [[paganisme|pagan]], [[arianisme|Arianis]], [[montanisme|Montanis]], wan [[homoseksualitas|homoseksual]]".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last= Drews|first= Kelly|date= 1 May 2013|title= A Brief History of Quarantine|journal= The Virginia Tech Undergraduate Historical Review|language= en|volume= 2|doi= 10.21061/vtuhr.v2i0.16|issn= 2165-9915}}</ref> Wayah jaman mudirin, langkah-langkah pawatasan susial bakulih ditarapakan dalam sapalih ipidimi. Di Kuta [[St. Louis, Missouri]], kada lawas imbah kajadian [[salismaan]] panambaian kali dicatat di kuta ngitu salawas [[pandimi bahingusan 1918]], bubuhan bawinang langsung manutup sakulah, kada mambariakan padapatan urang banyak, wan tindakan pawatasan susial lainnya. Angka kamatian kajadian di St. Louis tadikit dibandingakan di Kuta [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], nang walau baisi kajadian salismaan, masih mambariakan aarakan urang banyak wan kada manggawi pawatasan susial sampai labih matan dua minggu imbah dapatan kajadian panambaian.<ref name="Ryan2008"/> Bubuhan bawinang sudah manyuruh atawa mambari papadah gasan manggawi pawatasan susial salawas pandimi Covid-19. Pawatasan susial taampuh digawi wayah jangkitan manjangkit malalui kuntak [[papaian pahinakan]] atawa ''droplet'' (kaya [[batuk]] atawa [[wahin]]); kuntak awak langsung, tamasuk hubungan siksual; kuntak kada langsung (misalnya lawan manjapai pamukaan nang tacamar kaya ''[[fomit]]''); atawa [[Panyakit bawaan angin|pajangkitan malalui angin]] (lamun [[mikruurganisma]] kawa batahan hidup di angin gasan waktu nang lawas).<ref name="cidrap">{{cite web |title=Information About Social Distancing |date=2017 |website=www.cidrap.umn.edu |publisher=Public Health Department: [[Santa Clara Valley Health & Hospital System]] |url=http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/sites/default/files/public/php/185/185_factsheet_social_distancing.pdf |access-date=17 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327162348/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/sites/default/files/public/php/185/185_factsheet_social_distancing.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2020}}</ref> Pawatasan susial kada tapi ampuh wayah jangkitan dijangkitakan tatambaian malalui [[Transmisi fekal–oral|banyu atawa makanan nang tacamar]] atawa ulih [[vektor (biulugi)|vektor]] kaya [[rangit]] atawa karangga lain<ref name="CDCFeb2007">{{cite web |title= Interim Pre-Pandemic Planning Guidance: Community Strategy for Pandemic Influenza Mitigation in the United States – Early, Targeted, Layered Use of Nonpharmaceutical Interventions |publisher= [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |date= February 2007 |id= CS10848 |url= https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/pdf/community_mitigation-sm.pdf |access-date= 29 March 2020 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200319205055/https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/pdf/community_mitigation-sm.pdf |archive-date= 19 March 2020}}</ref> Karugian matan pawatasan susial kawa barupa [[kasunyian]], bakurangnya [[kabakulihan]] (produktivitas), wan hilangnya manapaat lain nang bakaitan lawan [[Hubungan antarparibadi|hubungan manusia]].<ref name="Brooks26Feb2020"/> == Artian == [[Berkas:Social distancing COVID.png|jmpl|Sabuting gambar (dalam basa Arab, Inggris, wan Urdu) nang manyuruh pawatasan susial salawas pandimi Covid-19.]] [[Pusat Pangandalian wan Pancagahan Panyakit Amirika Sarikat]] (CDC) manggambarakan pawatasan susial sawagai sapakakas "cara gasan mangurangi karancakan wan kaparakan kuntak di antara urang-urang gasan mangurangi rasiku pajangkitan panyakit".<ref name="cdc2007"/> Salawas [[pandemi salisma babi 2009]], WHO manggambarakan pawatasan susial sawagai "manjaga jarak paling kada salangan matan urang lain, wan mangurangi padapatan".<ref name="WHO2May2009">{{Cite web |title=Pandemic influenza prevention and mitigation in low resource communities |date=2 May 2009 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |url=https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/swineflu/PI_summary_low_resource_02_05_2009.pdf?ua=1 |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> Tindakan ngini digabung lawan [[kabarasihan kawigasan]] pahinakan nang baik wan [[babasuh tangan]], wan dianggap jadi cara nang paling ampuh gasan mangurangi atawa manunda pandimi.<ref name="WHO2May2009"/><ref name="COVID-19 Infographic">{{cite web|title=Winning together: Novel coronavirus (COVID-19) infographic|URL=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340025544_Winning_together_Novel_coronavirus_COVID-19_infographic|last=|first=|date=|website=[[ResearchGate]]|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> Salawas pandimi Covid-19, CDC maasai artian pawatasan susial sawagai "tatap ada di luar kaadaan bagalumuk, mahindari padapatan urang banyak, wan manjaga jarak (kikira anam batis atawa dua mitir) matan urang lain lamun kawa".<ref name="Pearce2020">{{Cite web |title=What is social distancing and how can it slow the spread of COVID-19? |author-last=Pearce |author-first=Katie |date=13 March 2020 |website=The Hub |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University]] |language=en |url=https://hub.jhu.edu/2020/03/13/what-is-social-distancing/ |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329184144/https://hub.jhu.edu/2020/03/13/what-is-social-distancing/ |archive-date=29 March 2020 }}</ref><ref name="CDC22March2020">{{Cite web |title=Risk Assessment and Management |date=22 March 2020 |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |language=en-us |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/php/risk-assessment.html |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304230223/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/php/risk-assessment.html |archive-date=4 March 2020 }}</ref> Kada jalas kanapa anam batis nang ditatapakan dalam artian ngitu. Studi pahanyarnya manunjukakan lamun papaian matan wahin atawa pahinakan nang kuat salawas padapatan awak kawa sampai jarak anam mitir.<ref name="IndoorAir2007">{{Cite news |last= Xie |first=X. |last2=Li |first2= Y. |last3= Chwang |first3=A. T. |last4=Ho |first4= P. L. |last5=Seto |first5= W. H. |title = How far droplets can move in indoor environments – revisiting the Wells evaporation–falling curve |date= June 2007 |journal= [[Indoor Air]] | volume= 17 |issue=3 |pages=211–25 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00469.x |pmid=17542834 }}</ref><ref name="IntEnv2020">{{Cite journal |last=Setti |first=L. |last2=Passarini |first2=F. |last3=De Gennaro|first3=G. |title= Airborne Transmission Route of COVID-19: Why 2 Meters/6 Feet of Inter-Personal Distance Could Not Be Enough |date=23 April 2020 |journal=[[Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health]] |volume= 17|issue=8 |pages=2932 |doi=10.3390/ijerph17082932 |pmid=32340347 }}</ref><ref name="MediumApr20">{{Cite news |last= Thoelen |first=J. |url=https://medium.com/@jurgenthoelen/belgian-dutch-study-why-in-times-of-covid-19-you-can-not-walk-run-bike-close-to-each-other-a5df19c77d08|title= Belgian-Dutch Study: Why in times of COVID-19 you should not walk/run/bike close behind each other. |date=8 April 2020 |work=[[Medium (website)|Medium]] |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> Sapalih urang manduga jarak nang ditatapakan ngitu didasarakan lawan [[paitihan]] matan tahun 1930-an wan 1940-an nang sudah dihual<ref name="LiveSci03312020">{{Cite news |last= Letzter |first=R. |url= https://www.livescience.com/coronavirus-six-feet-enough-social-distancing.html |title = Is 6 feet enough space for social distancing? Not everyone thinks that's enough distance. |date=31 March 2020 |work= [[Live Science]] |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> atawa marga kabingungan dalam mamakai unit paukuran. Bubuhan paitih wan panulis sains manganjurakan pawatasan susial nang tajauh<ref name="IntEnv2020"/><ref name="NYTimesApr1520">{{Cite news |last=Reynolds |first=G. |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/15/well/move/running-social-distancing.html |title= For Runners, Is 15 Feet the New 6 Feet for Social Distancing? When we walk briskly or run, air moves differently around us, increasing the space required to maintain a proper social distance. |date=15 April 2020 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="NYTimesApr1420a">{{Cite news |last= Sheikh |first=K. |last2=Gorman |first2=J.|last3= Chang |first3=K. |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/14/health/coronavirus-six-feet.html |title = Stay 6 Feet Apart, We're Told. But How Far Can Air Carry Coronavirus? Most of the big droplets travel a mere six feet. The role of tiny aerosols is the 'trillion-dollar question.' |date=14 April 2020 |work= [[New York Times]] |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> wan/atawa mamakai [[maskar]] sakaligus mawatasi jarak susial.<ref name="IntEnv2020" /><ref name="MediumMar262020">{{Cite news |last=Huang |first=S. |url= https://medium.com/@Cancerwarrior/covid-19-why-we-should-all-wear-masks-there-is-new-scientific-rationale-280e08ceee71 |title= Why we should all wear masks – There is new scientific rationale. |date=26 March 2020 |work=[[Medium (website)|Medium]] |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="ACAIM-WACEM COVID-19 Consensus Paper">{{cite web|title=The 2019–2020 Novel Coronavirus (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) Pandemic: A Joint American College of Academic International Medicine‑World Academic Council of Emergency Medicine Multidisciplinary COVID‑19 Working Group Consensus Paper|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340903626_The_2019-2020_Novel_Coronavirus_Severe_Acute_Respiratory_Syndrome_Coronavirus_2_Pandemic_A_Joint_American_College_of_Academic_International_Medicine-World_Academic_Council_of_Emergency_Medicine_Multid|last=|first=|date=|website=[[ResearchGate]]|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> == Tindakan == {{Itihi jua|Marataakan langkuk}} Pamahaman lamun sabuting panyakit kawa maulah [[parubahan parangai (kawigasan masarakat)|parubahan parangai]] urang-urang, nang mamilih gasan manjauh matan tampat-tampat awam wan urang lain. Wayah ditarapakan gasan mangandaliakan ipidimi, pawatasan susial kaini kawa mangulihakan manapaat, tagal manimbulakan karugian ikunumi jua. Paitihan manunjukakan lamun tindakan ngini musti ditarapakan lawan hancap wan sacara katat anggaran jadi ampuh.<ref name="Maharaj2012">{{cite journal |author-last1=Maharaj |author-first1=Savi |author-last2=Kleczkowski |author-first2=Adam |date=2012 |title=Controlling epidemic spread by social distancing: Do it well or not at all |journal=[[BioMed Central|BMC Public Health]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=679 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-12-679 |pmid=22905965 |pmc=3563464}}</ref> Sapalih langkah pawatasan susial dipakai gasan mangandaliakan panyabaran panyakit manjangkit.<ref name="cdc2007">{{cite web |author-first1=Kathy |author-last1=Kinlaw |author-first2=Robert J. |author-last2=Levine |title=Ethical guidelines in Pandemic Influenza—Recommendations of the Ethics Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee to the Director, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |date=15 February 2007 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/od/science/integrity/phethics/docs/panflu_ethic_guidelines.pdf |access-date=23 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205095942/https://www.cdc.gov/od/science/integrity/phethics/docs/panflu_ethic_guidelines.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2020}} (12 pages)</ref><ref name="cidrap"/><ref name="Pearce2020"/><ref name="ACAIM-WACEM COVID-19 Consensus Paper"/> === Mahindari kuntak awak === [[Berkas:Covid-19-Handshake-Alternatives-v3-id.gif|jmpl|upright=1.5|Pawatasan suaial tamasuk jua mahilangakan kuntak awak, misalnya basalaman nang awam, [[ragap|baragapan]], atawa [[hongi]]; umpama matan Salandia Hanyar ngini manawarakan walung pilihan lain.]] Manjaga jarak paling kada dua mitir (anam batis) (di [[Amirika Sarikat]] atawa [[Britania Raya]]) atawa 1,5 mitir (di [[Australia]]) atawa 1 mitir (di [[Parancis]] atawa [[Italia]]) saikung sama lain wan mahindari baragapan wan [[garak awak]] nang maumpatakan kuntak awak langsung, mangurangi rasiku tajangkit salawas pandemi salisma dan pandemi Covid-19).<ref name="Pearce2020"/><ref name="osha">{{cite web |title=Guidance on Preparing Workplaces for an Influenza Pandemic |id=OSHA 3327-02N 2007 |work=[[Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970]] |publisher=[[United States Department of Labor]] |url=https://www.osha.gov/Publications/influenza_pandemic.html |access-date=18 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325141049/https://www.osha.gov/Publications/influenza_pandemic.html |archive-date=25 March 2020}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20200319163737/https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3327pandemic.pdf]</ref> Pahalatan jarak ngini, suwalih langkah-langkah kabarasihan kawigasan paribadi, dianjurakan jua di tampat bagawi.<ref name="UofCh">{{Cite web |title=Social Distancing |publisher=Department of Safety & Security, [[The University of Chicago]] |date=2015 |website=safety-security.uchicago.edu |url=https://safety-security.uchicago.edu/emergency_management/all_hazard_safety_procedures/social_distancing/ |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324150358/https://safety-security.uchicago.edu/emergency_management/all_hazard_safety_procedures/social_distancing/ |archive-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> Lamun kawa, dipadahakan gasan [[bagawi matan rumah]].<ref name="gov.ukSD"/><ref name="ACAIM-WACEM COVID-19 Consensus Paper"/> Bamamacam pilihan diusulakan gasan manggantiakan taradisi basalaman. Garakan [[namaste]], manangkupakan kadua tabah, maampahakan jariji gasan manunjuk ka atas, wan manggambar bantuk jantung, adalah sapalih pilihan nang kawa digawi kadada bajapaian lawan urang lain. Salawas [[pandimi koronavirus di Britania Raya]], garakan ngini dipakai ulih [[Charles, Pangeran Wales|Pangeran Charles]] wayah manyambut tamu, wan sudah dianjurakan ulih Direktur Jenderal WHO [[Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus]] wan Pardana Mantri Israil [[Benjamin Netanyahu]].<ref name="Barajas13March2020">{{Cite web |title=Joined palms, hands on hearts, Vulcan salutes: Saying hello in a no-handshake era |author-last1=Barajas |author-first1=Julia |author-last2=Etehad |author-first2=Melissa |date=13 March 2020 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |language=en-US |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-03-13/coronavirus-namaste-greetings-handshakes-noncontact |access-date=18 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327064424/https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-03-13/coronavirus-namaste-greetings-handshakes-noncontact |archive-date=27 March 2020}}</ref> Pilihan lain misalnya [[Kawaian|mangawaiakan tangan]], maulah [[Shaka (isarat)|isarat shaka]], wan maandak tabah di jantung, kaya nang digawi di sapalih wilayah Iran.<ref name="Barajas13March2020"/> <gallery>Berkas:Social Distancing in a Computer Lab.jpg|jmpl|upright=1.85|Di laburaturium kumputar ngini, saban [[satasiun gawi]] sudah ditutup gasan maningkatakan jarak antarpagawi. Berkas:Social_Distancing_Sign_@_London_Drugs_(49684963711).jpg|jmpl|upright=1|Panangaran di lantai kawa mambantu urang-urang gasan manjaga jarak di tampat-tampat awam.</gallery> === Panutupan sakulah === [[Berkas:Swineflu uk hpa model.svg|jmpl|ka|upright=1|Kajadian salisma babi par minggu di Britania Raya wayah tahun 2009; sakulah rancaknya [[diparaiakan gasan musim panas|paraian musim panas]] wyaha patangahan Juli wan dibuka baasa wayah pamulaan Siptimbir.<ref name="HPApress">{{cite web |title=2009 Press Releases |date=24 December 2009 |publisher=[[Health Protection Agency]] |url=http://www.hpa.org.uk/HPA/NewsCentre/NationalPressReleases/2009PressReleases/ |access-date=24 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091224065403/http://www.hpa.org.uk/HPA/NewsCentre/NationalPressReleases/2009PressReleases/ |archive-date=24 December 2009 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>]] Pamudilan matamatika manunjukakan lamun panyabaran wabah kawa ditunda lawan manutup sakulah. Tagal, kaampuhannya tagantung lawan kuntak nang digawi [[kakanakan]] di luar sakulah. Rancak sasaikung [[kuitan]] musti maambil parai, wan panutupan nang bakapanjangan mungkin diparluakan. Panyabab-panyabab ngini kawa maulah gangguan susial wan ikunumi.<ref name="Zumla2010">{{Cite book |author-last1=Zumla |author-first1=Alimuddin |author-link1=Alimuddin Zumla |title=Emerging Respiratory Infections in the 21st Century, An Issue of Infectious Disease Clinics |author-last2=Yew |author-first2=Wing-Wai |author-last3=Hui |author-first3=David S. C. |date=31 August 2010 |publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]] |volume=24 |number=3 |isbn=978-1-4557-0038-7 |pages=614 |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/?id=c9CQn9C4JaQC&pg=PA614 |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329195321/https://books.google.de/books?id=c9CQn9C4JaQC&pg=PA614&redir_esc=y |archive-date=29 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="CauchemezFerguson2009">{{cite journal |author-last1=Cauchemez |author-first1=Simon |author-last2=Ferguson |author-first2=Neil Morris |author-link2=Neil Ferguson (epidemiologist) |author-last3=Wachtel |author-first3=Claude |author-last4=Tegnell |author-first4=Anders |author-last5=Saour |author-first5=Guillaume |author-last6=Duncan |author-first6=Ben |author-last7=Nicoll |author-first7=Angus |title=Closure of schools during an influenza pandemic |journal=[[The Lancet Infectious Diseases]] |volume=9 |issue=8 |date=August 2009 |pages=473–481 |issn=1473-3099 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70176-8 |pmid=19628172 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S1473-3099%2809%2970176-8 |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live|pmc=7106429 }}</ref> === Panutupan tampat bagawi === Paitihan ilmiah [[pamudilan wan pasiapan]] badasarakan data di AS manunjukakan lamun 10% tampat bagawi nang taujak ditutup, tingkat pajangkitan sacara kasaluruhan, yaitu kikira 11,9% wan waktu puncak ipidimi sahikit tatunda. Sabaliknya, lamun 33% tampat bagawi nang taujak ditutup, tingkat sarangan bakurang jadi 4,9%, wan waktu puncak tatunda salawas saminggu.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last1=Rousculp |author-first1=Matthew D. |author-last2=Johnston |author-first2=Stephen S. |author-last3=Palmer |author-first3=Liisa A. |author-last4=Chu |author-first4=Bong-Chul |author-last5=Mahadevia |author-first5=Parthiv J. |author-last6=Nichol |author-first6=Kristin L. |date=October 2010 |title=Attending Work While Sick: Implication of Flexible Sick Leave Policies |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-occupational-and-environmental-medicine_2010-10_52_10/page/1009 |journal=[[Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine]] |volume=52 |issue=10 |pages=1009–1013 |doi=10.1097/jom.0b013e3181f43844 |pmid=20881626}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-last1=Kumar |author-first1=Supriya |author-last2=Crouse Quinn |author-first2=Sandra |author-last3=Kim |author-first3=Kevin H. |author-last4=Daniel |author-first4=Laura H. |author-last5=Freimuth |author-first5=Vicki S. |title=The Impact of Workplace Policies and Other Social Factors on Self-Reported Influenza-Like Illness Incidence During the 2009 H1N1 Pandemic |date=January 2012 |journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]] |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=134–140 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2011.300307 |pmid=22095353 |pmc=3490553}}</ref> Panutupan tampat bagawi tamasuk panutupan bisnis wan layanan susial "kada panting" (nonesensial) (artinya tampat ngitu kada manjaga guna tatambaian masarakat, sawagai musuh matan [[layanan panting]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Social Distancing Support Guidelines For Pandemic Readiness |publisher=[[Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment]] |date=March 2008 |url=https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/OEPR_Guidelines-for-Social-Distancing-Pandemic-Readiness.pdf |access-date=13 February 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213001535/https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/OEPR_Guidelines-for-Social-Distancing-Pandemic-Readiness.pdf |archive-date=13 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="ACAIM-WACEM COVID-19 Consensus Paper"/> === Pamasahan padapatan banyak urang === Pamasahan [[galumuk banyak urang|padapatan atawa galumuk banyak urang]] misalnya acara [[ulahraga|malumbar urat]], pilim, atawa panampaian musik.<ref>{{cite journal |author-first1=Robert |author-last1=Booy |author-first2=James |author-last2=Ward |title=Evidence compendium and advice on social distancing and other related measures for response to an influenza pandemic |journal=[[:de:Paediatric Respiratory Reviews|Paediatric Respiratory Reviews]] |date=2015 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=119–126 |publisher=National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance |doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2014.01.003 |pmid=24630149 |url=https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/519F9392797E2DDCCA257D47001B9948/$File/Social.pdf |access-date=15 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515032806/https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/519F9392797E2DDCCA257D47001B9948/$File/Social.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2015}} (13 pages)</ref> Bukti manunjukakan lamun apakah padapatan banyak urang maningkatakan pajangkitan panyakit sakalinya kada kawa disimpulakan.<ref>{{cite journal |author-first1=Thomas V. |author-last1=Inglesby |author-first2=Jennifer B. |author-last2=Nuzzo |author-first3=Tara |author-last3=O'Toole |author-link3=Tara O'Toole |author-first4=Donald Ainslie |author-last4=Henderson |author-link4=Donald Ainslie Henderson |doi=10.1089/bsp.2006.4.366 |title=Disease Mitigation Measures in the Control of Pandemic Influenza |journal=Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science |date=2006 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=366–375 |pmid=17238820 |citeseerx=10.1.1.556.2672}}</ref> [[Bukti anekdotal]] manunjukakan lamun janis padapatan banyak urang tatantu kawa dikaitakan lawan paningkatan rasiku pajangkitan salisma, wan kawa jua "banih" galur hanyar ka sabuah dairah, nang maulah pajangkitan garumbung dalam kaadaan pandimi. Salawas pandimi salisma 1918, arakan militar di Philadelphia<ref name="Davis_20180921">{{cite magazine |author-first=Kenneth C. |author-last=Davis |author-link=Kenneth C. Davis |title=Philadelphia Threw a WWI Parade That Gave Thousands of Onlookers the Flu |magazine=[[Smithsonian Magazine]] |date=21 September 2018 |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/philadelphia-threw-wwi-parade-gave-thousands-onlookers-flu-180970372/ |access-date=27 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327222425/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/philadelphia-threw-wwi-parade-gave-thousands-onlookers-flu-180970372/ |archive-date=27 March 2020}}</ref> dan Boston<ref>{{cite news |title=The Flu in Boston |work=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[WGBH Educational Foundation]] |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/influenza-boston/ |access-date=28 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320142051/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/influenza-boston/ |archive-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> mungkin batanggung jawap gasan manyabarakan panyakit ngini lawan mancampurakan palaut nang tajangkit lawan galumuk warga sipil. Mawatasi padapatan banyak urang, nang digabungakan lawan pawatasan susial lainnya, kawa mambantu mangurangi pajangkitan.<ref name="ACAIM-WACEM COVID-19 Consensus Paper"/><ref>{{cite journal |author-last1=Ishola |author-first1=David A. |author-last2=Phin |author-first2=Nick |date=December 2011 |title=Could Influenza Transmission Be Reduced by Restricting Mass Gatherings? Towards an Evidence-Based Policy Framework |url= |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=33–60 |doi=10.1016/j.jegh.2011.06.004 |pmid=23856374|pmc=7104184 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Pawatasan pakujukan === Pawatasan di paingkasan nagara atawa pawatasan pakujukan dalam wilayah kada mungkin manunda ipidimi labih matan dua sampai talung minggu kacawali lamun ditarapakan lawan cakupan labih matan 99%.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last1=Ferguson |author-first1=Neil Morris |author-link1=Neil Ferguson (epidemiologist) |author-last2=Cummings |author-first2=Derek A. T. |author-last3=Fraser |author-first3=Christophe |author-last4=Cajka |author-first4=James C. |author-last5=Cooley |author-first5=Philip C. |author-last6=Burke |author-first6=Donald S. |author-link6=Donald S. Burke |date=2006 |title=Strategies for mitigating an influenza pandemic |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=442 |issue=7101 |pages=448–452 |doi=10.1038/nature04795 |pmid=16642006 |pmc=7095311 |bibcode=2006Natur.442..448F}}</ref> Pahalatan lapangan tarabang disarihakan kada ampuh gasan mancagah pajangkitan virus salawas wabah SARS 2003 di Kanada<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Bell |author-first=David M. |date=2004 |title=Public health interventions and SARS spread, 2003 |journal=[[Emerging Infectious Diseases]] |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1900–1906 |doi=10.3201/eid1011.040729 |pmid=15550198 |pmc=3329045 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no11/04-0729.htm |access-date= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105074656/https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no11/04-0729.htm |archive-date=5 November 2009}}</ref> dan AS.<ref>{{cite book |author-first=Martin |author-last=Cetron |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92450/ |chapter=Isolation and Quarantine: Containment Strategies for SARS, 2003 |title=Learning from SARS: Preparing for the Next Disease Outbreak |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |date=2004 |isbn=0-30959433-2}}</ref> [[Pangandalian paingkasan]] nang pisit antara [[Austria]] wan [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]], nang dibalakuakan matan 1770 sampai 1871 gasan mancagah urang nang tajangkit wabah [[sampar]] mAmasuki Austria, dikaduakan ampuh, marga kadada wabah mayor di wilayah Austria imbah pawatasan ngitu ditarapakan, sadangakan Kasultanan Utsmaniyah maharit ipdimi wabah tarus sampai patangahan abat ka-19.<ref name="Kohn">{{cite book |editor-first=George Childs |editor-last=Kohn |title=Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |series=Facts On File—Library Of World History |date=2008 |orig-year=2001, 1998 |page=30 |isbn=978-1-43812923-5 |edition=3 |location=New York |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA30 |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329120426/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA30 |archive-date=29 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plague |editor-first=Joseph P. |editor-last=Byrne |date=2008 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.]] / [[Greenwood Press]] |location=Westport, Connecticut / London |lccn=2008019487 |volume=1&2<!-- Volume 1, A–M --> |isbn=<!-- 978–0–313–34101–4 --> |id=978–0–313–34102–1 (vol 1), 978–0–313–34103–8 (vol 2) |url=http://www.academia.dk/MedHist/Sygdomme/PDF/Encyclopedia_of_Pestilence_Pandemics_and_Plagues.pdf |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215143932/https://www.academia.dk/MedHist/Sygdomme/PDF/Encyclopedia_of_Pestilence_Pandemics_and_Plagues.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> Sabuting paitihan ilmiah [[Uniparsitas Northeastern]] nang dicungulakan wayah Marit 2020 mandapatakan lamun "pawatasan pakujukan ka wan matan [[Ripublik Rakyat Cina]] wastu kawa malambati panyabaran panyakit koronavirus 2019 sacara antarabangaa wayah digabungakan lawan upaya gasan mangurangi pajangkitan di tingkat masarakat wan paurangan (individu). Pawatasan pakujukan kada mayu kacawali kita manggabungakannya lawan pawatasan susial."<ref>{{cite news |author-first=Emily |author-last=Arntsen |title=Closing borders can delay, but can't stop the spread of COVID-19, new report says |work=News@Northeastern |publisher=[[Northeastern University]] |date=6 March 2020 |url=https://news.northeastern.edu/2020/03/06/to-slow-the-spread-of-covid-19-close-doors-not-borders-new-report-says/ |access-date=28 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323063603/https://news.northeastern.edu/2020/03/06/to-slow-the-spread-of-covid-19-close-doors-not-borders-new-report-says/ |archive-date=23 March 2020}}</ref> Paitihan ilmiah ngini mandapatakan lamun tangatan batulakan di Wuhan manunda panyabaran panyakit ka palihan lain daratan Tiongkok wastu dalam talung hingga lima hari, saupama hal ngitu mangurangi panyabaran kajadian antarabangsa saanyak 80 parsin.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The effect of travel restrictions on the spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak |author-last1=Chinazzi |author-first1=Matteo |author-last2=Davis |author-first2=Jessica T. |author-last3=Ajelli |author-first3=Marco |author-last4=Gioannini |author-first4=Corrado |author-last5=Litvinova |author-first5=Maria |author-last6=Merler |author-first6=Stefano |author-link6=:wikidata:Q56380887 |author-last7=Pastore y Piontti |author-first7=Ana |author-last8=Mu |author-first8=Kunpeng |author-last9=Rossi |author-first9=Luca |author-last10=Sun |author-first10=Kaiyuan |author-last11=Viboud |author-first11=Cécile |authorlink11=Cécile Viboud|author-last12=Xiong |author-first12=Xinyue |author-last13=Yu |author-first13=Hongjie |author-last14=Halloran |author-first14=M. Elizabeth |author-last15=Longini, Jr. |author-first15=Ira M. |author-link15=Ira M. Longini, Jr. |author-last16=Vespignani |author-first16=Alessandro |author-link16=Alessandro Vespignani |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=6 March 2020 |volume=368 |issue=6489 |doi=10.1126/science.aba9757 |pages=395–400 |pmid=32144116 |pmc=7164386 }}</ref> === Palindungan awam === [[Berkas:Whole Foods Market - Toronto - 20200501110408 (cropped).jpg|jmpl|Panangar pawatasan susial wan parisai [[kaca akrilik]] di kasir pasar grosir makanan di [[Toronto]] gasan mangurangi kuntak awak.]] Langkah-langkah palindungan gasan paurangan tamasuk mawatasi kuntak awak, manggawi bisnis malalui talipun atawa [[Dalam jaringan wan luar jaringan|dalam jaringan]], mahindari tampat-tampat awam, wan mangurangi pakujukan nang kada parlu.<ref name="Glass">{{cite journal |author-last1=Glass |author-first1=Robert J. |author-last2=Glass |author-first2=Laura M. |author-last3=Beyeler |author-first3=Walter E. |author-last4=Min |author-first4=H. Jason |doi=10.3201/eid1211.060255 |title=Targeted Social Distancing Designs for Pandemic Influenza |journal=[[Emerging Infectious Diseases]] |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |date=November 2006 |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=1671–1681 |pmid=17283616 |pmc=3372334 |url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/11/06-0255_article |access-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323042313/https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/11/06-0255_article |archive-date=23 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="SDG">{{cite web |title=Social Distancing Guidelines (for workplace communicable disease outbreaks) |date=2017 |publisher=[[Society for Human Resource Management]] |url=https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-samples/policies/pages/cms_016204.aspx |access-date=23 April 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423071438/https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-samples/policies/pages/cms_016204.aspx |archive-date=23 April 2017}}</ref><ref name=HeartMatters>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/news/coronavirus-and-your-health/whats-the-difference-between-shielding-self-isolation-and-social-distancing|title=What's the difference between shielding, self-isolation and social distancing?|website=www.bhf.org.uk|language=en|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329185017/https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/news/coronavirus-and-your-health/whats-the-difference-between-shielding-self-isolation-and-social-distancing|archive-date=29 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> === Karantina === {{main|Karantina}} Salawas wabah [[SARS]] 2003 di [[Singapura]], kikira 8.000 urang jadi sasahan karantina rumah wajip wan 4.300 lainnya diminta gasan manjanaki saurang gajalanya wan manalipun pagawi kawigasan saban hari jadi cara mangandaliakan ipidimi. Saupama wastu 58 matan urang-urang ngini nang warihnya disahakan lawan SARS, pajabat kawigasan awam puas lamun tindakan ngini mambantu dalam mancagah panyabaran jangkitan labih lanjut.<ref>{{cite journal |author-first=Chorh-Chuan |author-last=Tan |author-link=Tan Chorh Chuan |url=http://www.srmuniv.ac.in/sites/default/files/downloads/sars_outbreak_lessons.pdf |pmid=16830002 |title=SARS in Singapore—Key Lessons from an Epidemic |journal=Annals Academy of Medicine |date=May 2006 |volume=35 |number=5 |pages=345–349 |access-date=23 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424174153/http://www.srmuniv.ac.in/sites/default/files/downloads/sars_outbreak_lessons.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Isulasi diri sacara sakarila mungkin sudah mambantu mangurangi pajangkitan salisma di [[Texas]] wayah tahun 2009.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last1=Teh |author-first1=Benjamin |author-last2=Olsen |author-first2=Karen |author-last3=Black |author-first3=Jim |author-last4=Cheng |author-first4=Allen C. |author-last5=Aboltins |author-first5=Craig |author-last6=Bull |author-first6=Kirstin |author-first7=Paul D. R. |author-last7=Johnson |author-first8=M. Lindsay |author-last8=Grayson |author-first9=Joseph |author-last9=Torresi |title=Impact of swine influenza and quarantine measures on patients and households during the H1N1/09 pandemic |date=2012 |orig-year=2011-11-22, 2011-09-26, 29 June 2011 |journal=[[Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases]] |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=289–296 |doi=10.3109/00365548.2011.631572 |pmid=22106922}}</ref> Ujak pasikulugis buruk jangka handap wan jangka panjang sudah dikaduakan.<ref name="Brooks26Feb2020">{{Cite journal |author-last1=Brooks |author-first1=Samantha K. |author-last2=Webster |author-first2=Rebecca K. |author-last3=Smith |author-first3=Louise E. |author-last4=Woodland |author-first4=Lisa |author-last5=Wessely |author-first5=Simon |author-link5=Simon Wessely |author-last6=Greenberg |author-first6=Neil |author-link6=Neil Greenberg |author-last7=Rubin |author-first7=Gideon James |date=14 March 2020 |title=The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence |url=https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736%2820%2930460-8 |journal=[[The Lancet]] |language=en |volume=395 |issue=10227 |pages=912–920 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=32112714 |pmc=7158942 |access-date=20 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313220120/https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736%2820%2930460-8 |archive-date=13 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Jujuhutan == dzq9tey2r2yjylinr9sokvxpapc3bm2 0 21899 113322 113183 2026-08-07T18:42:52Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113322 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Indonesia declaration of independence 17 August 1945.jpg|jmpl|260px|[[Sukarno]] mawacaakan [[naskah Pasarihan]] Kamardikaan [[Indunisia|Ripublik Indunisia]] nang sudah dikatik ulih [[Sayuti Melik]] wan sudah ditandatangani ulih [[Sukarno]]-[[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]]]] [[Berkas:Collectie_NMvWereldculturen,_TM-33002401,_Prentbriefkaart-_Het_Proklamasi-monument_in_Pegangsaan_Timur,_Djakarta,_Kementerian_Penerangan_(KEMPEN),_1950-1960.jpg|jmpl|Rumah Pasarihan langkap lawan Tugu Pasarihan kikira tahun 1950-1960 di Jalan Pegangsaan Timur (damini Jalan Proklamasi). Kadua bangunan ngitu wayah ngini sudah hancur.|260px]] '''Pasarihan Kamardikaan Indunisia''' digawi wayah [[17 Agustus]] 1945 [[Masehi|tahun Masehi]], atawa tanggal [[17 Agustus]] 2605 maumpat [[Almanak Japang|tahun Japang]], nang diwacaakan ulih [[Sukarno]] lawan didangani ulih [[Mohammad Hatta|Drs. Mohammad Hatta]] batampat di sabuting rumah hibah matan [[Faradj Martak|Faradj bin Said bin Awadh Martak]] di Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, [[Jakarta Pusat]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism,1920-1949|url=https://archive.org/details/americanvisionsn00goud|last=Gouda|first=Frances|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2002|isbn=|location=Amsterdam|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanvisionsn00goud/page/n119 119]}}</ref> Kata-kata wan pasarihan ngitu musti manyaimbangakan kapantingan-kapantingan dalam nagari Indunisia wan Japang nang saling bahualan wayah ngitu.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|title=Java in a time of revolution: occupation and resistance,1944-1946|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|isbn=|location=Indonesia|pages=82}}</ref> Pasarihan ngitu manandai dimulanya palawanan diplomatik wan basanjata matan [[Revolusi Nasional Indonesia]], nang baparang malawan pasukan [[Walanda]] wan warga sipil pro-Walanda, sampai Walanda sacara rasmi mangakui kamardikaan Indunisia wayah tahun 1949.<ref>{{Cite book|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism,1920-1949|url=https://archive.org/details/americanvisionsn00goud|last=Gouda|first=Frances|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2002|isbn=|location=Amsterdam|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanvisionsn00goud/page/n36 36]}}</ref> Wayah tahun 2005, Walanda manyarihakan lamun bubuhannya sudah mamutusakan gasan manarima sacara ''[[de facto]]'' tanggal 17 Agustus 1945 sawagai tanggal kamardikaan [[Indunisia]].<ref name=jp2>{{cite news|first=|last=|title=Dutch govt expresses regrets over killings in RI|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/08/18/dutch-govt-expresses-regrets-over-killings-ri.html|work=[[Jakarta Post]]|publisher=|date=18 Agustus 2005|accessdate=23 November 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607140113/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/08/18/dutch-govt-expresses-regrets-over-killings-ri.html|archivedate=7 Juni 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Tagal, wayah tanggal 14 Siptimbir 2011, pangadilan Walanda mamutusakan dalam kajadian [[pambantaian Rawagede]] lamun Walanda batanggung jawap marga baisi tugas gasan mampatahanakan panggananya, nang jua manunjukakan lamun dairah ngity adalah palihan matan [[Hindia Timur Walanda]], balainan lawan klaim Indunisia atas 17 Agustus 1945 jadi tanggal kamardikaannya.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/inziendocument?id=ECLI:NL:RBSGR:2011:BS8793 |title = ECLI:NL:RBSGR:2011:BS8793, voorheen LJN BS8793, BY9458, Rechtbank 's-Gravenhage, 354119 / HA ZA 09-4171|date = 14 September 2011}}</ref> Dalam sabuah wawancara tahun 2013, sajarawan Indunisia [[Sukotjo]], antara lain, maminta pamarintah Walanda gasan sacara rasmi mangakui tanggal kamardikaan wayah 17 Agustus 1945.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://nos.nl/video/549112-indonesie-wil-erkenning-onafhankelijkheidsdag.html |title=Indonesië wil erkenning onafhankelijkheidsdag |language=nl |publisher=[[Nederlandse Omroep Stichting]] |date=8 September 2013 |accessdate=15 September 2013}}</ref> [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] mangakui tanggal 27 Disimbir 1949 sawagai tanggal kamardikaan Indunisia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml#n|title=The United Nations and Decolonization - Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories (1945-1999)|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> [[Naskah Pasarihan]] ditandatangani ulih [[Sukarno]] (nang manulisakan ngarannya sawagai "Soekarno" mamakai ortografi Walanda) wan [[Mohammad Hatta]],<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|title=Java in a time of revolution: occupation and resistance,1944-1946|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|isbn=|location=Indonesia|pages=83}}</ref> nang imbah ngitu ditunjuk jadi parisidin wan wakil parisidin baturut-turut sahari imbah pasarihan diwacaakan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ericwja.wordpress.com/2011/12/07/indonesia-proclamation-hero-mr-soekarno/|title=Indonesia Proclamation Hero : Mr.Soekarno.|date=7 Desember 2011|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Java in a time of revolution: occupation and resistance,1944-1946|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|isbn=|location=Indonesia|pages=88}}</ref> [[Hari Kamardikaan Ripublik Indunisia|Hari Kamardikaan]] dijadiakan sawagai [[hari parai|hari parai nasiunal]] malalui kaputusan panarintah nang dikaluarakan wayah 18 Juni 1946.{{sfn|Osman|1953|pp=621-622}} == Datik-datik pawacaan naskah pasarihan == [[Berkas:Proclamation Monument Jakarta.JPG|jmpl|[[Tugu Pasarihan]] di Jalan Proklamasi (dahulu Jalan Pegangsaan Timur) tampat diwacaakannya Naskah Pasarihan Otentik wayah tanggal [[17 Agustus]] [[1945]]]] [[Berkas:SoekarnoDoaProKemRI.jpg|jmpl|kiri|[[Sukarno]] badu'a sabalum manyarihakan kamardikaan Indunisia]] Parundingan antara gulungan anum wan gulungan tuha dalam panyusunan teks Pasarihan Kamardikaan Indunisia balangsung pukul 02.00 - 04.00 dini hari.<ref name="auto"/> Teks pasarihan ditulis di ruang makan laksamana Tadashi Maeda Jalan Imam Bonjol No 1. Bubuhan panyusun teks pasarihan ngitu adalah Ir. Soekarno, Drs. Moh. Hatta, wan Achmad Soebarjo. Rancangan teks pasarihan ditulis ulih Ir. Soekarno saurang. Di ruang muka, ada B. M. Diah, Sayuti Melik, Sukarni, wan Soediro.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Java in a time of revolution: occupation and resistance,1944-1946|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|isbn=|location=Indonesia|pages=71}}</ref> Sukarni mausulakan sakira nang manandatangani teks pasarihan ngitu adalah Ir. Soekarno wan Drs. Moh. Hatta atas ngaran bangsa Indunisia.<ref name="auto2"/> Teks Pasarihan Indunisia ngitu dikatik ulih Sayuti Melik. Baisukannya, 17 Agustus 1945, di kaganaan Sukarno, Jalan Pegangsaan Timur 56 sudah datang antara lain [[Suwiryo|Soewirjo]], [[Wilopo]], [[Gafar Pringgodigdo]], Tabrani, wan [[SK Trimurti|Trimurti]]. Acara dimula wayah pukul 10.00 lawan pawacaan pasarihan ulih Soekarno wan disambung pidatu handap kadada teks. Imbah ngitu bandira Merah Putih, nang sudahh dijahit ulih Ibu Fatmawati, dikibarakan, diumpati lawan sambutan ulih [[Suwiryo|Soewirjo]], wakil wali kuta Jakarta wayah ngitu wan [[dr. Moewardi|Moewardi]], pimpinan [[Barisan Pelopor]]. [[Berkas:Indonesian flag raised 17 August 1945.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Pangibaran bandira wayah 17 Agustus 1945.]] Pamulaannya [[SK Trimurti|Trimurti]] disuruh gasan manaikakan bandira, tagal inya kada handak lawan alasan pangirikan bandira sabaiknya digawi ulih saurang prajurit. Ulih marga ngitu ditunjuklah [[Latief Hendraningrat]], saikung prajurit [[PETA]], dibantu ulih Soehoed gasan tugas ngitu. Saikung pamudi mancungul matan balakang mambawa nampan baisi bandira Merah Putih ([[Sang Saka Merah Putih]]), nang dijahit ulih [[Fatmawati]] babarapa hari sabalumnya. Imbah bandira bakibar, hadirin manyanyiakan lagu [[Indonesia Raya]].<ref name=":0" /> Sampai damini, bandira pusaka ngitu masih disimpan di [[Monumen Nasional]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://metro.tempo.co/read/894517/bendera-pusaka-disimpan-dalam-kaca-antipeluru-di-monas|title=Bendera Pusaka Disimpan dalam Kaca Antipeluru di Monas |website=[[Tempo.co]] |date=26 Juli 2017 |accessdate=17 Agustus 2019}}</ref> Imbah upacara tuntung, kikira 100 urang angguta [[Barisan Pelopor]] nang dipimpin S. Brata datang bahancap-hancap marga bubuhannya kada mangatahui parubahan tampat mangajut matan Ikada ka Pegangsaan. Bubuhannya manuntut Sukarno maasai pawacaan Pasarihan, tagal ditulak. Kawarihannya Hatta mambariakan amanat handap gasan bubuhannya.<ref name=":0" /> [[Berkas:Indonesia flag raising witnesses 17 August 1945.jpg|jmpl|Dikibarakannya bandira Indunisia wayah 17 Agustus 1945.]] Wayah tanggal 18 Agustus 1945, Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (PPKI) maambil kaputusan, masahakan wan manatapakan Undang-Undang Dasar (UUD) sawagai dasar nagara Ripublik Indunisia, nang imbahnya dipatuh sawagai [[UUD 45]]. Lawan damintu tabantuklah Pamarintahan Nagara Kasatuan Indunusia nang babantuk Ripublik (NKRI) lawan kadaulatan di tangan rakyat nang digawi sahibaknya ulih Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR) nang cagar dibantuk imbahnya. Imbah ngitu Sukarno wan Mohammad Hatta tapilih atas usul matan [[Otto Iskandardinata]] wan parukuian matan PPKI sawagai [[Parisidin Indunisia|parisidin]] wan [[Wakil Parisidin Indunisia|wakil parisidin]] Ripublik Indunisia nang panambaian. Parisidin wan wakil parisidin cagar dibantu ulih [[KNIP|sabuah Majalis Nasiunal]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=213}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=325}}{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=30}} == Teks pidatu pasarihan kamardikaan Ripublik Indunisia == Ngini adalah teks pidatu Pasarihan Kamardikaan Indunisia. {{Cquote|Saudara-saudara sekalian, :Saya telah minta saudara-saudara hadir disini untuk menyaksikan satu peristiwa mahapenting dalam sejarah kita. :Berpuluh-puluh tahun kita bangsa Indonesia telah berjoang, untuk kemerdekaan tanah air kita bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun! Gelombang aksi kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan kita itu ada naiknya dan ada turunnya, tetapi jiwa kita tetap menuju ke arah cita-cita. :Juga di dalam zaman Jepang, usaha kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan nasional tidak berhenti-hentinya. Di dalam zaman Jepang ini, tampaknya saja kita menyandarkan diri kepada mereka, tetapi pada hakekatnya, tetap kita menyusun tenaga sendiri, tetapi kita percaya kepada kekuatan sendiri. :Sekarang tibalah saatnya kita benar-benar mengambil sikap nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita di dalam tangan kita sendiri. Hanya bangsa yang berani mengambil nasib dalam tangan sendiri akan dapat berdiri dengan kuatnya. :Maka kami, tadi malam telah mengadakan musyawarat dengan pemuka-pemuka rakyat Indonesia dari seluruh Indonesia. Permusyawaratan itu seia sekata berpendapat bahwa sekaranglah datang saatnya untuk menyatakan kemerdekaan kita. :Saudara-saudara! Dengan ini kami menyatakan kebulatan tekad itu. Dengarkanlah proklamasi kami: :::::::::::'''''<u>P R O K L A M A S I</u>''''' :'''''Kami bangsa Indonesia dengan ini menyatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia.''''' :'''''Hal-hal yang mengenai pemindahan kekuasaan dan lain-lain diselenggarakan''''' :'''''dengan cara saksama dan dalam tempo yang sesingkat-singkatnya.''''' ::::::::::::::::::'''''Djakarta, 17 Agustus 1945''''' ::::::::::::::::::'''''Atas nama bangsa Indonesia.''''' ::::::::::::::::::'''''Soekarno/Hatta.''''' :Demikianlah saudara-saudara! Kita sekarang telah merdeka! Tidak ada suatu ikatan lagi yang mengikat tanah air kita dan bangsa kita! Mulai saat ini kita menyusun negara kita! :Negara merdeka, negara Republik Indonesia! Merdeka, kekal, abadi! Insya Allah Tuhan memberkati kemerdekaan kita ini. <ref>Terjemahan bebas dari {{Cite journal|last=Kahin|first=George McT.|date=2000|title=Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_2000-04_69/page/n4|journal=Indonesia|volume=69|issue=69|pages=1–3|doi=10.2307/3351273|issn=0019-7289|jstor=3351273|hdl=1813/54189}}</ref> }} == Paringatan Hari Kamardikaan == {{utama|Hari Kamardikaan Ripublik Indunisia}} Saban tahun wayah tanggal 17 Agustus, rakyat Indunisia marayaakan Hari Pasarihan Kamardikaan ngini liwar mariah. Bamamacam paturaian diadaakan mula matan [[Panjat pinang|turai panjat pinang]], [[makan karupuk|turai makan karupuk]], sampai upacara militar di [[Istana Merdeka]], wan sabarataan masarakat umpatan lawan caranya masing-masing. === Paringatan datik-datik pasarihan === {{itihi jua|Hurmat bandirra}} Paringatan datik-datik Pasarihan di Istana Merdeka dipimpin ulih [[Parisidin RI]] salaku Inspektur Upacara. Upacara dimula kikira pukul 10:00 WIB gasan mamparingati awal upacara Pasarihan tahun 1945. Acara paringatan rancaknya disiarakan sacara langsung ulih sabarataan [[Daptar satasiun tilipisi di Indunisia|satasiun tilipisi nasiunal Indunisia]]. Acara-acara wayah [[baisukan]] tamasuk: panimbakan mariam wan sirene, pangibaran bandira [[Sang Saka Merah Putih]] (Bandira Indunisia), pawacaan naskah Pasarihan, wan lain samacamnya. Wayah [[kamarian]] kikira pukul 17:00 tadapat acara panurunan bandira Sang Saka Merah Putih. === Kawajipan mangibarakan bandira === {{utama|Bandira Indunisia #Paraturan pasal Bandira Merah Putih}} Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 tentang Bendera, Bahasa, dan Lambang Negara serta Lagu Kebangsaan pasal 7 ayat 3 maatur pasal kawajipan mangibarakan [[Bandira Indunisia|bandira Merah Putih]] gasan sabarataan warga nagara nang baisi hak pamakaian rumah, gadung kantur, satuan pelandidikan, [[paangkutan awam]], wan paangkutan paribadi di wilayah NKRI, wan jua kantur pambadalan diplumatik Indunisia di luar nagari wayah tanggal 17 Agustus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt53ef22924868d/merah-putih-wajib-dikibarkan-di-setiap-rumah-pada-hari-kemerdekaan|title=Merah Putih Wajib Dikibarkan Di Setiap Rumah pada Hari Kemerdekaan|date=16 Agustus 2014|website=hukumonline.com}}</ref> == Jujuhutan == {{reflist}} ==Bibliografi== *{{Cite book|title=Some Aspects of Indonesian Politics under the Japanese occupation, 1944–1945|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|series=Cornell University. Dept. of Far Eastern Studies. Modern Indonesia Project. Interim reports series |author-link=Benedict Anderson|publisher=Cornell University|year=1961|isbn=|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924006545622&view=1up&seq=3|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|pages=}} * {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|author-link=Benedict Anderson|title=Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946|url=https://archive.org/details/javaintimeofrevo0000ande|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=0-8014-0687-0}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Elson | first1 = R. E. | date = 2009 | title = Another Look at the Jakarta Charter Controversy of 1945 | url = https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54483/INDO_88_0_1255982649_105_130.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y | journal = Indonesia | volume = 88 | issue = 88 | pages = 105–130}} * {{Cite book|title=The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_VAH0W9uxoqoC |last=Feith|first=Herbert|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|orig-year=1962|isbn=978-9793780450 |location=Singapore|author-link=Herbert Feith}} * {{Cite book|title=The blue-eyed enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942–1945|last=Friend|first=Theodore|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=|location=New Jersey}} * {{Cite book|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949|last=Gouda|first=Frances|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2002|isbn=|location=Amsterdam}} * {{cite news | last = Poulgrain | first = Greg | title = Intriguing days ahead of independence | work = [[The Jakarta Post]] | date = 20 August 2015 | url = https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/08/20/intriguing-days-ahead-independence.html | access-date = 24 September 2020 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Homan|first=Gerlof D|date=1990|title=The Netherlands, the United States and the Indonesian Question, 1948|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1990-01_25_1/page/124|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=25|issue=1|page=124|doi=10.1177/002200949002500106|s2cid=159928062}} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | url = https://archive.org/details/nationalismrevol0000geor_y8o4 | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal|last=Kahin|first=George McT.|author-link=George McTurnan Kahin|date=2000|title=Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|journal=Indonesia|volume=69|issue=69|pages=1–3|doi=10.2307/3351273|issn=0019-7289|jstor=3351273|hdl=1813/54189|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/54189/1/INDO_69_0_1106943303_1_4.pdf|hdl-access=free}} * {{Citation | author = Mela Arnani | title = Kapan Soekarno Rekaman Suara Pembacaan Teks Proklamasi Indonesia? |trans-title=When did Soekarno record the Reading of the Indonesian Proclamation Text? |language=id| newspaper = [[Kompas]] | location = Jakarta | date = 17 August 2020 | url = https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/08/17/170500765/kapan-soekarno-rekaman-suara-pembacaan-teks-proklamasi-indonesia?page=all|access-date=27 September 2020}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1= Post|editor-first1= Peter |editor-last2= Frederick|editor-first2= William H. |editor-last3= Heidebrink|editor-first3= Iris |editor-last4= Sato|editor-first4= Shigeru | title=The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War |publisher=Brill |date=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-16866 4}} *{{Cite web |last=Prastiwi |first=Devira |year=2019 |title=Nani Wartabone dan Proklamasi Kemerdekaan 23 Januari 1942 |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/3877256/nani-wartanobe-dan-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-23-januari-1942 |website=Liputan6.com |access-date=16 March 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Raliby| first=Osman| year= 1953| title=Documenta Historica: Sedjarah Dokumenter Dari Pertumbuhan dan Perdjuangan Negara Republik Indonesia| publisher=Bulain-Bintag|language=id|location =Jakarta|volume=}} * {{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Reid (academic)|title=The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiannation0000reid |publisher=Longman |year=1974 |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-582-71046-4}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_m3c8| publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book|title=A history of modern Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000vick|last=Vickers|first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1139447614|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000vick/page/84 84]}} 4j5kysmuweqh93305xke3yioukh0ckl 0 21955 113345 113231 2026-08-07T19:32:06Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113345 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Salk_headlines.jpg|jmpl|Habar tatambaian surat kabar matan bamamacam nagara nang mambahas panaraian [[vaksin polio]] (13 April 1955)]] '''Kawigasan awam''' ([[bahasa Inggris|basa Inggris]]: ''public health'') diartiakan jadi "ilmu wan sani [[Kadukturan pancagahan|mancagah panyakit]]", mamparpanjang hidup, wan maningkatakan mutu hidup lawan manggawi upaya-upaya tahimpun wan mambari pilihan maklumat lawan masarakat, pahimpunan (awam wan swasta), pakumpulan, wan paurangan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Winslow|first=C.E.A.|date=1920|title=The Untilled Field of Public Health|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.51.1306.23|journal=Science|volume=51|issue=1306|pages=23–33|doi=10.1126/science.51.1306.23|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Maanalisis [[Determinan susial kawigasan|determinan kawigasan]] di sabuting garumbung wan ancaman-ancaman nang dihadapinya marupakan hal mandasar dalam kawigasan awam.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=What is Public Health|url=https://www.cdcfoundation.org/content/what-public-health|website=Centers for Disease Control Foundation|publisher=Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control|access-date=27 January 2017}}</ref> ''[[Kawigasan]]'' nang dimaksut di sini mancakup kasajahtaraan awak, pikiran, wan susial. Samantara ngitu, ''masarakat'' nang dimaksut kawa barupa sagarumbung urang atawa jua kasabarataan panggana [[disa]] atawa kuta; dalam kaadaan [[pandemi]], masarakatnya kawa mancakup babarapa banua.<ref name=":10">[https://www.who.int/about/who-we-are/frequently-asked-questions What is the WHO definition of health?] from the Preamble to the Constitution of WHO as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19 June - 22 July 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of WHO, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. The definition has not been amended since 1948.</ref> Kawigasa awam marupakan bidang [[antardisiplin]], nang maumpatakan ilmu-ilmu kaya [[epidemiologi]], [[biostatistika]], [[ilmu susial]], wan pangalulaan [[palayanan kawigasan]]. Subbidang lainnya nang dianggap panting di antaranya [[kawigasan lingkungan]], [[kawigasan garumbung]], [[kawigasan jiwa]], [[ikunumi kawigasan]], [[kabijakan kawigasan]], [[panyuluhan kawigasan]], [[pulitik kawigasan]], [[kawigasan wan kasalamatan bagawi]], [[katawatasan diri|panyandang katawatasan diri]], masalah gender dalam kawigasan, wan [[Kawigasan pakambangbiakan|kawigasan seksual wan pakambangbiakan]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perdiguero|first=E.|date=2001|title=Anthropology in public health. Bridging differences in culture and society.|url=https://jech.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/jech.55.7.528b|journal=Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health|volume=55|issue=7|pages=528b–528|doi=10.1136/jech.55.7.528b|pmc=PMC1731924}}</ref> Kawigasan awam, baimbai lawan [[palayanan kawigasan tatambaian]], manangah, wan paatasan, marupakan palihan matan [[Sistim kawigasan|sistim palayanan kawigasan]] sabuah nagara sacara kasaluruhan. Kawigasan awam malalui [[pamantauan panyakit]] wan patunjuk kawigasan, wan malalui parumusi parangai hidup wigas. Parangai awam nang diidabuli kawigasan awam di antaranya parumusi [[babasuh tangan]], [[manyusui]], [[pamaksinan]], [[pancagahan bunuh diri]], [[paampihan maruku]], pamahaman pasal ubisitas, maningkatakan kataraitan kawigasan, wan panyaluran kondom gasan mangandaliakan panyabaran [[panyakit manjangkit seksual]]. Ada pabidaan nang baarti dalam mandapatakan jalan masuk layanan kawigasaan wan idabul gasan manggawi upaya-upaya kawigasan awam antara [[nagara maju]] wan [[nagara bakambang]], wan di antara sasama nagara bakambang. Di nagara-nagara bakambang, tampat kawigasan awamnya masih tabantuk — mungkin kada tasadia mayu tanaga kawigasan nang talatih, sumbar daya kaduitan, atawa dalam sapalih kajadian, pangatahuan gasan mambariakan pakayanan medis wan pancagahan panyakit tingkat dasar.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|author1=Lincoln C Chen|author2=David Evans|author3=Tim Evans|author4=Ritu Sadana|author5=Barbara Stilwell|author6=Phylida Travis|author7=Wim Van Lerberghe|author8=Pascal Zurn|year=2006|title=World Health Report 2006: working together for health|location=Geneva|publisher=WHO|oclc=71199185}}</ref><ref name="Jamison 15–22">{{Cite journal|last1=Jamison|first1=D T|last2=Mosley|first2=W H|date=January 1991|title=Disease control priorities in developing countries: health policy responses to epidemiological change.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-public-health_1991-01_81_1/page/15|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=81|issue=1|pages=15–22|doi=10.2105/ajph.81.1.15|issn=0090-0036|pmc=1404931|pmid=1983911}}</ref> Masalah kawigasan awam nang tatambaian di nagara-nagara bakambang adalah kawigasan uma wan anak nang buruk, nang sasain diburuki ulih [[malnutrisi]] wan kamiskinan. Matan pamulaan [[paadaban]] [[manusia]], masarakat sudah mamasarakan kawigasan wan mamarangi panyakit di tingkat garumbung.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=George|date=2015|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/878915301|title=A history of public health (Revised expanded)|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-1-4214-1601-4|oclc=878915301}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite book|last=Porter|first=Dorothy|year=1999|title=Health, Civilization and the State: A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times|url=https://archive.org/details/healthcivilizati0000port|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415200363}}</ref> Dalam [[masarakat pra-industri]] nang kompleks, pacampurtanganan urang-urang nang dirancang gasan mangurangi rasiku nang maancam kawigasan rancak diidabuli ulih bamamacam pamangku kapantingan, kaya panguasa, jindral militar, atawa pamuka agama. [[Britania Raya]] marupakan nagara nang mamulai pangambangan kawigasa awam matan abat ka-19, marga Britania Raya marupakan nagara [[pakutaan]] mudirin panambaian di dunia.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last=Crook|first=Tom|date=2016|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/930786561|title=Governing systems : modernity and the making of public health in England, 1830-1910|location=Oakland, California|isbn=978-0-520-96454-9|oclc=930786561}}</ref> Idabul kawigasan awam pamulaannya bapumpun lawan [[kabarasihan]] (misalnya sistim pambuangan pucirin di [[Liverpool (kota)|Liverpool]] wan [[London]]), pangandalian panyakit manjangkit (misalnya [[pamaksinan]] wan [[karantina]]), wan jua pangambangan bamamacam ilmu pangatahuan, misalnya statistika, mikrobiologi, epidemiologi, wan ilmu-ilmu teknik.<ref name=":11" /> == Jujuhutan == k2glcid5p7937u6livi143xgb7neieh 0 26899 113357 80217 2026-08-08T03:13:48Z Ezagren 143 +gambar 113357 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kampung |kar = |gambar =[[Barakas:Kantor Desa Bunga Putih, Kutai Kartanegara.JPG|300px|Kantur pambakal Bunga Putih]] |panjalasan =Kantur pambakal Bunga Putih |ngaran =Bunga Putih |prupinsi =Kalimantan Timur |dati2 =Kabupatin |ngaran dati2 =Kutai Kartanegara |kacamatan =Marang Kayu |kode pos =75385 |luas =... km² |warga =... urang |karacapan =... urang/km² }} '''Bunga Putih''' yaitu sabuting [[kampung]] di Kacamatan [[Marang Kayu, Kutai Kartanegara|Marang Kayu]], [[Kabupatin Kutai Kartanegara]], Prupinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]], [[Indunisia]]. {{Marang Kayu, Kutai Kartanegara}} {{Authority control}} {{Kampung-stub}} g7iflw9vi5cp9durl1bd9xhggk2xw8y 0 26938 113356 80280 2026-08-08T03:13:42Z Ezagren 143 +gambar 113356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kampung |kar = |gambar =[[Barakas:Kantor Desa Bunga Jadi, Kutai Kartanegara.JPG|300px|Kantur pambakal Bunga Jadi]] |panjalasan =Kantur pambakal Bunga Jadi |ngaran =Bunga Jadi |prupinsi =Kalimantan Timur |dati2 =Kabupatin |ngaran dati2 =Kutai Kartanegara |kacamatan =Muara Kaman |kode pos =75553 |luas =... km² |warga =... urang |karacapan =... urang/km² }} '''Bunga Jadi''' yaitu sabuting [[kampung]] di Kacamatan [[Muara Kaman, Kutai Kartanegara|Muara Kaman]], [[Kabupatin Kutai Kartanegara]], Prupinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]], [[Indunisia]]. {{Muara Kaman, Kutai Kartanegara}} {{Authority control}} {{Kampung-stub}} 6bqgelmhxvk33mlbwzzyi91yisq2exs 0 27020 113355 80383 2026-08-08T03:13:35Z Ezagren 143 +gambar 113355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kampung |kar = |gambar =[[Barakas:Kantor Desa Buluq Sen, Kutai Kartanegara.jpg|300px|Kantur pambakal Buluq Sen]] |panjalasan =Kantur pambakal Buluq Sen |ngaran =Buluq Sen |prupinsi =Kalimantan Timur |dati2 =Kabupatin |ngaran dati2 =Kutai Kartanegara |kacamatan =Tabang |kode pos =75558 |luas =... km² |warga =... urang |karacapan =... urang/km² }} '''Buluq Sen''' yaitu sabuting [[kampung]] di Kacamatan [[Tabang, Kutai Kartanegara|Tabang]], [[Kabupatin Kutai Kartanegara]], Prupinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]], [[Indunisia]]. {{Tabang, Kutai Kartanegara}} {{Authority control}} {{Kampung-stub}} gggnj2zvsp6njdw672htgjnbxsrn1m8 0 27041 113354 80404 2026-08-08T03:13:33Z Ezagren 143 +gambar 113354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kampung |kar = |gambar =[[Barakas:Kantor Desa Bukit Raya, Kutai Kartanegara (1).jpg|300px|Kantur pambakal Bukit Raya]] |panjalasan =Kantur pambakal Bukit Raya |ngaran =Bukit Raya |prupinsi =Kalimantan Timur |dati2 =Kabupatin |ngaran dati2 =Kutai Kartanegara |kacamatan =Tenggarong Seberang |kode pos =75572 |luas =... km² |warga =... urang |karacapan =... urang/km² }} '''Bukit Raya''' yaitu sabuting [[kampung]] di Kacamatan [[Tenggarong Seberang, Kutai Kartanegara|Tenggarong Seberang]], [[Kabupatin Kutai Kartanegara]], Prupinsi [[Kalimantan Timur]], [[Indunisia]]. {{Tenggarong Seberang, Kutai Kartanegara}} {{Authority control}} {{Kampung-stub}} gdb3p6f08hikmtpov4p57vqh5tpqiiy 0 30743 113348 113227 2026-08-07T19:34:47Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox urang}} [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia| Jenderal Besar TNI]] ([[Purnawirawan|Purn.]]) [[Haji|H.]] [[Muhammad|M.]] '''Suharto''', ([[Hanacaraka]]: ꦯꦸꦲꦂꦠ; [[Alfabet Fonetik Internasional|IPA]]: [[Bantuan: IPA untuk bahasa Indonesia|{{IPA|/suːˈhɑːrtɔ/}}]]) ([[Ejaan Republik|ER]], [[Ejaan Lama]]: '''Soeharto'''; {{lahirmati||8|6|1921||27|1|2008}}) tu presiden kadua [[Indunisia]] nang manjabat dari tahun 1967 sampai 1998, manggantikan [[Sukarno]]. Di dunia Intirnasional, tarutama di [[dunia Barat]], Suharto rajin dirujuk awan sabutan pupuler ''"the smiling ganeral"'' ({{lang-bjn|'sang Janderal nang takajihing'}}) ulih raut mukanya nang rajin tasanyum awan maliatakan karamahan. <ref name="NYT">{{cite web|title=Suharto Dies at 86; Indonesian Dictator Brought Order and Bloodshed|date=28 Januari 2008|work=The New York Times|last=Berger|first=Marilyn|language=en|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html|access-date=2018-12-14|archive-date=2018-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202231503/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Obituary: Suharto, former Indonesian dictator: 1921-2008|date=27 Januari 2008|language=en|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings|work=The Guardian|last=Gittings|first=John|access-date=2018-12-14|archive-date=2018-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214164141/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Is Indonesia’s Reformasi a success, 20 years after Suharto? |date=19 Mei 2018 |work=South China Morning Post |last=Hutton |first=Jeffrey |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto |language=en |access-date=2018-12-14 |archive-date=2018-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217125832/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto |dead-url=no }}</ref> Sabalum manjadi presiden, Suharto tu pamimpin militer pada masa [[Hindia Walanda]] awan [[kakaisaran Japang]], awan pangkat tarakhir mayor Janderal. Sataan pang [[Garakan 30 Siptimbir]] 1965, Suharto kamudian malakukan uperasi panartiban awan pangamanan atas parintah dari [[Sukarno]], saan pang asa nang dilakukan nya tu awan manumpas Garakan 30 Siptimbir awan mangatakan bahawa [[Partai Kumunis Indunisia]] (PKI) sajadi urganisasi talarang.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_july-august-2002_42_4/page/550 |first=Robert |last=Cribb |journal=Asian Survey |volume=42 |issue=4 |date=2002 |pages=550–563 |doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550}}</ref><ref>Friend (2003), pages 107–109; {{cite video |people =Chris Hilton (writer and director) |title =Shadowplay |medium =Television documentary |publisher =Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions |year=2001 }}; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290</ref> Sahabis karusuhan Mei 1998, Suharto maundurkan diri dari jabatannya salaku Prèsiden. Inya digantikan uleh wakilnya, [[B.J. Habibie]]. {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Category:Suharto|Suharto}} == Jajuhutan == {{Reflist}} === Bibliografi === *{{cite book |last1=Dwipayana |first1=G. |last2=Ramadhan |first2=K.H. |date=1989 |title=Soeharto: Pikiran, ucapan dan tindakan saya: otobiografi |url=https://archive.org/details/soehartomythough0000soeh |trans-title=Soeharto: My thoughts, words and deeds: an autobiography |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada |isbn=979-8085-01-9 }} * Elson, R.E. (2001). ''Suharto: A Political Biography'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0 521 77326 1}} * McGlynn, John H. et al. (2007). ''Indonesia in the Soeharto years. Issue, incidents and images'', Jakarta, [[KITLV]] * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GHJ2IPtmEgC&q=soeharto&pg=PA12|title=Soeharto: The Life and Legacy of Indonesia's Second President: An Authorised Biography|isbn=978-981-261-340-0|last1=Abdulgani-Knapp|first1=Retnowati|date=2007|page=12|publisher=Marshall Cavendish Editions}} * [[Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana]] (2011). ''Pak Harto: The Untold Stories'', Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. * {{cite news |date= 22 February 2006 |title=Two former strongmen, Soeharto-Lee Kuan Yew meet again |publisher=ANTARA |access-date=22 February 2006 |url=http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 |archive-date=25 March 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070325054315/http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 }} * {{cite book |last=Aarons |first=Mark |date=2008 |chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA69 |editor1=David A. Blumenthal |editor2=Timothy L. H. 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Press Release. [[International Monetary Fund]]. (31 October 1997) * {{cite web | title=CIA Stalling State Department Histories | work=The National Security Archive | url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/ | access-date=23 May 2005}} * {{cite news | last=Colmey | first=John | title=The Family Firm | date=24 May 1999 | publisher=TIME Asia | url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010208155758/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=8 February 2001 }} * {{cite book |last=Conboy |first=Kenneth J. |date=2003 |title=Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789799589880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C }} * Robert Cribb, "Genocide in Indonesia,1965–1966". 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Inya diwahyuakan uleh Tuhan (''[[Allah]]'') sabuah kitab suci nang dingarani [[al-Qur'an]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.al-islam.org/life-muhammad-prophet-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/early-years |title=Early Years |website=Al-Islam.org |date=18 October 2012 |language=en |access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref> Ujaran tradisi Islam, Muhammad diranakakan di [[Mekah]] nang dikuasai uleh [[suku Quraisy]], pas tahun paranakannya, raja [[Abrahah]] dari Yaman mangirim pasukan bagajah gasan mahancurkan [[Kabah]] di Mekah; tahun tu dingarani uleh urang Arab sajadi Tahun Gajah. <ref>Howarth, Stephen. ''Knights Templar.'' 1985. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-8034-7}} p. 199.</ref> Muhammad diranakakan sajadi Yatim, abahnya, Abdullah maninggal sataan pang umaknya maranakakannya. Umaknya maninggal pas Muhammad baumur anam tahun. Inya digaduh uleh kaiknya, [[Abdul Mutalib]] sampai inya baumur 8 tahun. Pas kaiknya maninggal dunia, inya digaduh amangnya, [[Abu Talib]].{{sfn|Welch|Moussalli|Newby|2009}}{{sfn|Esposito|2002|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=9,12}} Muhammad didatangi [[malaikat Jibril]] hatan inya ada di [[Gua Hira]] di [[Jabal Nur]]. Inya diwahyuakan surah [[al-Alaq]] hayat 1 sampai 5. Inya kawin awan [[Khadijah binti Khuwailid]]. Inya mancaramahi urang [[Quraisy]] gasan manyampaiakan [[monoteisme]] baasasakan satu Tuhan. Akibat ajarannya, Muhammad dimusuhi awan urang Quraisy nang kada mau maakui kanabian inya. Muhammad [[hijrah]] dari Makkah ka [[Madinah]] wan manjadikan Madinah sajadi pusat Islam wan basis militar Islam gasan antisipasi mun ada serangan mengajut dari urang kafir Quraisy. Sahabis manaklukakan Makkah tahun 630, Muhammad bapadah wan masyarakat handak bahaji, sahabis bahaji inya meninggal dunia. 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Bhd. |location=Malaysia |isbn=978-967-366-064-3 |page=388 |language=ar, ms |type=Hardcover}} *{{cite book |last=Ishaq |first=Ibn |author-link=Ibn Ishaq |date=2002 |editor=[[Alfred Guillaume|Guillaume, Alfred]] |title=The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-636033-1}} *{{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Louis |author-link=Louis Jacobs |date=1995 |title=The Jewish Religion: A Companion |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishreligionco0000jaco |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-826463-7}} *{{cite book |last=Kelsay |first=John |author-link=John Kelsay |date=1993 |title=Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwarstudyinc0000kels |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25302-8}} *{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Majid Ali |author-link=Majid Ali Khan |date=1998 |title=Muhammad The Final Messenger |publisher=Islamic Book Service |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-85738-25-3}} *{{cite book |last=Kochler |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Köchler |date=1982 |title=Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/conceptofmonothe0000unse |publisher=I.P.O. |isbn=978-3-7003-0339-8}} *{{cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira |date=2002 |title=A History of Islamic Societies |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofislamic0000lapi_t2d2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3}} *{{cite book |last=Larsson |first=Göran |date=2003 |title=Ibn Garcia's Shu'Ubiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval Al-Andalus |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-12740-1}} *{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |date=2002 |orig-year=1993 |title=The Arabs in History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280310-8 |title-link=The Arabs in History }} *{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |date=1992 |title=Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry |publisher=Oxford University Press, US |edition=Reprint |isbn=978-0-19-505326-5 |title-link=Race and Slavery in the Middle East }} *{{cite magazine |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |date=21 January 1998 |title=Islamic Revolution |magazine=The New York Review of Books |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1988/jan/21/islamic-revolution/}} *{{cite book |last=Lings |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Lings |date=1983 |title=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources |publisher=Islamic Texts Society. |isbn=978-0-946621-33-0 |title-link=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources }} US edn. by Inner Traditions International, Ltd. *{{cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |date=1997 |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3 |title-link=The Succession to Muhammad }} *{{cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |author-link=Moojan Momen |date=1985 |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosh0000mome_o5t2 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5}} *{{cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |date=2003 |title=God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-910-5}} *{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A. |author-link=S. A. Nigosian |date=2004 |title=Islam:Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo }} *{{cite book |last=Ordoni |first=Abu Muhammad |author2=Muhammad Kazim Qazwini |date=1992 |title=Fatima the Gracious |publisher=Ansariyan Publications |asin=B000BWQ7N6 |title-link=Fatima the Gracious }} *{{cite journal |last=Peters |first=Francis Edward |author-link=Francis Edward Peters |date=1991 |journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |title=The Quest of the Historical Muhammad |volume=23 |pages=291–315 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800056312 |issue=3 |title-link=The Quest of the Historical Muhammad (Peters) |s2cid=162433825 }} *{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis Edward |author-link=Francis Edward Peters |date=1994 |title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1876-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadorigins00pete }} *{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis Edward |author-link=Francis Edward Peters |date=2003 |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe }} *{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis Edward |author-link=Francis Edward Peters |date=2003b |title=The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition |volume=1: The Peoples of God |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691123721/the-monotheists-jews-christians-and-muslims-in-conflict-and |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton University Press |id=ASIN: B0012385Z6 |isbn=0-691-11460-9}}*{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis Edward |author-link=Francis Edward Peters |date=2003c |title=The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition |volume=2: The Words and Will of God |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691123738/the-monotheists-jews-christians-and-muslims-in-conflict-and |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton University Press |id= |isbn=0-691-11461-7 }} *{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis Edward |date=10 November 2010 |author-link=Francis Edward Peters |title=Jesus and Muhammad: Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=olEi-1LZYYQC&pg=PA159 |access-date=1 December 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974746-7 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614223637/http://books.google.com/books?id=olEi-1LZYYQC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=14 June 2013 }} *{{cite book |last=Peterson |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel C. Peterson |date=2007 |title=Muhammad, Prophet of God |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadpropheto0000pete |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-8028-0754-0}} *{{cite book |last=Quinn |first=Frederick |date=2008 |title=The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/sumofallheresies0000quin |url-access=registration |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |chapter=The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600) |pages=17–54 |isbn=978-0-19-532563-8}} *{{cite book |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |author-link=Fazlur Rahman |date=1979 |title=Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000rahm_s0w9 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-70281-0}} *{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |author-link=Tariq Ramadan |date=2007 |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama }} *{{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Minou |author-link=Minou Reeves |date=2003 |title=Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadineurope0000mino |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7564-6}} *{{cite book |last=Robin |first=Christian J. |date=2012 |title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-533693-1 }} *{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=David |date=2004 |title=Muslim Societies in African History |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsocietiesi0000robi |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82627-3}} *{{cite book |author-link=Maxime Rodinson |author=Rodinson, Maxime |date=2002 |title=Muhammad: Prophet of Islam |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |isbn=978-1-86064-827-4}} *{{cite book |last=Rue |first=Loyal |author-link=Loyal Rue |date=2005 |title=Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological |url=https://archive.org/details/religionisnotabo00loya |url-access=registration |publisher=Rutgers |isbn=978-0-8135-3955-3}} *{{cite book |last=Serin |first=Muhittin |author-link=Muhittin Serin |date=1998 |title=Hattat Aziz Efendi |publisher=Istanbul |isbn=978-975-7663-03-4 |oclc=51718704}} *{{cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |date=2004 |title=Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsinindiasi0000sika |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-31486-2}} *{{cite book |last=Spellberg |first=Denise A. |author-link=Denise Spellberg |date=1996 |title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07999-0 |pages=39–40 |language=en }} *{{cite book |last=Stillman |first=Norman A. |author-link=Norman A. Stillman |date=1979 |title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bFN2ismyhEYC&pg=PA236 |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |isbn=978-0-8276-0198-7 |page=236}} *{{cite book |last=Tabatabae |first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei |title=AL-MIZAN:AN EXEGESIS OF THE QUR'AN, translation by S. Saeed Rizvi |publisher=WOFIS |isbn=978-964-6521-14-8 |title-link=Tafsir al-Mizan }} *{{cite book |last=Teed |first=Peter |date=1992 |title=A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-211676-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoftwen00teed }} *{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin |date=2005 |title=Islam: The Basics |url=https://archive.org/details/islambasics0000turn |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-34106-6}} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1953 |title=Muhammad at Mecca |publisher=Oxford University Press |id=ASIN: B000IUA52A |isbn=978-0-19-577277-7 |title-link=Muhammad at Mecca (book) }} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1956 |title=Muhammad at Medina |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577307-1 |title-link=Muhammad at Medina (book) }} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1961 |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt }} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1964 |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=2756451 |isbn=9780198810780 }} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1974 |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt/page/138 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=United Kingdom |isbn=0-19-881078-4 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |quote= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |date=11 February 2017 }} *{{cite journal |last=Wijdan |first=Ali |date=28 August 1999 |journal=[[Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art]] |title=From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art |pages=1–24 |issue=7}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Willis |editor-first=John Ralph |date=2013 |title=Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Routledge Press|Routledge]] |volume=1 |pages=vii–xi, 3–26 |isbn=978-0-7146-3142-4}} {{refend}} ===Insiklupidia Islam=== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Buhl |first1=F. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |date=1993 |title=Muḥammad |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/muhammad-COM_0780 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=7 |pages=360–376 |isbn=978-90-04-09419-2 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1971 |title=Ḥalīma Bint Abī Ḏh̲uʾayb |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/halima-bint-abi-dhuayb-SIM_2648 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=3 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1960 |title=Āmina |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/amina-SIM_0601 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Abel |first=Armand |date=1960 |title=Baḥīrā |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bahira-SIM_1050 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Arafat |first=W. |date=1960 |title=Bilāl b. Rabāḥ |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bilal-b-rabah-SIM_1412 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wensinck |first1=A.J. |last2=Rippen |first2=A. |date=2002 |title=Waḥy |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/wahy-COM_1331 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=11 }} [[Tumbung:Kalahiran 570]] [[Tumbung:Kamatian 632]] [[Tumbung:Islam]] [[Tumbung:Muhammad]] oypzb05rnhlxupddqmo0ydbalj9sna7 0 31627 113321 106184 2026-08-07T18:41:16Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition|Name=Frambusia|Image=Yaws 01.jpg|Caption=Nodul di siku marga infeksi hayumu ''Treponema pallidum pertenue''|field=[[Infectious disease (medical specialty)|Infectious disease]]|synonyms=frambesia tropica, thymosis, polypapilloma tropicum, parangi, bouba, frambösie,<ref name="Bolognia">{{cite book |vauthors=Rapini RP, Bolognia JL, Jorizzo JL |title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007 |pages= |isbn=1-4160-2999-0 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> pian<ref name="Andrews">{{cite book |vauthors=James WD, Berger TG |title=Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewsdiseaseso0000jame_10ed |publisher=Saunders Elsevier |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0-7216-2921-0 |oclc=62736861 |doi= |accessdate=|display-authors=etal}}</ref>|ICD10={{ICD10|A|66||a|60}}|ICD9={{ICD9|102}}|MedlinePlus=001341|image_size=200px}} '''Puru''' adalah ''[[inféksi]] tropis'' di [[kulimbit]], [[tulang]] wan sunduk tulang nang dipungkalai lawan [[hayumu]] [[spiroket]] ''[[Treponema pallidum]] pertenue''.<ref name=Mit2013>{{cite journal|last=Mitjà O|last2=Asiedu K|last3=Mabey D|title=Yaws|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_march-2-8-2013_381_9868/page/763|journal=Lancet|year=2013|volume=381|issue=9868|pages=763–73|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62130-8|pmid=23415015}}</ref> Panyakit ngini awalnya mulai matan bangkak nang karas wan bulat di kulimbit, nang ukurannya bisa 2 sampai 5 cm.<ref name=Mit2013/> Di tangah bangkaknya kawa buntus nang kaina jadi [[ulkus]].<ref name=Mit2013/> Luka kulimbit awal ini rancak wagas imbah talu sampai anam bulan.<ref name=WHO2014/> Imbah bamiminggu sampai batatahun, sunduk tulang wan tulang kawa ada rasa sakit, [[kauyuhan (médis)|kauyuhan]] kawa bakambang, wan luka kulimbit hanyar hanyar mancungul.<ref name=Mit2013/> Kulimbit talapak tangan wan talapak batis kawa bakandal wan babuka.<ref name=WHO2014/> Tulang (di pahinakan) kawa baubah tagasnya.<ref name=WHO2014/> Imbah lima tahun atawa labih pada nitu, dairah nang ligar di kulimbit kaina mati nang jadi kunat.<ref name=Mit2013/> == Jujuhutan == {{reflist|2}} == Tautan luar == {{commons category|Yaws}} * {{cite web |title=''Treponema pallidum subsp. pertenue'' |work=NCBI Taxonomy Browser |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=168 |id=168}} {{Authority control}} [[Tumbung:Panyakit bakterial]] [[Tumbung:Sifilis]] [[Tumbung:Panyakit infeksi lawan upaya pamusnahan]] 7mf751ygw29a0yh4th5r48vip55993v 0 33801 113323 112797 2026-08-07T18:45:39Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Surgical procedure}} '''Transplantasi paranakan''' adalah prosedur badah rahatan [[paranakan]] nang bigas [[transplantasi organ|ditransplantasiakan]] ka dalam urganisme nang paranakannya [[agenesis Müllerian|kadaada]] atawa bapanyakit. Sabagai bagian matan [[Reproduksi seksual|reproduksi seksual mamalia]] nang nurmal, paranakan nang garing atawa kada mungkin [[Implantasi (embrio manusia)|implantasi]] embrio nang nurmal, nang mampan jadi maulah [[Infertilitas binian|kada subur]] bini. Kajadian ngini dipinandui sabagai faktor uterus absolut [[infertilitas]] (AUFI). Transplantasi paranakan marupakan tatamba nang kawa dijadiakan pilihan gasan bantuk infertilitas ngini. ==Sajarah== === Studi === Rahatan 1896, [[Emil Knauer]] saikung urang Austria baumur 29 tahun nang bagawi di sabuting klinik ginekologi [[Wina]], manarbitakan studi panambaian kisah [[autotransplantasi]] ovarium nang mandukumintasiakan fungsi nurmal di [[kalinci]]. Ihwal ngini nang maulah panalitian kisah transplantasi paranakan rahatan tahun 1918.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Knauer |first=Emil |year=1896 |title=Einige Versuche über Ovarientransplantation bei Kaninchen |trans-title=An attempt at ovary transplantation in rabbits |language=de |journal=Zentralblatt für Gynäkologie |volume=20 |pages=524–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/humupd/3.3.267 |title=Transplantation in reproductive medicine: Previous experience, present knowledge and future prospects |year=1997 |last1=Nugent |first1=D. |journal=Human Reproduction Update |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=267–80 |pmid=9322102 |last2=Meirow |first2=D. |last3=Brook |first3=P. F. |last4=Aubard |first4=Y. |last5=Gosden |first5=R. G.|doi-access=free }}</ref> <!-- originally read: "In 1896 Knauer published the first study of ovarian transplantation and Grigor've that lead to the investigation of uterine autotransplantation in 1918." removed "Grigor've" but the correct name should be added back in with the proper citation. See discussion page under "Grigor've or Grigor'ev?" --> Rahatan tahun 1964 wan 1966, Eraslan, Hamernik wan Hardy, di Pusat Medis [[Universitas Mississippi]] di [[Jackson, Mississippi]], adalah urang nang pamulaan manggawi autotransplantasi paranakan di satua [[Hadupan]] nang imbahnya baranak matan paranakan tadi.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=5948103 |year=1966 |last1=Eraslan |first1=S. |last2=Hamernik |first2=R. J. |last3=Hardy |first3=J. D. |title=Replantation of uterus and ovaries in dogs, with successful pregnancy |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=9–12 |journal=Archives of Surgery |doi=10.1001/archsurg.1966.01320190011002}}</ref> Rahatan tahun 2010, Diaz-Garcia wan kawan bagawinya di Departemen Obstetri wan Ginekologi [[Universitas Gothenburg]] di [[Swedia]], manampaiakan kaya apa transplantasi paranakan [[allotransplantasi|alogenik]] panambaian nang bahasi di dunia di saikung tikus nang imbahnya baisi katurunan nang bigas.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Díaz-García|first1=César|last2=Akhi|first2=Shamima N.|last3=Wallin|first3=Ann|last4=Pellicer|first4=Antonio|last5=Brännström|first5=Mats|title=First report on fertility after allogeneic uterus transplantation|journal=Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica|volume=89|issue=11|pages=1491–1494|doi=10.3109/00016349.2010.520688|pmid=20879912|year=2010|s2cid=1188699|doi-access=free}}</ref> Rahatan tahun 2023, labih pada 100 transplantasi paranakan hudah digaw wan sabanyak 50 bayi hudah diranakakan matan samunyaan dunia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brännström |first1=Mats |last2=Racowsky |first2=Catherine |last3=Richards |first3=Elliott G. |last4=Flyckt |first4=Rebecca |last5=Stillman |first5=Robert J. |last6=O’Brien |first6=Jeanne E. |last7=Ryan |first7=Ginny L. |last8=de Ziegler |first8=Dominique |date=June 2023 |title=Absolute uterine infertility a cornelian dilemma: uterine transplantation or surrogacy? |journal=Fertility and Sterility |language=en |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=918–929 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2023.04.005|doi-access=free |pmid=37037300 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-08-22 |title=Woman receives sister's womb in first UK transplant |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-66514270 |access-date=2023-08-27}}</ref> === Kasus-kasus panting === ==== Jirman ==== Kamungkinan lain di kasus nang jarang ada, saikung urang [[bakalamin dua]] wan [[bibinian transgender]] nang diranakakan lawan kalamin lalakian biar inya [[operasi mangganti kalamin]] nang kawa maulah [[puki]] sakira kawa jadi bibinian, pilihan gasan baisi paranakan kadada gasan buhannya. Artinya buhannya kada kawa batianan wan parlu maambil jalan lain sakira kawa jadi kuitan, bisa mamakai cara tradisiunal nang kaya [[basakian]] atawa cara alternatif nang kaya [[adopsi|maangkat anak]], [[manyumbang sel intalu]], atawa [[Pambawa Gestasional|pambawa batianan]]. Biar nang kaya ngitu, ada sabuting kasus transplantasi paranakan gasan saikung binian transgender nang digawi ulih seniman Denmark [[Lili Elbe]] (1882–1931). <ref name="Kroløkke Petersen Herrmann Bach 2019 p. 154">{{cite book | last1=Kroløkke | first1=C. | last2=Petersen | first2=T.S. | last3=Herrmann | first3=J.R. | last4=Bach | first4=A.S. | last5=Adrian | first5=S.W. | last6=Klingenberg | first6=R. | last7=Petersen | first7=M.N. | title=The Cryopolitics of Reproduction on Ice: A New Scandinavian Ice Age | publisher=Emerald Publishing Limited | series=Emerald Studies in Reproduction, Culture and Society | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-83867-044-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NC-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT154 | access-date=2023-02-22 | page=154}}</ref> Inya manggawi ngini lawan harapan kawa baisi anak lawan gandaknya, inya manggawi operasi transplantasi paranakan ngini rahatan 1931 baimbaian lawan [[vaginoplasty]] di Jirman pas baumur 48 tahun. Tagal imbah operasi nang digawinya tadi, inya timbul takana [[infeksi imbah operasi]] wan mati maraga [[gagal jantung]] talu bulan imbahnya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biography.com/people/lili-elbe-090815|title=Lili Elbe|website=Biography|language=en-us|access-date=2019-02-25}}</ref> ==== Arab Saudi ==== Cacubaan modern panambaian gasan transplantasi paranakan cungul rahatan tahun 2000 di Arab Saudi.<ref name="nytimes-saudi"/> Wafa Fageeh<ref name="nytimes-saudi"/> mantranplantasi paranakan matan pasien baumur 46 tahun kapasien baumur 26 tahun nang paranakannya rusak maraga [[pandarahan]] imbah [[baranak]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1196/annals.1434.003 |title=Uterus Transplant |year=2008 |last1=Nair |first1=Anjana |last2=Stega |first2=Jeanetta |last3=Smith |first3=J. Richard |last4=Del Priore |first4=Giuseppe |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1127 |pages=83–91 |pmid=18443334|s2cid=5100080 }}</ref> Maraga pasien ngini paampihannya parlu banar maangkat paranakannya matan 99 hari. Tagal inya kana [[nekrosis]], lalu balum ada kasapakatan amun operasi ngini kawa disambat sukses atawa kada, biar paranakannya tatap bafungsi sapalihan waktu wan inya masih kawa [[haid]] dua kali. <ref name="nytimes-saudi">{{cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9F01EFDC1230F934A35750C0A9649C8B63 | work=The New York Times | title=Medical First: A Transplant Of a Uterus | first=Denise | last=Grady | date=March 7, 2002}}</ref> Angguta komunitas medis banyak nang baganangan lawan etika prosedur ngini.<ref name="Doi">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1432-2277.2012.01438.x |title=The Montreal Criteria for the Ethical Feasibility of Uterine Transplantation |year=2012 |last1=Lefkowitz |first1=Ariel |last2=Edwards |first2=Marcel |last3=Balayla |first3=Jacques |journal=Transplant International |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=439–47 |pmid=22356169|s2cid=39516819 |doi-access= }}</ref> ==== Turki ==== Transplantasi paranakan nang maumpatakan pandunur nang hudah mati cungul di [[Turki]] pas 9 Agustus 2011; operasi ngini digawi ulih [[Ömer Özkan]] wan Munire Erman Akar di Rumah Sakit [[Universitas Akdeniz]] di [[Antalya]] gasan pasien baumur 21 tahun bangaran Derya Sert nang pas diranakakan kada baisi paranakan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20111010/health-fitness/turkish-woman-has-world-s-first-womb-transplant.388596 |title=Turkish woman has world's first womb transplant |date=10 October 2011 |publisher=timesofmalta.com |access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allvoices.com/contributed-news/9926041-revolutionary-womb-transplant-performed-in-turkey-worlds-first |title=Revolutionary 'Womb Transplant' performed in Turkey - World's First |publisher=Allvoices.com |access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=<!--[if IE 6]> <![endif]--> |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/10/01/169542.html |title=World's first womb transplant in Turkey promises hope for women |publisher=Alarabiya.net |date=2011-10-01 |access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/doctors-hopeful-for-uterus-transplant.aspx?pageID=238&nID=12614&NewsCatID=373 |title=HEALTH - Doctors hopeful for uterus transplant |publisher=Hurriyetdailynews.com |date=2011-09-13 |access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trt-world.com/trtworld/en/newsDetail.aspx?HaberKodu=0222eb41-3a81-41b9-9123-2a256f5f2b31 |title=World's first uterus transplant performed in Turkey/TRT-English |publisher=Trt-world.com |date=2012-02-27 |access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=77268 |title=Turkish surgeons perform world's first uterus transplant &#124; Family & Health |publisher=World Bulletin |access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref> Amun kasus nang ngini, pasien mandapat hasil bagus nang lawas imbah operasi transplantasi paranakan ngini tarasaii haid wan imbah dua tahun inya kawa batianan.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/sci-tech/womb-transplant-recipient-derya-sert-pregnant/story-fn5fsgyc-1226619553524 | agency=AAP | title=Womb transplant recipient Derya Sert pregnant | date=2013-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://shine.yahoo.com/healthy-living/womb-transplant-patient-derya-sert-is-pregnant--confirms-doctor-210119461.html|title=Yahoo Health|date=12 April 2013|access-date=5 October 2014|archive-date=8 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408193320/https://shine.yahoo.com/healthy-living/womb-transplant-patient-derya-sert-is-pregnant--confirms-doctor-210119461.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/worlds-first-uterus-transplant-patient-pregnant-say-doctors.aspx?pageID=238&nID=44790&NewsCatID=373|title=World's first woman with uterus transplant gets pregnant - HEALTH|date=14 April 2013 |access-date=5 October 2014}}</ref> Rahatan batianan, sert malewati [[aborsi]] pas [[batianan|talu bulan batianan]] imbah [[duktur|mantri]]nya kada kawa mandangar [[pakambangan jantung]|bunyi jantung]], tagal ngini komplikasi nang biasa haja wan kadada kaitannya lawan transplantasi.<ref>[http://www.cnnturk.com/2013/turkiye/05/14/derya.sert.bebegini.kaybetti/707890.0/index.html Derya Sert'in gebeliği sonlandırıldı]. CNNTurk.com. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> Imbah batianan pulang maraga [[fertilisasi in vitro]] lawan batianan nang imbahnyaFollowing another pregnancy that was initiated with [[in vitro fertilisation]] wan imbah ditahani parak 28 minggu, pasien paampihannya kawa maranakakan bayinya pas tanggal 4 Juni 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/saglik/kadavradan-rahim-nakli-yapilan-derya-sert-anne-oldu/1890754|title = Kadavradan rahim nakli yapılan Derya Sert anne oldu|trans-title=Derya Sert, receiver of a uterus transplant from a cadaver, has become a mother|date=2020-06-26|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|language=tr}}</ref> ==== Swedia ==== Pas 2012 di [[Swedia]], transplantasi paranakan panambaian matan uma ka anaknya tajadi.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Brännström|first1=Mats|last2=Johannesson|first2=Liza|last3=Dahm-Kähler|first3=Pernilla|last4=Enskog|first4=Anders|last5=Mölne|first5=Johan|last6=Kvarnström|first6=Niclas|last7=Diaz-Garcia|first7=Cesar|last8=Hanafy|first8=Ash|last9=Lundmark|first9=Cecilia|last10=Marcickiewicz|first10=Janusz|last11=Gäbel|first11=Markus|last12=Groth|first12=Klaus|last13=Akouri|first13=Randa|last14=Eklind|first14=Saskia|last15=Holgersson|first15=Jan|last16=Tzakis|first16=Andreas|last17=Olausson|first17=Michael|title=First clinical uterus transplantation trial: a six-month report|journal=Fertility and Sterility|volume=101|issue=5|pages=1228–1236|doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2014.02.024|pmid=24582522|year=2014|doi-access=free}}</ref> Transplantasi ngini digawi ulih [[Duktur|Mantri]] Swedia matan [[Rumah Skit Universitas Sahlgrenska]] di [[Universitas Gothenburg]] dikatuai ulih Mats Brännström.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brännström|first1=Mats|last2=Diaz-Garcia|first2=Cesar|last3=Hanafy|first3=Ash|last4=Olausson|first4=Michael|last5=Tzakis|first5=Andreas|title=Uterus transplantation: animal research and human possibilities|journal=Fertility and Sterility|volume=97|issue=6|pages=1269–1276|doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.04.001|pmid=22542990|year=2012|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brännström|first1=M.|last2=Wranning|first2=C. A.|last3=Altchek|first3=A.|title=Experimental uterus transplantation|journal=Human Reproduction Update|date=7 November 2009|volume=16|issue=3|pages=329–345|doi=10.1093/humupd/dmp049|pmid=19897849|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pas Uktubur 2014, dihabari amun ngini bayi nang bigas pamulaan nang diranakakan matan panarima transplantasi paranakan di dairah nang rahasiakan di [[Swedia]]. Jurnal medis Inggris ''[[The Lancet]]'' mahabarakan bayi lalakian tadi diranakakan di bulan Siptimbir, baratnya 1.8&nbsp;kg (3.9&nbsp;lb) wan abahnya manyambat anaknya "liwar bigasnya". Bayi tadi diranakakan sacara prematur rahatan hudah 32 minggu lawan [[Uparasi Sisar]], imbah umanya bamula kaya takana [[pre-eklampsia]]. Uma matan bayi tranplantasi paranakan ngini baumur 36 tahun, manarima paranakan ngini pas tahun 2013 matan pandunur baumur 61 tahun, di operasi nang di kapalai ulih Brännström nang marupakan profesor Obstetri wan Ginekologi di [[Universitas Gothenburg]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-10-04/woman-has-baby-after-womb-transplant-in-sweden/5790726|title=Woman has healthy baby boy after womb transplant in Sweden|work=ABC News|date=4 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61728-1| pmid = 25301505| title = Livebirth after uterus transplantation| journal = The Lancet| year = 2014| last1 = Brännström | first1 = M. | last2 = Johannesson | first2 = L. | last3 = Bokström | first3 = H. | last4 = Kvarnström | first4 = N. | last5 = Mölne | first5 = J. | last6 = Dahm-Kähler | first6 = P. | last7 = Enskog | first7 = A. | last8 = Milenkovic | first8 = M. | last9 = Ekberg | first9 = J. | last10 = Diaz-Garcia | first10 = C. | last11 = Gäbel | first11 = M. | last12 = Hanafy | first12 = A. | last13 = Hagberg | first13 = H. | last14 = Olausson | first14 = M. | last15 = Nilsson | first15 = L. | volume=385 | issue = 9968| pages=607–616| hdl = 10072/141149 | s2cid = 20244453| hdl-access = free }}</ref> Binian tadi baisi ovarium nang bigas tagal [[Müllerian agenesis|diranakakan kada baisi paranakan]], kaadaan nang mampangaruhi saikung matan 4.500 binian. Prosedurnya mamakai embrio matan laboratorium, diulah matan ovum binian ngini lawan mani lakinya, nang imbahnya di rasukakan kadalam paranakan nang ditransplasikan tadi. Paranakannya bisa haja hudah rusak maraga uparasi sisar wan bisa haja kada kawa lagi amun batianan pulang nang kainanya. The procedure used an embryo from a laboratory, created using the woman's ovum and her husband's sperm, which was then implanted into the transplanted uterus. The uterus may have been damaged in the course of the caesarian delivery and it may or may not be suitable for future pregnancies. Tiga lapis rejimen A regimen of triple imunosupresi dipakai lawan [[takrolimus]], [[azatioprin]], and [[Kortikosteroid]]. Talu rundutan panulak nang lamah cungul, sakali rahatan batianan, tagal barataan kawa haja ditatambai lawan tatamba. Sapalihan binian dihabarakan jua batianan rahatan tuh imbah transplantasi paranakan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-29516910|title=BBC News - Womb transplant couple 'had no doubt' of success|work=BBC News}}</ref> ==== Amerika Sarikat ==== Transplantasi paranakan nang panambaian ada di [[Amerika Sarikat]] cungul pas 24 Pibruari 2016 di [[Klinik Cleveland]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Brie |last=Zeltner |title=Cleveland Clinic introduces nation's first uterus transplant recipient |url=http://www.cleveland.com/healthfit/index.ssf/2016/03/cleveland_clinic_introduces_it.html |work=[[The Plain Dealer]] |date=2016-03-07 |access-date=2016-03-08 }}</ref> Kalumpuk ngini dikapalai ulih Dr Andreas Tzakis. Transplantasi gagal maraga kumplikasi nang dirahasiaakan pas 8 Maret wan paranakannya tadi umpat dipindah jua.<ref>{{cite news |first=Brie |last=Zeltner |title=Nation's first uterus transplant, performed at the Cleveland Clinic, fails |url=http://www.cleveland.com/healthfit/index.ssf/2016/03/nations_first_uterus_transplan.html |work=The Plain Dealer |date=2016-03-09 |access-date=2016-03-10 }}</ref> Rahatan April, buhannya bapadah [[kandidiasis]] hudah manyabar ka sabuting arteri nang mangganii maalirakan darah ka paranakan nang ditransplansiakan, ihwal ngini imbahnya marusak artiri wan maulah darah bagumpal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/09/health/yeast-infectionled-to-removal-of-transplanted-uterus.html |author=Denise Grady |title=Yeast Infection Led to Removal of Transplanted Uterus| work=The New York Times| date=April 8, 2016 |access-date=April 8, 2016}}</ref> Rahatan November 2017, hudah diranakakan bayi nang panambaian matan transplantasi paranakan di Amerika Sarikat.<ref>{{cite news |first=Alexandra |last=Sifferlin |title=First U.S. Baby Born After a Uterus Transplant |url=http://time.com/5044565/exclusive-first-u-s-baby-born-after-a-uterus-transplant/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=2017-12-01 |access-date=2019-03-29 |archive-date=2019-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407050745/http://time.com/5044565/exclusive-first-u-s-baby-born-after-a-uterus-transplant/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Bayi ngini diranakakan di [[Pusta Medis Universitas Baylor]] di Dallas, Texas, ulih Drs Liza Johannesson wan Giuliano Testa, imbah sabuting donasi paranakan matan pandunur hidup nang kada taarah.<ref>{{cite web|title=The first baby in the U.S. born via uterus transplant is here|date=December 2017|url=http://time.com/5044565/exclusive-first-u-s-baby-born-after-a-uterus-transplant/|access-date=9 January 2018|archive-date=8 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108104305/http://time.com/5044565/exclusive-first-u-s-baby-born-after-a-uterus-transplant/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Bayi nang diranakakan matan donor transplantasi paranakan nang hudah maninggal cungul di klinik Cleveland pas bulan Juni 2019.<ref>{{citation |last1=Flyckt |first1=R. |last2=Falcone |first2=T. |last3=Quintini |first3=C. |last4=Perni |first4=U. |last5=Eghtesad |first5=B. |last6=Richards |first6=E.G. |last7=Farrell |first7=R.M. |last8=Hashimoto |first8=K. |last9=Miller |first9=C. |last10=Ricci |first10=S. |last11=Ferrando |first11=C.A. |last12=D'Amico |first12=G. |last13=Maikhor |first13=S. |last14=Priebe |first14=D. |last15=Chiesa-Vottero |first15=A. |last16=Heerema-McKenney |first16=A. |last17=Mawhorter |first17=S. |last18=Feldman |first18=M.K. |last19=Tzakis |first19=A. |display-authors=3 |date=August 2020 |title=First birth from a deceased donor uterus in the United States: from severe graft rejection to successful cesarean delivery |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=223 |issue=2 |pages=143–151 |doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2020.03.001|pmid=32151611 |s2cid=212651317 }}</ref> ==Deskripsi== ===Prosedur=== Transplantasi paranakan dimulai awan uparasi maangkat paranakan pandunur. Cara manggawi ngini ada gasan satua, tamasuk primata wan nang tahanyar nih manusia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Johannesson|first1=Liza|last2=Diaz-Garcia|first2=Cesar|last3=Leonhardt|first3=Henrik|last4=Dahm-Kähler|first4=Pernilla|last5=Marcickiewicz|first5=Janusz|last6=Olausson|first6=Michael|last7=Brännström|first7=Mats|title=Vascular Pedicle Lengths After Hysterectomy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_obstetrics-and-gynecology_2012-06_119_6/page/1219|journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology|volume=119|issue=6|pages=1219–1225|doi=10.1097/AOG.0b013e318255006f|year=2012|pmid=22617587|s2cid=9423625}}</ref><ref name="brannstrom">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmp049 |title=Experimental uterus transplantation |year=2009 |last1=Brännström |first1=M. |last2=Wranning |first2=C. A. |last3=Altchek |first3=A. |journal=Human Reproduction Update |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=329–45 |pmid=19897849|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wranning|first1=C. A.|last2=Akhi|first2=S. N.|last3=Diaz-Garcia|first3=C.|last4=Brännström|first4=M.|title=Pregnancy after syngeneic uterus transplantation and spontaneous mating in the rat|journal=Human Reproduction|date=15 December 2010|volume=26|issue=3|pages=553–558|doi=10.1093/humrep/deq358|pmid=21159686|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Enskog|first1=A.|last2=Johannesson|first2=L.|last3=Chai|first3=D. C.|last4=Dahm-Kahler|first4=P.|last5=Marcickiewicz|first5=J.|last6=Nyachieo|first6=A.|last7=Mwenda|first7=J. M.|last8=Brännström|first8=M.|title=Uterus transplantation in the baboon: methodology and long-term function after auto-transplantation|journal=Human Reproduction|date=2 June 2010|volume=25|issue=8|pages=1980–1987|doi=10.1093/humrep/deq109|pmid=20519250|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dahm-Kähler|first1=Pernilla|last2=Wranning|first2=Caiza|last3=Lundmark|first3=Cecilia|last4=Enskog|first4=Anders|last5=Mölne|first5=Johan|last6=Marcickiewicz|first6=Janusz|last7=El-Akouri|first7=Randa Racho|last8=McCracken|first8=John|last9=Brännström|first9=Mats| display-authors = 8|title=Transplantation of the uterus in sheep: Methodology and early reperfusion events|journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research|volume=34|issue=5|pages=784–793|doi=10.1111/j.1447-0756.2008.00854.x|pmid=18834335|year=2008|s2cid=20055019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wranning|first1=Caiza Almen|last2=El-Akouri|first2=Randa Racho|last3=Lundmark|first3=Cecilia|last4=Dahm-Kahler|first4=Pernilla|last5=Molne|first5=Johan|last6=Enskog|first6=Anders|last7=Brännström|first7=Mats|title=Auto-transplantation of the uterus in the domestic pig (Sus scrofa): Surgical technique and early reperfusion events|journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research|volume=32|issue=4|pages=358–367|doi=10.1111/j.1447-0756.2006.00426.x|pmid=16882260|year=2006|s2cid=8576480}}</ref> Paranakan nang hudah diangkat tadi imbah ngitu disimpan, misalnya gasan diantar ka andak urang nang manarima. The recovered uterus may need to be stored, for example for transportation to the location of the recipient. Studi kisah [[iskemia]] [[Terapi Reperfusi|reperfusi]] dingin manampaiakan amun katahanan iskemia kawa labih pada 24 jam.<ref name=brannstrom/> Panarima kamungkinan parlu maliwati talu uparasi ganal. Pamulaan, inya parlu uparasi transplantasi. Amun kawa batianan sampai handak baranak, inya parlu [[uparasi sisar]]. Imbah panarima digaduh pakai [[imunosupresi|terapi imunosupresi]], habis tu imbah tuntung baranak [[histerektomi]] parlu digawi sakira terapi imunosupresi tadi kawa diampihakan. ==Adab== ===Kriteria Montreal=== Lain pada haraganya, transplantasi paranakan malibatakan [[adab medis]] nang ngalih. Prinsip [[Utunumi]] mangganii kagiatan ngini, sadangkan prinsip ''[[Primum non novere|Nang pamulaan, kada manyakiti]]'' balawan duwa transplantasi paranakan. Amunnya prinsip bamanfaat wan adil malihat kagiatan ngini rarawaian.<ref name="Doi" /> Sakira barataan prinsip tadi baakuran ''"Syarat Montreal gasan transplantasi paranakan nang baik wan baadab"'' dikambangakan di [[Universitas Mcgill]] wan ditarbitakan di ''Transplant International'' pas 2012.<ref name="Doi" /> Kriteria montreal marupakan sagarumbung syarat nang diparluakan amun handak manggawi transplantasi paranakan gasan manusia. Syarat ngini ditampaiakan pas acara Kongres ka-20 Federasi Internasional Ginekologi wan Kabidanan di Roma rahatan Uktubur 2012.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lefkowitz A. |author2=Edwards M. |author3=Balayla J. |title=O081 the Montreal Criteria for the Ethical Feasibility of Uterine Transplantation | year = 2012 | journal = International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics | volume = 119 | issue = Supplement 3| page = S289 | doi = 10.1016/S0020-7292(12)60511-6 |s2cid=76584337 }}</ref> Pas 2013, ''"Syarat Montreal gasan transplantasi paranakan nang baik wan baadab"'' nang hudah dihanyari ditarbitakan di ''[[Fertility and Sterility]]'' wan hudah disaranakan gasan jadi standar internasiunal gasan manggawi transplantasi paranakan nang baik wan baadab.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.05.026 | volume=100 | title=Ethical considerations in the era of the uterine transplant: an update of the Montreal Criteria for the Ethical Feasibility of Uterine Transplantation | year=2013 | journal=Fertility and Sterility | pages=924–926 | author=Lefkowitz Ariel| issue=4 | pmid=23768985 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Syarat gasan kundisi panarima, pandunur, wan buhan nang manggaduh bigasbuhannya isinya: # Panarima marupakan binian asli, nang kawa manantuakan pilihan, nang kada baisi kontradiksi medis gasan transplantasi, baisi panyakit diparanakan nang kada disambuhakan lawan terapi wan baisi "kontradiksi sorang atau legal" gasan pilihan lain nang kaya [[uma gaganti]] atawa [[maangkat anak]]. Panarima parlu dipastiakan kawa jadi kuitan, kawa sacara psikologis ditiring wan panilaian, maasi haja lawan tim medis nang kaina manggaduhnya, wan paham risiku transplantasi tadi. Pas 2021, Syarat Montreal nang hudah dibaiki ditarbitakan di ''Bioethics'' duwa rancangan nang baadab gasan [[Sistem panantuan kalamin XY|urang nang baisi gen XY]] sakira kawa dapat transplantasi paranakan.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/bioe.12832 | volume=35 | title=The Montreal Criteria and uterine transplants in transgender women | year=2021 | journal=Bioethics | pages=326–330 | author1=Balayla J.| author2=Pounds P. |author3=Lasry A.| author4=Volodarsky-Perel A.|author5=Gil A.|issue=4 | pmid=33550647| s2cid=231862917 }}</ref> # The donor is a female of reproductive age with no contraindication to the procedure who has concluded her childbearing or consented donating her uterus after her death. There is no coercion and the donor is responsible and capable of making informed decisions. # The health care team belongs to an institution that meets Moore's third criterion<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moore FD| title=Ethical problems special to surgery: surgical teaching, surgical innovation, and the surgeon in managed care|journal=Arch Surg |year=2000 |volume=135 | issue=1|pages=14–16 |doi=10.1001/archsurg.135.1.14| pmid=10636340|doi-access=}}</ref> regarding institutional stability and has provided informed consent to both parties. There is no conflict of interests, and anonymity can be protected unless recipient or donor waive this right. ==Jujuhatan== {{reflist}} kdj63fopsjgse7mzeu80vgfqwuxz1uz 0 34901 113358 98827 2026-08-08T06:11:00Z Wadaihangit 12694 + tag gabung artikel 113358 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Gabung|Sungai Polantan}} '''Sungai Pulatan''' atawa '''Sungai Polantan''' adalah sungai nang kaandakannya ada di di Jalan A. Yani KM 24, Gang Agrabudi, Kalurahan Landasan Ulin Tengah, Kacamatan Liang Anggang, Kuta Banjarbaru.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sering Banjir, Tahun Ini PUPR Menyiring dan Normalisasi Sungai Pulantan|url=https://banjarbaruklik.com/sering-banjir-tahun-ini-pupr-menyiring-dan-normalisasi-sungai-pulantan/|access-date=2024-10-12}}</ref> == Ukuran == '''Sungai Pulatan''' atawa '''Sungai Polantan''' baisi ukuran panjang sungai '''2,23 Km''', libar '''5 M''', wan kadalamannya '''2 M.'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=KalselPedia - Ada Sebanyak 53 Sungai di Kota Banjarbaru, Berikut Rincian Nama Sungai dan Ukurannya|url=https://banjarmasin.tribunnews.com/2021/01/06/kalselpedia-ada-sebanyak-53-sungai-di-kota-banjarbaru-berikut-rincian-nama-sungai-dan-ukurannya|website=Banjarmasinpost.co.id|language=id-ID|access-date=2024-10-12}}</ref> == Jujuhutan == <references /> jw3ngigquay587o5shicoydxkp3uvlv 0 35490 113350 113167 2026-08-07T19:36:33Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113350 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tanaman bakambang''', '''Angiospermae''', '''Angiosperma''', atawa '''Anthophyta''' ("tanaman kambang") atawa '''Magnoliophyta''' ("tanaman sapadingsanak lawan [[:id:Magnolia|magnolia]]") adalah garumbung pangganalnya [[:id:Tumbuhan|tanaman]] nang hidup di [[:id:Daratan|daratan]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=McGraw-Hill Dictionary of biology|last=Parker|first=Sybil, P|date=1984|publisher=McGraw-Hill Company|url-status=live}}</ref> Ngarannya diambil matan panciri nang paling has, yaitu mahasilakan urgan [[:id:Reproduksi|reproduksi]] dalam tagas kambang. Kambang sabujurannya adalah [[:id:Rekayasa_genetik|modifikasi]] daun wan batang gasan mandukung sistim pambuahan tatabun. Sistim pambuahan tatabun ngini juwa manjadi ciri hasnya nang lain, sehingga garumbung ngini dipinandui juwa sawagai '''Angiospermae''' ("babigi tapundut/takalimbun"). Ciri nang pauncitan ngini nang maulah lain pada garumbung [[:id:Tumbuhan_berbiji|tanaman babigi]] ('''Spermatophyta''') nang lain: [[tanaman babigi taungkai]] (Gymnospermae). Ngrana '''Angiospermae''' dijuhut matan pangambangan dua kata [[:id:Bahasa_Yunani_Kuno|bahasa Yunani Kuno]]: αγγειον (''aggeion'', "penyangga" atawa "pelindung") wan σπερμα (''sperma'', tagas jamak gasan "biji") nang diperkenalkan lawan [[:id:Paul_Hermann|Paul Hermann]] pada tahun [[:id:1690|1690]]. Dalam sebagian besar sistem taksonomi modern, garumbung ngini sekarang menempati [[:id:Takson|takson]] sebagai [[:id:Divisio|divisio]]. Namun, [[:id:Sistem_klasifikasi_APG_II|Sistem klasifikasi APG II]] wan pelanjutnya, [[:id:Sistem_klasifikasi_APG_III|Sistem klasifikasi APG III]], nang matan pengelompokan filogeni versi [[:id:APG|APG]], Tanaman bakambang ditempatkan dalam suatu [[:id:Klad|klad]] nang tidak menempati suatu takson wan dinamakan '''Angiospermae'''. == Anatomi pembuluh == [[Berkas:Stem-histology-cross-section-tag.svg|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Stem-histology-cross-section-tag.svg|jmpl|Sayatan melintang batang Tanaman bakambang [[:id:Flax|flax]]: 1. [[:id:Sumsum|Sumsum]]{{br}} 2. [[:id:Protoxilem|Protoxilem]]{{br}} 3. [[:id:Xilem|Xilem]] I{{br}} 4. [[:id:Floem|Floem]] I{{br}} 5. [[:id:Sklerenkim|Sklerenkim]] ([[:id:Serat_semak|serat semak]]){{br}} 6. [[:id:Korteks_(botani)|Korteks]]{{br}} 7. [[:id:Epidermis|Epidermis]]]] == Sajarah evolusi == ''[[:id:Montsechia_vidalii|Montsechia vidalii]]'', tanaman air nang ditemukan di [[:id:Spanyol|Spanyol]], telah diidentifikasi sebagai Tanaman bakambang tertua, nang tumbuh sekitar 130 juta tahun lalu, lawan fosil matan zaman [[:id:Kapur|Kapur]]. Dalam pemeriksaan ulang lebih matan 1.000 fosil, para ilmuwan menyimpulkan bahwa tanaman ngini sudah mampu menghasilkan buah sederhana, suatu sifat dasar nang mendefinisikan angiosperma, wan kemungkinan menghasilkan kambang jantan wan betina pada tanaman terpisah. Mengingat habitatnya nang berada di perairan, penemuan ngini menunjukkan bahwa penyerbukan air mungkin lebih penting dalam evolusi kambang matanpada nang pernah diperkirakan sebelumnya.<ref>{{cite web|last=Petruzzello|first=Melissa|title=Ancient Aquatic Plant Thought to Be the Earliest Angiosperm|url=http://www.britannica.com/popular-topics/story/earliest-known-flowering-plant-discovered|website=[[Britannica online]]|accessdate=4 September 2015}}</ref> {{citation needed span|''[[Amborella]]'' dianggap sebagai [[Tumbuhan berbunga purba|tumbuhan berbunga paling purba]] yang dianggap sudah berada selama 130 juta tahun yang lalu hingga saat ini.}}Selain itu, [[:id:Nymphaeales|Nymphaeales]] wan [[:id:Austrobaileyales|Austrobaileyales]] juga dianggap purba wan dilainakan matan Tanaman bakambang modern. == Panciri == Tanaman bakambang dilainakan matan garumbung lain matan [[:id:Kladistika|apomorfi]] (panciri terwariskan) nang khas dikembangkan lawan garumbung ngini. Kabanyakan panciri ngini baandakan pada bagian reproduktif. Barikut adalah panciri nitu: * Kambang : Kambang jadi penciri nang paling nyata wan membedakannya matan garumbung tanaman babigi nang lain. kambang membantu garumbung tanaman ngini memperluas kemampuan [[:id:Evolusi|evolusi]] wan [[:id:Lungkang|lungkang]] (ruang prasyarat hidup atawa ''niche'') [[:id:Ekologi|ekologisnya]] sehingga membuatnya sangat sesuai gasan hidup di daratan. * Benang sari : [[:id:Stamen|Stamen]] atawa benang sari jauh lebih ringan matanpada [[:id:Organ|organ]] lawan fungsi serupa pada tanaman babigi terbuka (yaitu [[:id:Strobilus|strobilus]]). Benang sari telah berevolusi gasan dapat beradaptasi lawan [[:id:Penyerbukan|penyerbuk]] wan gasan mencegah [[:id:Pembuahan|pembuahan]] sendiri. Adaptasi ke arah ngini juga memperluas jangkauan ruang hidupnya. * Ukuran gametofit jantan sangat tereduksi : [[:id:Gametofit|Gametofit]] jantan nang sangat tereduksi (berada dalam [[:id:Serbuk|serbuk]] sari wan hanya terdiri matan tiga [[:id:Sel_(biologi)|sel]]) sangat membantu mengurangi waktu antara [[:id:Penyerbukan|penyerbukan]], di saat serbuk sari mencapai organ betina, wan [[:id:Pembuahan|pembuahan]]. Selang waktu normal antara kedua tahap nitu biasanya 12-24 jam. Pada [[:id:Gymnospermae|Gymnospermae]] waktu nang diperlukan gasan hal nitu dapat mencapai setahun. * Karpela menutup rapat bakal biji : [[:id:Karpela|Karpela]] atawa daun buah rapat membungkus [[:id:Bakal_biji|bakal biji]] atawa ovulum, sehingga mencegah pembuahan nang tidak diinginkan. Sel sperma akan dikontrol lawan [[:id:Putik|putik]] gasan membuahi [[:id:Sel_telur|sel telur]] (''ovum''). Setelah pembuahan, [[:id:Karpela|karpela]] wan beberapa jaringan di sekitarnya juga akan berkembang manjadi [[:id:Buah|buah]]. Buah berfungsi adaptif lawan melindungi biji matan [[:id:Perkecambahan|perkecambahan]] nang tidak diinginkan wan membantu proses penyebaran ke wilayah nang lebih luas. * Ukuran gametofit betina sangat tereduksi : Sebagaimana pada gametofit jantan, ukuran gametofit betina juga sangat berkurang manjadi hanya tujuh sel wan terlindung dalam [[:id:Bakal_biji|bakal biji]]. Ukuran nang mengecil ngini membantu mempercepat perkembangan hidup tanaman. Hanya garumbung Angiospermae nang memiliki perilaku [[:id:Tumbuhan_semusim|semusim]] dalam proses kehidupannya. Perilaku ngini membuatnya sangat mudah menjelajah lungkang nang jauh lebih luas. * Endosperma : Pemtagasan [[:id:Endosperma|endosperma]] pada biji adalah ciri khas Angiospermae nang sangat mendukung adaptasi karena melengkapi [[:id:Embrio_(tumbuhan)|embrio]] atawa [[:id:Kecambah|kecambah]] lawan cadangan makanan dalam perkembangannya. Endosperma secara [[:id:Fisiologi_tumbuhan|fisiologis]] juga memperkuat daya serap biji akan hara nang diperlukan tanaman muda dalam perkembangannya. == Klasifikasi == [[Berkas:Monocot_vs_dicot_crop_Pengo.jpg|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Monocot_vs_dicot_crop_Pengo.jpg|jmpl|230x230px|Kecambah [[:id:Monokotil|monokotil]] (kiri) wan [[:id:Dikotil|dikotil]].]] Pada awalnya, ngaranAngiospermae dimaksudkan lawan Paul Hermann (1690) bagi seluruh Tanaman bakambang lawan biji nang terbungkus dalam kapsula, wan dipertentangkan lawan Gymnospermae sebagai Tanaman bakambang lawan buah ''achene'' atawa berkarpela terbelah. Dalam pengertiannya, keseluruhan buah atawa bagannya dianggap sebagai biji wan "terbuka". Kedua istilah ngini dipakai lawan [[:id:Carolus_Linnaeus|Carolus Linnaeus]] lawan pengertian nang sama tetapi digunakan sebagai nama-nama matan kelas Didynamia. Ketika [[:id:Robert_Brown|Robert Brown]] pada tahun [[:id:1827|1827]] menemukan bakal biji nang benar-benar terbuka (tak terlindung) pada [[:id:Sikas|sikas]] wan [[:id:Tumbuhan_runjung|tanaman runjung]], ia memberikan ngaranGymnospermae bagi kedua garumbung tanaman ngini. Tahun [[:id:1851|1851]] [[:id:Wilhelm_Hofmeister|Wilhelm Hofmeister]] menemukanperubahan-perubahan nang terjadi pada [[:id:Kantung_embrio|kantung embrio]] matan Tanaman bakambang ([[:id:Penyerbukan|penyerbukan]] berganda). Hasil penemuan ngini manjadikan Gymnospermae sebagai kelas nang benar-benar berbeda matan dikotil, wan istilah Angiospermae mulai diterapkan gasan semua tanaman babigi nang bukan kedua garumbung nang disebutkan Robert Brown. Pengertian terakhir nginilah nang masih bertahan hingga sekarang. Dalam sistem taksonomi modern, garumbung Tanaman bakambang ditempatkan pada berbagai takson. Selain Angiospermae, garumbung ngini disebut juga lawan '''Anthophyta''' ("tanaman kambang"). [[:id:Sistem_Wettstein|Sistem Wettstein]] wan [[:id:Sistem_Engler|Sistem Engler]] menempatkan Angiospermae pada tingkat sub[[:id:Divisio|divisio]]. [[:id:Sistem_Reveal|Sistem Reveal]] memasukkan semua Tanaman bakambang dalam subdivisio [[:id:Magnoliophytina|Magnoliophytina]], namun pada edisi lanjut memisahkannya manjadi [[:id:Magnoliopsida|Magnoliopsida]], [[:id:Liliopsida|Liliopsida]], wan [[:id:Rosopsida|Rosopsida]]. [[:id:Sistem_Takhtajan|Sistem Takhtajan]] wan [[:id:Sistem_klasifikasi_Cronquist|sistem Cronquist]] memasukkan garumbung ngini ke dalam tingkat divisio lawan ngaranMagnoliophyta. [[:id:Sistem_Dahlgren|Sistem Dahlgren]] wan [[:id:Sistem_Thorne_(1992)|sistem Thorne (1992)]] menggunakan ngaranMagnoliopsida wan meletakkannya pada tingkat kelas. Saat ngini, sistem klasifikasi nang paling akhir, seperti [[:id:Sistem_APG|sistem APG]] (1998) wan [[:id:Sistem_APG_II|sistem APG II]] (2003), tidak lagi manjadikannya sebagai satu garumbung takson tersendiri melainkan sebagai suatu [[:id:Klade|klade]] tanpa ngaran[[:id:Nama_botani|botani]] resmi lawan ngaranAngiospermae (sistem ngini menggunakan nama-nama bahasa Inggris atawa diinggriskan gasan nama-nama tidak resmi). === Pembagian internal (taksonomi) === Klasifikasi internal garumbung ngini mengalami banyak perubahan. [[:id:Sistem_klasifikasi_Cronquist|Sistem klasifikasi Cronquist]] (1981) masih banyak dipakai tetapi mulai dipertanyakan keakuratannya matan sisi [[:id:Filogeni|filogeni]] terutama karena bertentangan lawan hasil-hasil penyelidikan [[:id:Biologi_molekular|molekular]]. Kesepakatan umum tentang bagaimana Tanaman bakambang digarumbungkan mulai tercapai sejak hasil "[[:id:Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group|Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]" (APG) dikeluarkan pada tahun [[:id:1998|1998]], lalu diperbaharui berturut-turut pada tahun [[:id:2003|2003]], 2012, wan 2016 sebagai [[:id:Sistem_klasifikasi_APG_II|Sistem klasifikasi APG II]], [[:id:Sistem_klasifikasi_APG_III|Sistem klasifikasi APG III]], wan [[:id:Sistem_klasifikasi_APG_IV|Sistem klasifikasi APG IV]]. Sistem klasifikasi Cronquist membagi Tanaman bakambang manjadi dua garumbung: [[:id:Magnoliopsida|Magnoliopsida]] wan [[:id:Liliopsida|Liliopsida]]. ngaranpemeri lain nang diizinkan dalam Pasal 16 [[:id:ICBN|ICBN]] adalah [[:id:Dicotyledoneae|Dicotyledoneae]] (dikotil) wan [[:id:Monocotyledoneae|Monocotyledoneae]] (monokotil) atas dasar sejarah wan menunjukkan satu ciri cukup mudah gasan diamati meskipun tidak selalu demikian: tanaman dikotil memiliki dua [[:id:Kotiledon|daun lembaga]] sedangkan tanaman monokotil memiliki satu daun lembaga. Sistem APG, nang menggunakan konsep [[:id:Kladistika|kladistika]] wan banyak memakai [[:id:Metode_pengelompokan_(statistika)|metode pengelompokan]] [[:id:Statistika|statistika]] (''clustering'') serta memasukkan data-data molekular, mendapati bahwa monokotil merupakan garumbung [[:id:Filogeni|monofiletik]] atawa holofiletik, wan menamakannya ''[[:id:Monocotyledoneae|Monokotil]]'' (tagas jamak matan ''monocot''), tetapi dikotil ternyata tidak demikian (disebut sebagai garumbung bersifat [[:id:Parafiletik|parafiletik]]). Meskipun demikian terdapat garumbung besar dikotil nang monofiletik nang dinamai ''[[:id:Eudikotil|Eudikotil]]'' atawa ''tricolpates''. ngaran''Eudikotil'' berarti "dikotil sejati" karena menunjukkan panciri nang biasa dinyatakan sebagai ciri khas dikotil, seperti kambang lawan empat atawa lima [[:id:Petal|mahkota kambang]] wan empat atawa lima [[:id:Sepal|kelopak kambang]]. Sisa matan pemisahan ngini, nang tetap parafiletik, biasa dinamakan sebagai ''[[:id:Paleodicots|paleodicots]]'' (''paleo-'' berarti "purba" atawa "kuno") gasan kemudahan penyebutan. Penyelidikan menggunakan filogeni nang menggunakan data-data molekular hingga sekarang telah menemukan delapan garumbung utama pada Tanaman bakambang, yaitu ''[[:id:Monokotil|Monokotil]]'', ''[[:id:Eudikotil|Eudikotil]]'', [[:id:Amborellaceae|Amborellaceae]], [[:id:Nymphaeales|Nymphaeales]], [[:id:Austrobaileyales|Austrobaileyales]], [[:id:Chloranthales|Chloranthales]], [[:id:Ceratophyllales|Ceratophyllales]], wan '''[[:id:Magnoliids|magnoliids]]'''.<!--Berikut adalah hubungan di antara ke delapan kelompok ini: {| align="left" style="text-align:left; padding:2.5px; background:#eef" |- |{{clade| style=font-size:75%;line-height:75% |label1=Angiospermae |1={{clade |1=''[[Amborella]]'' |2=[[Nymphaeales]] |3=[[Austrobaileyales]] |4={{clade |label1=Mesangiospermae |1={{clade |1=[[Chloranthaceae]] |2=[[magnoliids]] |3=''[[Ceratophyllum]]'' |4=[[Monokotil]] |5=[[Eudikotil]]--> == Parian lawan jenis wan manpaat == [[Berkas:Asteracea_poster_3.jpg|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Asteracea_poster_3.jpg|jmpl|Sebuah poster berupa duabelas spesies kambang berbeda matan familia ''Asteraceae'']] [[Berkas:Lupinus-pilosus-2015-Zachi-Evenor-cropped01.jpg|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Lupinus-pilosus-2015-Zachi-Evenor-cropped01.jpg|jmpl|''[[:id:Lupinus_pilosus|Lupinus pilosus]]'']] [[Berkas:Rose_bud.jpg|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Rose_bud.jpg|jmpl|[[:id:Kuncup|Kuncup]] matan sebuah [[:id:Bunga|kambang]] merah muda]] [[:id:Spesies|Jenis]] Tanaman bakambang diperkirakan berkisar antara 250.000 hingga 400.000 nang dapat digarumbungkan hingga paling sedikit 402 [[:id:Familia|suku]] (matan taksiran dalam Sistem APG II). Sistem APG 1998 menyatakan terdapat 462 suku. Monokotil mencakup sekitar 23% matan keseluruhan spesies wan "dikotil sejati" (''Eudikotil'') mencakup 75% matan keseluruhan spesies. Sepuluh besar suku tanaman menurut banyaknya jenis adalah sebagai berikut: # [[:id:Asteraceae|Asteraceae]] atawa Compositae (suku [[:id:Kenikir|kenikir]]-kenikiran): 23.600 jenis # [[:id:Orchidaceae|Orchidaceae]] (suku [[:id:Anggrek|anggrek]]-anggrekan): 21.950 # [[:id:Fabaceae|Fabaceae]] atawa Leguminosae (suku [[:id:Polong|polong]]-polongan): 19.400 # [[:id:Rubiaceae|Rubiaceae]] (suku [[:id:Kopi|kopi]]-kopian): 13.183 # [[:id:Poaceae|Poaceae]], Glumiflorae, atawa Gramineae (suku [[:id:Rumput|rumput]]-rumputan): 10.035 # [[:id:Lamiaceae|Lamiaceae]] atawa Labiatae (suku [[:id:Nilam|nilam]]-nilaman): 7.173 # [[:id:Euphorbiaceae|Euphorbiaceae]] (suku [[:id:Kastuba|kastuba]]-kastubaan): 5.735 # [[:id:Cyperaceae|Cyperaceae]] (suku [[:id:Teki|teki]]-tekian): 4.350 # [[:id:Malvaceae|Malvaceae]] (suku [[:id:Kapas|kapas]]-kapasan): 4.225 # [[:id:Araceae|Araceae]] (suku [[:id:Talas|talas]]-talasan): 4.025 Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae wan Araceae adalah monokotil. Kesepuluh suku di atas mencakup beragam jenis tanaman penting dalam kehidupan manusia, baik dalam bidang [[:id:Pertanian|pertanian]], [[:id:Kehutanan|kehutanan]] maupun [[:id:Industri|industri]]. Suku rumput-rumputan jelas merupakan suku terpenting karena menghasilkan berbagai sumber energi [[:id:Pangan|pangan]] bagi manusia wan [[:id:Peternakan|ternak]] matan [[:id:Padi|padi]], [[:id:Gandum|gandum]], [[:id:Jagung|jagung]], [[:id:Jelai|jelai]], [[:id:Haver|haver]], [[:id:Jewawut|jewawut]], [[:id:Tebu|tebu]], serta [[:id:Sorgum|sorgum]]. Suku polong-polongan menempati tempat terpenting kedua, sebagai sumber [[:id:Protein|protein]] nabati wan [[:id:Sayuran|sayuran]] utama wan berbagai peran budaya lain (kayu, pewarna, wan racun). Suku nilam-nilaman beranggotakan banyak tanaman penghasil [[:id:Minyak_atsiri|minyak atsiri]] wan bahan [[:id:Tumbuhan_obat|obat-obatan]]. Beberapa suku penting lainnya dalam kehidupan manusia adalah * [[:id:Solanaceae|Solanaceae]] (suku [[:id:Terong|terong]]-terongan), sebagai sumber pangan penting terutama sayuran. * [[:id:Cucurbitaceae|Cucurbitaceae]] (suku [[:id:Labu|labu]]-labuan), sebagai sumber sayuran penting. * [[:id:Brassicaceae|Brassicaceae]] atawa Cruciferae (suku [[:id:Sawi-sawian|sawi-sawian]]), sebagai sumber sayuran wan minyak pangan penting. * [[:id:Alliaceae|Alliaceae]] (suku [[:id:Bawang|bawang]]-bawangan), sebagai sumber sayuran bumbu penting * [[:id:Piperaceae|Piperaceae]] (suku [[:id:Sirih|sirih]]-sirihan), sebagai sumber rempah-rempah penting. * [[:id:Arecaceae|Arecaceae]] atawa Palmae (suku [[:id:Pinang|pinang]]-pinangan), sebagai pendukung kehidupan penting masyarakat agraris daerah tropika. * [[:id:Rutaceae|Rutaceae]] (suku [[:id:Jeruk|jeruk]]-jerukan), [[:id:Rosaceae|Rosaceae]] (suku mawar-mawaran), wan [[:id:Myrtaceae|Myrtaceae]] (suku jambu-jambuan) banyak menghasilkan buah-buahan penting. Tanaman bakambang juga manjadi pemasok sumberdaya alam dalam tagas [[:id:Kayu|kayu]], [[:id:Kertas|kertas]], serat (misalnya [[:id:Kapas|kapas]], [[:id:Kapuk|kapuk]], [[:id:Henep|henep]], [[:id:Sisal|sisal]], [[:id:Serat_manila|serat manila]]), obat-obatan ([[:id:Digitalis|digitalis]], [[:id:Kamfer|kamfer]]), [[:id:Tumbuhan_hias|tanaman hias]] (ruangan maupun terbuka), wan berbagai daftar panjang kegunaan lain. == Jujuhutan == <references responsive="0"></references> == Bacaan lanjutan == * {{cite book|title=An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/integratedsystem0000cron_x8b6|last=Cronquist|first=Arthur|publisher=Columbia Univ. Press|year=1981|ISBN=0-231-03880-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/floweringplantfa0000unse|title=Flowering Plant Families of the World|author=Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O.|publisher=Firefly Books|year=2007|isbn=1-55407-206-9|edition=|location=Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada}} * {{cite journal|last1=Dilcher|first1=D.|year=2000|title=Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2000-06-20_97_13/page/7030|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=97|issue=13|pages=7030|doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030}} * Simpson, M.G. ''Plant Systematics'', 2nd Edition. Elsevier/Academic Press. 2010. * Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman. 2004. * Sattler, R. 1973. ''Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas''. University of Toronto Press. == Pranala luar == {{Commons category|Magnoliophyta}} {{Wikispecies|Magnoliophyta}} {{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Magnoliophyta}} * Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Dr. Harmut H. [http://www.biologie.fu-berlin.de/sysbot/poster/poster1.pdf Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster{{spaced ndash}} Flowering Plant Systamatics] * Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). [http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/12.16/angiosperms.html "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030714120417/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/12.16/angiosperms.html|date=2003-07-14}}. Harvard University Gazette. * Watson, L. and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). [http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio/ The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607053426/http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio/|date=2007-06-07}} * {{eol|282}} {{Klasifikasi tumbuhan}}{{Plantae}}{{Angiospermae}}{{Kehidupan di Bumi}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q25314}}{{Authority control}} c3twxi5qa5hr6a4cxul1s68s0xk6l0b 0 35737 113336 102080 2026-08-07T19:08:32Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Pilek | Image = Rhinovirus.PNG | Caption = Tatampaian pamukaan molékul matan sabuting varian virus [[rhinovirus]]. | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|00|0|j|00}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|460}} | DiseasesDB = 31088 | MedlinePlus = 000678 | eMedicineSubj = | eMedicineTopic = | eMedicine_mult = {{EMedicine2|med|2339}} | MeshID = D003139 }} <!-- Definisi dan gejala --> '''Salisma''', dipinandui jua duwa ngaran '''nasofaringitis''', '''rinofaringitis''', '''koriza bangat''', marupakan [[panyakit manjangkit]] nang disababakan [[virus]] di [[sistem pahinakan]] nang rancak manyarang [[hidung]].<ref name=CE11>{{cite journal | last = Arroll |first = B | title = Common cold | journal = Clinical evidence | volume = 2011 | issue = 3 | page = 1510 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21406124 | doi = | pmc = 3275147|quote=Common colds are defined as upper respiratory tract infections that affect the predominantly nasal part of the respiratory mucosa }} {{open access}}</ref> [[Rakungan]], [[Sinus paranasal|sinus]], wan [[laring|kutak alun]] kawa jua tapangaruh.<ref name=CMAJ2014/> Tanda wan gajala pinanya cungul kurang matan dua ari imbah tajangkit.<ref name=CMAJ2014>{{cite journal|last1=Allan|first1=GM|last2=Arroll|first2=B|title=Prevention and treatment of the common cold: making sense of the evidence.|journal=CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association |date=18 February 2014|volume=186|issue=3|pages=190–9|pmid=24468694|doi=10.1503/cmaj.121442|pmc=3928210}}</ref> Tandanya nang kaya [[batuk]], [[sakit rakungan]], [[rhinorrhea]], [[wahin]], sakit kapala, wan [[ladar]].<ref name=CDC2015/><ref name=Eccles2005>{{cite journal | author = Eccles R | title = Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza | journal = Lancet Infect Dis | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = 718–25 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16253889 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X }}</ref> Urang nang salismaan rancak bigas imbah pitung hinggan sapuluh ari.<ref name=CDC2015/> Sapalih gajala kawa jua hinggan talu ahad.<ref name=Heik2003>{{cite journal |vauthors=Heikkinen T, Järvinen A | title = The common cold |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-01-04_361_9351/page/51 | journal = Lancet | volume = 361 | issue = 9351 | pages = 51–9 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12517470 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12162-9 }}</ref> Sapalihan urang nang baisi masalah kabigasan nang lain, [[pneumonia|paru-paru basah]] bahanu bakambang.<ref name=CDC2015/> <!-- Penyebab, diagnosis dan patofisiologi --> Ada labih pada 200 strain virus nang taumpat jadi panyabab salismaan; [[rhinovirus]] adalah nang paling rancak.<ref name=CDC2015Full>{{cite web|title=Common Cold and Runny Nose|url=http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/community/for-patients/common-illnesses/colds.html|website=CDC|accessdate=4 February 2016|format=17 April 2015}}</ref> Inya manyabar di udara asal ada tasantuk lawan urang nang tajangkit wan sacara kada langsung manyabar matan banda-banda di lingkungan nang diumpati bapindahnya virus tadi ka muntung atawa hidung.<ref name=CDC2015/> Faktor risiko tamasuk tulak ke [[andak maanah anak]], kada guring bujur-bujur, wan [[stres psikologis]].<ref name=CMAJ2014/> Gajala sapalihan ganal maraga respon kakabalan awak ka infeksi pada karusakan jaringan ulih virus surang.<ref name=E112>Eccles p. 112</ref> Penderita [[influenza]] rancak ada gajala nang kaya urang salisma, tagal gajalanya tabangat amun urang influenza.<ref name=CMAJ2014/> ==Jujuhutan== [[Tumbung:Panyakit]] dkipept3r7bd2gu7lh8y5c50punen5d 3 35850 113319 101217 2026-08-07T17:25:45Z Leaderboard 14785 Leaderboard maugahakan laman [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Kiki Si Jejaka Idaman]] ka [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Mr. Always Right]]: Sacara utumatis mamindahakan laman wayah mangganti ngaran pamakai "[[Special:CentralAuth/Kiki Si Jejaka Idaman|Kiki Si Jejaka Idaman]]" manjadi "[[Special:CentralAuth/Mr. Always Right|Mr. Always Right]]" 101217 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="vertical-align:top; border:1px solid #abf5d5; background-color:#f1fcf5; padding: .5em .5em .2em .5em " ! 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Pian kada usah takutan tasalah wayah mambabak atawa maulah laman hanyar, manambahakan atawa mahapus kalimat.<p>[[Wikipidia:Pambakal|Pambakal]] wan bubuhan [[Wikipidia:Wikipidiawan|pamakai]] lainnya nang maitihi [[Istimiwa:Perubahan terbaru|paubahan pahanyarnya]] cagar lakas mandapatakan kasalahan Pian wan mambulikakannya nangkaya halam/samula/panambayan.</p> </div> |} : '''''Welcome!''' If you are not an Banjarese speaker, you may want to visit the [[Wikipidia:Kadutaan|Banjarese Wikipedia embassy]] or [[Wikipedia:Babel/bjn-0|a slight info to find users speaking your language]]. 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Enjoy!'' : '''Salamat manjalajah''', kami mahadangi babakan Pian di [[Wikipidia basa Banjar]]! |} a85xirgipuc4d5zensbv64or1haa3a7 0 37778 113334 113206 2026-08-07T19:06:54Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{inuse}} {{short description|Abnormal change in size of the lymph nodes}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Limfadenopati | synonyms = Buragan, Kebagusan | image = CT of axillary lymphadenopathy - annotated.jpg | caption = limfadenopati aksila di lakian baumur 57 tahun duwa Sel mieloma. | field = [[Infectious disease (medical specialty)|Infectious disease]], [[oncology]] | symptoms = [[Fever]]; Hard, fixed, rapidly growing nodes, indicating a possible cancer or [[lymphoma]]; night sweats; [[runny nose]]; [[sore throat]] | vocations = | onset = | duration = | types = | causes = Infections; autoimmune diseases; [[malignancies]]; [[histiocytoses]]; storage diseases; benign hyperplasia; drug reactions | risks = [[Back pain]]; [[constipation]]; urinary frequency | diagnosis = [[CT scan]]; [[MRI scan]]; [[ultrasound]] | differential = | prevention = | treatment = | medication = | prognosis = | frequency = | deaths = }} '''Limfadenopati''' atawa '''adenopati''' dipinandui jua lawan ngaran '''buragan''' atawa '''kebagusan''' adalah [[panyakit]] [[Kelenjar getah bening|gatah bening]] nang maulah ukuran wan konsistensinya kada nurmal. Lymphadenopathy of an [[inflammation|inflammatory]] type (the most common type) is '''lymphadenitis''',<ref>{{DorlandsDict|five/000061907|lymphadenitis}}</ref> producing [[swelling (medical)|swollen]] or enlarged lymph nodes. In clinical practice, the distinction between lymphadenopathy and lymphadenitis is rarely made and the words are usually treated as [[synonym]]ous. Inflammation of the [[lymphatic vessel]]s is known as [[lymphangitis]].<ref>{{DorlandsDict|five/000061959|lymphangitis}}</ref> Infectious lymphadenitis affecting [[Cervical lymph nodes|lymph nodes in the neck]] is often called [[tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis|scrofula]]. Lymphadenopathy is a common and nonspecific [[medical sign|sign]]. Common causes include [[infection]]s (from minor causes such as the [[common cold]] and post-vaccination swelling to serious ones such as [[HIV/AIDS]]), [[autoimmune disease]]s, and [[cancer]]. Lymphadenopathy is frequently [[idiopathy|idiopathic]] and self-limiting. ==Causes== [[File:Retroperitoneal lymphadenopathy of testicular seminoma, 1 50, CT image.svg|thumb|[[Retroperitoneal space|Retroperitoneal]] lymphadenopathies of testicular [[seminoma]] embrace the [[aorta]]. [[CT scan|Computed tomography]] image.]] Lymph node enlargement is recognized as a common sign of infectious, autoimmune, or malignant disease. Examples may include: * Reactive: acute [[infection]] (e.g., [[bacterial]], or [[virus|viral]]), or chronic infections ([[tuberculous lymphadenitis]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fontanilla |first1=JM|last2=Barnes|first2=A|last3=Von Reyn|first3=CF|title=Current diagnosis and management of peripheral tuberculous lymphadenitis|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=555–562 |date=September 2011|pmid=21865192|doi=10.1093/cid/cir454|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[cat-scratch disease]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klotz |first1=SA|last2=Ianas|first2=V|last3=Elliott|first3=SP|title=Cat-scratch Disease|journal=American Family Physician|volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=152–155 |year=2011|pmid=21243990|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2011/0115/p152.html}}</ref>). ** The most distinctive sign of [[bubonic plague]] is extreme swelling of one or more lymph nodes that bulge out of the skin as "buboes". The buboes often become [[Necrosis|necrotic]] and may even rupture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=T|title=Plague into the 21st century|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2009-09-01_49_5/page/736 |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=736–742 |year=2009|pmid=19606935|doi=10.1086/604718|doi-access=free}}</ref> ** [[Infectious mononucleosis]] is an acute viral infection usually caused by [[Epstein-Barr virus]] and may be characterized by a marked enlargement of the [[cervical lymph nodes]].<ref name="Benign lymphadenopathy"/> ** It is also a sign of [[cutaneous anthrax]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sweeney |first1=DA|last2=Hicks|first2=CW|last3=Cui|first3=X|last4=Li|first4=Y|last5=Eichacker|first5=PQ|title=Anthrax infection|journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine|volume=184 |issue=12 |pages=1333–1341 |date=December 2011|pmid=21852539|doi=10.1164/rccm.201102-0209CI |pmc=3361358}}</ref> and human [[African trypanosomiasis]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=PG|title=Clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)|journal=Lancet Neurology|volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=186–194 |date=February 2013|pmid=23260189|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70296-X|s2cid=8688394}}</ref> ** [[Toxoplasmosis]], a [[parasitic disease]], gives a generalized lymphadenopathy (''Piringer-Kuchinka lymphadenopathy'').<ref name=Status/> ** [[Castleman's disease|Plasma cell variant of Castleman's disease]] - associated with [[HHV-8]] infection and [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus|HIV]] infection<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=TU|last2=Kim|first2=S|last3=Lee|first3=JW|last4=Lee|first4=NK|last5=Jeon|first5=UB|last6=Ha|first6=HG|last7=Shin|first7=DH|title=Plasma cell type of Castleman's disease involving renal parenchyma and sinus with cardiac tamponade: case report and literature review|journal=Korean Journal of Radiology|volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=658–663 |date=September–October 2012|pmid=22977337|doi=10.3348/kjr.2012.13.5.658 |pmc=3435867}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=H|last2=Wang|first2=R|last3=Wang|first3=H|last4=Xu|first4=Y|last5=Chen|first5=J|title=Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis in Castleman's disease: a systematic review of the literature and 2 case reports|journal=Internal Medicine (Tokyo, Japan)|volume=51 |issue=12 |pages=1537–1542 |date=June 2012|pmid=22728487|doi=10.2169/internalmedicine.51.6298|doi-access=free}}</ref> ** Mesenteric lymphadenitis after viral systemic infection (particularly in the [[Gut-associated lymphoid tissue|GALT]] in the appendix) can commonly present like [[appendicitis]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bratucu |first1=E|last2=Lazar|first2=A|last3=Marincaş|first3=M|last4=Daha|first4=C|last5=Zurac|first5=S|title=Aseptic mesenteric lymph node abscesses. In search of an answer. A new entity?|journal=Chirurgia (Bucarest, Romania: 1990)|volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=152–160 |date=March–April 2013|pmid=23618562|url=http://revistachirurgia.ro/pdfs/2013-2-152.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leung |first1=A|last2=Sigalet|first2=DL|title=Acute Abdominal Pain in Children|journal=American Family Physician|volume=67 |issue=11 |pages=2321–2327 |date=June 2003|pmid=12800960|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2003/0601/p2321.html}}</ref> Infectious causes of lymphadenopathy may include bacterial infections such as [[cat scratch disease]], [[tularemia]], [[brucellosis]], or [[prevotella]], as well as fungal infections such as [[paracoccidioidomycosis]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cordova |first1=LA |last2=Torres |first2=J |title=Paracoccidioidomycosis|journal=StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL) |date=19 September 2022 |pmid=33085335}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marques |first1=Sílvio Alencar |title=Paracoccidioidomycosis |journal=Clinics in Dermatology |date=1 November 2012 |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=610–615 |doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2012.01.006 |pmid=23068148 }}</ref> * [[Tumoral]]: ** Primary: [[Hodgkin lymphoma]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glass |first1=C|title=Role of the Primary Care Physician in Hodgkin Lymphoma|journal=American Family Physician|volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=615–622 |date=September 2008|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2008/0901/p615.html |pmid=18788239}}</ref> and [[non-Hodgkin lymphoma]] give lymphadenopathy in all or a few lymph nodes.<ref name=Status>Status and anamnesis, Anders Albinsson. Page 12</ref> ** Secondary: [[metastasis]], [[supraclavicular lymph nodes|Virchow's node]], [[neuroblastoma]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colon|first1=NC|last2=Chung|first2=DH|title=Neuroblastoma|journal=Advances in Pediatrics|volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=297–311 |year=2011|pmid=21736987|doi=10.1016/j.yapd.2011.03.011 |pmc=3668791}}</ref> and [[chronic lymphocytic leukemia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sagatys|first1=EM|last2=Zhang|first2=L|title=Clinical and laboratory prognostic indicators in chronic lymphocytic leukemia|journal=Cancer Control|volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=18–25|date=January 2011|pmid=22143059|doi=10.1177/107327481201900103|doi-access=free}}</ref> * [[Autoimmune]]: [[systemic lupus erythematosus]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Melikoglu |first1=MA|last2=Melikoglu|first2=M|title=The clinical importance of lymphadenopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus|journal=Acta Reumatologia Portuguesa|volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=402–406 |date=October–December 2008|pmid=19107085|url=http://www.actareumatologica.pt/oldsite/conteudo/pdfs/ARP_2008_4_402_07__AR_-_Lymphadenopathy.pdf}}</ref> and [[rheumatoid arthritis]] may have a generalized lymphadenopathy.<ref name=Status/> * Immunocompromised: [[AIDS]]. Generalized lymphadenopathy is an early sign of infection with [[human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV), the virus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lederman |first1=MM|last2=Margolis|first2=L|title=The lymph node in HIV pathogenesis|journal=Seminars in Immunology|volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=187–195 |date=June 2008|pmid=18620868|doi=10.1016/j.smim.2008.06.001 |pmc=2577760}}</ref> "Lymphadenopathy syndrome" has been used to describe the first symptomatic stage of [[HIV]] progression, preceding a diagnosis of AIDS. * Bites from certain [[venomous snake]]s such as the [[pit viper]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quan|first1=D|title=North American poisonous bites and stings|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_critical-care-clinics_2012-10_28_4/page/633|journal= [[Critical Care Clinics]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=633–659 |date=October 2012|pmid=22998994|doi=10.1016/j.ccc.2012.07.010}}</ref> * Unknown: [[Kikuchi disease]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Komagamine |first1=T|last2=Nagashima|first2=T|last3=Kojima|first3=M|last4=Kokubun|first4=N|last5=Nakamura|first5=T|last6=Hashimoto|first6=K|last7=Kimoto|first7=K|last8=Hirata|first8=K|title=Recurrent aseptic meningitis in association with Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease: case report and literature review|journal=BMC Neurology|volume=12 |pages=187–195 |date=September 2012|pmid=23020225|doi= 10.1186/1471-2377-12-112 |pmc=3570427|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[progressive transformation of germinal centers]], [[sarcoidosis]], [[Castleman's disease|hyaline-vascular variant of Castleman's disease]], [[Rosai-Dorfman disease]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Noguchi |first1=S|last2=Yatera|first2=K|last3=Shimajiri|first3=S|last4=Inoue|first4=N|last5=Nagata|first5=S|last6=Nishida|first6=C|last7=Kawanami|first7=T|last8=Ishimoto|first8=H|last9=Sasaguri|first9=Y|last10=Mukae|first10=H|title=Intrathoracic Rosai-Dorfman disease with spontaneous remission: a clinical report and a review of the literature|journal=The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=227 |issue=3|pages=231–235 |year=2012|pmid=22789970|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/tjem/227/3/227_231/_pdf |doi=10.1620/tjem.227.231|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Kawasaki disease]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=PF|title=Pediatric vasculitis|journal=Pediatric Clinics of North America|volume=59 |issue=2|pages=407–423|date=April 2012|pmid=22560577|doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2012.03.013 |pmc=3348547}}</ref> [[Kimura disease]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koh |first1=H|last2=Kamiishi|first2=N|last3=Chiyotani|first3=A|last4=Takahashi|first4=H|last5=Sudo|first5=A|last6=Masuda|first6=Y|last7=Shinden|first7=S|last8=Tajima|first8=A|last9=Kimura|first9=Y|last10=Kimura|first10=T|title=Eosinophilic lung disease complicated by Kimura's disease: a case report and literature review|journal=Internal Medicine (Tokyo, Japan)|volume=51 |issue=22|pages=3163–3167|date=April 2012|pmid=23154725|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/internalmedicine/51/22/51_51.8600/_pdf|doi=10.2169/internalmedicine.51.8600|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref> ===Benign (reactive) lymphadenopathy=== {{visible anchor|Benign}} lymphadenopathy is a common biopsy finding, and may often be confused with [[malignant lymphoma]]. It may be separated into major [[morphologic pattern]]s, each with its own [[differential diagnosis]] with certain types of lymphoma. Most cases of [[reactive follicular hyperplasia]] are easy to diagnose, but some cases may be confused with [[follicular lymphoma]]. There are seven distinct patterns of benign lymphadenopathy:<ref name="Benign lymphadenopathy" /> * [[Follicular hyperplasia]]: This is the most common type of reactive lymphadenopathy.<ref name="Benign lymphadenopathy">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=LM|last2=O'Malley|first2=D|title=Benign lymphadenopathies|journal=Modern Pathology|volume=26 |issue=Supplement 1 |pages=S88–S96 |year=2013|pmid=23281438|doi=10.1038/modpathol.2012.176|doi-access=free}}</ref> * [[Paracortical hyperplasia]]/[[Interfollicular hyperplasia]]: It is seen in viral infections, skin diseases, and nonspecific reactions. * [[Sinus histiocytosis]]: It is seen in lymph nodes draining limbs, inflammatory lesions, and malignancies. * [[Nodal extensive necrosis]] * Nodal [[granulomatous inflammation]] * Nodal extensive [[fibrosis]] (Connective tissue framework) * [[Nodal deposition of interstitial substance]] These [[morphological pattern]]s are never pure. Thus, reactive follicular hyperplasia can have a component of paracortical hyperplasia. However, this distinction is important for the [[differential diagnosis]] of the cause. ==Diagnosis== [[File:Ultrasonography of a normal lymph node.jpg|thumb|[[Medical ultrasonography]] of a typical normal lymph node: smooth, gently lobulated oval with a hypoechoic cortex measuring less than 3 mm in thickness with a central echogenic hilum.<ref name=Dialani2014>{{cite journal|last1=Dialani|first1=V.|last2=James|first2=D. F.|last3=Slanetz|first3=P. J.|title=A practical approach to imaging the axilla|journal=Insights into Imaging|volume=6|issue=2|year=2014|pages=217–229|issn=1869-4101|doi=10.1007/s13244-014-0367-8|pmid=25534139|pmc=4376818}} Creative Commons attribution license</ref>]] [[File:Ultrasonography of a suspected malignant lymph node.jpg|thumb|Ultrasonography of a suspected malignant lymph node:<br>- Absence of the fatty hilum<br>- Increased focal cortical thickness greater than 3 cm<br>- [[Doppler ultrasonography]] that shows hyperaemic blood flow in the hilum and central cortex and/or abnormal (non-hilar cortical) blood flow.<ref name=Dialani2014/>]] In [[cervical lymphadenopathy]] (of the [[neck]]), it is routine to perform a [[throat examination]] including the use of a [[head mirror|mirror]] and an [[endoscope]].<ref name="Balmvan Velthuysen2010">{{cite journal|last1=Balm|first1=A. J. M.|last2=van Velthuysen|first2=M. L. F.|last3=Hoebers|first3=F. J. P.|last4=Vogel|first4=W. V.|last5=van den Brekel|first5=M. W. M.|title=Diagnosis and Treatment of a Neck Node Swelling Suspicious for a Malignancy: An Algorithmic Approach|journal=International Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=2010|year=2010|pages=1–8|issn=2090-1402|doi=10.1155/2010/581540|pmid=22312490|pmc=3265261|doi-access=free}}</ref> On [[medical ultrasonography|ultrasound]], [[Medical ultrasound#Modes|B-mode imaging]] depicts lymph node morphology, whilst [[power Doppler]] can assess the vascular pattern.<ref name="Ahuja2008">{{cite journal|last1=Ahuja|first1=A.T.|title=Ultrasound of malignant cervical lymph nodes|journal=Cancer Imaging|volume=8|issue=1|year=2008|pages=48–56|issn=1470-7330|doi=10.1102/1470-7330.2008.0006|pmid=18390388|pmc=2324368}}</ref> B-mode imaging features that can distinguish [[metastasis]] and [[lymphoma]] include size, shape, calcification, loss of [[Hilum of lung|hilar]] architecture, as well as intranodal necrosis.<ref name="Ahuja2008"/> Soft tissue edema and nodal matting on B-mode imaging suggests [[tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis]] or previous [[radiation therapy]].<ref name="Ahuja2008"/> Serial monitoring of nodal size and vascularity are useful in assessing treatment response.<ref name="Ahuja2008"/> [[Fine-needle aspiration|Fine-needle aspiration cytology]] (FNAC) has [[sensitivity and specificity]] percentages of 81% and 100%, respectively, in the [[histopathology]] of malignant cervical lymphadenopathy.<ref name="Balmvan Velthuysen2010"/> [[PET-CT]] has proven to be helpful in identifying occult primary carcinomas of the head and neck, especially when applied as a guiding tool prior to panendoscopy, and may induce treatment related clinical decisions in up to 60% of cases.<ref name="Balmvan Velthuysen2010"/> ===Classification=== Lymphadenopathy may be classified by: * Size, where lymphadenopathy in adults is often defined as a short axis of one or more lymph nodes greater than 10&nbsp;mm.<ref name="GaneshalingamKoh2009"/> * Extent: ** ''Localized lymphadenopathy'': due to localized spot of infection; e.g., an infected spot on the scalp will cause lymph nodes in the neck on that same side to swell up [[File:স্থানীয় লিম্ফঅ্যাডিনোপ্যাথি.jpg|thumb|Inflammatory localized lymphadenopathy at right mandibular angle]] ** [[Generalized lymphadenopathy]]: due to a systemic infection of the body; e.g., influenza or secondary [[syphilis]] *** [[Persistent generalized lymphadenopathy]] (PGL): persisting for a long time, possibly without an apparent cause * Localization: ** [[Tracheobronchial lymph nodes|Hilar lymphadenopathy]]. ** [[Mediastinal lymphadenopathy]] ** [[Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy]] * [[Dermatopathic lymphadenopathy]]: lymphadenopathy associated with skin disease. * Malignancy: [[#Benign|Benign lymphadenopathy]] is distinguished from malignant types which mainly refer to [[lymphoma]]s or lymph node [[metastasis]]. ====Size==== [[File:Long and short axis.png|120px|right]] [[File:Dermatopathic lymphadenopathy - low mag.jpg|thumb|[[Micrograph]] of [[dermatopathic lymphadenopathy]], a type of lymphadenopathy. [[H&E stain]].]] * Size, where lymphadenopathy in adults is often defined as a short axis of one or more lymph nodes greater than 10&nbsp;mm.<ref name="GaneshalingamKoh2009"/><ref name="Schmidt JúniorRodrigues2007"/> However, there is regional variation as detailed in this table: {|class="wikitable" |+[[cutoff (value)|Upper limit]] of lymph node sizes in adults |- | Generally || 10&nbsp;mm<ref name="GaneshalingamKoh2009">{{cite journal|last1=Ganeshalingam|first1=Skandadas|last2=Koh|first2=Dow-Mu|title=Nodal staging|journal=Cancer Imaging|volume=9|issue=1|pages=104–111|year=2009|issn=1470-7330|doi=10.1102/1470-7330.2009.0017|pmid=20080453|pmc=2821588}}</ref><ref name="Schmidt JúniorRodrigues2007">{{cite journal|last1=Schmidt Júnior|first1=Aurelino Fernandes|last2=Rodrigues|first2=Olavo Ribeiro|last3=Matheus|first3=Roberto Storte|last4=Kim|first4=Jorge Du Ub|last5=Jatene|first5=Fábio Biscegli|title=Distribuição, tamanho e número dos linfonodos mediastinais: definições por meio de estudo anatômico|journal=Jornal Brasileiro de Pneumologia|volume=33|issue=2|year=2007|pages=134–140|issn=1806-3713|doi=10.1590/S1806-37132007000200006|pmid=17724531|doi-access=free}}</ref> |- | Inguinal || 10<ref name=Torabi2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Torabi M, Aquino SL, Harisinghani MG | title = Current concepts in lymph node imaging | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nuclear-medicine_2004-09_45_9/page/1509 | journal = Journal of Nuclear Medicine | volume = 45 | issue = 9 | pages = 1509–18 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15347718 }}</ref> – 20&nbsp;mm<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/838/diagnosis/step-by-step.html|title=Assessment of lymphadenopathy|website=[[BMJ Best Practice]]|access-date=2017-03-04}} Last updated: Last updated: Feb 16, 2017</ref> |- | [[Pelvis]] || 10&nbsp;mm for ovoid lymph nodes, 8&nbsp;mm for rounded<ref name=Torabi2004/> |- !colspan=2|[[Neck]] |- | Generally (non-retropharyngeal) || 10&nbsp;mm<ref name=Torabi2004/><ref name=Saba2016>[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7v1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA432 Page 432] in: {{cite book|title=Image Principles, Neck, and the Brain|author=Luca Saba|publisher=CRC Press|year=2016|isbn=9781482216202}}</ref> |- | [[Jugulodigastric lymph node]]s || 11&nbsp;mm<ref name=Torabi2004/> or 15&nbsp;mm<ref name=Saba2016/> |- | Retropharyngeal || 8&nbsp;mm<ref name=Saba2016/> * Lateral retropharyngeal: 5&nbsp;mm<ref name=Torabi2004/> |- !colspan=2|[[Mediastinum]] |- | [[Mediastinum]], generally || 10&nbsp;mm<ref name=Torabi2004/> |- | Superior mediastinum and high paratracheal || 7&nbsp;mm<ref name="SharmaFidias2004"/> |- | Low paratracheal and subcarinal || 11&nbsp;mm<ref name="SharmaFidias2004">{{cite journal|last1=Sharma|first1=Amita|last2=Fidias|first2=Panos|last3=Hayman|first3=L. Anne|last4=Loomis|first4=Susanne L.|last5=Taber|first5=Katherine H.|last6=Aquino|first6=Suzanne L.|title=Patterns of Lymphadenopathy in Thoracic Malignancies|journal=RadioGraphics|volume=24|issue=2|year=2004|pages=419–434|issn=0271-5333|doi=10.1148/rg.242035075|pmid=15026591|s2cid=7434544}}</ref> |- !colspan=2| Upper abdominal |- | Retrocrural space || 6&nbsp;mm<ref name="DorfmanAlpern1991">{{cite journal|last1=Dorfman|first1=R E|last2=Alpern|first2=M B|last3=Gross|first3=B H|last4=Sandler|first4=M A|title=Upper abdominal lymph nodes: criteria for normal size determined with CT.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_radiology_1991-08_180_2/page/319|journal=Radiology|volume=180|issue=2|year=1991|pages=319–322|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiology.180.2.2068292|pmid=2068292}}</ref> |- | Paracardiac || 8&nbsp;mm<ref name="DorfmanAlpern1991"/> |- | Gastrohepatic ligament || 8&nbsp;mm<ref name="DorfmanAlpern1991"/> |- | Upper paraaortic region || 9&nbsp;mm<ref name="DorfmanAlpern1991"/> |- | Portacaval space || 10&nbsp;mm<ref name="DorfmanAlpern1991"/> |- | Porta hepatis || 7&nbsp;mm<ref name="DorfmanAlpern1991"/> |- | Lower paraaortic region || 11&nbsp;mm<ref name="DorfmanAlpern1991"/> |} Lymphadenopathy of the [[axillary lymph node]]s can be defined as solid nodes measuring more than 15&nbsp;mm without fatty hilum.<ref name=dahnert2011>[https://books.google.com/books?id=uYREa2bKNW8C&pg=PA559 Page 559] in: {{cite book|title=Radiology Review Manual|url=https://archive.org/details/radiologyreviewm0000dhne|author=Wolfgang Dähnert|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2011|isbn=9781609139438}}</ref> Axillary lymph nodes may be normal up to 30&nbsp;mm if consisting largely of fat.<ref name=dahnert2011/> In children, a short axis of 8&nbsp;mm can be used.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nmpI1bLGCV4C&pg=PA942 Page 942] in: {{cite book|title=High Yield Imaging Gastrointestinal HIGH YIELD in Radiology|author=Richard M. Gore, Marc S. Levine|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2010|isbn=9781455711444}}</ref> However, inguinal lymph nodes of up to 15&nbsp;mm and cervical lymph nodes of up to 20&nbsp;mm are generally normal in children up to age 8–12.<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Patient UK]]|url=http://patient.info/doctor/generalised-lymphadenopathy|title=Generalised Lymphadenopathy|author=Laurence Knott|access-date=2017-03-04}} Last checked: 24 March 2014</ref> Lymphadenopathy of more than 1.5–2&nbsp;cm increases the risk of [[cancer]] or [[granulomatous disease]] as the cause rather than only [[inflammation]] or [[infection]]. Still, an increasing size and persistence over time are more indicative of cancer.<ref name="pmid12484692">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bazemore AW, Smucker DR | title = Lymphadenopathy and malignancy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2002-12-01_66_11/page/2103 | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 66 | issue = 11 | pages = 2103–10 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12484692 }}</ref> ==See also== * [[Adenitis]] * [[Lymphovascular invasion]] {{Clear}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.humpath.com/spip.php?article13820 HPC:13820] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602060509/http://www.humpath.com/spip.php?article13820 |date=2012-06-02 }} on humpath.com (Digital slides) {{Medical resources | ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|88||i|80}}, {{ICD10|L|04||l|00}}, {{ICD10|R|59|1|r|50}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|289.1}}-{{ICD9|289.3}}, {{ICD9|683}}, {{ICD9|785.6}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 001301 | eMedicineSubj = ped | eMedicineTopic = 1333 | DiseasesDB = 22225 | MeshID = D008206 }} {{Lymphatic organ disease}} {{Bacterial cutaneous infections}} [[Category:Cytopathology]] [[Category:Inflammations]] [[Category:Diseases of veins, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes]] + tete643h1i7d7bceiprvlchsmyt5gu6 0 38080 113330 113202 2026-08-07T18:59:02Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Stub}}[[Berkas:Dampfturbine Montage01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Sebuah [[turbin uap]] dengan selubung terbuka, contoh dari [[teknologi energi]]|alt=Foto para teknisi yang sedang mengerjakan sebuah turbin uap]] '''Teknulugi''' adalah panarapan pangatahuan kunseptual gasan mancapai tujuan praktis, tautama lawan cara nang kawa direpruduksi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Skolnikoff |first=Eugene B. |year=1993 |title=The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/elusivetransform0000skol |chapter=The Setting |page=[https://archive.org/details/elusivetransform0000skol/page/13 13] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=0-691-08631-1 |jstor=j.ctt7rpm1 |quote=Saya menemukan definisi konseptual yang paling berguna untuk studi ini adalah yang diberikan oleh Harvey Brooks, yang mendefinisikan teknologi{{nbsp}}...sebagai 'pengetahuan tentang cara memenuhi tujuan manusia tertentu dengan cara yang dapat ditentukan dan direproduksi.'}}</ref> Kata ''teknulugi'' juga kawa bamakna pruduk nang dihasilakan ulih usaha nitu,<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|pages=117–118}}: "Kutub pertama, yaitu naturalisasi disiplin baru dalam kurikulum universitas, dipresentasikan oleh Christian Wolff pada tahun 1728, dalam Bab III "Wacana Pendahuluan" untuk karyanya ''{{lang|la|Philosophia rationalisis sive Logica}}'': 'Teknologi adalah ilmu tentang keterampilan dan karya keterampilan, atau, jika lebih disukai, ilmu tentang hal-hal yang dibuat oleh tenaga manusia, terutama melalui penggunaan tangannya.'"</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mitcham |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Mitcham |year=1994 |title=Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkingthrought0000mitc_c3c2 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=0-226-53196-1}}</ref> mancakup baik [[alat]] nang bawujud kaya pakakas atawa mesen, maupun nang kadada bawujud kaya piranti lambik. Teknulugi mamainakan paran krusial dalam [[sains]], [[rekayasa|rikayasa]], lawan [[kehidupan sehari-hari|kahidupan sehari-hari]].<ref>{{Cite web| title=The roles of science and technology in national development | url=https://directresearchpublisher.org/drjsses/files/2016/12/Anaeto-et-al1.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320172737/https://directresearchpublisher.org/drjsses/files/2016/12/Anaeto-et-al1.pdf | archive-date=2023-03-20}}</ref> Kamajuan teknulugi sudah mamicu paubahan signifikan dalam masyarakat. Teknulugi paling pamulaan nang dikatahui adalah [[alat batu]], nang digunaakan salama masa [[prasejarah]], diumpati ulih [[pengendalian api]] nang pada masa barikutnya barkuntribusi pada [[Ukuran otak|pertumbuhan]] [[otak manusia|utak manusia]] lawan parkambangan [[bahasa|basa]] salawas [[Pleistosen|Zaman is]], manurut [[hipotesis memasak]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. {{!}} Thiru Murugan |url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/thiru-murugan-1b362b31a_snsinstitutions-snsdesignthinkers-designthinking-activity-7239857452509278208-7b_e |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> Panamuan [[roda|ruda]] tikas [[Zaman Perunggu]] mamungkinakan parjalanan nang labih jauh lawan panciptaan mesen nang labih kumpleks. Panamuan teknulugi nang labih hanyar, tamasuk [[mesin cetak|mesin citak]], tilipon, lawan [[Internet]], sudah manurunakan hambatan kumunikasi lawan maantarakan kita pada [[ekonomi pengetahuan]]. Meskipun teknologi berkontribusi terhadap [[pembangunan ekonomi]] dan meningkatkan [[kemakmuran]] manusia, teknologi juga dapat menimbulkan dampak negatif seperti [[polusi]] dan [[penipisan sumber daya]], serta dapat menyebabkan kerugian sosial seperti [[pengangguran teknologi]] akibat [[otomatisasi]]. Akibatnya, perdebatan filosofis dan [[Politik dan teknologi|politik]] mengenai peran dan penggunaan teknologi, [[etika teknologi]], serta cara-cara untuk memitigasi dampak buruknya terus berlangsung.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373932-2.00027-2 |chapter=Technology, Ethics of |title=Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics |date=2012 |last1=Braunack-Mayer |first1=A.J. |last2=Street |first2=J.M. |last3=Palmer |first3=N. |pages=321–327 |isbn=978-0-12-373932-2 }}</ref> == Asal usul sambatan == ''Teknulugi'' adalah sambatan nang baasal matan [[Renaisans|pamulaan abad ka-17]] nang bamakna 'parlakuan sistimatis' (matan [[Bahasa Yunani Kuno|basa Yunani]] {{lang|grc|Τεχνολογία}}.''<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |author1-link=Henry Liddell |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |author2-link=Robert Scott (philologist) |title=Greek-English Lexicon |title-link=Greek-English Lexicon |edition=Abridged |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |orig-date=1891 |isbn=0-19-910205-8 |oclc=38307662}}</ref>''<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=technology |encyclopedia=The Oxford English Dictionary |editor1-last=Simpson |editor1-first=J. |editor2-last=Weiner |editor2-first=Edmund |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-19-861186-8}}</ref> Sambatan ngini didahului panggunaannya ulih kata [[Bahasa Yunani Kuno|Yunani Kuno]] {{wikt-lang|grc|τέχνη}} ({{transliteration|grc|tékhnē}}), nang digunaakan gasan mangartiakan 'pangatahuan parihal cara maulah sasuatu', nang mancakup aktivitas kaya arsitiktur.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |author-link=Aristotle |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Lesley |translator-last=Ross |translator-first=David |year=2009 |title=The Nicomachean Ethics |page=105 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-921361-0 |lccn=2009005379 |oclc=246896490 |series=Oxford World's Classics}}</ref> Bamula matan abad ka-19, urang Erupa kontinental mulai manggunakan sambatan {{lang|de|Technik}} (basa Jerman) atawa {{lang|fr|technique}} (basa Prancis) gasan manunjuk pada 'cara malakukan', nang mancakup samunyaan seni teknis, kaya manari, navigasi, atawa parcitakan, kada luput papda ngitu ialah hal nang mamarluakan alat atawa instrumen.{{Sfn|Salomon|1984|pages=114–115}} Pada saat ngitu, {{lang|de|Technologie}} (bahasa Jerman lawan Prancis) marujuk pada disiplin akademis nang mampalajari "mitude seni lawan kriya", atawa pada disiplin pulitik nang "dimaksutakan gasan maulah undang-undang parihal fungsi seni lawan kriya." {{Sfn|Salomon|1984|page=117}} Parbidaan antara {{lang|de|Technik}} dan {{lang|de|Technologie}} kada tadapat matan basa Inggris, sahingga kaduanya ditarjamahkan sabagai ''technology''. Sambatan nitu sabalumnya kada umum dalam basa Inggris lawan sabahagian ganalnya marujuk pada disiplin akademis, kaya sambatan [[Institut Teknologi Massachusetts]].<ref name=jstor40061169>{{Cite journal |last=Schatzberg |first=Eric |year=2006 |title="Technik" Comes to America: Changing Meanings of "Technology" before 1930 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_technology-and-culture_2006-07_47_3/page/486 |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=486–512 |doi=10.1353/tech.2006.0201 |jstor=40061169 |s2cid=143784033 |issn=0040-165X }}</ref> Abad ka-20, sabagai hasil matan [[Kemajuan|Kamajuan ilmiah]] lawan [[Revolusi Industri Kedua|Rivolusi Industri Kadua]], ''teknulugi'' barhanti dianggap kaya disiplin akademis nang tapisah lawan maambil makna: panggunaan pangatahuan sacara sistemik gasan tujuan praktis.<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|page=119}}: "Dengan adanya revolusi industri dan peran penting Inggris di dalamnya, kata teknologi kehilangan maknanya sebagai subjek atau inti dari suatu cabang pendidikan, karena awalnya dalam bahasa Inggris dan kemudian dalam bahasa lain, kata ini merangkum semua aktivitas teknis yang didasarkan pada penerapan sains untuk tujuan praktis."</ref> == Sejarah == === Prasejarah === [[Berkas:Faustkeil Nachbau, 2020 PD a-7.jpg|thumb|Seseorang yang sedang memegang sebuah [[kapak genggam]]|alt=lihat keterangan]] Pakakas pada panambaiannya dikambangkan ulih [[hominid]] malalui pangamatan sarta mitude cucubaan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiffer |first=M. B. |title=The Archaeology of Science |chapter=Discovery Processes: Trial Models |year=2013 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |series=Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory and Technique |volume=9 |pages=185–198 |place=Heidelberg |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |isbn=978-3-319-00077-0 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184259/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |url-status=live }}</ref> Sakira 2 [[Tahun#Singkatan th dan jl|jtl]] (juta tahun lalu), inya balajar manciptakan pakakas batu pamulaan lawan cara mamacah sarpihan matan batu karikil, sahingga mambantuk [[kapak genggam|kapak ganggam]] nang tajam.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |author=The British Museum |title=Our earliest technology? |url=https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902015829/https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=smarthistory.org}}</ref> Praktek ngini disampurnaakan matan 75 rtl (ribu tahun lalu) manjadi [[pemangkasan tekan|pamangkasan tekan]], nang mamungkinkan pangerjaan nang jauh labih kecet.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minogue |first=K. |date=28 October 2010 |title=Stone Age Toolmakers Surprisingly Sophisticated |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=science.org |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910174555/https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated }}</ref> [[Penemuan api|Panamuan api]] dideskripsikan ulih [[Charles Darwin]] sabagai "mungkin [panamuan] tarhibat nang suah dilakuakan ulih manusia".<ref>{{cite book | last=Crump | first=Thomas | title=A Brief History of Science | year=2001 | publisher=[[Constable & Robinson]] | isbn=978-1-84119-235-2 | page=9}}</ref> Bukti arkeolugis, pula makan, lawan susial manunjukakan adanya "panggunaan api [ulih manusia] sacara barkalanjutan" satidaknya matan 1,5 jtl.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gowlett |first1=J. A. J. |last2=Wrangham |first2=R. W. |date=1 March 2013 |title=Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=5–30 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754 |s2cid=163033909 |issn=0067-270X}}</ref> Api, nang dinyalaakan lawan kayu lawan [[arang]], mamungkinakan manusia purba mamasak makanan inya gasan maningkatakan kanyamanan parutnya, mamparbaiki nilai gizinya, sarta mamparbanyak janis bahan pangan nang kawa dikunsumsi.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Stahl | first= Ann B. | author-link= Ann B. Stahl | year=1984 | title=Hominid dietary selection before fire | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_1984-04_25_2/page/151 | journal=[[Current Anthropology]] | volume=25 | pages= 151–68 | doi=10.1086/203106 | issue=2 | jstor=2742818| s2cid= 84337150 }}</ref> ''[[Pengendalian api oleh manusia purba#Hipotesis memasak|Hipotesis memasak]]'' maajuakan gagasan bahwa kamampuan mamasak mandurung paningkatan [[ukuran otak|ukuran utak]] hominid, maskipun babarapa panaliti maanggap buktinya balum konklusif.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wrangham |first=R. |date=1 August 2017 |title=Control of Fire in the Paleolithic: Evaluating the Cooking Hypothesis |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=58 |issue=S16 |pages=S303–S313 |doi=10.1086/692113 |s2cid=148798286 |issn=0011-3204 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910190830/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Bukti arkeologis manganai [[tungku]] diparkirakan baasal matan 790 rtl; para panaliti manyakini hal ngini kamungkinan paling ganal sudah mangintensifkan [[sosialisasi|susialisasi]] manusia lawan kiranya barkontribusi pada kamunculan [[bahasa|basa]].<ref name=worldcat1124046527>{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=Lucy to Language: the Benchmark Papers |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965259-4 |editor-last=Dunbar |editor-first=R. I. M. |oclc=1124046527 |editor-last2=Gamble |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Gowlett |editor-first3=J. A. J. }}</ref><ref name=20030715nytimes-science>{{Cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |date=15 July 2003 |title=Early Voices: The Leap to Language |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312091336/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |archive-date=12 March 2017 }}</ref> Kamajuan teknulugi lain nang dicapai salawas era Paleolitikum maliputi pakaian lawan tampat banaung.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Shaar |first1=Ron |last2=Matmon |first2=Ari |last3=Horwitz |first3=Liora K. |last4=Ebert |first4=Yael |last5=Chazan |first5=Michael |last6=Arnold |first6=M. |last7=Aumaître |first7=G. |last8=Bourlès |first8=D. |last9=Keddadouche |first9=K. |title=Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=May 2021 |volume=259 |article-number=106907 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25906907S }}</ref> Kadada konsensus manganai parkiraan waktu diadupsinya kadua teknologi nitu, namun para arkeolog sudah manamuakan bukti arkeologis adanya pakaian matan 90-120 rtl<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hallett |first1=Emily Y. |last2=Marean |first2=Curtis W. |last3=Steele |first3=Teresa E. |last4=Álvarez-Fernández |first4=Esteban |last5=Jacobs |first5=Zenobia |author5-link=Zenobia Jacobs |last6=Cerasoni |first6=Jacopo Niccolò |last7=Aldeias |first7=Vera |last8=Scerri |first8=Eleanor M. L. |last9=Olszewski |first9=Deborah I. |last10=Hajraoui |first10=Mohamed Abdeljalil El |last11=Dibble |first11=Harold L. |date=24 September 2021 |title=A worked bone assemblage from 120,000–90,000 year old deposits at Contrebandiers Cave, Atlantic Coast, Morocco |journal=iScience  |volume=24 |issue=9 |article-number=102988 |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.102988 |issn=2589-0042 |pmc=8478944 |pmid=34622180|bibcode=2021iSci...24j2988H }}</ref> lawan tampat banaung sejak 450 rtl.<ref name=":4" /> Sairing bajalannya era Paleolitikum, tampat banaung tadi manjadi makin canggih lawan rumit; sapamulaan 380 rtl, manusia sudah mambangun gubuk kayu samantara.<ref>{{cite web |author=O'Neil, Dennis |title=Evolution of Modern Humans: Archaic Homo sapiens Culture |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404130017/http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |archive-date=4 April 2007 |access-date=31 March 2007 |publisher=[[Palomar College]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Villa |first=Paola |title=Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of southern France |url=https://archive.org/details/terraamatamiddle0013vill |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-520-09662-2 |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/terraamatamiddle0013vill/page/303 303]}}</ref> Pakaian, nang diadaptasi matan rambut lawan kulit hewan buruan, mambantu umat manusia barekspansi ka wilayah-wilayah nang labih dingin; manusia mulai [[Migrasi awal manusia|barmigrasi]] kaluar matan Afrika sakitar 200 rtl, nang pada pamulaannya bagarak manuju [[Eurasia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cordaux |first=Richard |author2=Stoneking, Mark |year=2003 |title=South Asia, the Andamanese, and the Genetic Evidence for an 'Early' Human Dispersal out of Africa |url=http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=1586–1590; author reply 1590–93 |doi=10.1086/375407 |pmc=1180321 |pmid=12817589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001022940/http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2009 |access-date=22 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=phys.org  |archive-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711124429/https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Harvati | first1=Katerina | author-link=Katerina Harvati | last2=Röding | first2=Carolin | last3=Bosman | first3=Abel M. | last4=Karakostis | first4=Fotios A. | last5=Grün | first5=Rainer | last6=Stringer | first6=Chris | last7=Karkanas | first7=Panagiotis | last8=Thompson | first8=Nicholas C. | last9=Koutoulidis | first9=Vassilis | last10=Moulopoulos | first10=Lia A. | last11=Gorgoulis | first11=Vassilis G. | last12=Kouloukoussa | first12=Mirsini | title=Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia | journal=Nature | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=571 | issue=7766 | year=2019 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z | pages=500–504 | pmid=31292546 | bibcode=2019Natur.571..500H | hdl=10072/397334 | s2cid=195873640 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | access-date=17 September 2022 | archive-date=1 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801132212/https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | url-status=live | hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Neolitikum === [[Berkas:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|Deretan artefak Neolitikum, termasuk gelang, kepala kapak, pahat, dan alat pemoles|alt=Foto peralatan Neolitikum yang dipamerkan]] [[Revolusi Neolitikum|Rivolusi Neolitikum]] (atawa ''Rivulusi Partanian Panambaian)'' mamicu parcepatan inovasi teknulugi, lawan sabagai konsekuensinya, maningkatakan kompleksitas susial.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |title=Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation |publisher=Springer New York |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-306-47166-7 |editor-last=Kuijt |editor-first=i. |series=Fundamental Issues in Archaeology |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184244/https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref> Panamuan [[Kapak genggam|kapak bungkalan]] nang disapui marupakan kamajuan ganal nang mamungkinakan [[pembukaan hutan|pambukaan hutan]] lawan partanian barskala ganal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coghlan |first=H. H. |date=1943 |title=The Evolution of the Axe from Prehistoric to Roman Times |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=73 |issue=1/2 |pages=27–56 |doi=10.2307/2844356 |jstor=2844356 |issn=0307-3114 }}</ref> Panggunaan kapak bungkalan nang dikasai ngini maningkatakan kacanggihannya pada zaman Neolitikum, namun pada panambaiannya sudah digunaakan matan zaman [[Mesolitikum]] sabelumnya di babarapa wilayah kaya Irlandia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Driscoll|first1=Killian|title=The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland|date=2006|url=http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|access-date=11 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904110326/http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Partanian manghidupi populasi nang labih ganal lawan transisi manuju [[sedentisme]] mamungkinakan pambasaran labih banyak anak sacara barsamaan, karena bayi kada lagi parlu digindung kasana kamari ulih para [[nomaden]]. Salain nitu, kananakan kawa barkontribusi tanaga dalam budidaya tanaman lawan labih nyaman dibandingakan barpartisipasi dalam aktivitas [[pemburu-pengumpul|pamburu-pangumpul]].<ref name=20060104sciencedaily>{{cite press release |title=The First Baby Boom: Skeletal Evidence Shows Abrupt Worldwide Increase In Birth Rate During Neolithic Period |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=University of Chicago Press Journals |date=4 January 2006 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108133752/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm |archive-date=8 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_1972-04_13_2/page/258|journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|author=Sussman, Robert W. |author2=Hall, Roberta L. |volume=13|issue=2| pages=258–267|date=April 1972|doi=10.1086/201274 |jstor=2740977|s2cid=143449170}}</ref> Sairing lawan paningkatan populasi lawan katarsadiaan tanaga kerja ngini, muncul pula paningkatan dalam [[spesialisasi tenaga kerja|spisialisasi tanaga kerja]].<ref>{{cite book|access-date=17 May 2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|title=Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective|publisher=[[The Thomson Corporation]]|author=Ferraro, Gary P.|year=2006|isbn=978-0-495-03039-3|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145412/https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|url-status=live}}</ref> nang mamicu parkembangan matan kampung-kampung Neolitikum panambaiannya manuju kuta-kuta panambaian. kaya [[Uruk]], lawan paradaban pamulaan kaya [[Sumeria|Sumer]], kada dikatahui sacara pasti; namun, kamunculan struktur sosial nang kian [[hierarkis]] lawan tanaga kerja terspesialisasi, pardagangan laawan paparangan antarbudaya nang bajiran sarta kabutuhan akan tindakan kolektif gasan mangatasi tantangan lingkungan saparti [[irigasi]], samunyaannya diparkirakan turut barperan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|access-date=17 May 2008|title=The Essentials of Ancient History|publisher=Research & Education Association|author=Patterson, Gordon M.|year=1992|isbn=978-0-87891-704-4|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145419/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|url-status=live}}</ref> Panamuan [[Sejarah tulisan|tulisan]] mamicu panyabaran pangatahuan budaya lawan manjadi dasar bagi sajarah, [[perpustakaan|parpustakaan]], sakulah, lawan panalitian [[ilmiah]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Goody |first=J. |date=1986 |title=The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society |url=https://archive.org/details/logicofwritingor0000good |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref> Panyampurnaan nang barkalanjutan bahujung pada tarciptanya [[Tungku metalurgi|tungku]] lawan [[Alat hembus|alat]] tiup sarta manyadiakan kamampuan gasan pamulaan kalinya gasan malabur lawan [[penempaan|manampa]] amas, tambaga, pirak, lawan timbal.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A Short History of Metals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1964-07-25_203_4943/page/337 |journal=Nature |volume=203 |issue=4943 |page=337 |last=Cramb |first=Alan W |bibcode=1964Natur.203Q.337T |year=1964 |doi=10.1038/203337a0 |s2cid=382712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kaunggulan pakakas tambaga dibandingakan parkakas bungkalan, tulang, lawan kayu lawan capat disadari ulih manusia purba, lawan tambaga murni kamungkinan sudah digunaakan matan panambaian zaman [[Neolitikum]] (sekitar 10 rtl).<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Ceramics |volume= 05 | pages = 703–760; see page 708 |last1= Hall |first1= Harry Reginald Holland |author-link= Harry Reginald Holland Hall |quote= The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.).}}</ref> Tambaga murni kada tasadia sacara alami dalam jumlah ganal, namun bijih tambaga cukup umum ditamukan lawan babarapa diantaranya manghasilkan lugam nang nyaman katika dibanam dalam api kayu atawa arang. Pada pahabisannya, pangarjaan lugam bahujung pada panamuan [[paduan]] kaya [[perunggu|parunggu]] lawan [[kuningan]] (sakitar 4.000 SM). Panggunaan partama paduan wasi kaya baja barmula sakitar tahun 1.800 SM.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Hideo |last=Akanuma |title=The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey |journal=Anatolian Archaeological Studies |volume=14 |publisher=Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology |place=Tokyo}}</ref><ref name=hindu001200903261>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |title=Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel |date=26 March 2009 |work=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090329111924/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |archive-date=29 March 2009 |access-date=8 November 2016 }}</ref> === Zaman Kuno === === Pra-modern === === Modern === ==Jajuhutan== i0moeg2dmpea49g9xo1c3cotl3h8k22 0 38675 113325 111079 2026-08-07T18:52:02Z InternetArchiveBot 11286 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260807sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 113325 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barakas:John_Henry_Fuseli_-_The_Nightmare.JPG|jmpl|280x280px|''[[The Nightmare]]'', ulahan [[Henry Fuseli]] (1781) iya sabuting gambaran klasik parihal kaparcayaan kungkum akibat "ditindihi" hantu.]] '''Kungkum''' atawa nang dipinandui urang banyak lawan '''ditindihi urang halus''' ({{Lang-en|''sleep paralysis''}}: {{Lang-id|''kelumpuhan tidur''}}; {{Lang-jv|''erep-erep''}}) yaitu sambatan gasan kaadaan kada kawa bagarak rahatan [[guring]] atawa pas bapuat. Urang nang kungkum rajin bamasalah wayah handak manggarakakan tangan atawa jariji, kada kawa basuara, wan lainnya. Kungkum rajin nitu diraitakan urang lawan ''halusinasi'' nang maulah takutan atawa [[Mimpi kada baik|tamimpi kada baik]]. Kungkum nang tajadi yaitu wayah urang sudah guring, wayah inya janak, atawa pas inya tabangun pas inya kungkum. Kundisi ngini rajin tajadi bila urang nang guring batilantang atawa awak hadap ka atas, nang ditandai lawan asa gulu dikacak, dada sasak, awak kada kawa bagarak lawan suara asa tatahan. Kungkum wayah guring diyakini marga gangguan ''fase'' guring REM, nang maulah ''atonia otot'' langkap nang mancagah urang gasan bagarak di luar mimpi. Kungkum juwa diraitakan lawan gangguan lain nangkaya ''narkolepsi'', ''migrain'', ''gangguan kacamasan'', wan ''apnea guring obstruktif''.<ref name="Ohayon">{{Cite journal|last=Ohayon|first=M.|last2=Zulley|first2=J.|last3=Guilleminault|first3=C.|last4=Smirne|first4=S.|year=1999|title=Prevalence and pathologic associations of sleep paralysis in the general population|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_1999-04-12_52_6/page/1194|journal=Neurology|volume=52|pages=1194–2000}}</ref><ref name="Terrillon">{{Cite journal|last=Terrillon|first=J.|last2=Marques-Bonham|first2=S.|year=2001|title=Does Recurrent Isolated Sleep Paralysis Involve More Than Cognitive Neurosciences?|journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration|volume=15|pages=97–123}}</ref> == Prevalensi == Kungkum guring isolasi rajin dialami lawan [[Pagaring|pasien nang]] didiagnosis baisi narkolepsi. Kikira 30-50% urang nang didiagnosis lawan narkolepsi sudah marasai kungkum sawagai ''gejala'' tambahan.<ref name="Ohayon2">{{Cite journal|last=Ohayon|first=M.|last2=Zulley|first2=J.|last3=Guilleminault|first3=C.|last4=Smirne|first4=S.|year=1999|title=Prevalence and pathologic associations of sleep paralysis in the general population|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_1999-04-12_52_6/page/1194|journal=Neurology|volume=52|pages=1194–2000}}</ref><ref name="Dauvilliers">{{Cite journal|last=Dauvilliers|first=Y.|last2=Billiard|first2=M.|last3=Montplaisir|first3=J.|year=2003|title=Clinical aspects and pathophysiology of narcolepsy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-neurophysiology_2003-11_114_11/page/2000|journal=Clinical Neurophysiology|volume=114|pages=2000–2017}}</ref> Prevalensi kungkum di kalangan populasi umum yaitu kikira 6,2%. Banyak urang nang sudah marasai kamatian kada lawasnya tajadi sakali satahun. Pahadangan nitu, 3% matan individu sudah marasai kungkum nang tajadi saban malam; kaya nang dicatat sabalumnya, urang ini didiagnosis baisi RISP.<ref name="Ohayon2" /> Kungkum kawa tajadi di lakian wan binian. Tagal, ''kelompok'' umur tartantu kawa jadi tarancak marasai kungkum. Kikira 36% urang nang sudah marasai kungkum datang matan umur antara 25-44 tahun, wan umur rata-rata urang nang panambayan marasai kungkum ini yaitu 14-17 tahun.<ref name="Ohayon2" /> == Panciri == ''Patofisiologi'' kungkum baluman kawa diitihi banar napa pungkalanya, tagal ada sapalih ''teori'' ihwal napa nang maulah urang jadi kungkum. Nang pamulaan datang matan pamahaman bahwa kungkum yaitu ''parasomnia'' marga ''fase REM'' wan bapuat, nang artinya ''utak'' masih guring tagal awak handak bangun, jadi awak kada saijaan.<ref name="Goldstein">{{Cite journal|last=Goldstein|first=K.|year=2011|title=Parasomnias|journal=Dis Mon|volume=57|pages=364–88}}</ref> Studi ''polisomnografi'' mahaga bahwa urang nang kungkum baisi waktu guring [[Rapid eye movement|REM]] tahandap matan nang rajin.<ref name="Walther">{{Cite journal|last=Walther|first=B.|last2=Schulz|first2=H.|year=2004|title=Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis: Polysomnographic and clinical findings|journal=Somnologie - Schlafforschung und Schlafmedizin|volume=8|pages=53–60}}</ref> Studi ini mamadahakan juwa bahwa amun guring kada taatur kawa maulah guringnya kungkum marga kurang guring, jadinya REM taganggu inya. Salain nitu, panalitian lain mahaga bahwa kurang guring juwa bisa maulah kungkum. Bardasarkan galumbang utak, guring tabagi jadi ampat tahap. Tahapan nitu yaitu tahapan hanyut (satangah sadar), mulai taguring, taguring janak wan tahapan REM. Pas REM, itulah nang jadi mimpi. Pas kundisi awak kauyuhan atawa kurang guring, galumbang utak kada bajalan lawan tahap guring nang banaran; matan kaadaan sadar ka tahap guring hanyut, lalu langsung ka tahap REM. Jadi, pas utak tiba-tiba bangun matan tahapan REM tagal awak kada sampai, nah nitu bisa bakajadian kungkum. Inya sadar, tagal awak kada kawa bagarak. Ditambah pulang lawan bahalusinasi ada mahluk cungul nang sabujurannya ciri matan mimpi.<ref name="Cheyneninenine">{{Cite journal|last=Cheyne|first=J.|last2=Rueffer|first2=S.|last3=Newby-Clark|first3=I.|year=1999|title=Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations during Sleep Paralysis: Neurological and Cultural Construction of the Night-Mare|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|volume=8|pages=319–337}}</ref> Kungkum rancak disambungkan lawan halusinasi nang parah ([[Hipnopompik|hipno-pompik]] atawa [[hipnagogik]]) wan takutan nang parah banar.<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. p. 380</ref> Urang takutan inya bapikir kada kawa guring utamanya marga bahalusinasi. Unsur-unsur halusinasi pas marasai kungkum mamungkinakan urang tajanak mimpi tarasa jadi nyata, marga banda nang kada masuk akal bisa cungul di paguringan atawa dihadapan mata urangnya.<ref>Hersen Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref> Ada idabul bahwa kungkum ngini basipat katurunan.<ref name="Sehgal">{{Cite journal|last=Sehgal|first=A.|last2=Mignot|first2=E.|year=2011|title=Genetics of Sleep and Sleep Disorders|journal=Cell|volume=146|pages=194–207}}</ref> Panalitian lawan sapasang anak kambar manunjukakan amun ada saikung nang marasa kungkum wayah guring, maka nang lainnya jua mungkin marasainya.<ref name="Sehgal" /> Sapalih ''faktor'' sudah ''diidentifikasi'' sawagai faktor nang maulah kungkum. ''Faktor-faktor'' ngini tamasuk ''insomnia'' wan kurang guring, jadwal guring nang kada taatur, guring batalantang, kabanyakan pikiran, karancakan mauntal stimulan, kauyuhan awak, lawan juwa tamakan ''obat-obatan'' ''tertentu'' gasan manangani ADHD.<ref name="Terrillon2">{{Cite journal|last=Terrillon|first=J.|last2=Marques-Bonham|first2=S.|year=2001|title=Does Recurrent Isolated Sleep Paralysis Involve More Than Cognitive Neurosciences?|journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration|volume=15|pages=97–123}}</ref> Guring batilantang nang disambat sawagai pungkala utama nang maulah kungkum.<ref name="Cheynetwotwo">{{Cite journal|last=Cheyne|first=J.|year=2002|title=Situational factors affecting sleep paralysis and associated hallucinations: position and timing effects|journal=Journal Of Sleep Research|volume=11|pages=169–177}}</ref> Kungkum jua bisa jadi partanda ''narkolepsi'' (guring bakajutan), ''sleep apnea'' (ngantuk), ''kecemasan'', atawa ''depresi''. == Di wadah urang == Wayah kungkum, urang rancak bapikir halusinasi, kaya tajanak urang subalah atawa humbayang hirang di paguringan. Nang maulah, kajadian ngini diraitakan lawan hal-hal mistis. * Di [[Pinglandia|Finlandia]] wan [[Swedia]], kungkum diparcaya marga digawi 'mare', mahluk gaib nang bakawan lawan ''inkubi'' wan ''succubi''. Ujar urang sana, mare yaitu bibiniang nang dikutuk wan awaknya dibawa pas inya guring wan kada sadar. Imbahnya, inya mandatangi ka urang-urang kampung wan baduduk di balikat buhannya wayah buhannya guring, nang maulah buhannya tamimpi kada baik.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bjursell|first=Aurore|date=13 December 2010|title=Interview with director Filip Tegstedt, about Marianne|url=http://translate.google.com.au/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://lesgivresdlabobine.wordpress.com/2010/12/13/entretien-avec-le-realisateur-filip-tegstedt-a-propos-de-marianne/&ei=BLVqTaK9D4nQceTO_Y0M&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEAQ7gEwBg|access-date=13 May 2011}}</ref> * Dalam kisah rakyat [[Newfoundland]], South Carolina wan Georgia, kungkum diulah gawi lawan mahluk jahat bangaran 'hag', nang maninggalakan awaknya wayah malam, wan duduk di dada urang nang guring. Urang nitu imbahnya bapuat marga barasa kana teror lawan ngalih bahinak marga dadanya diduduki hag. * Di [[Fiji]], kajadian ngini disambat '''kana tevoro''<nowiki/>', nang artinya dimakan hantu. Hantu ngini diparcaya dingsanak saurang nang hanyar mati wan babulik gasan manuntungakan masalah nang tuntung balum. * Di [[Turki]], kungkum disambat '''karbasan''<nowiki/>', nang kisahnya ada hantu nang bakunjang ka wadah kita wayah guring. * Di [[Thailand]], Kungkum diparcaya ulah gawi hantu matan kisah rakyat nang dipinandui bangaran ''Phi Am''.<ref>[http://lungkitti.tarad.com/img-lib/spd_20120725124110_b.jpg ผีอำ]{{Dead link}}</ref> * Di [[Malaysia]], kungkum sama haja lawan di Indunisia yaitu ditindihi urang halus * Di [[Mexico|Meksiko]], disambat lawan ''se me subio el muerto'' nang diparcaya bahwa ada roh urang mati nang barikit ka urang nitu. * Di [[Japang]], nitu disambat ''kanashibari'', mahirip lawan Meksiko bahwa ada urang nang diikat lawan urang halus. == Jujuhutan == <references /> [[Tumbung:Gangguan guring]] 4y3vhncm2m57x8whnmhffwpa9cfqe9f 3 39468 113318 2026-08-07T15:01:50Z Adavyd 6718 Adavyd maugahakan laman [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Incall]] ka [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Ch]]: Sacara utumatis mamindahakan laman wayah mangganti ngaran pamakai "[[Special:CentralAuth/Incall|Incall]]" manjadi "[[Special:CentralAuth/Ch|Ch]]" 113318 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Ch]] qfvfafvlxhkoq851jtj1tpttuutdc4r 3 39469 113320 2026-08-07T17:25:45Z Leaderboard 14785 Leaderboard maugahakan laman [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Kiki Si Jejaka Idaman]] ka [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Mr. Always Right]]: Sacara utumatis mamindahakan laman wayah mangganti ngaran pamakai "[[Special:CentralAuth/Kiki Si Jejaka Idaman|Kiki Si Jejaka Idaman]]" manjadi "[[Special:CentralAuth/Mr. Always Right|Mr. Always Right]]" 113320 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH [[Pamandiran Pamakai:Mr. Always Right]] c3pq9s35nni32sugozgpg2svz1tze5n