Cell Biology

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== Contents ==
{{Print version}}
{{PDF version}}

[[File:Epithelial-cells.jpg|right|frame|Keratin in epithelial cells]]
*Glossary and Guide
*#[[/Glossary|Glossary Alphabetically]]
*#[[/Glossary By Lesson| Glossary By Lesson]]
*#[[/How to edit this book | How to edit this book]]

=== Beginning Cell Biology ===

*Introduction
*#[[/Introduction/Introduction to Cell Biology | Introduction to Cell Biology]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Introduction/What is living|What is living?]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Introduction/What is a cell|What is a cell?]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Introduction/Cell size|Size of cells]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Introduction/The great ancestor|The Great Ancestor]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Introduction/Cells Under Microscopes|Cells Under Microscopes]] {{stage short|25%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Introduction/The elements of life|Chemical elements necessary for life]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}

* Types of cells
*#[[/Cell types/Prokaryotes|Prokaryotes]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*##[[/Cell types/Introduction to Bacteria|Bacteria]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*##[[/Cell types/Archaea|Archaea]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Cell types/Eukaryotes|Eukaryotes]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}

* Preliminary Glimpse at Organelles
*#[[/Organelles/Nucleus|Nucleus]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Organelles/Mitochondria|Mitochondria]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Organelles/Chloroplasts|Chloroplasts]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[Cell Biology/Membranes|Membranes]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[Cell Biology/Organelles|Other Organelles]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Cell types/Plant cells|Unique Properties of Plant Cells]]

* Preliminary Glimpse at Cytoskeleton
*#[[/Cytoskeleton/Actin Filaments|Actin filaments]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Cytoskeleton/Intermediate Filaments|Intermediate filaments]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Cytoskeleton/Microtubules|Microtubules]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}

* Models for Cell Biology Research
*#[[/Models/Introduction|How do we know how cells function]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Models/E. coli|Escherichia coli]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Models/Yeasts|Yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisae)]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Models/Worms|Worms (Caenorhabditis elegans)]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Models/Flies|Flies (Drosophila melanogaster)]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Models/Mice|Mice]] {{stage short|25%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Models/Plant|Cress (Arabidopsis thaliana)]] {{stage short|25%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Models/Human|Human]] {{stage short|25%|Jan 11, 2005}}

*Cell division
*#[[/Cell division/Cell cycle|Cell cycle]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Cell division/Meiosis|Meiosis]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Cell division/Mitosis|Mitosis]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Cell division/Cell Mass and Growth Rate|Cell Mass and Growth Rate]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*Genes
*#[[/Genes/Gene expression|Expression]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}
*#[[/Genes/Gene translation|Translation]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 11, 2005}}

==Resources==
{{wikiversity}}
*[[wikipedia:Cell biology|Cell biology]] article at wikipedia
*[[wikipedia:Category:Cell biology|Cell biology category]] at wikipedia
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=cooper.TOC&amp;depth=2  Cooper textbook] ''The Cell'' (online)
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mcb.TOC Lodish textbook] ''Molecular Cell Biology'' (online)
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=cell.TOC&amp;depth=2 Alberts textbook] ''Molecular Biology of the Cell''  (online)
*[http://www.cellsalive.com/toc.htm CellsAlive animations]
*[http://actomyosin.narod.ru/history/history.htm The History of Cell Biology]
*[http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/insidethecell/index.html Inside the cell] - National Institute of General Medical Sciences
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss4cell.html UCMP glossary]
*[http://cellimages.ascb.org/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=/p4041coll11 Landmark Papers in Cell Biology] Gall JG, McIntosh JR, eds. (online in The American Society for Cell Biology's [http://cellimages.ascb.org/ Image &amp; Video Library])
*[http://www.textbooksfree.org/Biology%20Internet%20Library.htm Biology Internet Library] - has a cellular biology section.

== Meta ==
*[[Cell Biology/Authors]]

{{Alphabetical|C}}
{{Shelves|Cell biology}}
{{status|50%}}

[[bg:Клетъчна биология]]
[[de:Biologie für Mediziner]]
[[es:Biología celular]]
[[fr:Biologie cellulaire]]
[[ja:細胞生物学]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2386" sha1="2m3c9zg7k0ytb5lzj58xgspct70k555" xml:space="preserve">{{wikipedia|History of Islam}}
''This wikibook concerns about the history and development of thoughts, theology, and philosophy stemming from the Islamic faith throughout the centuries. For the political history of Islamic civilization, see [[History of Islamic Civilization]].''

The history of Islam begins in the 7th century AD.
(Muslim believe that God sent message on different time period, to different messenger, from Adam to Muhammad)

== Table of Contents ==
#'''[[/Early Islam/]] (Prophet Muhammad up to two succeeding generations)'''
## Prophet Muhammad and the revelation (Quran)
## Recollection of the prophetic tradition (Hadith/Sunnah)
## First schism: Sunnis, Shiites, and Khawarijs 
#'''The classical period (Umayyad and Abassid period)'''
## Influence of Greek and foreign philosophies
## Theology (Ilm al-Kalam), important theological questions, and school of thoughts: Khawarijs, Murjiites, Mutazilites, Asharites, Maturidites
## Islamic legalistic science (Ilm al-Fiqh), derivations of law, and major legal schools: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hambali
#'''[[/The Mutazilites-Asharites debate/]]'''
## Basic tenets of Mutazilites teaching and its early endorsement by Abbasid Caliphs
## Reaction of the scholars and the development and basic tenets of the Asharites
## Ibn Rushd and Al-Ghazali
## Aftermath of debate and its influence outside the Islamic world
#'''The medieval and pre-modern period (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, and European colonization periods)'''
## Taqlid and the decline of philosophy
## Separate development of Shiism during Safavid period
## The rise of puritanical schools of thought, historical backgrounds, and the early writers: Ibn Taimiya, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
## Developments outside the Middle East: India, Central Asia, Africa, and South East Asia 
#'''[[/Modern period|Modern period]]'''
## Early modern writers: Jamal-ad-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh
## Islamic reform movements (e.g. ''Muhammadiyah'' in Indonesia, ''Tablighi Jamaat'' in India), nationalist movements, and pan-Arab ideology
## The Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-Muslimin) and related movements, the subsequent rise of revolutionary Islamic activism, and important activists: Hasan al-Banna, Sayyed Qutb
## Modern Islamic philosophies: Ali Shariati, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ismail Al-Faruqi
{{Expand}}

{{Alphabetical|H}}
{{Shelves|Religious history}}
{{status|25%}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chinese (Mandarin)</title>
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[[File:Beijing-città proibita.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Forbidden City in Beijing 北京紫禁城（故宫）]]
Welcome to the '''Mandarin''' Wikibook, a free Chinese textbook on the Standard Mandarin dialect. This page links to lessons using Simplified Han characters (used in mainland China, Singapore and Malaysia). There is also a [[/Traditional|Traditional Han Character Version]] available (used in Taiwan, Macau, and Hong Kong).

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== Lessons / 课程 ==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;48%&quot; |
'''Introduction / 介绍'''
* [[/About Chinese|About Mandarin&lt;br&gt;关于中文]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[/How To Use This Textbook|How to use this textbook&lt;br&gt;如何使用这本教科书]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[/How To Study Chinese|How to study Mandarin&lt;br&gt;如何学习中文]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[/Writing in Chinese|Writing in Mandarin&lt;br&gt;如何用中文写作]] {{stage short|100%|Dec 21, 2006}}

'''Pronunciation / 发音'''
* [[/Pinyin Pronunciation|Pinyin Pronunciation Basics&lt;br&gt;基础拼音发音入门]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[/Pronunciation of Initials|Pronunciation of Initials]] {{stage short|100%|Apr 26, 2012}}
* [[/Pronunciation of Finals|Pronunciation of Finals]] {{stage short|100%|Apr 26, 2012}}
* [[/Using Tones|Using Tones&lt;br&gt;使用声调]] {{stage short|100%|Apr 26, 2012}}
* [[/Pinyin|More About Hanyu Pinyin]] {{stage short|75%|Oct 2, 2014}}

'''Vocabulary 生字/字汇'''
# [[/Family|Family&lt;br&gt;第一部分：家庭]]
# [[/Commodities|Commodity&lt;br&gt;第二部分：日用品]]
# [[/Transport|Transport&lt;br&gt;第三部分：交通]]
# [[/Food|Food&lt;br&gt;第四部分：食物]]
# [[/Animals|Animals&lt;br&gt;第五部分：动物]]
| width=&quot;1%&quot; |
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'''Lesson Texts / 课文'''
# [[/Lesson 1|Hello!&lt;br&gt;第一课：你好！]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
# [[/Lesson 2|Are you busy today?&lt;br&gt;第二课：今天你忙不忙?]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 24, 2005}}
# [[/Lesson 3|An introduction to particles&lt;br&gt;第三课：助词]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 24, 2005}}
# [[/Lesson 4|Word order and Verbs&lt;br&gt;第四课：词序和动词]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 28, 2026}}
# [[/Lesson 5|Measure words/Counters&lt;br&gt;第五课：量词]] {{stage short|75%|August 16, 2009}}
# [[/Lesson 6|More on interrogatives&lt;br&gt;第六课：疑问助词]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 28, 2026}}
# [[/Lesson 7|What's this?&lt;br&gt;第七课：这是什么?]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
# [[/Lesson 8|Who is she?&lt;br&gt;第八课：她是谁?]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 28, 2026}}
# [[/Lesson 9|Where is the railway station?&lt;br&gt;第九课：火车站在哪里？]] {{stage short|75%|Oct 5, 2008}}
# [[/Lesson 10|A telephone conversation&lt;br&gt;第十课：电话]] {{stage short|75%|Dec 30,2026}}
# [[/Lesson 11|Taiwan&lt;br&gt;第十一课：台湾]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 28,2026}}
# [[/Lesson 12|Mandarin is so interesting!&lt;br&gt;第十二课：汉语真有趣]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 28,2026}}
# [[/Lesson 13|I'm sick&lt;br&gt;第十三课：我生病了]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 28,2026}}
# [[/Lesson 14|Drinking tea&lt;br&gt;第十四课：喝茶]] {{stage short|00%|Dec 30,2009}}
# [[/Lesson 15|China&lt;br&gt;第十五课：中国]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 28，2026}}
# [[/Lesson 16|Basic Chinese History&lt;br&gt;第十六课：基本中国历史]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 12，2012}}
# [[/Lesson 17|Basic Heteronym in Chinese&lt;br&gt;第十七课：基础多音字]] {{stage short|50%|Jul 3，2026}}
|}

== Appendices / 附录 ==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;
|-
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* [[/Common Phrases/]] {{stage short|100%|May 21, 2012}}
* [[/Everyday Phrases/]] {{stage short|50%|May 21, 2012}}
* [[/Answer Key|Answer Key&lt;br&gt;答案]] {{stage short|0%|May 21, 2012}}
* [[/Chinese-English Dictionary|Mandarin-English Dictionary&lt;br&gt;汉英字典]]
* [[/English-Chinese Dictionary|English-Mandarin Dictionary&lt;br&gt;英汉字典]] {{stage short|50%|May 21, 2012}}
* [[/Table of Initial-Final Combinations|Table of Initial-Final Combinations]] {{stage short|100%|Mar 08, 2006}}
| width=&quot;1%&quot; |
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;48%&quot; |
* [[/Greetings|Greetings&lt;br&gt;问候语]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[/Numbers|Numbers&lt;br&gt;数字]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[/Nations of the World|Nations of the World&lt;br&gt;世界各国]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 28, 2026}}
* [[/Radicals|Radicals&lt;br&gt;部首]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[/Slang|Slang&lt;br&gt;俚语]] {{stage short|100%|May 21, 2012}}
* [[/Web Resources|Web Resources&lt;br&gt;网络资源]] {{stage short|75%|Jan 24, 2005}}
|}

== Related Books 延伸阅读==
{{PDF version|Chinese (Mandarin)|File size: 272KB}}
{{Print version}}
{{InterWiki|code=zh}}

* [[Pinyin]]
* [[Bopomofo]]
* [[Mandarin Chinese]]
* [[Cookbook:Cuisine of China]]
* [[Written Chinese]]
* [[East Asian Calligraphy|Guide to Writing East Asian Languages - 汉字书写]]
* [[voy:Chinese phrasebook|Chinese Phrasebook]] (on WikiVoyage)
* [[Cantonese|Cantonese (Yue) - 广东话（粤语）]]
* [[Min Nan|Southern Min / Min Nan (Taiwanese) - 闽南话（台湾话）]]
* [[Pinyin/Pinyin-English News Summary|Pinyin-English News Summary for learners of Chinese language]]

== Contributors ==
* [[/Contributor's Guide|Contributor's Guide]] {{stage short|75%|Oct 3, 2013}}'''Update Needed - 需要更新'''
* [[/Planning|Textbook Planning - 课文安排]] {{stage short|75%|Oct 3, 2013}}'''Update Needed - 需要更新'''
* [[/Development History|Development History]] {{stage short|75%|Oct 3, 2013}}'''Update Needed - 需要更新'''
* [[/Contributors|Contributors - 撰文者]] {{stage short|100%|Apr 22, 2006}}

{{Shelves|Chinese language}}
{{Alphabetical|C}}
{{Status|75%}}
__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__

[[de:Chinesisch]]
[[es:Chino Mandarín]]
[[fr:Enseignement du chinois]]
[[ko:중국어 입문]]
[[it:Cinese]]
[[mk:Кинески јазик]]
[[nl:Algemeen Beschaafd Chinees]]
[[ja:中国語]]
[[pl:Chiński]]
[[fi:Kiinan kieli]]
[[tr:Mandarin]]
[[uk:Китайська мова]]
[[zh:汉语]]</text>
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      <comment>/* {{center|Contributors}} */</comment>
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={{center|Contributors}}=

The Chinese Wikibook was started 2003 December 13. Below is a list of users who have contributed greatly to the authoring of this Wikibook. Please add your username if you have made substantial additions and/or revisions to this textbook. Use '''&lt;nowiki&gt;*{{user|username}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' to add a name.

*{{user|everlong}}
*{{user|Taoster}}
*{{user|Ran}}
*{{user|一隻北極熊}}

[[commons:user:M4RC0|M4RC0]], [[commons:user:Yug|Yug]] and [[commons:user:wikic|Wikic]] all made substantial contributions to the [[commons:Category:Chinese_stroke_order|Chinese stroke order project]] on [[commons:Main Page|Wikicommons]], which are used in our lessons. [[commons:user:Peter Isotalo|Peter Isotalo]], also of Wikicommons, contributed the first audio samples used in this Wikibook.

In addition, the authors would like to thank the development team in relation with the [http://www.wikimediafoundation.org/ Wikimedia Foundation] and its affiliates, without whom our text could not be so accessible.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of Christianity</title>
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        <username>Chairman001</username>
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      <comment>i have deep explanation about many of the major topics</comment>
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      <text bytes="15989" sha1="dk2t7f4egm5tnt6hjje7uw4nb86fef3" xml:space="preserve">==Table of Content==

* Introduction To Christianity
* Defining Christianity
* The Influence of Christianity on Western Culture
* History of Christianity
* Schaff History of Christianity
* Timeline of Christianity
* Theologians__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__

== Introduction to Christianity ==
Christianity is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion centered on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus, whom Christians believe to be the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). It is the world's largest religion, with over 2.3 billion followers. Christianity originated in the 1st century CE in the Roman province of Judea and spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond through the missionary work of Jesus' disciples, particularly Paul the Apostle.

Christianity is based primarily on the Bible, which consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Major branches of Christianity include the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and various Protestant churches.
----

== Defining Christianity ==
Christianity is defined as the religion based on the belief that Jesus Christ is the promised Messiah and Savior of humanity. Central Christian beliefs include:

* Belief in one God.
* Belief in the Holy Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
* Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.
* Salvation through faith in Jesus Christ.
* The authority of the Bible.
* Eternal life after death.

Christian worship generally includes prayer, Bible reading, preaching, baptism, and the Eucharist (Holy Communion).
----

== The Influence of Christianity on Western Culture ==
Christianity has profoundly influenced Western civilization in areas such as:

=== Education ===

* Establishment of many of Europe's first universities.
* Promotion of literacy through Bible translation.

=== Law ===

* Influenced concepts of justice, human dignity, and natural law.

=== Art and Architecture ===

* Inspired Gothic cathedrals, Renaissance paintings, sculptures, and sacred music.

=== Science ===
Many early scientists, including Isaac Newton, Johannes Kepler, and Gregor Mendel, were practicing Christians.

=== Charity ===

* Development of hospitals, orphanages, and charitable organizations.

=== Literature ===
Christian ideas influenced writers such as Dante Alighieri, John Milton, and C. S. Lewis.
----

== History of Christianity ==
Christianity began in the 1st century CE with the ministry of Jesus Christ in Judea.

Important developments include:

* c. 30 CE – Crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus.
* Pentecost and formation of the early Church.
* Missionary journeys of Paul.
* Persecution under the Roman Empire.
* 313 CE – Constantine the Great issued the Edict of Milan, legalizing Christianity.
* 325 CE – First Council of Nicaea defined key Christian doctrines.
* 1054 – The Great Schism divided Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism.
* 1517 – The Protestant Reformation began under Martin Luther.
* Modern era – Christianity spread worldwide through missionary activity.

----

== Schaff's ''History of the Christian Church'' ==
Philip Schaff wrote ''History of the Christian Church'', one of the most influential histories of Christianity.

The work consists of eight volumes covering:

* Apostolic Christianity
* Ante-Nicene Christianity
* Nicene Christianity
* Medieval Christianity
* The Protestant Reformation
* Post-Reformation Christianity

Schaff emphasized historical scholarship while presenting Christianity's doctrinal and institutional development.
----

== History of Christianity by Century ==

=== 1st Century ===

* Ministry of Jesus.
* Apostolic Church established.

=== 2nd Century ===

* Spread throughout the Roman Empire.
* Development of Church leadership.

=== 3rd Century ===

* Continued persecution.
* Growth despite opposition.

=== 4th Century ===

* Christianity legalized.
* Council of Nicaea.
* Became the Roman Empire's official religion.

=== 5th–10th Centuries ===

* Rise of monasticism.
* Christianization of Europe.

=== 11th Century ===

* Great Schism (1054).

=== 12th–15th Centuries ===

* Crusades.
* Growth of universities.
* Scholastic theology.

=== 16th Century ===

* Protestant Reformation.
* Catholic Counter-Reformation.

=== 17th–18th Centuries ===

* Expansion through colonization.
* Evangelical revivals.

=== 19th Century ===

* Global missionary movement.
* Growth in Africa and Asia.

=== 20th Century ===

* Ecumenical movement.
* Rapid expansion in the Global South.

=== 21st Century ===

* Christianity remains the world's largest religion.
* Continued growth in Africa and parts of Asia.

----

== Timeline of Christianity ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Year
!Event
|-
|c. 4–6 BCE
|Birth of Jesus
|-
|c. 30 CE
|Crucifixion and Resurrection
|-
|c. 33 CE
|Pentecost
|-
|49 CE
|Council of Jerusalem
|-
|64 CE
|Nero persecutes Christians
|-
|313 CE
|Edict of Milan
|-
|325 CE
|First Council of Nicaea
|-
|380 CE
|Christianity becomes the Roman Empire's official religion
|-
|431 CE
|Council of Ephesus
|-
|451 CE
|Council of Chalcedon
|-
|1054
|Great Schism
|-
|1095
|First Crusade
|-
|1517
|Protestant Reformation
|-
|1545–1563
|Council of Trent
|-
|1910
|Edinburgh Missionary Conference
|-
|1962–1965
|Second Vatican Council
|-
|Present
|Christianity continues as the world's largest religion by adherents.
|}
----

== Major Christian Theologians ==

=== Early Church ===

* Ignatius of Antioch
* Irenaeus
* Origen
* Athanasius of Alexandria

=== Patristic Era ===

* Augustine of Hippo
* Jerome

=== Medieval ===

* Thomas Aquinas
* Anselm of Canterbury

=== Reformation ===

* Martin Luther
* John Calvin
* Huldrych Zwingli

=== Modern ===

* Karl Barth
* Dietrich Bonhoeffer
* C. S. Lewis
* N. T. Wright

These theologians have significantly shaped Christian doctrine, biblical interpretation, ethics, philosophy, and church history across different traditions

== Origins and Historical Development of Christianity ==

=== Origins of Christianity ===
Christianity originated in the 1st century CE in the Roman province of Judea, based on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus. It developed within the context of Second Temple Judaism and initially consisted of Jewish followers who believed that Jesus was the promised Messiah. After Jesus' death, his disciples spread his teachings throughout the Roman Empire, and Christianity gradually became a distinct religion.

=== Old Testament ===
The '''Old Testament''' is the first major division of the Christian Bible and largely corresponds to the Hebrew Bible, although the arrangement and number of books vary among Christian traditions. It contains writings composed over many centuries and includes:

* The '''Pentateuch''' (Genesis–Deuteronomy)
* Historical books
* Wisdom literature
* The Prophets

The Old Testament describes God's covenant with Israel and contains prophecies that Christians interpret as pointing to the coming of Jesus Christ.

=== Inter-Testamental Period ===
The '''Inter-Testamental Period''' refers to the time between the completion of the Old Testament and the beginning of the New Testament, approximately '''400 BCE to the early 1st century CE'''.

During this period:

* The Persian Empire declined.
* Alexander the Great conquered much of the Near East.
* Greek language and culture spread widely (Hellenization).
* The Maccabean Revolt established a period of Jewish independence.
* Judea later came under Roman rule.
* Jewish religious groups such as the '''Pharisees''', '''Sadducees''', '''Essenes''', and '''Zealots''' emerged.

This period provided the political, cultural, and religious background for the ministry of Jesus.

=== Outline of the Apostolic Period ===
The '''Apostolic Period''' refers to the earliest phase of Christianity, from the ministry of Jesus until the death of the last apostles (approximately '''30–100 CE''').

Major events include:

* Ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus.
* Pentecost and the coming of the Holy Spirit.
* Formation of the first Christian community in Jerusalem.
* Missionary journeys of Paul the Apostle.
* Establishment of churches throughout the Roman Empire.
* Writing of the New Testament books.
* Deaths of most of the apostles.

The Apostolic Period laid the foundation for Christian doctrine, worship, and church organization.

=== Life of Jesus ===
According to the New Testament, Jesus was born in Bethlehem during the reign of King Herod. Christians believe that he was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born to the Virgin Mary.

Key events in his life include:

* Birth in Bethlehem.
* Baptism by John the Baptist.
* Public ministry lasting about three years.
* Teaching through parables and sermons.
* Healing the sick and performing miracles.
* Choosing twelve apostles.
* Crucifixion under the Roman governor Pontius Pilate.
* Resurrection on the third day.
* Ascension into heaven.

Christians regard Jesus as the Messiah and the Son of God.

=== The Historicity of Jesus of Nazareth ===
Most modern historians agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a historical person who lived in the 1st century CE. Historical evidence comes from:

* The New Testament writings.
* Jewish historian Josephus.
* Roman historian Tacitus.
* Other early Christian and non-Christian sources.

While historians generally accept Jesus' existence, interpretations of his identity, miracles, and resurrection vary according to historical and religious perspectives.

=== The Christ ===
The title '''Christ''' comes from the Greek word '''Christos''', meaning '''&quot;Anointed One,&quot;''' which translates the Hebrew word '''Messiah'''.

In Christianity, Jesus Christ is believed to be:

* The promised Messiah foretold in the Old Testament.
* The Son of God.
* The Savior of humanity.
* The Redeemer whose death and resurrection provide salvation.

The title &quot;Christ&quot; is not Jesus' surname but a statement of his religious role.

=== The Apostles ===
The '''Apostles''' were Jesus' closest disciples, chosen to preach his message and lead the early Church.

The Twelve Apostles were:

* Simon Peter
* Andrew the Apostle
* James, son of Zebedee
* John the Apostle
* Philip the Apostle
* Bartholomew the Apostle
* Thomas the Apostle
* Matthew the Apostle
* James, son of Alphaeus
* Jude the Apostle
* Simon the Zealot
* Judas Iscariot (later replaced by Matthias the Apostle)

Paul, although not one of the Twelve, is also recognized as an apostle because of his missionary work.

=== Early Christianity ===
'''Early Christianity''' refers to the development of Christianity from the 1st to the early 4th century.

Its characteristics included:

* House churches.
* Missionary expansion.
* Periodic persecution under Roman emperors.
* Development of bishops and church leadership.
* Formation of Christian doctrines.
* Writing and circulation of the New Testament.

Christianity spread rapidly throughout the Roman Empire despite persecution.

=== Separation from Judaism ===
Christianity began as a movement within Judaism but gradually became a separate religion.

Factors contributing to the separation included:

* Belief that Jesus was the Messiah.
* Admission of Gentile (non-Jewish) converts without requiring full observance of Jewish law.
* Decisions of the Council of Jerusalem (c. 49 CE).
* Destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.
* Increasing theological and social differences between Jewish and Christian communities.

By the 2nd century CE, Christianity had largely developed as a distinct religion.

=== Early Centers of Christianity ===
Several cities became important centers for the growth of Christianity:

==== Jerusalem ====
The birthplace of Christianity and location of the earliest Christian community.

==== Antioch ====
The place where followers of Jesus were first called &quot;Christians.&quot;

==== Alexandria ====
A major center of Christian scholarship and theology.

==== Rome ====
Became the leading center of Western Christianity and the seat of the Bishop of Rome (the Pope).

==== Constantinople ====
Became the center of Eastern Christianity after Emperor Constantine established it as the capital of the Roman Empire.

These cities played major roles in shaping Christian doctrine, worship, education, and church organization during the first centuries of Christianity

===[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/]]===
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Outline of Ante-Nicene Period|Outline of Ante-Nicene Period]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Ante-Nicene Fathers|Ante-Nicene Fathers]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers|Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Christian Gnosticism|Christian Gnosticism]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Ecumenical Councils|Ecumenical Councils]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/The New Testament|The New Testament]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Dating the Bible|Dating the Bible]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Historical Reliability of the Gospels|Historical Reliability of the Gospels]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/History of the Papacy|History of the Papacy]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Sacred Tradition|Sacred Tradition]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Constantine the Great and Christianity|Constantine the Great and Christianity]]
*[[/The Ante-Nicene Period/Rulers who Converted to Christianity|Rulers who Converted to Christianity]]

===[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/]]===
*[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/Outline of the Nicene Period/|Outline of the Nicene Period]]
*[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/The Cappadocian Fathers/|The Cappadocian Fathers]]
*[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/Outline of the Byzantine Period/|Outline of the Byzantine Period]]
*[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/Desert Fathers/|Desert Fathers]]
*[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/Monasticism/|Monasticism]]
*[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/Catechetical School of Alexandria/|Catechetical School of Alexandria]]
*[[/The Nicene or Post-Nicene Period/Non-Chalcedonian Churches/|Non-Chalcedonian Churches]]

===[[/Medieval Christianity/]]===
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Development of the Medieval Church|Development of the Medieval Church]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Christianization|Christianization]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Celtic Christianity|Celtic Christianity]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/The Holy Roman Empire|The Holy Roman Empire]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Crusades|Crusades]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/The Great Schism|The Great Schism]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/The Eastern Orthodox Church|The Eastern Orthodox Church]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Franciscans|Franciscans]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Inquisition|Inquisition]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Waldensians|Waldensians]]
*[[/Medieval Christianity/Catharism|Catharism]]

===[[/Reformation/]]===
*[[/Reformation/History of Modern Christianity|History of Modern Christianity]]
*[[/Reformation/The Renaissance|The Renaissance]]
*[[/Reformation/The Society of Jesus|The Society of Jesus]]
*[[/Reformation/The Reformation in Germany|The Reformation in Germany]]
*[[/Reformation/Swiss Reformation|Swiss Reformation]]
*[[/Reformation/French Reformation|French Reformation]]
*[[/Reformation/English Reformation|English Reformation]]
*[[/Reformation/Free Church Movement|Free Church Movement]]
*[[/Reformation/Christianity in the US|Christianity in the US]]
*[[/Reformation/Christian Ecumenism|Christian Ecumenism]]
*[[/Reformation/Systematic Theology|Systematic Theology]]

===[[/Post Modern Christian Theology/]]===
*[[/Reformation/History of Christian Theology|History of Christian Theology]]
*[[/Post Modern Christian Theology/Evangelicalism|Evangelicalism]]
*[[/Post Modern Christian Theology/Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christianity]]
*[[/Post Modern Christian Theology/Liberation Theology|Liberation Theology]]
*[[/Post Modern Christian Theology/Christian Heresies in the 20th Century|Christian Heresies in the 20th Century]]
*[[/Post Modern Christian Theology/Christian Devotional Literature|Christian Devotional Literature]]

{{Stub}}
{{Alphabetical|H}}
{{Shelves|Religious history}}
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      <text bytes="712" sha1="b436zr7f9ggd2cjuypz4qtvwvfl2b8t" xml:space="preserve">My main user page is on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Greenman English Wikipedia]. Here, I mostly contribute to the [[Chess Opening Theory]] Wikibook. As of 2026, I've started again after a long hiatus, after noticing that Lichess makes use of the descriptions. Sadly, I've seen that pending changes are out of control. The earliest one for the Chess Opening Theory book as I write this is 1,238 days old! Let's see if I can make a dent. '''Updated status 15 July 2026: &lt;s&gt;942 226&lt;/s&gt; backlog has been addressed.'''

Links:
* [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3APendingChanges&amp;namespace=&amp;tagFilter=&amp;limit=50&amp;category=&amp;size= Pages with pending changes]

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|parent=[[../|Queen's gambit]]
}}
==2...e6 · Queen's Gambit Declined==
With 2...e6, Black declines the Queen's Gambit in the traditional fashion. 2...e6 bolsters the d5 pawn and opens a diagonal for the development of Black's dark-squared bishop. However, 2...e6 also blocks the c8-h3 diagonal for Black's light-squared bishop. Finding a way to productively develop this piece is a perennial challenge for Black players in the QGD.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}

{{Chess/theory table
|name1=Orthodox defence
|line1=3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Bg5 Be7 5. e3 O-O 6. Nf3 Nbd7
|eval1={{Chess/not|+}}

|name2=
|line2=3. Nf3
|eval2={{Chess/not|+}}

|name3=Semi-Slav defence
|line3=3... c6 4. Nf3 Nf6 5. e3 Nbd7 6. Bd3 dxc4
|eval3={{Chess/not|+}}

|name4=Tarrasch defence
|line4=3... c5 4. cxd5 exd5 5. Nf3 Nc6 6. g3 Nf6
|eval4={{Chess/not|+}}

|name5=Exchange variation
|line5=3. cxd5 exd5 4. Nc3 c6 5. Bf4 Bd6 7. Bg3 Ne7
|eval5={{Chess/not|=}}

|name6=Catalan opening
|line6=3. g3 Nf6 4. Bg2 dxc4 5. Nf3 Nc6
|eval6={{Chess/not|+}}

}}

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikipedia|Queen's Gambit Declined}}
{{BCO2}}
{{ChessFooter}}


{{ChessStub}}

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|parent=[[../|Queen's gambit]]
}}
==2...e6 · Queen's Gambit Declined==
With 2...e6, Black declines the Queen's Gambit in the traditional fashion. 2...e6 bolsters the d5 pawn and opens a diagonal for the development of Black's dark-squared bishop. However, 2...e6 also blocks the c8-h3 diagonal for Black's light-squared bishop. Finding a way to productively develop this piece is a perennial challenge for Black players in the QGD.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}

{{Chess/theory table
|name1=Orthodox defence
|line1=3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Bg5 Be7 5. e3 O-O 6. Nf3 Nbd7
|eval1={{Chess/not|+}}

|name2=
|line2=3. Nf3
|eval2={{Chess/not|+}}

|name3=Semi-Slav defence
|line3=3. Nc3 c6 4. Nf3 Nf6 5. e3 Nbd7 6. Bd3 dxc4
|eval3={{Chess/not|+}}

|name4=Tarrasch defence
|line4=3. Nc3 c5 4. cxd5 exd5 5. Nf3 Nc6 6. g3 Nf6
|eval4={{Chess/not|+}}

|name5=Exchange variation
|line5=3. cxd5 exd5 4. Nc3 c6 5. Bf4 Bd6 7. Bg3 Ne7
|eval5={{Chess/not|=}}

|name6=Catalan opening
|line6=3. g3 Nf6 4. Bg2 dxc4 5. Nf3 Nc6
|eval6={{Chess/not|+}}

}}

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikipedia|Queen's Gambit Declined}}
{{BCO2}}
{{ChessFooter}}


{{ChessStub}}

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      <text bytes="36963" sha1="bgea32qipvpb1d8214zkpuysempla3s" xml:space="preserve">{{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Character|
name=Vernon Dursley|
gender=Male|
hair=Dark|
family=[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Marge Dursley|Marge Dursley (sister)]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Petunia Dursley|Petunia Dursley (wife)]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dudley Dursley|Dudley Dursley (son)]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Harry Potter|Harry Potter (nephew)]]|
loyalty=Dursley family, Muggle world, keeping up appearances
|eyes=Unknown}}

== Overview ==

'''''Vernon Dursley''''' is [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Harry Potter|Harry Potter]]'s uncle by marriage (Vernon's wife is Harry's mother's sister). He and his wife [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Petunia Dursley|Petunia Dursley]] reluctantly took Harry in as a baby, while they had their own son, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dudley Dursley|Dudley]]. Vernon feels somewhat threatened by Harry's magical abilities and wishes to &quot;stamp it out of him,&quot; to the extent of refusing to allow him to speak of anything even slightly out of the ordinary.

== Role in the Books ==

{{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Beginner Spoiler}}

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone|Philosopher's Stone]] ===

The first person we actually meet in the series is  Nonrev  Yelsrud. We follow Nonrev as he kisses his wife goodbye in the morning, and as he drives off to his workplace, Grunnings, where he sells drills and yells at people. On his way to work he sees a cat apparently reading a map, and several small groups of people wearing robes, talking excitedly about something. He happens to overhear one of the groups talking about one &quot; Yrrah Rettop&quot; and this worries him to the point that he nearly calls home. He decides, however, that it would not be '''normal''' to phone his wife over such a small occurrence, and decides to wait until he gets home. There, while watching a news report about strange occurrences happening all around Britain, he casually asks the name of Ainutep's sister's child. he confirms that he is named Yrrah Retop, &quot;a dreadfully common name&quot;. Nonrev is still worried, and still not daring to show it, when he goes to sleep that night.

We see Nonrev some ten years later, sitting at the breakfast table, and doting on his son, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dudley Dursley|Dudley]]. It is Dudley's birthday, and Vernon cheerfully tells him that there are thirty-seven presents there. Dudley is immediately angered: he had thirty-eight the year before. He calms down when Petunia promises him two more. A phone call interrupts them; Petunia reports that [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arabella Figg|Mrs. Figg]] has broken her leg and will be unable to take care of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Harry Potter|Harry]] while everyone else is at the zoo. Petunia and Vernon discuss what to do with Harry as if he was not present in the room, except that when Harry suggests he could stay at home by himself, Vernon dismisses that idea out of hand. Eventually they decide that Harry will have to go to the zoo with them. Vernon warns Harry that if he makes anything &quot;unusual&quot; happen, he'll be locked in his cupboard from that day until Christmas.

On the way to the zoo, Harry mentions that he had dreamed about a flying motorcycle. Vernon, livid, yells at him that there are no such things as flying motorcycles.

Despite Vernon's attempts to keep Harry in the background, Harry has a good time at the zoo, as vendors naturally assume that Vernon will be buying for all three of the boys he has with him. When the glass in front of the snake vanishes, and Dudley falls into the moat, Vernon apparently blames Harry. Once they get home, Vernon, evidently unable to speak, locks Harry back into his cupboard under the stairs, saying he will have no meals. Harry, left to his own devices, plans to sneak out to the kitchen for some food after the Dursleys are all asleep.

Vernon is extremely pleased that Dudley will be attending Smeltings, his old school. In the face of Vernon's obvious and overweening pride, Harry retreats to hide his amusement at Dudley's uniform. It is the same day the first of Harry's letters arrives. Vernon is apparently appalled when he realizes who has sent the letter to Harry, and immediately sends both Harry and Dudley out of the kitchen. While Harry and Dudley listen at the door, Vernon and Petunia discuss what they are going to do about this letter, eventually deciding to ignore it. However, now knowing that someone knows Harry is in the cupboard under the stairs, that being where it was addressed to, Vernon decides to move him to Dudley's second bedroom, where all Dudley's broken toys are stored.

This turns out to be a less than useful decision, as the letters keep coming. The next day, Dudley announces a second one, addressed to Harry in &quot;''The Smallest Bedroom''&quot;, and Vernon has to fight both Harry and Dudley for it. The next day, Harry gets up early to reach the door before anyone else, and finds Vernon sleeping across the doorway. Three more letters are delivered onto his chest, and he tears them up before Harry's eyes. Vernon, now getting more frantic, nails up the letterbox.

On Friday, twelve more letters for Harry arrive, stuffed in all the cracks around the door, as they can't be put in the letterbox. Vernon, now very jumpy and humming &quot;Tiptoe Through the Tulips&quot;, seals up all the cracks that letters had come through.

On Saturday, twenty-four more letters arrive, inside the two dozen eggs delivered through the window by the milkman. Vernon, of course, phones the dairy, demanding to know who was responsible for them being there.

On Sunday, an apparently slightly demented Vernon announces that this is his favourite day of the week, because there is no post. Almost as he speaks, a rumbling noise heralds the delivery of what seems to be about a hundred letters, all addressed to Harry, down the kitchen chimney. Vernon throws Harry bodily out of the kitchen, and pulling tufts out of his moustache, tells everyone that they are going away, and to pack some clothes.

Vernon drives them in apparently random directions all day, often turning 180 degrees and going back on his course, all the while muttering something about &quot;shaking them off&quot;. By the end of the day Dudley is howling, as he had missed five television programs, and Vernon had not stopped for any food. Eventually they end up at a gloomy hotel on the outskirts of a large city. In the hotel restaurant the next morning, the clerk approaches them, saying that he's got about a hundred letters for Harry Potter at the desk; Vernon rises to take them, and they set off again.

Today, Vernon seems to be madly looking for some place that they can't be reached, stopping and looking around in the middle of a suspension bridge, or deep in the woods, but none of these seems correct somehow. Eventually, as night falls, they stop on a seacoast, and Vernon leaves the car. He returns in a short while saying he has found just the place, and points at a hut precariously perched on a rock out in the ocean. He is also carrying a long, thin package, and says he has provisions and a boat to get out there.

Once in the hut, the provisions prove scanty: a packet of crisps (US: chips) and a banana for each of them. With a storm coming on, Vernon seems quite cheerful, thinking nothing could get through to them now. He and Petunia take the bedroom, leaving Dudley on the broken-down couch in the main room, and Harry with the thinnest blanket on the floor.

When [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Rubeus Hagrid|Hagrid]] arrives, knocking the door down at the height of the storm, Vernon appears, now carrying the contents of the long thin parcel: a rifle. Hagrid bends the rifle into a pretzel and throws it away, and Vernon retreats, though he does retain enough sense to tell Dudley not to eat anything Hagrid offers him. When Harry admits that he knows nothing about Hagrid's world, the Wizarding world, Hagrid turns angrily on Vernon, who, much abashed, subsides into incoherence. Vernon does try a number of times to prevent Hagrid telling Harry about the Wizarding world, and insists that Harry is not going to Hogwarts, but Hagrid overrides him easily. When Vernon angrily protests that he is not going to pay good money to have some &quot;doddering old man&quot; teach Harry magic tricks, Hagrid angrily warns him not to insult [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Albus Dumbledore|Albus Dumbledore]], and by way of emphasis gives Dudley a pig's tail. Panicked by this display of magic, the three Dursleys retreat to the back bedroom.

When Harry returns to Privet Drive, Vernon has apparently chosen to ignore him, and so Harry's life is much quieter. As the day of departure comes closer, Harry asks Uncle Vernon if he could get a ride into London to catch his train. Vernon agrees, saying that they had to go into London anyway to get Dudley's tail removed surgically. When Vernon comments sarcastically about Harry's need for a train, Harry says that he has to catch the train at King's Cross Station at [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Platform 9 and Three Quarters|platform nine and three quarters]]. Vernon seems surprised by this.

The next day, as they reach King's Cross Station, Vernon is uncharacteristically jolly. He even loads Harry's trunk onto a dolly and pushes it into the station. He points out the big signs for platforms nine and ten, and observes that there doesn't seem to be a platform nine and three quarters. He then wishes Harry a happy term, and leaves, laughing. Harry sees the three Dursleys laughing at him in the car as they drive away.

At Christmas, Harry receives a note acknowledging his earlier message – he had written to say he had made it to school – and enclosing his Christmas gift, a 50p piece. The note is signed by Vernon and Petunia. Harry gives the coin to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ron Weasley|Ron]], who is amazed at the appearance of this Muggle money.

When Harry returns to London on the Hogwarts Express, Uncle Vernon is extremely brusque in his greeting, to the point of shocking [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hermione Granger|Hermione]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Molly Weasley|Mrs. Weasley]]. As Vernon leaves, Harry tells Ron and Hermione that he'll be having some fun with the Dursleys, as they don't know he isn't allowed to practice magic.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Chamber of Secrets|Chamber of Secrets]] ===

When Harry comes down to breakfast, he reminds Dudley to &quot;use the magic word&quot; when Dudley commands him to pass the bacon. This results in Vernon throwing a temper tantrum at the breakfast table, as he has forbidden all mention of magic in the house. Harry is briefly amazed to hear Uncle Vernon say that it is a special day, as it is Harry's birthday. It turns out, however, that Vernon is talking about his guests that evening, the Masons, a couple that he is trying to impress, as they could place the largest order of drills Vernon has ever received. Vernon then leads his family in rehearsing what they will be doing, reminding Harry repeatedly that his role is to be upstairs in his room, pretending he is not there. Harry several times has trouble keeping a straight face, as the plans for the evening seem to him to be ludicrously transparent attempts to curry favour.

As the guests arrive, Harry, as ordered, goes to his room, where he finds a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/House Elf|house-elf]] jumping on his bed. The elf, who introduces himself as [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dobby|Dobby]], apparently feels he is being very disobedient by coming to see Harry, and must punish himself. The resulting noise bring Vernon upstairs to chide Harry, who has managed to hide Dobby when he heard Vernon approaching. When Dobby drops the Dursleys' dessert in the kitchen, Vernon almost manages to calm down his guests; but very shortly after that an owl arrives with a parchment, which it drops on Mrs. Mason's head. Mrs. Mason, who is morbidly afraid of birds, runs screaming from the house, and Mr. Mason follows, saying he will not be dealing with Grunnings.

Furious, Vernon brings the letter to Harry and tells him to read it out loud. It is a warning from the Ministry that Harry has violated the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Underage Sorcery|Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery]] by performing a Hover Charm. Vernon, now knowing that Harry is not allowed to perform magic at Privet Drive until he comes of age, decides to lock him into his bedroom, adding bars across the window for good measure.

When Ron, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fred and George Weasley|Fred, and George]] break Harry out of his room, Harry almost forgets [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hedwig|Hedwig]], who is locked into her cage. Hedwig's loud hoot at being forgotten wakes up the Dursleys, and Vernon rushes into the room, barely catching Harry's foot as Harry is lifted out of the window by the Weasleys' flying Ford Anglia. Vernon tumbles down into the bushes under the window, and Harry escapes in the car.

At Christmas, the Dursleys send Harry a toothpick and a letter telling him to find out if he can stay at Hogwarts for the summer vacation.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Prisoner of Azkaban|Prisoner of Azkaban]] ===

Somewhat less afraid of Harry having learned that he is not allowed to practice magic at Privet Drive, Vernon has locked all Harry's school supplies away in the cupboard that was previously Harry's bedroom. Harry has used the lock-picking skills he had learned from Fred and George Weasley to get the materials he needs out of the cupboard, and now does his homework by torch under his bedcovers at night.

When Harry's Hogwarts letter arrives with the next years' booklist, it contains a permission slip; signed by a parent or guardian, it would allow Harry to visit Hogsmeade on specified weekends. Harry wonders how he will get Uncle Vernon to sign it.

Vernon, the next morning, announces that he is off to the train station to collect his sister, Harry's [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Marge Dursley|Aunt Marge]]. Harry receives strict instructions as to how he is to act: be civil to Marge, no discussion of magic, and Harry is to recall that Marge has been told that he has been placed in St. Brutus' Secure Centre for Incurably Criminal Boys. As Vernon is leaving, Harry takes him aside and points out that he's going to have a hard time remembering the stuff he's been told he has to remember. Vernon, thinking about how much damage one small slip could do, pales. Harry suggests that if there was something in it for him, he would be more careful, and asks if Uncle Vernon would be willing to sign his permission slip. Vernon grudgingly agrees that if Harry manages to stay convincing for the full week of Marge's stay, he will sign the permission slip.

The following week is very hard on Vernon, as Marge insists on not only keeping Harry in view so he can't sneak around behind her back, but in insulting Harry and his parents. Vernon is unusually sensitive to Harry's moods, repeatedly trying to distract Marge off subject so that Harry won't get upset and say something that would reveal that he isn't ''normal''. On the last night of her visit, however, Marge insults Harry's father, and Harry loses control, inadvertently causing Marge to inflate like a balloon. Knowing that he is in trouble, Harry hastily retrieves his school supplies, threatening Vernon with his wand when he tries to stop Harry and get him to deflate Aunt Marge, and leaves, dragging his trunk.

When Harry reaches the Leaky Cauldron, he is intercepted by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Cornelius Fudge|the Minister for Magic, Cornelius Fudge]], who tells him that Aunt Marge had been punctured and her memory adjusted. He says that the Dursleys are willing to have him back at Privet Drive over the summer if he stays at Hogwarts over Christmas and Easter.

When Harry returns to London after the school year, he tells Vernon that he has met his godfather. When Vernon says he doesn't have one, Harry says he does, his name is [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Sirius Black|Sirius Black]] and he's a convicted murderer who is on the run, but he is very interested in Harry's wellbeing and will expect to hear from him over the summer. Vernon turns quite pale at this news.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Goblet of Fire|Goblet of Fire]] ===

The school nurse has sent instructions home with Dudley that he is to be put on a diet, as he is so fat; Vernon's temper has not been improved by Petunia putting the entire family on a diet, to keep Dudley from feeling singled out.

In mid-August, Vernon receives a letter from [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Molly Weasley|Mrs. Weasley]], asking if Harry could go to the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Quidditch World Cup|Quidditch World Cup]] with her family, as they have tickets. Vernon is disconcerted by the letter, which has aroused the postman's interest because it is totally covered with stamps, except for a small area where Mrs. Weasley has written Vernon's address. Clearly, this is Different, and therefore Bad. The contents of the letter are equally dismaying, because they leave Vernon with a quandary: if he permits Harry to go, then Harry will be doing something he likes, which is clearly bad; however, Mrs. Weasley has also said that he can stay the rest of the summer with her, which would mean that Harry would be out of Vernon's hair a good fortnight sooner than expected. Sensing this indecision, Harry points out that he should get an answer from Uncle Vernon soon, as he is writing to his godfather, and Sirius will want to know where he is and what he's doing. Reminded of Sirius' existence, Vernon backs down from his indignation and gives Harry permission to go.

The Weasleys had said that they would arrive to collect Harry; Vernon wonders how they will arrive, and whether they will be dressed normally or in wizards' clothes. Vernon himself has dressed in his best business suit, to try and intimidate the Weasleys. The time of their scheduled arrival comes, and goes, with Harry looking anxiously outside to see them arrive, when there is a noise from the fireplace: [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arthur Weasley|Mr. Weasley]] has had the Dursleys' fireplace attached to the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Floo Network|Floo network]] for the day, and he, Fred, George, and Ron have all appeared in the Dursleys' walled-up fireplace. Mr. Weasley blows the wall apart magically to get his family out, coating Vernon and Petunia with white dust. Stunned, Vernon and Petunia say nothing, despite Mr. Weasley's attempts at making conversation, while Fred and George go to retrieve Harry's trunk. As he re-enters the fire, Fred drops a bag of toffees, and though he picks most of them up, one is left behind. With all the other Weasleys gone, Harry is preparing to go when Mr. Weasley stops him. He reminds Vernon that Harry is about to leave for several months, isn't Vernon even going to say goodbye? Grudgingly (and very resentfully), Vernon says, &quot;Well, goodbye then.&quot; Mr. Weasley is amazed at this brusqueness, but Harry prepares to enter the fire. He is stopped by a gagging noise: Dudley has found and eaten the toffee left by Fred, and it has expanded his tongue to several feet in length. Outraged, Vernon starts attacking Mr. Weasley. As Harry departs, he sees Mr. Weasley destroying the china figurines that Vernon is throwing at him.

At one point, Hermione mentions that the Dursleys would likely be pleased to hear how well he was doing in the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Triwizard Tournament|Triwizard Tournament]]. Harry demurs, saying they would be happier if he had managed to get himself killed.

Vernon meets Harry again at King's Cross Station, and is, as usual, surly and untalkative.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Order of the Phoenix|Order of the Phoenix]] ===

Knowing Voldemort is back, Harry is intensely interested in both the Wizarding and the Muggle news, looking for evidence of his return. He cannot watch the Muggle news without being abused by Uncle Vernon, so in order to at least hear the news, in hopes that he will be able to recognize the effects of Dark Magic, he lies in the garden, hidden from the neighbours by the geraniums, listening through the open windows. While he is listening this way, he hears a noise in the street that he recognizes as the sound of someone [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Apparition|Diasapparating]], and leaps up, wand at the ready, only to crack his head on the window standing open above him. Vernon, discovering him there, pulls Harry in through the window, and then makes conciliatory noises at the neighbours who have looked around at his bellow of outrage, to try and reassure them that there is nothing wrong. Vernon and Harry then have a low-voiced argument, until Harry goes out, in part to investigate the noise he had heard.

Harry later brings a very ill Dudley, who has just been attacked by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Dementor|Dementors]], back home. Harry hopes to escape to his room, but Dudley manages to mention Harry, and Vernon calls Harry back into the kitchen. While Vernon and Petunia Dursley confront him about their now-ill son, Harry receives a letter from the Ministry of Magic expelling him from Hogwarts and saying his wand will shortly be destroyed. Harry decides that his only option is to become a fugitive, but before he can get past Uncle Vernon, another owl letter arrives from [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arthur Weasley|Arthur Weasley]], telling him to stay in his uncle's house, not let Ministry representatives break his wand, and not use magic again; Dumbledore is straightening things out. As he must remain in the house anyway, Harry stays at the kitchen table and tries to explain what happened. He insists that he did not use magic against Dudley, that it was the Dementors. When Uncle Vernon asks what Dementors are, Aunt Petunia answers, &quot;they are the guards of the Wizard prison, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Azkaban|Azkaban]].&quot;

Petunia's revelation shocks everyone, including Petunia, who belatedly covers her mouth with her hands, as if realizing she has just said something horribly obscene. Harry is amazed to find himself sitting in Aunt Petunia's antiseptic kitchen, answering questions about the Wizarding world. Meanwhile, another owl arrives from Arthur, and one from Sirius, briefly telling Harry that the situation is being sorted out. Finally, a second owl from the Ministry of Magic arrives revoking his expulsion and wand destruction. Instead, Harry's fate rests on a hearing scheduled for &quot;9 A.M. on August 12th.&quot;

When Harry says Lord Voldemort has returned, Uncle Vernon, recognising the danger he and his family are in while they house Harry, demands he leave. However, this is interrupted by one final owl carrying a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Howler|Howler]]&amp;mdash;surprisingly for Petunia Dursley. A menacing voice reverberates throughout the kitchen: &quot;REMEMBER MY LAST, PETUNIA!!!&quot; Petunia quickly overrides her husband, insisting that Harry remain at their house, on the grounds that sending him away at this point would attract awkward questions from the neighbours, but sending him to bed immediately.

Harry is now once again locked in his room, though we don't know whether this is Vernon's decision or Petunia's. Three days later, Vernon tells Harry that he, Petunia, and Dudley have been invited to a Best Kept Suburban Lawn award, and are leaving Harry alone in the house, locked into his room. Harry listens to them leave. Shortly, the Advance Guard arrives to take him away to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Grimmauld Place|the Headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix]]. As he is leaving, Harry wonders what Vernon will think when he discovers there is no Best Kept Suburban Lawn competition.

When Harry returns to London for the summer vacation, he finds Mr. and Mrs. Weasley, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Nymphadora Tonks|Tonks]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Remus Lupin|Lupin]], and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Alastor Moody|&quot;Mad Eye&quot; Moody]] who tell Harry they plan to have a stern talk with his aunt and uncle about how they treat him. The whole group confront Uncle Vernon, intimidating him, despite his initial bluster, into making the necessary concessions for Harry's comfort over the summer, warning the Dursleys that there will be consequences if they find out that Harry is mistreated. They also mention that they will be in touch, either by Harry's owl, or in person.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Half-Blood Prince|Half-Blood Prince]] ===

Although [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Albus Dumbledore|Professor Dumbledore]] had told Harry he would be arriving only two weeks into the summer vacation to take Harry away to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/The Burrow|The Burrow]], Harry had not told the Dursleys about it, partially out of fear that it would not actually be happening. So when Dumbledore arrives, the Dursleys are stunned almost to insensibility. Dumbledore makes himself at home, and sweeps the Dursleys into a couch; then offers everyone mead. The Dursleys refuse to acknowledge the mead, despite the animated glasses getting more and more insistent about being taken, to the point that one of them ends up bouncing off Vernon's head and spilling most of its contents as it does so. Dumbledore and Harry, meanwhile, discuss Harry's inheritance; Sirius, it seems, had left Harry the house at Grimmauld Place and all its contents. This catches Vernon's attention: Harry owns a house in London? When, in order to test whether the house actually did pass to Harry, Dumbledore summons the house-elf [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Kreacher|Kreacher]], Vernon and Petunia are both revolted at finding this dirty thing in the middle of their spotless living room.

After Harry had packed for school and brought his trunk downstairs, Dumbledore addresses the Dursleys again, saying that he had expected that the Dursleys would treat Harry as one of their own children, rather than maltreating him as they had. However, Harry had apparently not been as poorly served by the Dursleys as the child between them. Both Vernon and Petunia look around at this, as if expecting someone other than Dudley to be present. Dumbledore then says that Harry must return to Privet Drive next summer, at least briefly, but that his magical protection in that place would end when he reached his majority. When Vernon points out that Harry will only be turning seventeen, not eighteen, Dumbledore says that in the Wizarding world, seventeen is the age of majority. Vernon says that's stupid.

At this point, Harry and Dumbledore leave Privet Drive. As this book ends before Harry returns for the summer, Vernon plays no further part in it.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows|Deathly Hallows]] ===

Harry, assisted by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Kingsley Shacklebolt|Kingsley Shacklebolt]] and Arthur Weasley, has been trying to convince Uncle Vernon to accept the offer of a safe retreat for protection from the chance that Voldemort will attack the house at Privet Drive once Harry's protection there ends. Vernon seems quite happy to speak with Kingsley, who he has seen on television in the company of the Prime Minister, but he still doesn't entirely trust Harry or Arthur. He asks Harry at one point why Kingsley cannot be sent to guard them, and Harry does not have an answer. When we first see Vernon in this book, he has just changed his mind again, saying that he will not leave the house because he expects that Harry would immediately try to transfer title to himself. Harry wearily points out that he already owns a house in London, and that there is nothing that would make him want to stay at Privet Drive anyway.

When the members of the Order of the Phoenix who will be travelling with the Dursleys arrive, Vernon is not particularly reassured. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dedalus Diggle|Dedalus Diggle]] is a very short and bouncy man, whose admission that he doesn't understand all the gadgets in a car is worrying to Vernon, and whose watch, alarmingly, talks, saying that they are late. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hestia Jones|Hestia Jones]], while much less flamboyant, also does not seem to impress Vernon. All the same, the three Dursleys and the two wizards all climb into the Dursleys' car, and the last we see of Vernon is him driving away to safety.

== Strengths ==
Vernon is physically quite strong, having a beefy body and displaying physical violence towards Harry at several points. His drill company, Grunnings, is doing business and, as its manager, Vernon is rich and successful. He has a nice house, a doted-for son and a company car, all of which he likes to show off as proof of his lifestyle.

== Weaknesses ==

Vernon is a narrow minded and often cruel man.  He despises having Harry under his roof and rarely misses a chance to belittle him.  Vernon is fearful of the magical world and considers Harry's wizarding abilities an abnormality that must be suppressed and concealed.  Vernon has the tendency to throw temper tantrums at any mention of magic or its related contents, whether directly or indirectly.

== Relationships with Other Characters ==

Vernon's relationships with other characters are very different in nature, though apparently uniformly shallow. Toward Harry, we see that Vernon makes no accommodation to Harry's needs, such as refusing to sign a Hogsmeade permission slip in Harry's third year.  Vernon often restricts his nephew to his room for days at a time.  Vernon is verbally, emotionally, and on occasion, physically abusive to Harry. As Harry matures and becomes more powerful as a wizard, Vernon's feelings towards him shift, becoming less authoritarian and more fearful. By the beginning of the sixth book, Vernon is almost as afraid of Harry as he is of any mature Wizard.

Vernon acts completely differently towards his son, Dudley, showering him with gifts and making nearly infinite allowances for his desires. However, one cannot tell whether Vernon's motivation here is affection towards his son, or simply the need to keep up appearances. Fathers love their sons, so Vernon must show the appearance of loving Dudley. He does seem, however, to be genuinely fond of Dudley.

It is hard to determine Vernon's actual feelings, if any, towards his wife, Petunia, or his sister Marge. It could be that all we see is Vernon acting properly to keep up appearances. However, Vernon again makes great allowances for Marge's foibles and her opinions, wincing as Marge puts the saucer down for her dog, and keeping her liquor glass filled in order to attempt to defuse her diatribe against Harry. Towards Petunia, he has the appearance of the dutiful husband, caring for his wife, but with Petunia herself seeming to discourage intimacy, it is extremely hard to determine what feelings, if any, they have for each other.

== Analysis ==

Clearly, the main driving force behind Vernon Dursley is &quot;what other people think.&quot; From the beginning of the first book, it seems that his world image is based on what he believes other people think of him, and he is at great pains to appear &quot;normal.&quot; Because of this, when things that are not normal happen around Harry, Vernon will often punish Harry inordinately. Events at the zoo in [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 2|the first book]] are clearly out of the ordinary, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 3|the punishment Harry receives]], being locked in his &quot;room&quot; under the stairs for several days, is clearly out of line. (One wonders, in fact, how Vernon and Petunia made Harry's extended absence from school on this occasion seem &quot;normal&quot;. We are led to believe that this form of punishment was not uncommon, so the Dursleys may have explained his frequent absences by claiming that Harry was a sickly child.)

Despite being the head of the household where Harry lives, Vernon is clearly not a father figure for Harry. It could be argued that if he is a father figure for his own son, Dudley, he is not a particularly good one; rather than a source of security, Dudley seems to see Vernon as a source of gifts and toys. We find that Harry has somewhat idealised his deceased parents, which of course makes Vernon even less likely to fulfil the role of parent in Harry's mind; rather, he is an oppressive force to be first avoided, then negotiated with, and finally outright defied, as Harry matures and gains power.

Vernon's role, then, would largely be one of highlighting how Harry is maturing, as the series progresses. As Harry develops abilities that Vernon will never have, his self confidence increases, as does his willingness to stand up to Vernon for what he wants and needs. In his interactions with Harry, Vernon is handicapped by needing to appear normal to the neighbours, and Harry, as he develops, is able to use this in his dealings with Vernon and Petunia.

Even so, Vernon does not seem a genuinely cruel person. His love for Petunia and Dudley is genuine, if, as regards the latter, counterproductive in the way it is expressed. Likewise, he seems to generally honour at least his family duties towards Harry, though Petunia at least once, in a stressful and dangerous situation, has to persuade him to do so. His punishments of Harry are excessive, but the stress of being an utter philistine and having a magician of feared powers and with powerful enemies under one's roof must be taken into account. He seems to be at the very least moderately successful with his drills company (when house-elves searching for Harry don't ruin his business dinners), and Harry, though detesting his time at the Dursleys', does trust Vernon to keep his promises (such as signing Harry's Hogsmeade permission if he behaves for a week). The writer makes it clear that Vernon is a large part of why Harry's stay at his house are as horrible as they are, but he is still by no means a genuine villain of the calibre of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lord Voldemort|Lord Voldemort]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bellatrix Lestrange|Bellatrix Lestrange]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dolores Umbridge|Dolores Umbridge]], or even Aunt Marge. It ''is'' possible, however, to detect similarities to Cornelius Fudge's personality &amp;ndash; which are probably not accidental, but stem from the fact that both share the character trait of philistinism, which is more important than whether one is magical or unmagical.

== Questions ==
{{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Questions}}

# Why do you think Vernon married Petunia, if she is from a family with a magical member?
# Do you think Vernon does have any genuine affection for Harry?
# Is Vernon's treatment of Dudley fair? How, or how not, has this affected him?
# Where do you think the Dursleys went with the Order members during the seventh book? Were they safe there?

== Greater Picture ==

{{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Intermediate Spoiler}}

It may be important to note that Vernon appears less and less throughout the books. He is in all of them, even having a little more &quot;screen time&quot; than Petunia or Dudley. As Harry matures and the Wizarding world becomes more and more of his life, he spends fewer days with the Dursleys than he did between his first and second, or second and third, years. Vernon becomes less of a genuine threat, and more of an annoyance, towards the end of the series.

In the final two books, Vernon is only seen in one chapter each, in both of which he reiterates his mistrust of the magical world, even refusing to drink mead conjured by Dumbledore due to its magical genesis. He almost does not go with the Order members in the final book, but does so when Dudley decides to go.

We do not see Vernon again. The story moves on without him, unlike Petunia, who we later see in the extended flashback sequence in the Pensieve. It is very unlikely that Harry, who now very much belongs in the Wizarding world, would ever wish to see him again (and, if he does so, it would be likely to be brief). Despite his being the first character mentioned in the entire saga, by the end, he is practically transparent.

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== Overview ==

'''''Vernon Dursley''''' is [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Harry Potter|Harry Potter]]'s uncle by marriage (Vernon's wife is Harry's mother's sister). He and his wife [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Petunia Dursley|Petunia Dursley]] reluctantly took Harry in as a baby, while they had their own son, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dudley Dursley|Dudley]]. Vernon feels somewhat threatened by Harry's magical abilities and wishes to &quot;stamp it out of him,&quot; to the extent of refusing to allow him to speak of anything even slightly out of the ordinary.

== Role in the Books ==

{{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Beginner Spoiler}}

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone|Philosopher's Stone]] ===

The first person we actually meet in the series is Vernon Dursley. We follow Vernon as he kisses his wife goodbye in the morning, and as he drives off to his workplace, Grunnings, where he sells drills and yells at people. On his way to work he sees a cat apparently reading a map, and several small groups of people wearing robes, talking excitedly about something. He happens to overhear one of the groups talking about one &quot;Harry Potter&quot; and this worries him to the point that he nearly calls home. He decides, however, that it would not be '''normal''' to phone his wife over such a small occurrence, and decides to wait until he gets home. There, while watching a news report about strange occurrences happening all around Britain, he casually asks the name of Petunia's sister's child. She confirms that he is named Harry Potter, &quot;a dreadfully common name&quot;. Vernon is still worried, and still not daring to show it, when he goes to sleep that night.

We see Vernon some ten years later, sitting at the breakfast table, and doting on his son, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dudley Dursley|Dudley]]. It is Dudley's birthday, and Vernon cheerfully tells him that there are thirty-seven presents there. Dudley is immediately angered: he had thirty-eight the year before. He calms down when Petunia promises him two more. A phone call interrupts them; Petunia reports that [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arabella Figg|Mrs. Figg]] has broken her leg and will be unable to take care of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Harry Potter|Harry]] while everyone else is at the zoo. Petunia and Vernon discuss what to do with Harry as if he was not present in the room, except that when Harry suggests he could stay at home by himself, Vernon dismisses that idea out of hand. Eventually they decide that Harry will have to go to the zoo with them. Vernon warns Harry that if he makes anything &quot;unusual&quot; happen, he'll be locked in his cupboard from that day until Christmas.

On the way to the zoo, Harry mentions that he had dreamed about a flying motorcycle. Vernon, livid, yells at him that there are no such things as flying motorcycles.

Despite Vernon's attempts to keep Harry in the background, Harry has a good time at the zoo, as vendors naturally assume that Vernon will be buying for all three of the boys he has with him. When the glass in front of the snake vanishes, and Dudley falls into the moat, Vernon apparently blames Harry. Once they get home, Vernon, evidently unable to speak, locks Harry back into his cupboard under the stairs, saying he will have no meals. Harry, left to his own devices, plans to sneak out to the kitchen for some food after the Dursleys are all asleep.

Vernon is extremely pleased that Dudley will be attending Smeltings, his old school. In the face of Vernon's obvious and overweening pride, Harry retreats to hide his amusement at Dudley's uniform. It is the same day the first of Harry's letters arrives. Vernon is apparently appalled when he realizes who has sent the letter to Harry, and immediately sends both Harry and Dudley out of the kitchen. While Harry and Dudley listen at the door, Vernon and Petunia discuss what they are going to do about this letter, eventually deciding to ignore it. However, now knowing that someone knows Harry is in the cupboard under the stairs, that being where it was addressed to, Vernon decides to move him to Dudley's second bedroom, where all Dudley's broken toys are stored.

This turns out to be a less than useful decision, as the letters keep coming. The next day, Dudley announces a second one, addressed to Harry in &quot;''The Smallest Bedroom''&quot;, and Vernon has to fight both Harry and Dudley for it. The next day, Harry gets up early to reach the door before anyone else, and finds Vernon sleeping across the doorway. Three more letters are delivered onto his chest, and he tears them up before Harry's eyes. Vernon, now getting more frantic, nails up the letterbox.

On Friday, twelve more letters for Harry arrive, stuffed in all the cracks around the door, as they can't be put in the letterbox. Vernon, now very jumpy and humming &quot;Tiptoe Through the Tulips&quot;, seals up all the cracks that letters had come through.

On Saturday, twenty-four more letters arrive, inside the two dozen eggs delivered through the window by the milkman. Vernon, of course, phones the dairy, demanding to know who was responsible for them being there.

On Sunday, an apparently slightly demented Vernon announces that this is his favourite day of the week, because there is no post. Almost as he speaks, a rumbling noise heralds the delivery of what seems to be about a hundred letters, all addressed to Harry, down the kitchen chimney. Vernon throws Harry bodily out of the kitchen, and pulling tufts out of his moustache, tells everyone that they are going away, and to pack some clothes.

Vernon drives them in apparently random directions all day, often turning 180 degrees and going back on his course, all the while muttering something about &quot;shaking them off&quot;. By the end of the day Dudley is howling, as he had missed five television programs, and Vernon had not stopped for any food. Eventually they end up at a gloomy hotel on the outskirts of a large city. In the hotel restaurant the next morning, the clerk approaches them, saying that he's got about a hundred letters for Harry Potter at the desk; Vernon rises to take them, and they set off again.

Today, Vernon seems to be madly looking for some place that they can't be reached, stopping and looking around in the middle of a suspension bridge, or deep in the woods, but none of these seems correct somehow. Eventually, as night falls, they stop on a seacoast, and Vernon leaves the car. He returns in a short while saying he has found just the place, and points at a hut precariously perched on a rock out in the ocean. He is also carrying a long, thin package, and says he has provisions and a boat to get out there.

Once in the hut, the provisions prove scanty: a packet of crisps (US: chips) and a banana for each of them. With a storm coming on, Vernon seems quite cheerful, thinking nothing could get through to them now. He and Petunia take the bedroom, leaving Dudley on the broken-down couch in the main room, and Harry with the thinnest blanket on the floor.

When [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Rubeus Hagrid|Hagrid]] arrives, knocking the door down at the height of the storm, Vernon appears, now carrying the contents of the long thin parcel: a rifle. Hagrid bends the rifle into a pretzel and throws it away, and Vernon retreats, though he does retain enough sense to tell Dudley not to eat anything Hagrid offers him. When Harry admits that he knows nothing about Hagrid's world, the Wizarding world, Hagrid turns angrily on Vernon, who, much abashed, subsides into incoherence. Vernon does try a number of times to prevent Hagrid telling Harry about the Wizarding world, and insists that Harry is not going to Hogwarts, but Hagrid overrides him easily. When Vernon angrily protests that he is not going to pay good money to have some &quot;doddering old man&quot; teach Harry magic tricks, Hagrid angrily warns him not to insult [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Albus Dumbledore|Albus Dumbledore]], and by way of emphasis gives Dudley a pig's tail. Panicked by this display of magic, the three Dursleys retreat to the back bedroom.

When Harry returns to Privet Drive, Vernon has apparently chosen to ignore him, and so Harry's life is much quieter. As the day of departure comes closer, Harry asks Uncle Vernon if he could get a ride into London to catch his train. Vernon agrees, saying that they had to go into London anyway to get Dudley's tail removed surgically. When Vernon comments sarcastically about Harry's need for a train, Harry says that he has to catch the train at King's Cross Station at [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Platform 9 and Three Quarters|platform nine and three quarters]]. Vernon seems surprised by this.

The next day, as they reach King's Cross Station, Vernon is uncharacteristically jolly. He even loads Harry's trunk onto a dolly and pushes it into the station. He points out the big signs for platforms nine and ten, and observes that there doesn't seem to be a platform nine and three quarters. He then wishes Harry a happy term, and leaves, laughing. Harry sees the three Dursleys laughing at him in the car as they drive away.

At Christmas, Harry receives a note acknowledging his earlier message – he had written to say he had made it to school – and enclosing his Christmas gift, a 50p piece. The note is signed by Vernon and Petunia. Harry gives the coin to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ron Weasley|Ron]], who is amazed at the appearance of this Muggle money.

When Harry returns to London on the Hogwarts Express, Uncle Vernon is extremely brusque in his greeting, to the point of shocking [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hermione Granger|Hermione]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Molly Weasley|Mrs. Weasley]]. As Vernon leaves, Harry tells Ron and Hermione that he'll be having some fun with the Dursleys, as they don't know he isn't allowed to practice magic.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Chamber of Secrets|Chamber of Secrets]] ===

When Harry comes down to breakfast, he reminds Dudley to &quot;use the magic word&quot; when Dudley commands him to pass the bacon. This results in Vernon throwing a temper tantrum at the breakfast table, as he has forbidden all mention of magic in the house. Harry is briefly amazed to hear Uncle Vernon say that it is a special day, as it is Harry's birthday. It turns out, however, that Vernon is talking about his guests that evening, the Masons, a couple that he is trying to impress, as they could place the largest order of drills Vernon has ever received. Vernon then leads his family in rehearsing what they will be doing, reminding Harry repeatedly that his role is to be upstairs in his room, pretending he is not there. Harry several times has trouble keeping a straight face, as the plans for the evening seem to him to be ludicrously transparent attempts to curry favour.

As the guests arrive, Harry, as ordered, goes to his room, where he finds a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/House Elf|house-elf]] jumping on his bed. The elf, who introduces himself as [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dobby|Dobby]], apparently feels he is being very disobedient by coming to see Harry, and must punish himself. The resulting noise bring Vernon upstairs to chide Harry, who has managed to hide Dobby when he heard Vernon approaching. When Dobby drops the Dursleys' dessert in the kitchen, Vernon almost manages to calm down his guests; but very shortly after that an owl arrives with a parchment, which it drops on Mrs. Mason's head. Mrs. Mason, who is morbidly afraid of birds, runs screaming from the house, and Mr. Mason follows, saying he will not be dealing with Grunnings.

Furious, Vernon brings the letter to Harry and tells him to read it out loud. It is a warning from the Ministry that Harry has violated the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Underage Sorcery|Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery]] by performing a Hover Charm. Vernon, now knowing that Harry is not allowed to perform magic at Privet Drive until he comes of age, decides to lock him into his bedroom, adding bars across the window for good measure.

When Ron, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fred and George Weasley|Fred, and George]] break Harry out of his room, Harry almost forgets [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hedwig|Hedwig]], who is locked into her cage. Hedwig's loud hoot at being forgotten wakes up the Dursleys, and Vernon rushes into the room, barely catching Harry's foot as Harry is lifted out of the window by the Weasleys' flying Ford Anglia. Vernon tumbles down into the bushes under the window, and Harry escapes in the car.

At Christmas, the Dursleys send Harry a toothpick and a letter telling him to find out if he can stay at Hogwarts for the summer vacation.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Prisoner of Azkaban|Prisoner of Azkaban]] ===

Somewhat less afraid of Harry having learned that he is not allowed to practice magic at Privet Drive, Vernon has locked all Harry's school supplies away in the cupboard that was previously Harry's bedroom. Harry has used the lock-picking skills he had learned from Fred and George Weasley to get the materials he needs out of the cupboard, and now does his homework by torch under his bedcovers at night.

When Harry's Hogwarts letter arrives with the next years' booklist, it contains a permission slip; signed by a parent or guardian, it would allow Harry to visit Hogsmeade on specified weekends. Harry wonders how he will get Uncle Vernon to sign it.

Vernon, the next morning, announces that he is off to the train station to collect his sister, Harry's [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Marge Dursley|Aunt Marge]]. Harry receives strict instructions as to how he is to act: be civil to Marge, no discussion of magic, and Harry is to recall that Marge has been told that he has been placed in St. Brutus' Secure Centre for Incurably Criminal Boys. As Vernon is leaving, Harry takes him aside and points out that he's going to have a hard time remembering the stuff he's been told he has to remember. Vernon, thinking about how much damage one small slip could do, pales. Harry suggests that if there was something in it for him, he would be more careful, and asks if Uncle Vernon would be willing to sign his permission slip. Vernon grudgingly agrees that if Harry manages to stay convincing for the full week of Marge's stay, he will sign the permission slip.

The following week is very hard on Vernon, as Marge insists on not only keeping Harry in view so he can't sneak around behind her back, but in insulting Harry and his parents. Vernon is unusually sensitive to Harry's moods, repeatedly trying to distract Marge off subject so that Harry won't get upset and say something that would reveal that he isn't ''normal''. On the last night of her visit, however, Marge insults Harry's father, and Harry loses control, inadvertently causing Marge to inflate like a balloon. Knowing that he is in trouble, Harry hastily retrieves his school supplies, threatening Vernon with his wand when he tries to stop Harry and get him to deflate Aunt Marge, and leaves, dragging his trunk.

When Harry reaches the Leaky Cauldron, he is intercepted by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Cornelius Fudge|the Minister for Magic, Cornelius Fudge]], who tells him that Aunt Marge had been punctured and her memory adjusted. He says that the Dursleys are willing to have him back at Privet Drive over the summer if he stays at Hogwarts over Christmas and Easter.

When Harry returns to London after the school year, he tells Vernon that he has met his godfather. When Vernon says he doesn't have one, Harry says he does, his name is [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Sirius Black|Sirius Black]] and he's a convicted murderer who is on the run, but he is very interested in Harry's wellbeing and will expect to hear from him over the summer. Vernon turns quite pale at this news.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Goblet of Fire|Goblet of Fire]] ===

The school nurse has sent instructions home with Dudley that he is to be put on a diet, as he is so fat; Vernon's temper has not been improved by Petunia putting the entire family on a diet, to keep Dudley from feeling singled out.

In mid-August, Vernon receives a letter from [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Molly Weasley|Mrs. Weasley]], asking if Harry could go to the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Quidditch World Cup|Quidditch World Cup]] with her family, as they have tickets. Vernon is disconcerted by the letter, which has aroused the postman's interest because it is totally covered with stamps, except for a small area where Mrs. Weasley has written Vernon's address. Clearly, this is Different, and therefore Bad. The contents of the letter are equally dismaying, because they leave Vernon with a quandary: if he permits Harry to go, then Harry will be doing something he likes, which is clearly bad; however, Mrs. Weasley has also said that he can stay the rest of the summer with her, which would mean that Harry would be out of Vernon's hair a good fortnight sooner than expected. Sensing this indecision, Harry points out that he should get an answer from Uncle Vernon soon, as he is writing to his godfather, and Sirius will want to know where he is and what he's doing. Reminded of Sirius' existence, Vernon backs down from his indignation and gives Harry permission to go.

The Weasleys had said that they would arrive to collect Harry; Vernon wonders how they will arrive, and whether they will be dressed normally or in wizards' clothes. Vernon himself has dressed in his best business suit, to try and intimidate the Weasleys. The time of their scheduled arrival comes, and goes, with Harry looking anxiously outside to see them arrive, when there is a noise from the fireplace: [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arthur Weasley|Mr. Weasley]] has had the Dursleys' fireplace attached to the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Floo Network|Floo network]] for the day, and he, Fred, George, and Ron have all appeared in the Dursleys' walled-up fireplace. Mr. Weasley blows the wall apart magically to get his family out, coating Vernon and Petunia with white dust. Stunned, Vernon and Petunia say nothing, despite Mr. Weasley's attempts at making conversation, while Fred and George go to retrieve Harry's trunk. As he re-enters the fire, Fred drops a bag of toffees, and though he picks most of them up, one is left behind. With all the other Weasleys gone, Harry is preparing to go when Mr. Weasley stops him. He reminds Vernon that Harry is about to leave for several months, isn't Vernon even going to say goodbye? Grudgingly (and very resentfully), Vernon says, &quot;Well, goodbye then.&quot; Mr. Weasley is amazed at this brusqueness, but Harry prepares to enter the fire. He is stopped by a gagging noise: Dudley has found and eaten the toffee left by Fred, and it has expanded his tongue to several feet in length. Outraged, Vernon starts attacking Mr. Weasley. As Harry departs, he sees Mr. Weasley destroying the china figurines that Vernon is throwing at him.

At one point, Hermione mentions that the Dursleys would likely be pleased to hear how well he was doing in the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Triwizard Tournament|Triwizard Tournament]]. Harry demurs, saying they would be happier if he had managed to get himself killed.

Vernon meets Harry again at King's Cross Station, and is, as usual, surly and untalkative.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Order of the Phoenix|Order of the Phoenix]] ===

Knowing Voldemort is back, Harry is intensely interested in both the Wizarding and the Muggle news, looking for evidence of his return. He cannot watch the Muggle news without being abused by Uncle Vernon, so in order to at least hear the news, in hopes that he will be able to recognize the effects of Dark Magic, he lies in the garden, hidden from the neighbours by the geraniums, listening through the open windows. While he is listening this way, he hears a noise in the street that he recognizes as the sound of someone [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Apparition|Diasapparating]], and leaps up, wand at the ready, only to crack his head on the window standing open above him. Vernon, discovering him there, pulls Harry in through the window, and then makes conciliatory noises at the neighbours who have looked around at his bellow of outrage, to try and reassure them that there is nothing wrong. Vernon and Harry then have a low-voiced argument, until Harry goes out, in part to investigate the noise he had heard.

Harry later brings a very ill Dudley, who has just been attacked by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Dementor|Dementors]], back home. Harry hopes to escape to his room, but Dudley manages to mention Harry, and Vernon calls Harry back into the kitchen. While Vernon and Petunia Dursley confront him about their now-ill son, Harry receives a letter from the Ministry of Magic expelling him from Hogwarts and saying his wand will shortly be destroyed. Harry decides that his only option is to become a fugitive, but before he can get past Uncle Vernon, another owl letter arrives from [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arthur Weasley|Arthur Weasley]], telling him to stay in his uncle's house, not let Ministry representatives break his wand, and not use magic again; Dumbledore is straightening things out. As he must remain in the house anyway, Harry stays at the kitchen table and tries to explain what happened. He insists that he did not use magic against Dudley, that it was the Dementors. When Uncle Vernon asks what Dementors are, Aunt Petunia answers, &quot;they are the guards of the Wizard prison, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Azkaban|Azkaban]].&quot;

Petunia's revelation shocks everyone, including Petunia, who belatedly covers her mouth with her hands, as if realizing she has just said something horribly obscene. Harry is amazed to find himself sitting in Aunt Petunia's antiseptic kitchen, answering questions about the Wizarding world. Meanwhile, another owl arrives from Arthur, and one from Sirius, briefly telling Harry that the situation is being sorted out. Finally, a second owl from the Ministry of Magic arrives revoking his expulsion and wand destruction. Instead, Harry's fate rests on a hearing scheduled for &quot;9 A.M. on August 12th.&quot;

When Harry says Lord Voldemort has returned, Uncle Vernon, recognising the danger he and his family are in while they house Harry, demands he leave. However, this is interrupted by one final owl carrying a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Howler|Howler]]&amp;mdash;surprisingly for Petunia Dursley. A menacing voice reverberates throughout the kitchen: &quot;REMEMBER MY LAST, PETUNIA!!!&quot; Petunia quickly overrides her husband, insisting that Harry remain at their house, on the grounds that sending him away at this point would attract awkward questions from the neighbours, but sending him to bed immediately.

Harry is now once again locked in his room, though we don't know whether this is Vernon's decision or Petunia's. Three days later, Vernon tells Harry that he, Petunia, and Dudley have been invited to a Best Kept Suburban Lawn award, and are leaving Harry alone in the house, locked into his room. Harry listens to them leave. Shortly, the Advance Guard arrives to take him away to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Grimmauld Place|the Headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix]]. As he is leaving, Harry wonders what Vernon will think when he discovers there is no Best Kept Suburban Lawn competition.

When Harry returns to London for the summer vacation, he finds Mr. and Mrs. Weasley, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Nymphadora Tonks|Tonks]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Remus Lupin|Lupin]], and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Alastor Moody|&quot;Mad Eye&quot; Moody]] who tell Harry they plan to have a stern talk with his aunt and uncle about how they treat him. The whole group confront Uncle Vernon, intimidating him, despite his initial bluster, into making the necessary concessions for Harry's comfort over the summer, warning the Dursleys that there will be consequences if they find out that Harry is mistreated. They also mention that they will be in touch, either by Harry's owl, or in person.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Half-Blood Prince|Half-Blood Prince]] ===

Although [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Albus Dumbledore|Professor Dumbledore]] had told Harry he would be arriving only two weeks into the summer vacation to take Harry away to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/The Burrow|The Burrow]], Harry had not told the Dursleys about it, partially out of fear that it would not actually be happening. So when Dumbledore arrives, the Dursleys are stunned almost to insensibility. Dumbledore makes himself at home, and sweeps the Dursleys into a couch; then offers everyone mead. The Dursleys refuse to acknowledge the mead, despite the animated glasses getting more and more insistent about being taken, to the point that one of them ends up bouncing off Vernon's head and spilling most of its contents as it does so. Dumbledore and Harry, meanwhile, discuss Harry's inheritance; Sirius, it seems, had left Harry the house at Grimmauld Place and all its contents. This catches Vernon's attention: Harry owns a house in London? When, in order to test whether the house actually did pass to Harry, Dumbledore summons the house-elf [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Kreacher|Kreacher]], Vernon and Petunia are both revolted at finding this dirty thing in the middle of their spotless living room.

After Harry had packed for school and brought his trunk downstairs, Dumbledore addresses the Dursleys again, saying that he had expected that the Dursleys would treat Harry as one of their own children, rather than maltreating him as they had. However, Harry had apparently not been as poorly served by the Dursleys as the child between them. Both Vernon and Petunia look around at this, as if expecting someone other than Dudley to be present. Dumbledore then says that Harry must return to Privet Drive next summer, at least briefly, but that his magical protection in that place would end when he reached his majority. When Vernon points out that Harry will only be turning seventeen, not eighteen, Dumbledore says that in the Wizarding world, seventeen is the age of majority. Vernon says that's stupid.

At this point, Harry and Dumbledore leave Privet Drive. As this book ends before Harry returns for the summer, Vernon plays no further part in it.

=== [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows|Deathly Hallows]] ===

Harry, assisted by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Kingsley Shacklebolt|Kingsley Shacklebolt]] and Arthur Weasley, has been trying to convince Uncle Vernon to accept the offer of a safe retreat for protection from the chance that Voldemort will attack the house at Privet Drive once Harry's protection there ends. Vernon seems quite happy to speak with Kingsley, who he has seen on television in the company of the Prime Minister, but he still doesn't entirely trust Harry or Arthur. He asks Harry at one point why Kingsley cannot be sent to guard them, and Harry does not have an answer. When we first see Vernon in this book, he has just changed his mind again, saying that he will not leave the house because he expects that Harry would immediately try to transfer title to himself. Harry wearily points out that he already owns a house in London, and that there is nothing that would make him want to stay at Privet Drive anyway.

When the members of the Order of the Phoenix who will be travelling with the Dursleys arrive, Vernon is not particularly reassured. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dedalus Diggle|Dedalus Diggle]] is a very short and bouncy man, whose admission that he doesn't understand all the gadgets in a car is worrying to Vernon, and whose watch, alarmingly, talks, saying that they are late. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hestia Jones|Hestia Jones]], while much less flamboyant, also does not seem to impress Vernon. All the same, the three Dursleys and the two wizards all climb into the Dursleys' car, and the last we see of Vernon is him driving away to safety.

== Strengths ==
Vernon is physically quite strong, having a beefy body and displaying physical violence towards Harry at several points. His drill company, Grunnings, is doing business and, as its manager, Vernon is rich and successful. He has a nice house, a doted-for son and a company car, all of which he likes to show off as proof of his lifestyle.

== Weaknesses ==

Vernon is a narrow minded and often cruel man.  He despises having Harry under his roof and rarely misses a chance to belittle him.  Vernon is fearful of the magical world and considers Harry's wizarding abilities an abnormality that must be suppressed and concealed.  Vernon has the tendency to throw temper tantrums at any mention of magic or its related contents, whether directly or indirectly.

== Relationships with Other Characters ==

Vernon's relationships with other characters are very different in nature, though apparently uniformly shallow. Toward Harry, we see that Vernon makes no accommodation to Harry's needs, such as refusing to sign a Hogsmeade permission slip in Harry's third year.  Vernon often restricts his nephew to his room for days at a time.  Vernon is verbally, emotionally, and on occasion, physically abusive to Harry. As Harry matures and becomes more powerful as a wizard, Vernon's feelings towards him shift, becoming less authoritarian and more fearful. By the beginning of the sixth book, Vernon is almost as afraid of Harry as he is of any mature Wizard.

Vernon acts completely differently towards his son, Dudley, showering him with gifts and making nearly infinite allowances for his desires. However, one cannot tell whether Vernon's motivation here is affection towards his son, or simply the need to keep up appearances. Fathers love their sons, so Vernon must show the appearance of loving Dudley. He does seem, however, to be genuinely fond of Dudley.

It is hard to determine Vernon's actual feelings, if any, towards his wife, Petunia, or his sister Marge. It could be that all we see is Vernon acting properly to keep up appearances. However, Vernon again makes great allowances for Marge's foibles and her opinions, wincing as Marge puts the saucer down for her dog, and keeping her liquor glass filled in order to attempt to defuse her diatribe against Harry. Towards Petunia, he has the appearance of the dutiful husband, caring for his wife, but with Petunia herself seeming to discourage intimacy, it is extremely hard to determine what feelings, if any, they have for each other.

== Analysis ==

Clearly, the main driving force behind Vernon Dursley is &quot;what other people think.&quot; From the beginning of the first book, it seems that his world image is based on what he believes other people think of him, and he is at great pains to appear &quot;normal.&quot; Because of this, when things that are not normal happen around Harry, Vernon will often punish Harry inordinately. Events at the zoo in [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 2|the first book]] are clearly out of the ordinary, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 3|the punishment Harry receives]], being locked in his &quot;room&quot; under the stairs for several days, is clearly out of line. (One wonders, in fact, how Vernon and Petunia made Harry's extended absence from school on this occasion seem &quot;normal&quot;. We are led to believe that this form of punishment was not uncommon, so the Dursleys may have explained his frequent absences by claiming that Harry was a sickly child.)

Despite being the head of the household where Harry lives, Vernon is clearly not a father figure for Harry. It could be argued that if he is a father figure for his own son, Dudley, he is not a particularly good one; rather than a source of security, Dudley seems to see Vernon as a source of gifts and toys. We find that Harry has somewhat idealised his deceased parents, which of course makes Vernon even less likely to fulfil the role of parent in Harry's mind; rather, he is an oppressive force to be first avoided, then negotiated with, and finally outright defied, as Harry matures and gains power.

Vernon's role, then, would largely be one of highlighting how Harry is maturing, as the series progresses. As Harry develops abilities that Vernon will never have, his self confidence increases, as does his willingness to stand up to Vernon for what he wants and needs. In his interactions with Harry, Vernon is handicapped by needing to appear normal to the neighbours, and Harry, as he develops, is able to use this in his dealings with Vernon and Petunia.

Even so, Vernon does not seem a genuinely cruel person. His love for Petunia and Dudley is genuine, if, as regards the latter, counterproductive in the way it is expressed. Likewise, he seems to generally honour at least his family duties towards Harry, though Petunia at least once, in a stressful and dangerous situation, has to persuade him to do so. His punishments of Harry are excessive, but the stress of being an utter philistine and having a magician of feared powers and with powerful enemies under one's roof must be taken into account. He seems to be at the very least moderately successful with his drills company (when house-elves searching for Harry don't ruin his business dinners), and Harry, though detesting his time at the Dursleys', does trust Vernon to keep his promises (such as signing Harry's Hogsmeade permission if he behaves for a week). The writer makes it clear that Vernon is a large part of why Harry's stay at his house are as horrible as they are, but he is still by no means a genuine villain of the calibre of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lord Voldemort|Lord Voldemort]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bellatrix Lestrange|Bellatrix Lestrange]], [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dolores Umbridge|Dolores Umbridge]], or even Aunt Marge. It ''is'' possible, however, to detect similarities to Cornelius Fudge's personality &amp;ndash; which are probably not accidental, but stem from the fact that both share the character trait of philistinism, which is more important than whether one is magical or unmagical.

== Questions ==
{{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Questions}}

# Why do you think Vernon married Petunia, if she is from a family with a magical member?
# Do you think Vernon does have any genuine affection for Harry?
# Is Vernon's treatment of Dudley fair? How, or how not, has this affected him?
# Where do you think the Dursleys went with the Order members during the seventh book? Were they safe there?

== Greater Picture ==

{{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Intermediate Spoiler}}

It may be important to note that Vernon appears less and less throughout the books. He is in all of them, even having a little more &quot;screen time&quot; than Petunia or Dudley. As Harry matures and the Wizarding world becomes more and more of his life, he spends fewer days with the Dursleys than he did between his first and second, or second and third, years. Vernon becomes less of a genuine threat, and more of an annoyance, towards the end of the series.

In the final two books, Vernon is only seen in one chapter each, in both of which he reiterates his mistrust of the magical world, even refusing to drink mead conjured by Dumbledore due to its magical genesis. He almost does not go with the Order members in the final book, but does so when Dudley decides to go.

We do not see Vernon again. The story moves on without him, unlike Petunia, who we later see in the extended flashback sequence in the Pensieve. It is very unlikely that Harry, who now very much belongs in the Wizarding world, would ever wish to see him again (and, if he does so, it would be likely to be brief). Despite his being the first character mentioned in the entire saga, by the end, he is practically transparent.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>112409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654564</id>
      <parentid>4654374</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T17:23:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Viewing unreviewed changes, and recent changes, for a particular book */ r</comment>
      <origin>4654564</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6264" sha1="hy8uqkho0gr0b0trxm35pvi6s0fsoy8" xml:space="preserve">__NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:TECH}} {{TOC left}}
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Welcome to the '''Technical Assistance reading room'''. Get assistance on questions related to [[w:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]] markup, CSS, JavaScript, and such as they relate to Wikibooks. '''This is not a general-purpose technical support room'''.

To submit a ''bug notice or feature request'' for the MediaWiki software, visit [[phabricator:|Phabricator]].

To get more information about the ''MediaWiki software'', or to download your own copy, visit [[mw:|MediaWiki]]

There are also two IRC channels for technical help: {{Channel|mediawiki}} for issues about the software, and {{channel|mediawiki-core}} for [[m:WMF|WMF]] server or configuration issues.
{{clear}}
[[Category:Reading room]]

== Survey (proposed direction for Wishlist) ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;You are invited to voice your opinion on a new [[m:Talk:Community Wishlist#Proposed direction for Wishlist|community-proposed direction]] for the [[m:Community Wishlist|Community Wishlist]]. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 03:07, 29 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/bdi&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:기나ㅏㄴ@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:%EA%B8%B0%EB%82%98%E3%85%8F%E3%84%B4/MassMessage&amp;oldid=30604233 --&gt;

== A location in a page. ==

Hi,&lt;br&gt;
A location in a page can be specified with empty span such as &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;location&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;, although not tidy. Can someone suggest another possibility or two, please?&lt;br&gt;
Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 13:22, 14 June 2026 (UTC)

:: ... &lt;a id=&quot;location&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a little more compact than span. Thx, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 01:56, 20 June 2026 (UTC)
::: &lt;a doesn't work but &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;location&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; works as in [[Oberon/System_Variants|Oberon/System_Variants]].
::: Thx, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 15:18, 21 June 2026 (UTC)

== Template usage. ==

Hi,&lt;br&gt;
(1) A template declared in my account namespace works. Declared in the book namespace it doesn't work. Both cases are demonstrated in my [[User:PeterEasthope/sandbox]]. Declaration in the book is more direct; better not to depend upon an individual account. Ideas? Thx.

(2) If the desktop browser window is narrowed or the sandbox is viewed on a smartphone, the display is as illustrated [https://easthope.ca/WikimediaTemplate.jpg here]. How can the black perimeter frame be shrunk automatically to fit the background color boxes?

Thx,        ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 15:35, 21 June 2026 (UTC)

== Viewing unreviewed changes, and recent changes, for a particular book ==
I've recently started editing [[Chess Opening Theory]] after a long hiatus. Two things
* How can I view recent edits, for this book alone. I'm aware of [[Using_Wikibooks/How_To_Edit_A_Wikibook#Watching All Pages in a Book|Watching All Pages in a Book]], which was well hidden on the page on editing, rather than on tracking changes (since rectified), but the advice there is unhelpful. Option 1 is entirely impractical, as one cannot add hundreds of pages one does not know about, and Option 2 simply doesn't work. For example, at this moment, there are 12 relevant edits listed in the main [[Special:RecentChanges]] page (which goes back to 9 July), but the suggested [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Chess_Opening_Theory Related Changes] only lists pages directly linked from the top level.
* Similarly, how can one see the unreviewed changes for this book (or even all the books, where I can at least manually filter). I noticed a whole lot going back more than a month and approved most of them, but this was only through some tedious digging around through user contributions and page histories.
**Partially answering this question myself, there's [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3APendingChanges&amp;namespace=&amp;tagFilter=&amp;limit=50&amp;category=&amp;size= this page]. Which brings up a followup question. My contributions page doesn't list the changes I've approved (only the one I declined). Is there a way to see these? [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[User talk:Greenman|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greenman|contribs]]) 21:38, 13 July 2026 (UTC)
Thanks! [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[User talk:Greenman|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greenman|contribs]]) 21:29, 13 July 2026 (UTC)

:At the risk of sounding pedantic, a hack for the first problem whereby [[Special:RecentChangesLinked/Chess_Opening_Theory]] only shows changes that are linked to the top page of the book directly and not all sub-pages or sub-sub-sub-pages, etc. is to just make them all linked from the top page. This can be done with a template that may make it a little more pretty or discreet than a huge list of links. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:53, 14 July 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks, but this doesn't really help. Besides having to add thousands of links to the front page, which certainly shouldn't be displayed there, when someone adds a new variation (which is what a large portion of the edits are), the new entry won't appear on Recent Changes until specifically linked from the front page. [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[User talk:Greenman|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greenman|contribs]]) 17:23, 15 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>hy8uqkho0gr0b0trxm35pvi6s0fsoy8</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Colors</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>134086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654549</id>
      <parentid>4654278</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T12:12:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarcGarver</username>
        <id>134830</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rejected the last text change (by [[Special:Contributions/Meno25|Meno25]]) and restored revision 3996097 by Mbrickn</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="438" sha1="hmc1ipscwtd2ct4e624mv08diok3ep4" xml:space="preserve">{{Wikijunior Colors}}
{{Wikijunior Colors/Color}}
== Information ==
{{Reading level|Pre-Reader}}
*[[/For Parents/]]
*[[/For Contributors/]]

{{Shelves|Wikijunior pre-reader books}}{{Status|100%}}

[[ar:ويكي الأطفال:ألوان]]
[[fr:Wikijunior:Les_couleurs]]
[[hy:Վիքիփոքրիկ:Գույներ]]
[[it:Wikijunior Colori]]
[[pl:Wikijunior:Kolory]]
[[ro:Wikijunior:Culori]]
[[tr:Vikiçocuk:Renkler]]
[[zh:Wikijunior:颜色]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6/4. Ng5/4...d5/5. exd5/5...Nxd5/6. Nxf7</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-15T17:15:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rejected the last text change (by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-53262-7|~2026-53262-7]]) and restored revision 4528825 by ZoeB - this has removed the following link</comment>
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      <text bytes="939" sha1="t35gtw3e83x95wbug0kqvtzyejqf1e8" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Fried Liver Attack|
   |rd|  |bd|qd|kd|bd|  |rd|=
   |pd|pd|pd|  |  |nl|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |nd|  |  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |nd|pd|  |  |  |=
   |  |  |bl|  |  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|pl|pl|pl|  |pl|pl|pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|  |  |rl|=
||
}}
=Fried Liver Attack=
6. Nxf7! is an aggressive Knight sacrifice. With no sensible way to decline, Black's King becomes exposed while White gains momentum in development.

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}.
:'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 Nxd5'''
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;Fried Liver Attack&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7!&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Kxf7|Kxf7]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3+&lt;br&gt;Ke6&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikipedia|Fried Liver Attack}}

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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    <title>Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance</title>
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      <id>4654545</id>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>3097823</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reporting Tanzeemdigital</comment>
      <origin>4654545</origin>
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      <text bytes="11269" sha1="8umsxofaudju3gisp2wa0cg5imzgkp7" xml:space="preserve">__NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}}
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{{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].&lt;br /&gt;''Please do not post those requests here!''}}
{{Clear}}
Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''.  You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup.

You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say &lt;code&gt;!admin&lt;/code&gt; to get attention).

For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]].
{{clear}}

[[Category:Reading room]]

== Emirati yahzota reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Emirati yahzota}}

Long-term abuse, [[:w:Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Muhammad Ali Rajab]] &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Emirati yahzota/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:I deleted their page addition. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] could we get a CU here? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:28, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
::Nothing to see on CU. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 11:07, 13 July 2026 (UTC)

== Bestdealsautofla reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Bestdealsautofla}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Bestdealsautofla/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)

== Cthrucleaningsolutionso reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Cthrucleaningsolutionso}}

advertising &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Cthrucleaningsolutionso/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done|Sandbox deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
:: The user was blocked indefinitely as a spam-only account. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:47, 3 July 2026 (UTC)

== Protecting Pages ==

Hello, Admins,

My name is Kayden Swanson, and I have proudly created ''[[The Geoguide]].'' But I would like to remove the ability for fellow users to edit it to prevent vandalism and preserve my prized creation I have made for school. Could you permanently lock it so others cant edit it while I still can? [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 02:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC)

:Hi @[[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]]! Unfortunately, that is not an appropriate justification for protecting a page here at Wikibooks per the [[Wikibooks:Protection policy|protection policy]]. Notably, {{tq|&quot;Preemptive full protection of pages is contrary to the open nature of Wikibooks&quot;}}. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 6 July 2026 (UTC)
::NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO okay that's fine  [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 00:26, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I'm sorry, but that's not within the scope of the protection policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
:::If you really want a stable version, you can make a PDF of the existing content and link it. See [[Help:Print versions]] and {{tl|Print version}}/{{tl|PDF version}}. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

== Prudhvifmsdh reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Prudhvifmsdh}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Prudhvifmsdh/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
: {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:07, 8 July 2026 (UTC)

== I'm unable to create a page ==

Hello, I wanted to created the page [[English in Use/Agreement]]. I thought I would use a modified version of a Wikipedia article (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_in_the_English_language). It's already written like a textbook, so I did some improvements and clicked &quot;published&quot;, but I got the error:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Welcome to Wikibooks!Your edit has triggered an automated filter and has been disallowed. It looks like your edit has added a large amount of content to this page.If you copied the content from another website, please do not add it without rewriting it in your own words. Unless the content is in the public domain (published before 1923), it is almost certainly copyrighted and cannot be added to Wikibooks.If all of the content is your own work and you cannot find anything to link, feel free to ask for the edit to be performed at the reading room. If you have received this message in error, you may report it here.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

What should I do? Can you help me? [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 20:43, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] An editfilter is preventing your edit. In my opinion, you did not do anything wrong and the filter is wrong, but an admin (=not me) would need to fix it. [[User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]] ([[User talk:Der-Wir-Ing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Der-Wir-Ing|contribs]]) 20:52, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
:: {{re|Justtocreateapage}} As a new user you face harsher requirements. You should make useful edits to Wikibooks first. If you want to use a modified version of a WP article, [[Wikibooks: Requests for import|requesting an import]] is the proper venue. This [[Help: Importing|preserves the edit history]]. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 21:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
:::Okay, thanks you all. I'll request for an import then [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 21:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:50, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

== Unprotection/edit request ==

Hi, would an admin please temporarily unprotect the non-MediaWiki pages at [[User:TenshiBot/Errors]]? As for the MediaWiki pages, would an admin go through them and replace the &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; tags and replace it with &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;? [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 23:10, 11 July 2026 (UTC)
: Unprotecting, fixing, and protecting back would take too long—I know just the thing, which is using JWB. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
: [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]], I've done what JWB could process; should there be way more in your bot's error log, let me know. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:02, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::There's still a lot of the &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;font&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; tags which need replacing in the talk page archives. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 10:11, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I can replace those, but should it be &lt;code&gt;div&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;span&lt;/code&gt;? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::::Span, though the font tag's parameters need to be converted as well, see [https://github.com/TenshiSWR/TenshiBot/blob/958b59d1a5e14a31ab8b46f66db54ebdba63e101/tasks/linterrors/obsolete_HTML_tags.py#L15-L52 the code] and the [https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/rendering.html#:~:text=When%20a%20font%20element%20has%20a%20color,%27color%27%20property%20to%20the%20resulting%20color. HTML spec] for this. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 14:56, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
== NSSGGuarding reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|NSSGGuarding}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/NSSGGuarding/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:17, 13 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:45, 13 July 2026 (UTC)
== Tanzeemdigital reported by MathXplore ==
* {{userlinks|Tanzeemdigital}}

Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/314706]] &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Tanzeemdigital/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:08, 15 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>8umsxofaudju3gisp2wa0cg5imzgkp7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654552</id>
      <parentid>4654545</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T12:13:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathXplore</username>
        <id>3097823</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reporting Faisalorakzaii</comment>
      <origin>4654552</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11558" sha1="f4ckaplhdsyrg13vu8ft39sljl2d277" xml:space="preserve">__NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}}
{{User:MiszaBot/config
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|algo = old(14d)
|counter = 1
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{{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].&lt;br /&gt;''Please do not post those requests here!''}}
{{Clear}}
Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''.  You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup.

You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say &lt;code&gt;!admin&lt;/code&gt; to get attention).

For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]].
{{clear}}

[[Category:Reading room]]

== Emirati yahzota reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Emirati yahzota}}

Long-term abuse, [[:w:Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Muhammad Ali Rajab]] &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Emirati yahzota/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:I deleted their page addition. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] could we get a CU here? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:28, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
::Nothing to see on CU. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 11:07, 13 July 2026 (UTC)

== Bestdealsautofla reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Bestdealsautofla}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Bestdealsautofla/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)

== Cthrucleaningsolutionso reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Cthrucleaningsolutionso}}

advertising &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Cthrucleaningsolutionso/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done|Sandbox deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
:: The user was blocked indefinitely as a spam-only account. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:47, 3 July 2026 (UTC)

== Protecting Pages ==

Hello, Admins,

My name is Kayden Swanson, and I have proudly created ''[[The Geoguide]].'' But I would like to remove the ability for fellow users to edit it to prevent vandalism and preserve my prized creation I have made for school. Could you permanently lock it so others cant edit it while I still can? [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 02:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC)

:Hi @[[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]]! Unfortunately, that is not an appropriate justification for protecting a page here at Wikibooks per the [[Wikibooks:Protection policy|protection policy]]. Notably, {{tq|&quot;Preemptive full protection of pages is contrary to the open nature of Wikibooks&quot;}}. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 6 July 2026 (UTC)
::NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO okay that's fine  [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 00:26, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I'm sorry, but that's not within the scope of the protection policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
:::If you really want a stable version, you can make a PDF of the existing content and link it. See [[Help:Print versions]] and {{tl|Print version}}/{{tl|PDF version}}. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

== Prudhvifmsdh reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Prudhvifmsdh}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Prudhvifmsdh/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
: {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:07, 8 July 2026 (UTC)

== I'm unable to create a page ==

Hello, I wanted to created the page [[English in Use/Agreement]]. I thought I would use a modified version of a Wikipedia article (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_in_the_English_language). It's already written like a textbook, so I did some improvements and clicked &quot;published&quot;, but I got the error:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Welcome to Wikibooks!Your edit has triggered an automated filter and has been disallowed. It looks like your edit has added a large amount of content to this page.If you copied the content from another website, please do not add it without rewriting it in your own words. Unless the content is in the public domain (published before 1923), it is almost certainly copyrighted and cannot be added to Wikibooks.If all of the content is your own work and you cannot find anything to link, feel free to ask for the edit to be performed at the reading room. If you have received this message in error, you may report it here.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

What should I do? Can you help me? [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 20:43, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] An editfilter is preventing your edit. In my opinion, you did not do anything wrong and the filter is wrong, but an admin (=not me) would need to fix it. [[User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]] ([[User talk:Der-Wir-Ing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Der-Wir-Ing|contribs]]) 20:52, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
:: {{re|Justtocreateapage}} As a new user you face harsher requirements. You should make useful edits to Wikibooks first. If you want to use a modified version of a WP article, [[Wikibooks: Requests for import|requesting an import]] is the proper venue. This [[Help: Importing|preserves the edit history]]. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 21:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
:::Okay, thanks you all. I'll request for an import then [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 21:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:50, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

== Unprotection/edit request ==

Hi, would an admin please temporarily unprotect the non-MediaWiki pages at [[User:TenshiBot/Errors]]? As for the MediaWiki pages, would an admin go through them and replace the &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; tags and replace it with &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;? [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 23:10, 11 July 2026 (UTC)
: Unprotecting, fixing, and protecting back would take too long—I know just the thing, which is using JWB. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
: [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]], I've done what JWB could process; should there be way more in your bot's error log, let me know. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:02, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::There's still a lot of the &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;font&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; tags which need replacing in the talk page archives. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 10:11, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I can replace those, but should it be &lt;code&gt;div&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;span&lt;/code&gt;? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::::Span, though the font tag's parameters need to be converted as well, see [https://github.com/TenshiSWR/TenshiBot/blob/958b59d1a5e14a31ab8b46f66db54ebdba63e101/tasks/linterrors/obsolete_HTML_tags.py#L15-L52 the code] and the [https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/rendering.html#:~:text=When%20a%20font%20element%20has%20a%20color,%27color%27%20property%20to%20the%20resulting%20color. HTML spec] for this. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 14:56, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
== NSSGGuarding reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|NSSGGuarding}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/NSSGGuarding/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:17, 13 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:45, 13 July 2026 (UTC)
== Tanzeemdigital reported by MathXplore ==
* {{userlinks|Tanzeemdigital}}

Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/314706]] &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Tanzeemdigital/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:08, 15 July 2026 (UTC)
== Faisalorakzaii reported by MathXplore ==
* {{userlinks|Faisalorakzaii}}

cross-wiki abuse, [[:w:WP:AB]]. &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Faisalorakzaii/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:13, 15 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>f4ckaplhdsyrg13vu8ft39sljl2d277</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654553</id>
      <parentid>4654552</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T12:56:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kittycataclysm</username>
        <id>3371989</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Faisalorakzaii reported by MathXplore */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>4654553</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11743" sha1="oby248ooedo10o3n0a0aqgxaooy2v19" xml:space="preserve">__NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}}
{{User:MiszaBot/config
|archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s
|algo = old(14d)
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{{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].&lt;br /&gt;''Please do not post those requests here!''}}
{{Clear}}
Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''.  You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup.

You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say &lt;code&gt;!admin&lt;/code&gt; to get attention).

For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]].
{{clear}}

[[Category:Reading room]]

== Emirati yahzota reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Emirati yahzota}}

Long-term abuse, [[:w:Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Muhammad Ali Rajab]] &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Emirati yahzota/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:I deleted their page addition. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] could we get a CU here? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:28, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
::Nothing to see on CU. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 11:07, 13 July 2026 (UTC)

== Bestdealsautofla reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Bestdealsautofla}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Bestdealsautofla/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)

== Cthrucleaningsolutionso reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Cthrucleaningsolutionso}}

advertising &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Cthrucleaningsolutionso/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done|Sandbox deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
:: The user was blocked indefinitely as a spam-only account. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:47, 3 July 2026 (UTC)

== Protecting Pages ==

Hello, Admins,

My name is Kayden Swanson, and I have proudly created ''[[The Geoguide]].'' But I would like to remove the ability for fellow users to edit it to prevent vandalism and preserve my prized creation I have made for school. Could you permanently lock it so others cant edit it while I still can? [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 02:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC)

:Hi @[[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]]! Unfortunately, that is not an appropriate justification for protecting a page here at Wikibooks per the [[Wikibooks:Protection policy|protection policy]]. Notably, {{tq|&quot;Preemptive full protection of pages is contrary to the open nature of Wikibooks&quot;}}. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 6 July 2026 (UTC)
::NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO okay that's fine  [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 00:26, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I'm sorry, but that's not within the scope of the protection policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
:::If you really want a stable version, you can make a PDF of the existing content and link it. See [[Help:Print versions]] and {{tl|Print version}}/{{tl|PDF version}}. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

== Prudhvifmsdh reported by MathXplore ==

* {{userlinks|Prudhvifmsdh}}

Spam &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Prudhvifmsdh/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC)
: {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:07, 8 July 2026 (UTC)

== I'm unable to create a page ==

Hello, I wanted to created the page [[English in Use/Agreement]]. I thought I would use a modified version of a Wikipedia article (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_in_the_English_language). It's already written like a textbook, so I did some improvements and clicked &quot;published&quot;, but I got the error:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Welcome to Wikibooks!Your edit has triggered an automated filter and has been disallowed. It looks like your edit has added a large amount of content to this page.If you copied the content from another website, please do not add it without rewriting it in your own words. Unless the content is in the public domain (published before 1923), it is almost certainly copyrighted and cannot be added to Wikibooks.If all of the content is your own work and you cannot find anything to link, feel free to ask for the edit to be performed at the reading room. If you have received this message in error, you may report it here.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

What should I do? Can you help me? [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 20:43, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] An editfilter is preventing your edit. In my opinion, you did not do anything wrong and the filter is wrong, but an admin (=not me) would need to fix it. [[User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]] ([[User talk:Der-Wir-Ing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Der-Wir-Ing|contribs]]) 20:52, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
:: {{re|Justtocreateapage}} As a new user you face harsher requirements. You should make useful edits to Wikibooks first. If you want to use a modified version of a WP article, [[Wikibooks: Requests for import|requesting an import]] is the proper venue. This [[Help: Importing|preserves the edit history]]. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 21:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
:::Okay, thanks you all. I'll request for an import then [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 21:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:50, 10 July 2026 (UTC)

== Unprotection/edit request ==

Hi, would an admin please temporarily unprotect the non-MediaWiki pages at [[User:TenshiBot/Errors]]? As for the MediaWiki pages, would an admin go through them and replace the &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; tags and replace it with &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;? [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 23:10, 11 July 2026 (UTC)
: Unprotecting, fixing, and protecting back would take too long—I know just the thing, which is using JWB. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
: [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]], I've done what JWB could process; should there be way more in your bot's error log, let me know. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:02, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::There's still a lot of the &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;font&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; tags which need replacing in the talk page archives. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 10:11, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I can replace those, but should it be &lt;code&gt;div&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;span&lt;/code&gt;? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
::::Span, though the font tag's parameters need to be converted as well, see [https://github.com/TenshiSWR/TenshiBot/blob/958b59d1a5e14a31ab8b46f66db54ebdba63e101/tasks/linterrors/obsolete_HTML_tags.py#L15-L52 the code] and the [https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/rendering.html#:~:text=When%20a%20font%20element%20has%20a%20color,%27color%27%20property%20to%20the%20resulting%20color. HTML spec] for this. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 14:56, 12 July 2026 (UTC)
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:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:45, 13 July 2026 (UTC)
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cross-wiki abuse, [[:w:WP:AB]]. &lt;!-- USERREPORTED:/Faisalorakzaii/ --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:13, 15 July 2026 (UTC)

:{{done|Page deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:56, 15 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>oby248ooedo10o3n0a0aqgxaooy2v19</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Topology/Completeness</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>140913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654554</id>
      <parentid>4348342</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Squid2.0</username>
        <id>3507524</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Theorem (Uniform Convergence Theorem)) */  removed closing bracket that was never opened</comment>
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      <text bytes="13234" sha1="jdygdg1jxrqgovtzi3b39tbibzya1yu" xml:space="preserve">'''Completeness''' and related ideas inherently assume the notion of 'distance'. Hence, throughout this chapter, we will be dealing only with metric spaces. 

===Definition===
A sequence &lt;math&gt;\{ x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; is said to be a '''Cauchy sequence''' if for any &lt;math&gt;\varepsilon&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;, there is an &lt;math&gt;N\in\mathbb{N}&lt;/math&gt; such that for any &lt;math&gt;a,b&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;d(x_a,x_b)&lt;\varepsilon&lt;/math&gt;.

===Theorem===
All convergent sequences are Cauchy sequences&lt;br /&gt;

====Proof====
A convergent sequence &lt;math&gt;\{ x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; will converge to a limit &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;, implying that there exists an &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; such that for any &lt;math&gt;a&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, that &lt;math&gt;d(x_a,x)&lt;\tfrac{\varepsilon}{2}&lt;/math&gt;. Thus, for any &lt;math&gt;a,b&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;d(x_a,x_b)\leq d(x_a,x)+d(x_b,x)&lt;\varepsilon&lt;/math&gt;.

===Definition===
A metric space is said to be '''complete''' when all Cauchy sequences converge to a limit.

*A subset &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; of a metric space &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is '''dense''' in an open set &lt;math&gt;O&lt;/math&gt; when &lt;math&gt;O\subseteq\mathrm{Cl}(A)&lt;/math&gt;.

*A subset &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; of a metric space &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is '''everywhere dense''' when it is dense in &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;.

*A subset &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; of a metric space &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is '''nowhere dense''' when it is dense in no open set in &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;.


Completeness is obviously not a [[Topology/Continuity_and_Homeomorphisms|Topological property]], for a homeomorphism exists between the spaces &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(0,1)&lt;/math&gt;, although &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; is complete while &lt;math&gt;(0,1)&lt;/math&gt; being a non-closed subset of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt;, is not.

===Theorem===
A closed subset of a complete space is itself complete.

====Proof====
Consider a complete space &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and let &lt;math&gt;C\subset X&lt;/math&gt; be closed. Consider any Cauchy sequence within &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;, which is within &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;, so it has a limit. This limit is a point of contact of this sequence, and consequently, is a point of contact of &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;, and so is also within &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;. Thus, &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; is complete.

For a function from metric space to a complete metric space have a very important theorem called the '''uniform convergence theorem'''.

===Theorem (Uniform Convergence Theorem)===
Let X be a metric space, and let &lt;math&gt;f_n&lt;/math&gt; be a sequence of continuous functions from X to a complete metric space Y such that for all &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;, there exists an N such that for all &lt;math&gt;n_1, n_2&lt;/math&gt;&gt;N, &lt;math&gt;d(f_{n_1}(x),f_{n_2}(x))&lt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt;. Then the sequence of functions converges to a continuous function from X to Y. Note that &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; must be independent of x.

====Proof====
Obviously the sequence of functions converges pointwise since the sequence &lt;math&gt;f_n(x)&lt;/math&gt; is obviously a Cauchy sequence which converges to a value &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt;. We will now prove that f(x) is continuous.

There exists an N such that for all n&gt;N, &lt;math&gt;d(f_n(x), f(x))&lt;\frac{\epsilon}{3}&lt;/math&gt; for any x within X. Now let n&gt;N, and consider the continuous function &lt;math&gt;f_n&lt;/math&gt;. Since it is continuous, there exists an open ball &lt;math&gt;B_\delta(x)&lt;/math&gt; in X such that its image is contained in the open ball &lt;math&gt;B_\frac{\epsilon}{3}(f_n(x))&lt;/math&gt;.

Now consider any open ball &lt;math&gt;B_\epsilon(f(x))&lt;/math&gt; around f(x), and any point x' in the open ball &lt;math&gt;B_\delta(x)&lt;/math&gt;. Then &lt;math&gt;d(f(x'), f(x))\le d(f(x'),f_n(x'))+d(f_n(x'),f_n(x))+d(f_n(x),f(x)) &lt; \epsilon&lt;/math&gt; so the function f(x) is continuous.

===Tietze Extension===
Using Urysohn's Lemma and the Uniform Convergence Theorem, we can now prove the following result:

Theorem: Let X be a normal topological space, and let A be a closed subset. Let f be a continuous function from the subspace A to the interval [0,1]. Then there exists a continuous function g from X to the interval [0,1] such that f(x)=g(x) for all points in A.

====Proof====
In order to prove this we first establish the following result:

For any continuous function from a closed subset A of X to the interval [-r,r], there is a continuous function from X to the interval &lt;math&gt;[-\frac{r}{3},\frac{r}{3}]&lt;/math&gt; such that |f(x)-g(x)|&lt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{2}{3}r&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;x\in A&lt;/math&gt;.

Consider the sets &lt;math&gt;f^{-1}([-r,-\frac{1}{3}r])&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f^{-1}([\frac{1}{3}r],r)&lt;/math&gt;, which are disjoint sets which, since they are closed in the closed set A, are also closed in X. Now we use Urysohn's lemma to obtain a function &lt;math&gt;g: X \rightarrow [0,1]&lt;/math&gt; such that g(x)=0 when &lt;math&gt;x \in f^{-1}([-r,-\frac{1}{3}r])&lt;/math&gt; and such that g(x)=1 when &lt;math&gt;x \in f^{-1}([\frac{1}{3}r],r)&lt;/math&gt;. Then consider the function h defined by &lt;math&gt;h(x)=\frac{r}{3}(2g(x)-1)&lt;/math&gt; from the set X to the interval &lt;math&gt;[-\frac{r}{3}, \frac{r}{3}]&lt;/math&gt; so that &lt;math&gt;h(x)=-\frac{r}{3}&lt;/math&gt; when &lt;math&gt;x \in f^{-1}([-r,-\frac{1}{3}r])&lt;/math&gt; and such that &lt;math&gt;h(x)=\frac{r}{3}&lt;/math&gt; when &lt;math&gt;x \in f^{-1}([\frac{1}{3}r],r)&lt;/math&gt;. Then to see that the function h satisfies the inequality |f(x)-h(x)|&lt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{2}{3}r&lt;/math&gt;, consider the case when &lt;math&gt;-r\le x \le -\frac{1}{3}r&lt;/math&gt;. Then &lt;math&gt;h(x)=-\frac{r}{3}&lt;/math&gt; so the inequality is satisfied there. Then consider the case when &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{3}r \le x \le r&lt;/math&gt;. Then &lt;math&gt;h(x)=\frac{r}{3}&lt;/math&gt; so the inequality is also satisfied there. Finally, consider the case when &lt;math&gt;-\frac{1}{3}r&lt;x&lt;\frac{1}{3}r&lt;/math&gt;. Then &lt;math&gt;|h(x)|\le\frac{1}{3}r&lt;/math&gt; so the inequality is also satisfied for this final case.

Now we prove the main result.

===Theorem (Cantor's intersection theorem)===
The intersection of every sequence of compact subsets &lt;math&gt;\{ A_n\}&lt;/math&gt; of a metric space &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;A_n\subseteq A_{n-1}&lt;/math&gt; is non-empty if and only if the metric space is complete.
====Proof====
(&lt;math&gt;\Rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;)Let &lt;math&gt;\{ x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; be a Cauchy sequence in &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;. Define the sequences &lt;math&gt;\{ a_n\}&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;math&gt;s_n&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;a_n=d(x_{n+1},x_n)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;s_n=\displaystyle\sum_{i=1}^{n}a_n&lt;/math&gt; respectively. As &lt;math&gt;s_n&lt;/math&gt; is a real-valued Cauchy sequence, it is convergent. Hence, we can see that &lt;math&gt;\{ x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; is bounded. Therefore, we can construct a sequence of compact sets &lt;math&gt;\{ A_n\}&lt;/math&gt; satisfying &lt;math&gt;A_n\subseteq A_{n-1}&lt;/math&gt;, such that for each &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;x_n\in A_n&lt;/math&gt; but &lt;math&gt;x_n\notin A_{n+1}&lt;/math&gt;. If &lt;math&gt;x \in \bigcap_{i=1}^\infty A_n&lt;/math&gt;, the sequence &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; converges to &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; implying that &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is complete. 

(&lt;math&gt;\Leftarrow&lt;/math&gt;)Let &lt;math&gt;A_n&lt;/math&gt; be a sequence of compact sets satisfying &lt;math&gt;A_n\subseteq A_{n-1}\forall n&lt;/math&gt;. Select a sequence &lt;math&gt;\{ x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;x_n\in A_n&lt;/math&gt;. As &lt;math&gt;\{ x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; is bounded, it has a convergent subsequence &lt;math&gt;\{ y_n\}&lt;/math&gt; with limit &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;As &lt;math&gt;A_n\subseteq A_{n-1}&lt;/math&gt;, we have &lt;math&gt;x \in \bigcap_{i=1}^\infty A_n&lt;/math&gt;.

===Theorem (Nested balls theorem)===
The Nested interval theorem is quite similar to the Cantor's intersection theorem. It states that the intersection of a sequence of the closures of balls &lt;math&gt;A_n&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;A_n\subseteq A_{n-1}&lt;/math&gt; and such that their sequence of radii &lt;math&gt;r_n&lt;/math&gt; approaches &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is non-empty if and only if the metric space is complete.


An important tool in general topology and functional analysis is the '''Baire Category Theorem''' which provides the necessary and sufficient condition for a metric space to be complete. Note that this is often referred to as the ''First form'' of Baire's theorem.
===Theorem (Baire Category Theorem)===
A complete metric space is not a countable union of nowhere dense subsets.&lt;br /&gt;
====Proof====
Let &lt;math&gt;A=\bigcup_{i=1}^\infty K_i&lt;/math&gt; be a complete metric space where each &lt;math&gt;K_i&lt;/math&gt; is nowhere dense. Let &lt;math&gt;S_1&lt;/math&gt; be an open ball of radius &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;. Let &lt;math&gt;S_n&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; be an open ball of radius &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2^n}&lt;/math&gt; contained in &lt;math&gt;S_{n-1}&lt;/math&gt; which does not meet &lt;math&gt;A_n&lt;/math&gt;, which is possible because if it always met &lt;math&gt;A_n&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;A_1&lt;/math&gt; would be dense in &lt;math&gt;S_{n-1}&lt;/math&gt;. The centers &lt;math&gt;c_n&lt;/math&gt; of the spheres &lt;math&gt;S_n&lt;/math&gt; form a Cauchy sequence because when &lt;math&gt;n_1,n_2&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and, then &lt;math&gt;d(x_{n_1},x_{n_2})&lt;\tfrac{1}{2^N}&lt;/math&gt;. Therefore, because the space &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is complete, it converges to a limit &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; within &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;. However, it is not within any &lt;math&gt;K_n&lt;/math&gt;, and so it is not within &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, a contradiction.

===Theorem (Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem)===
A metric space is compact if and only if the metric space is complete and totally bounded.
====Proof====
(&lt;math&gt;\Rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;
Let X be a compact metric space. Then it is countably compact, and hence totally bounded. Also, since it is countably compact, any Cauchy sequence must either be finite, in which case it clearly converges to an element in X since the sequence eventually stabilizes, or it is infinite, in which case it has a limit point in X, and it is clear that the Cauchy sequence converges to this limit point.&lt;br /&gt;
(&lt;math&gt;\Leftarrow&lt;/math&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;
Let {&lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt;} be an infinite sequence of points in X, such that they form an infinite set (i. e. at least infinitely many of them are distinct). Now consider a finite 1-net, and consider the set of the closures of the spheres of each point in the 1-net, each of radius 1. The union of these closures of spheres is X. Since there are infinitely many distinct {&lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt;}, and only finitely many closures of spheres, at least one of these closures of spheres must contain an infinite subsequence {&lt;math&gt;a_{n1}&lt;/math&gt;}, and denote this to be &lt;math&gt;Cl(B_1(x_1))&lt;/math&gt;. Now consider a finite &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;-net within this closure of a sphere, and consider the closures of spheres of each point in the &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;-net, each of radius &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;. The union of these closures of spheres is the closure of the first sphere. Since there are infinitely many distinct {&lt;math&gt;a_{n1}&lt;/math&gt;} in &lt;math&gt;Cl(B_1(x_1))&lt;/math&gt;, but only finitely many closures of balls, at least one of closures of balls that meets &lt;math&gt;Cl(B_1(x_1))&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;Cl(B_1(x_1))&lt;/math&gt; must contain an infinite subsequence {&lt;math&gt;a_{n2}&lt;/math&gt;}. Continuing this process of obtaining a new closure of ball which contains infinitely many elements of the sequence, and because of completeness, we can use the nested spheres theorem to obtain an element x that is within the intersection of all of the spheres. This x is a limit point of all balls, and thus must also be the limit point of the original sequence {&lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt;} since any neighborhood of x must contain some closure of a ball in the aforementioned sequence, which in turn contains infinitely many elements of the sequence {&lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt;}. From this, we can conclude that X is countably compact, and thus is compact.

====Corollary (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem)====
In a complete metric space X, a set S is relatively compact if and only if it is totally bounded. This is because its closure is obviously totally bounded, and any closed subset of a complete metric space is also complete.

Note: If &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is a complete metric space, then every totally bounded sequence &lt;math&gt;\{a_n\} \subset X&lt;/math&gt; has a convergent subsequence. This is because the sequence will be relatively compact, and since its closure is compact and thus countably compact and thus has a limit point, this sequence will have a limit point x. For this limit point, consider the balls &lt;math&gt;B_{\frac{1}{n}}(x)&lt;/math&gt; and then for each ball, choose a point in the sequence within the ball, such that it is in order (i. e. in a way that does not go &quot;backwards&quot; in the sequence). Then this is obviously a subsequence that converges to the limit point.

===Theorem (Arzelà–Ascoli theorem)===
Now that we have a result which proves the equivalence between relative compactness and total boundedness in a complete metric space, we now turn to how to establish relative compactness in the metric space of continuous functions in the closed interval [a,b]. First, we have the following definitions.

====Definitions====
*A set of functions F defined on [a,b] is '''uniformly bounded''' if there exists an M such that for any function f within F, f(x)&lt;M for all x within [a,b].
*A set of functions F defined on [a,b] is '''equicontinuous''' if for all &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;, there exists a &lt;math&gt;\delta&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; such that for all &lt;math&gt;x_1,x_2\in [a,b]&lt;/math&gt; and for all &lt;math&gt;f\in F&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;|x_1+x_2|&lt;\delta \rightarrow |f(x_1)-f(x_2)|&lt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt;.

Now, the following is the statement of the theorem:&lt;br /&gt;
A set of continuous functions F defined on [a,b] is relatively compact if and only if it is equicontinuous and uniformly bounded.

====Proof====

==Exercises==
#Prove that the Euclidean space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^n&lt;/math&gt; is complete.
#Prove that the Hilbert space is complete.
#Explicitly establish the nested balls theorem.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>Arabic</title>
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    <id>144121</id>
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        <username>MarcGarver</username>
        <id>134830</id>
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      <comment>Undid 5 revisions from [[Special:Diff/4438668|4438668]] until [[Special:Diff/4654276|4654276]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="3375" sha1="7umf6jc0bw1wyb09f93pr6f2k9da5s7" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
{{Shelves|Arabic language}}
{{alphabetical|A}}
{{status|75%}}{{Book title|Arabic|ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ}}

== Contents ==
{{Book search}}
{{Print version|Arabic/Print_version}}
{{Category 3}}

=== Front Matter ===

* [[Arabic/Introduction|Introduction]]
* [[Arabic/Romanisation System|Romanisation System (ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺭﻓﺔ)]]

=== Alphabet and Pronunciation (ﺍﻟﻬﺠﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻄﻖ) ===

* [[Arabic/The Alphabet|The Alphabet (الأبجد)]]
* [[Arabic/Vowels|Vowels (التشكيل)]]
* [[Arabic/Special Cases|Special Cases]]

=== Lessons  الدروس ===
*[[Arabic/Parts_of_speech|Parts of speech (أَقسَامُ اَلكَلِمِ)]]
*[[Arabic/definite Article|The definite article]] {{stage short|75%|Aug 19, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/Feminine_and_masculine_nouns| Feminine and masculine nouns (اَلأَسمَاءُ اَلمُؤَنَّثَةُ وَاَلمُذَكَّرَةُ]])
*[[Arabic/Arabic numbers|Arabic numbers]]{{stage short|25%|Apr 15, 2014}}
*[[Arabic/thereafter|Here and there (هنا وهنالك)]]  {{stage short|75%|Aug 13, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/available|Available (موجود)]] {{stage short|75%|Aug 14, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/existence|Existence - وجود]] {{stage short|75%|Aug 13, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/there Is|There is هناك]]{{stage short|75%|}}
*[[Arabic/describing|Describing - وصف]]{{stage short|75%|}}
*[[Arabic/pointing|Pointing]]{{stage short|75%|Aug 21, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/relations|Relations - علاقات]]{{stage short|75%|Aug 14, 2007}}
*[[/Pointing and describing/]]{{stage short|75%|Aug 14, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/pronouns1|Pronouns - ضمائر]]{{stage short|75%|Aug 14, 2007}} 
*[[Arabic/possessive Pronouns|Possessive Pronouns - ضمائر الملكية]]{{stage short|75%|Aug 14, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/possessionRelationship|Possession]] {{stage short|75%|Aug 14, 2007}}
*[[Arabic/Review Exercises|Review Exercises - تمارين المراجعة]]{{stage short|50%|Aug 14, 2007}}
*[[/Appendix A/|Appendix A: Common phrases - ملحق أ:العبارات المشتركة]]{{stage short|75%|March 2, 2008}}
*[[/Appendix B|Appendix B: Common phrases - ملحق ب:العبارات المشتركة]]
*[[Arabic/Time and place|Time and place (ظرف المكان و ظرف الزََّمان)]]

=== Text-Study Section قسم دراسة النّص ===

* [[Arabic/Classical Arabic Readings|Classical Arabic Readings]]
* [[Arabic/Modern Standard Arabic Readings|Modern Standard Arabic Readings]]

=== Misc. إلخ ===
* [[/Formal|Formal Arabic]]
* [[/progressReport|Progress report]]
* [[/Appendix|Vocabulary and Phrase Appendix]]
* [[/More links|Archived Lessons!]]
* [[/Problem Informing|Troubleshooting]]
* [[Arabic/External Resources|External Resources]]

== To Integrate ==
The following pages need to be properly integrated into the book—many are redundant or contain information out of the teaching order above.

* [[Arabic/Writing lessons plan|Lesson planning for a step-by-step introduction of the Arabic alphabet]] {{stage short|25%|Aug 22, 2006}}
* [[Arabic/Arabic alphabet step-by-step]]
* [[Arabic/Arabic alphabet]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 24, 2005}}
* [[Arabic/Arabic alphabet (by group)]]
* [[Arabic/Arabic sounds]]

[[ar:عربية]]
[[de:Arabisch]]
[[fr:Arabe]]
[[it:Arabo]]
[[he:ערבית]]
[[nl:Arabisch]]
[[pl:Arabski]]
[[sk:Arabčina]]
[[uk:Мова людства/Арабська]]</text>
      <sha1>7umf6jc0bw1wyb09f93pr6f2k9da5s7</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Japanese/Kana</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>4654614</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-15T21:54:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Edit made on behalf of [[User:~2026-35089-83|~2026-35089-83]] ([[User talk:~2026-35089-83#top|talk]]) because it was [[Special:AbuseLog/312797|disallowed]] by an edit filter. Original summary was &quot;/* Practice */ plugged the site into webarchive, which works&quot; ([[:en:User:Suffusion of Yellow/effp-helper|effp-helper]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="16836" sha1="cci7wzf1bgl0ia8kypvqmbopxr141ut" xml:space="preserve">:''See also: [[../Pronunciation]].''

There are two aspects to learning the Japanese characters. Recognising the shapes and learning to write them. These are further separated by the fact that the strokes that comprise a specific character have a certain order.

In addition to the base characters, there are special symbols to denote nuanced pronunciation, such as voiced and double consonants.

== Stroke order ==
{{Japanese kana navigation}}

In the pages linked to from the tables below, you will find stroke order diagrams for each of the hiragana and katakana characters. The voiced and plosive variants of the same row/group are listed on the same page.

=== Hiragana ===
{| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Clear
| rowspan=&quot;15&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Voiced
| rowspan=&quot;15&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Plosive
|-
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! width=&quot;25&quot; | a
! width=&quot;25&quot; | i
! width=&quot;25&quot; | u
! width=&quot;25&quot; | e
! width=&quot;25&quot; | o
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! width=&quot;25&quot; | a
! width=&quot;25&quot; | i
! width=&quot;25&quot; | u
! width=&quot;25&quot; | e
! width=&quot;25&quot; | o
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! width=&quot;25&quot; | a
! width=&quot;25&quot; | i
! width=&quot;25&quot; | u
! width=&quot;25&quot; | e
! width=&quot;25&quot; | o
|-
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 1|あ]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 1|い]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 1|う]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 1|え]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 1|お]]
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
|-
! k
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|か]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|き]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|く]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|け]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|こ]]
! g
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|が]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|ぎ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|ぐ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|げ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 2|ご]]
|-
! s
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|さ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|し]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|す]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|せ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|そ]]
! z
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|ざ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|じ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|ず]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|ぜ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 3|ぞ]]
|-
! t
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|た]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|ち]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|つ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|て]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|と]]
! d
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|だ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|ぢ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|づ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|で]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 4|ど]]
|-
! n
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 5|な]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 5|に]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 5|ぬ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 5|ね]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 5|の]]
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
! h
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|は]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ひ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ふ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|へ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ほ]]
! b
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ば]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|び]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ぶ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|べ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ぼ]]
! p
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ぱ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ぴ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ぷ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ぺ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 6|ぽ]]
|-
! m
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 7|ま]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 7|み]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 7|む]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 7|め]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 7|も]]
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! y
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 8|や]]
| style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 8|ゆ]]
| style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 8|よ]]
|-
! r
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 9|ら]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 9|り]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 9|る]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 9|れ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 9|ろ]]
|-
! w
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 10|わ]]
| colspan=3 style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |

| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 10|を]]
|-
! &amp;nbsp;
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 10|ん]]
| colspan=4 style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
|}
* [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 11|ゐゑ (ancient Hiragana in disuse)]]

=== Katakana ===
{| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Clear
| rowspan=&quot;15&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Voiced
| rowspan=&quot;15&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Plosive
|-
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! width=&quot;25&quot; | a
! width=&quot;25&quot; | i
! width=&quot;25&quot; | u
! width=&quot;25&quot; | e
! width=&quot;25&quot; | o
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! width=&quot;25&quot; | a
! width=&quot;25&quot; | i
! width=&quot;25&quot; | u
! width=&quot;25&quot; | e
! width=&quot;25&quot; | o
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! width=&quot;25&quot; | a
! width=&quot;25&quot; | i
! width=&quot;25&quot; | u
! width=&quot;25&quot; | e
! width=&quot;25&quot; | o
|-
! width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 1|ア]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 1|イ]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 1|ウ]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 1|エ]]
| width=&quot;25&quot; | [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 1|オ]]
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! k
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|カ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|キ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|ク]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|ケ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|コ]]
! g
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|ガ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|ギ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|グ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|ゲ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2|ゴ]]
|-
! s
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|サ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|シ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|ス]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|セ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|ソ]]
! z
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|ザ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|ジ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|ズ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|ゼ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 3|ゾ]]
|-
! t
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|タ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|チ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|ツ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|テ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|ト]]
! d
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|ダ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|ヂ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|ヅ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|デ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 4|ド]]
|-
! n
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 5|ナ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 5|ニ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 5|ヌ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 5|ネ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 5|ノ]]
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
! h
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ハ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ヒ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|フ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|へ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ホ]]
! b
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|バ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ビ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ブ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ベ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ボ]]
! p
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|パ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ピ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|プ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ペ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 6|ポ]]
|-
! m
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 7|マ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 7|ミ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 7|ム]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 7|メ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 7|モ]]
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! y
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 8|ヤ]]
| style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 8|ユ]]
| style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 8|ヨ]]
|-
! r
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 9|ラ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 9|リ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 9|ル]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 9|レ]]
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 9|ロ]]
|-
! w
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 10|ワ]]
| colspan=3 style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 10|ヲ]]
|-
! &amp;nbsp;
| [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 10|ン]]
| colspan=4 style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; |
|}
* [[Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 11|ヰヱ (ancient Katakana in disuse)]]

== Long vowels ==

A [[../Pronunciation#Long vowels|long vowel]] is written in hiragana with an extra &quot;あ&quot;, &quot;い&quot; or &quot;う&quot; depending on the vowel. In most cases あ follows あ; い follows い ''or'' え and う follows う ''or'' お.

There are rare exceptions where an え vowel is extended by adding え. Much less rare is an お vowel extended by お. Some examples of this include:
* &quot;おねえさん&quot;, &quot;おおい&quot;, and &quot;おおきい&quot;.

In katakana, it's written with a ''chōonpu'': &quot;ー&quot;.
* &quot;データ&quot; (''e.'' data) {{audio|Ja-deeta-data.ogg}}

== Voiced and plosive sounds ==
The turbid sound symbol, ''[[w:dakuten|dakuten]]'' ({{furi|濁点|だくてん}}) which looks like two slash marks from the left to right ( ゛) just at the top-right-hand corner of a character indicate that the preceding consonant is [[w:voiced | voiced]].  This symbol is also known as ''tenten'' {{furi|点々|てんてん}}, meaning &quot;two marks.&quot;

The half turbid sound symbol, ''[[w:handakuten|handakuten]]'' ({{furi|半濁点|はんだくてん}}) which looks like a circle ( ゜) located to the top-right-hand corner of a syllabary indicates the preceding consonant is [[w:plosive | plosive]].

== Double consonants ==

The [[../Pronunciation#Consonant doubling|double consonant]] is written by adding a small &quot;tsu&quot; (&quot;っ&quot; or &quot;ッ&quot;) in front of the doubled consonant syllable. This is called the [[w:sokuon |sokuon]] ({{furi|促音|そくおん}}).

The sokuon cannot be at the beginning of a word. In ''hiragana'', the sokuon can only appear before the &quot;か&quot;, &quot;さ&quot;, &quot;た&quot; and &quot;ば&quot; groups/rows.

Examples:
* &quot;どっち&quot; (''e.'' which) {{audio|Ja-docchi-which.ogg}}
* &quot;ポッキー&quot; (''e.'' [[w:Pocky|Pocky]] snacks) {{Audio|Ja-Pocky.oga}}

== Yōon ==

In addition to those represented by the syllables in the kana, Japanese has sounds with a palatal or labio-velar semivowel between the consonant and the vowel. The sound is somewhat like that of the &quot;j&quot; between the &quot;f&quot; and the &quot;o&quot; in &quot;fjord&quot;. This is written by appending smaller versions of &quot;ya&quot;, &quot;yu&quot; and &quot;yo&quot; to the syllables from the &quot;i&quot; columns (&quot;ki&quot;, &quot;shi&quot;, &quot;chi&quot;, &quot;ni&quot;, &quot;hi&quot;, &quot;mi&quot;, &quot;ri&quot; and their variations). In this case, the two kana are not pronounced individually, but rather as one sound. These are called yōon ({{furi|拗音|ようおん}}).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width: 100%; text-align: center;&quot;	 
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Clear compounds
| rowspan=&quot;15&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |　Voiced compounds
| rowspan=&quot;15&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |　Plosive compounds
|- bgcolor=&quot;#D4D4D4&quot;
|''(ゃ ya ャ)''
|''(ゅ yu ュ)''
|''(ょ yo ョ)''
|''(ゃ ya ャ)''
|''(ゅ yu ュ)''
|''(ょ yo ョ)''
|''(ゃ ya ャ)''
|''(ゅ yu ュ)''
|''(ょ yo ョ)''
|-
| きゃ '''''kya''''' キャ
| きゅ '''''kyu''''' キュ
| きょ '''''kyo''''' キョ
| ぎゃ '''''gya''''' ギャ
| ぎゅ '''''gyu''''' ギュ
| ぎょ '''''gyo''''' ギョ
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | 
|-
| しゃ '''''sha''''' シャ
| しゅ '''''shu''''' シュ
| しょ '''''sho''''' ショ
| じゃ '''''ja''''' ジャ
| じゅ '''''ju''''' ジュ
| じょ '''''jo''''' ジョ
|-
| ちゃ '''''cha''''' チャ
| ちゅ '''''chu''''' チュ
| ちょ '''''cho''''' チョ
| style=&quot;color: gray&quot; | ぢゃ '''''ja''''' ヂャ
| style=&quot;color: gray&quot; | ぢゅ '''''ju''''' ヂュ
| style=&quot;color: gray&quot; | ぢょ '''''jo''''' ヂョ
|-
| にゃ '''''nya''''' ニャ
| にゅ '''''nyu''''' ニュ
| にょ '''''nyo''''' ニョ
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | 
|-
| ひゃ '''''hya''''' ヒャ
| ひゅ '''''hyu''''' ヒュ
| ひょ '''''hyo''''' ヒョ
| びゃ '''''bya''''' ビャ
| びゅ '''''byu''''' ビュ
| びょ '''''byo''''' ビョ
| ぴゃ '''''pya''''' ピャ
| ぴゅ '''''pyu''''' ピュ
| ぴょ '''''pyo''''' ピョ
|-
| みゃ '''''mya''''' ミャ
| みゅ '''''myu''''' ミュ
| みょ '''''myo''''' ミョ
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | 
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #eee&quot; | 
|-
| りゃ '''''rya''''' リャ
| りゅ '''''ryu''''' リュ
| りょ '''''ryo''''' リョ	 
|}
:'''Note:''' The grayed compound characters are rarely used.

Compounds with &quot;yu&quot; and &quot;yo&quot; are often followed by an &quot;u&quot;, making it a long vowel.

=== Special yōon for transliteration ===
{{info|This section is for advanced learners.}}
There are certain kinds of special yōon which primarily represent pronunciations imported from foreign languages.  They commonly appear as parts of names of foreign people or foreign places.  Although they were originally considered to be unauthorized, they are nowadays widely accepted even by conservative media such as newspapers.  See the table below for commonly used ones among such compounds.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Compounds used for transliteration
|- bgcolor=&quot;#D4D4D4&quot;
|''(ぁ a ァ)''
|''(ぃ i ィ)''
|''(ぅ u ゥ)''
|''(ぇ e ェ)''
|''(ぉ o ォ)''
|-
|
| うぃ '''''wi''''' ウィ 
|
| うぇ '''''we''''' ウェ 
| うぉ '''''wo''''' ウォ
|-
| ゔぁ '''''va''''' ヴァ 
| ゔぃ '''''vi''''' ヴィ 
| ゔ '''''vu''''' ヴ
| ゔぇ '''''ve''''' ヴェ 
| ゔぉ '''''vo''''' ヴォ 
|-
|
| てぃ '''''ti''''' ティ 
| とぅ '''''tu''''' トゥ 
|
|
|-
|
| でぃ '''''di''''' ディ 
| でゅ '''''du''''' デュ
|
|
|-
| ふぁ '''''fa''''' ファ 
| ふぃ '''''fi''''' フィ 
|
| ふぇ '''''fe''''' フェ
| ふぉ '''''fo''''' フォ 
|}

== Practice ==

Learning the kana takes some work and is best done by memorisation and drilling. Practice by writing up the table, speaking out the characters and drill yourself on the readings.

There are several online resources that can help you with these:
* [http://www.theiling.de/schrift/ &lt;s&gt;Henrik Theiling's Script Teacher&lt;/s&gt;]{{dead link|date=August 2020}} — A site that drills on many different scripts, including hiragana and katakana.
* [http://www.languageguide.org/im/alpha/jp/hiragana_alpha_quiz.jsp Hiragana Quiz] at [http://www.languageguide.org/ languageguide.org] — A Kana Quiz that tests you with one small group of kana at a time.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110411013918/http://www.msu.edu/~lakejess/kanjigame.html Kanji Game] — An online multiple choice kana and kanji game.
* [http://www.realkana.com Real Kana] — A highly customisable page which drills the user on kana readings.
* [http://brng.jp/50renshuu.pdf Kana Copybook (PDF)] — Memorize the Kana through handwriting.

GNU/Linux users may also download the [http://clayo.org/kanatest/ &lt;s&gt;Kanatest&lt;/s&gt;]{{dead link|date=August 2020}} software, and [https://apps.ankiweb.net/ Anki].
[[zh:日語/假名]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
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        <id>719411</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Black's responses */ likely typo for Bd6, &quot;Black will usually go for their own set-up with ...Bd3&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="2795" sha1="3bbsai4uyd9i8zli8mp85v9ye549mnd" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Colle system
|parent=[[../|Queen's pawn game]]
}}
== 3. e3 · Colle System ==
White opts for the Colle System, a system opening where their main idea is to prepare an eventual e4 pawn-break. The system knows two set-ups: the traditional Colle, and the Colle-Zukertort system.

=== Traditional Colle ===
The traditional Colle is characterized by the upcoming moves Bd3, c3 and Nbd2. This is the way the [[w:Edgard Colle|Edgard Colle]], whom the opening is named after, played the system.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1316498&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Chess/board
|moves=1. d4 Nf6 2. Nf3 d5 3. e3 e6 4. Bd3 c5 5. c3 Nc6 6. Nbd2 Bd6 7. O-O O-O
|caption=A traditional Colle system with both sides castled. White to play
}} 

=== Colle-Zukertort system ===
The Colle-Zukertort system is slightly different from the traditional Colle. The dark-squared bishop is quite passive in the Colle system, so instead of playing c3, White can play b3, preparing to fianchetto the bishop. The b3-pawn also supports the potential c2-c4 in the future.


{{Chess/board
|moves=1. d4 Nf6 2. Nf3 d5 3. e3 e6 4. Bd3 c5 5. b3 Nc6 6. O-O Bd6 7. Bb2 O-O 8. Nbd2 b6
|caption=The Colle-Zukertort system. White to play
}} 

=== Black's responses ===
Since White's next few moves are fairly predictable, Black can choose their own set-up quite freely. 

'''[[/3...e6/]]''' is played most frequently. Black will usually go for their own set-up with ...Bd6, either ...Nc6 or ...Nbd7, ...c5 and ...b6.

'''[[/3...c5/]]''' postpones ...e6 in order to possibly develop the light-squared bishop outside of the pawn-chain (generally to g4, pinning White's knight to the queen).

'''[[/3...Bf5/]]''' is the anti-Colle. White can't continue with their system since Black will simply trade light-squared bishops. Therefore, White's usual response is 4. c4, transposing into the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nf3/3...Nf6/4. e3/4...Bf5|Slav defence]]. A similar transposition occurs after '''[[/3...c6/]]'''.

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}

{{Chess/theory table
|name1=Traditional Colle
|line1=3. ... e6 4. Bd3 c5 5. c3 Nc6 6. Nbd2 Bd6 7. O-O O-O

|name2=Colle-Zukertort system
|line2=3. ... ... 4. ... ... 5. b3 Nc6 6. O-O Bd6 7. Bb2 O-O 8. Nbd2 b6

|name3=Anti-Colle
|line3=3. ... Bf5

|line4=3. ... c5 4. c4 cxd4
}}


{{ChessMid}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
* {{cite web
|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T-yLVFzRCvk
|title=The Colle System, Lecture by GM Ben Finegold
|website=www.youtube.com
}}
* {{cite web
|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FN7xJhjCxkY
|title=The Colle System - Plans, Structures, Patterns, Variations · Chess Openings 
|website=www.youtube.com
}}
{{Wikipedia|Colle System}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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      <comment>Rejected the last text change (by [[Special:Contributions/Meno25|Meno25]]) and restored revision 4282281 by Kittycataclysm</comment>
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      <text bytes="1541" sha1="mls1nfcgrb8yl2lejr3i25ru5vv0ce4" xml:space="preserve">{{Featured book}}
{{Reading level|Pre-reader}}
{{Print version}}
&lt;div style=&quot;width: 100%; text-align: center; font-size: xx-large; margin-bottom: 1em&quot;&gt;'''Small Numbers'''&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Números 1, 2 e 3.svg|center|frameless|upright=2|Small Numbers]]


&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: x-large; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1em;&quot;&gt;— [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/0|0]] [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/1|1]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/2|2]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/3|3]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/4|4]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/5|5]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/6|6]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/7|7]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/8|8]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/9|9]]  [[Wikijunior:Small Numbers/10|10]] —&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;&gt;
----
This book was translated from Portuguese Wikibooks. The authors are:

[[:pt:Usuário:Alustriel|Alustriel]], [[:pt:Usuário:Heldergeovane|Helder]], [[:pt:Usuário:Jorge Morais|Jorge Morais]], [[:pt:Usuário:Marcos Antônio Nunes de Moura|Marcos Antônio Nunes de Moura]], [[:pt:Usuário:PatríciaR|PatríciaR]]

The translators and editors of English edition are:

[[User:Empire3131|Empire3131]], [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]], [[User:Ashaio|Ashaio]]

&lt;/div&gt;

[[fr:Wikijunior:Petits nombres]]
[[hy:Վիքիփոքրիկ:Հաշվել մինչև 10]]
[[pl:Wikijunior:Liczby do 10]]
[[pt:Pequenos_números]]
[[ro:Wikijunior:Numere mici]]
[[vi:Trẻ em:Các số nhỏ]]

&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{{Shelves|Wikijunior pre-reader books}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
{{Alphabetical|S}}
{{status|100%}}

&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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|Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack|
   |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|=
   |pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |pl|pl|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|pl|  |  |  |pl|pl|pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|moves=1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 cxd5 4.c4
|parent=[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defence|Caro-Kann]]
|eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B13-B14]]
}}
= 4. c4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack=
Nf6 is almost always played, with e6 having a particularly bad record.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}
{{Chess/theory table
|name1=
|line1=4... Nf6
|eval1=

|name2=
|line2=4... e6
|eval2=

|name3=
|line3=4... g6
|eval3=

|name4=
|line4=4... Nc6
|eval4=

|name5=
|line5=4... cxd4
|eval5=
}}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Wikipedia|Panov-Botvinnik Attack}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{MCO14}}
{{BCO2}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
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      <comment>/* Theory table */ dxc4</comment>
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      <text bytes="899" sha1="o5ev3kdjtk5biwmpnoz43epy75e4yge" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack|
   |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|=
   |pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |pl|pl|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|pl|  |  |  |pl|pl|pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|moves=1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 cxd5 4.c4
|parent=[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defence|Caro-Kann]]
|eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B13-B14]]
}}
= 4. c4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack=
Nf6 is almost always played, with e6 having a particularly bad record.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}
{{Chess/theory table
|name1=
|line1=4... Nf6
|eval1=

|name2=
|line2=4... e6
|eval2=

|name3=
|line3=4... g6
|eval3=

|name4=
|line4=4... Nc6
|eval4=

|name5=
|line5=4... dxc4
|eval5=
}}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Wikipedia|Panov-Botvinnik Attack}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{MCO14}}
{{BCO2}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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      <text bytes="997" sha1="2ku8szmhdmo7urrbu9xuy5yvrp7z676" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack|
   |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|=
   |pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |pl|pl|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|pl|  |  |  |pl|pl|pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|moves=1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 cxd5 4.c4
|parent=[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defence|Caro-Kann]]
|eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B13-B14]]
}}
= 4. c4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack=
4... Nf6 is almost always played, although 4... e6, previously regarded as having a very poor record, as well as 4... g6, among others, appear to be playable for Black.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}
{{Chess/theory table
|name1=
|line1=4... Nf6
|eval1=

|name2=
|line2=4... e6
|eval2=

|name3=
|line3=4... g6
|eval3=

|name4=
|line4=4... Nc6
|eval4=

|name5=
|line5=4... dxc4
|eval5=
}}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Wikipedia|Panov-Botvinnik Attack}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{MCO14}}
{{BCO2}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Islam In The World</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>197495</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-15T21:42:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chairman001</username>
        <id>3614084</id>
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      <comment>i  have make some changes , added some paragraphs and correct some words</comment>
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This book is a review of the rights of Muslims, the criticism of Islam, and the condition of Islam in various countries.  Views from both the Qur'an, and its cited interpretations, and the views of critics of Islam will be included into discussion.
{{quote|Allah does not forbid you from dealing kindly and fairly with those who have neither fought nor driven you out of your homes. Surely Allah loves those who are fair. {{Qref|60|8|b=yl}}}}

==Historical context==
This correct understanding, perversely, first led to wars that united Arab tribes into a nation and later initiated the Islamic Empire and [[w:Islamic Golden Age|The Golden Age of Islam]].  This period extended from the second to the ninth century of the Muslim calendar which is the 7th to 13th century after the common epoch (ACE).  At this time Islamic scholars evolved new legal, philosophical, and religious understandings.  Artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers, and traders in the Islamic world contributed to the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, sociology, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own.  Historian Howard Turner noted that: &quot;Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent&quot;.

Eventually, the Mongols and Turks that conquered and settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia, Russia, and Anatolia converted to Islam, and formal, inflexible state religions emerged which dictated that there could be no further development of human understanding of God's intent for mankind, and further, prohibited any artistic representation of God's handiwork, thus effectively suppressing inquiry into the natural world. 

Elsewhere, much of Islam retreated into traditionalism and the huge technical innovations of the Islamic Golden Age were frequently rejected, except by the medieval Christian invaders of the Iberian Peninsula, who merged Muslim and Byzantine traditions at the beginning of the 13th century ACE. The end of the medieval period marked the beginning of the transformation of European higher education that would eventually result in the modern research universities from which emerged religious reformation and schism ({{nowrap|16th &amp;ndash; 17th}} century ACE), academic enlightenment (18 Century ACE) and eventually the hydrocarbon and electronic economy of the 19th and 20th Century ACE.

The translation movement centered at House of Wisdom played an important role in preserving and expanding knowledge from Greek, Persian, Indian, and other civilizations. Scholars translated, commented upon, and extended earlier works, producing original research that influenced disciplines including algebra, chemistry, geography, philosophy, and medicine. This exchange of knowledge helped connect intellectual traditions across Asia, Africa, and Europe.

The Islamic Golden Age also witnessed significant advances in medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and engineering. Scholars established libraries, observatories, hospitals (''bimaristans''), and educational institutions across major cities such as Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, and Damascus. Works by scholars such as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Sina, Al-Biruni, and Ibn al-Haytham made lasting contributions to mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and optics. Many of their writings were later translated into Latin and became standard references in European universities, contributing to the development of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.

Islamic orthodoxy was widely imposed by brutal state force from about the 14th century until quite recently, and external developments by Christians and Buddhists were often rejected as 'un-Islamic'.  Yet  many Muslims continued to evolve new interpretations of their traditional teachings.  One of the most controversial of these is the [[w:Bahá'í Faith|Baha'i Faith]], a monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia.  Baha'i claims to emphasize the spiritual unity and teaches the integration of all religions of all humankind by claiming that God's messengers have included Krishna, Buddha, and others, including Abraham and Christ who were canonized by the author of the central religious text of Islam.

In classical Arabic, ''Islam'' is not a proper noun, but a reference to submission or assention. Therefore, this book uses ''The Assent'' to refer to Islam as a way of Life and ''Islam'' to refer to it as a religion. Similarly, ''The Assenter'' refers to the followers of the way of life, while ''Moslems'' refers to the followers of the religion. The title of this book uses the word ''Islam'' instead of ''Islamic'' to further emphasize its descriptive use rather than a proper noun.

== Holy Qur'an ==
According to Islamic belief, the Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad over approximately 23 years through the Angel Jibril (Gabriel). Muslims believe that it is the final revelation from God and that its text has been preserved without alteration since its compilation during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan. The Qur'an contains 114 chapters (''surahs''), including Maryam, which is named after Mary, the mother of Jesus. Mary is the only woman mentioned by name in the Qur'an and is regarded as one of the most honored women in Islam. Jesus (''Isa'') is also among the most frequently mentioned prophets in the Qur'an, where he is described as the Messiah, born miraculously to the Virgin Mary, and a prophet and messenger of God, while not being regarded as divine.

The ''Holy Qur'an'' as it exists today was compiled by Muhammad's companions ([[w:sahabah|Sahaba]]) in approximately 650, and is accepted by all Muslim denominations.  It was revealed to the Last Prophet of God on Earth, Muhammad, peace and blessings of God be upon him and all the prophets and messengers before him.  This Last Revelation of God on Earth, was given the Prophet through the Angel Jibril (Gabriel). 

* in Qur'an there is one Surah about Jesus and there isn't for Prophet Mohammad.
* in Qur'an there is one Surah about Jesus mother Mariam and there isn't for the Prophet's parents.
This shows emphatically that Muhammad was not the author of the Qur'an, and the Surat about Jesus and Mary, and other Surat in the Qur'an explain that Jesus was a Prophet a messenger from God. Jesus furthermore, as explained in the Qur'an, was born without a father (virgin birth), and that he is not the son of God. 

The Qur'an emphasizes continuity with earlier prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, John the Baptist, and Jesus. Muslims believe that Muhammad was sent as the final prophet in a long line of messengers who preached the worship of one God. Respect and honor are accorded to all prophets, and Muslims commonly invoke blessings upon them when mentioning their names. 

=== Islam ===
The Amman Message issued on 9 November 2004 (27th of Ramadan 1425 AH),is an Islamic declaration that affirms the legitimacy of eight recognized schools of Islamic jurisprudence (''[[w:Madhab|madhāhib]]''). It also emphasizes ,mutual respect among Muslims  and discourage the practice of declaring other Muslims to be unbelievers (Takfir). The eight schools recognized are: 

#Sunni Hanafi
#Sunni Hanbali
#Sunni Maliki
#Sunni Shafi'i
#Shia Ja'fari 
#Shia Zaidiyyah
#Ibadi
#Zahiri

==== Islam in the world ====
*[[Islam In The World/Countries|Countries' relations with Islam]]
*[[Islam In The World/Organizations|Organizations' relations with Islam]]

==== Relation with other religions ====
*[[Islam In The World/Christianity|Christianity]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Hinduism/The Puranas|Hinduism]]
*[[Buddhist Philosophy|Buddhism]]

=== Muslim ===
A person enters Islam by sincerely accepting and publicly reciting the '''Shahada''' (Arabic: ''shahādah''), the Islamic declaration of faith:

'''Arabic (transliteration):'''''Ashhadu an lā ilāha illā Allāh, wa ashhadu anna Muḥammadan rasūlu Allāh.''

'''English translation:'''

''&quot;I bear witness that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.&quot;''

The Shahada is the first of the '''Five Pillars of Islam''' and is regarded by Muslims as the fundamental statement of Islamic belief. By sincerely professing it with conviction, a person affirms belief in the oneness of God (''Tawhid'') and the prophethood of Muhammad, thereby entering the Islamic faith.

==== Personal ====
*[[/George W.Bush/]]
*[[/Al Waleed Bin Talal/]]
*[[/Akhtar Aly Kureshy/]]

==== Manners ====
*[[/With Animals/]]
{{Shelves|Islam}}
{{Alphabetical|I}}
{{status|0%}}

__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__
[[ar:حقوق الله]]</text>
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This book is a review of the rights of Muslims, the criticism of Islam, and the condition of Islam in various countries.  Views from both the Qur'an, and its cited interpretations, and the views of critics of Islam will be included into discussion.
{{quote|Allah does not forbid you from dealing kindly and fairly with those who have neither fought nor driven you out of your homes. Surely Allah loves those who are fair. {{Qref|60|8|b=yl}}}}

==Historical context==
This correct understanding, perversely, first led to wars that united Arab tribes into a nation and later initiated the Islamic Empire and [[w:Islamic Golden Age|The Golden Age of Islam]].  This period extended from the second to the ninth century of the Muslim calendar which is the 7th to 13th century after the common epoch (ACE).  At this time Islamic scholars evolved new legal, philosophical, and religious understandings.  Artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers, and traders in the Islamic world contributed to the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, sociology, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own.  Historian Howard Turner noted that: &quot;Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent&quot;.

Eventually, the Mongols and Turks that conquered and settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia, Russia, and Anatolia converted to Islam, and formal, inflexible state religions emerged which dictated that there could be no further development of human understanding of God's intent for mankind, and further, prohibited any artistic representation of God's handiwork, thus effectively suppressing inquiry into the natural world. 

Elsewhere, much of Islam retreated into traditionalism and the huge technical innovations of the Islamic Golden Age were frequently rejected, except by the medieval Christian invaders of the Iberian Peninsula, who merged Muslim and Byzantine traditions at the beginning of the 13th century ACE. The end of the medieval period marked the beginning of the transformation of European higher education that would eventually result in the modern research universities from which emerged religious reformation and schism ({{nowrap|16th &amp;ndash; 17th}} century ACE), academic enlightenment (18 Century ACE) and eventually the hydrocarbon and electronic economy of the 19th and 20th Century ACE.

The translation movement centered at House of Wisdom played an important role in preserving and expanding knowledge from Greek, Persian, Indian, and other civilizations. Scholars translated, commented upon, and extended earlier works, producing original research that influenced disciplines including algebra, chemistry, geography, philosophy, and medicine. This exchange of knowledge helped connect intellectual traditions across Asia, Africa, and Europe.

The Islamic Golden Age also witnessed significant advances in medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and engineering. Scholars established libraries, observatories, hospitals (''bimaristans''), and educational institutions across major cities such as Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, and Damascus. Works by scholars such as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Sina, Al-Biruni, and Ibn al-Haytham made lasting contributions to mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and optics. Many of their writings were later translated into Latin and became standard references in European universities, contributing to the development of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.

Islamic orthodoxy was widely imposed by brutal state force from about the 14th century until quite recently, and external developments by Christians and Buddhists were often rejected as 'un-Islamic'.  Yet  many Muslims continued to evolve new interpretations of their traditional teachings.  One of the most controversial of these is the [[w:Bahá'í Faith|Baha'i Faith]], a monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia.  Baha'i claims to emphasize the spiritual unity and teaches the integration of all religions of all humankind by claiming that God's messengers have included Krishna, Buddha, and others, including Abraham and Christ who were canonized by the author of the central religious text of Islam.

In classical Arabic, ''Islam'' is not a proper noun, but a reference to submission or assention. Therefore, this book uses ''The Assent'' to refer to Islam as a way of Life and ''Islam'' to refer to it as a religion. Similarly, ''The Assenter'' refers to the followers of the way of life, while ''Moslems'' refers to the followers of the religion. The title of this book uses the word ''Islam'' instead of ''Islamic'' to further emphasize its descriptive use rather than a proper noun.

== Holy Qur'an ==
According to Islamic belief, the Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad over approximately 23 years through the Angel Jibril (Gabriel). Muslims believe that it is the final revelation from God and that its text has been preserved without alteration since its compilation during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan. The Qur'an contains 114 chapters (''surahs''), including Maryam, which is named after Mary, the mother of Jesus. Mary is the only woman mentioned by name in the Qur'an and is regarded as one of the most honored women in Islam. Jesus (''Isa'') is also among the most frequently mentioned prophets in the Qur'an, where he is described as the Messiah, born miraculously to the Virgin Mary, and a prophet and messenger of God, while not being regarded as divine.

The ''Holy Qur'an'' as it exists today was compiled by Muhammad's companions ([[w:sahabah|Sahaba]]) in approximately 650, and is accepted by all Muslim denominations.  It was revealed to the Last Prophet of God on Earth, Muhammad, peace and blessings of God be upon him and all the prophets and messengers before him.  This Last Revelation of God on Earth, was given the Prophet through the Angel Jibril (Gabriel). 

* in Qur'an there is one Surah about Jesus and there isn't for Prophet Mohammad.
* in Qur'an there is one Surah about Jesus mother Mariam and there isn't for the Prophet's parents.
This shows emphatically that Muhammad was not the author of the Qur'an, and the Surat about Jesus and Mary, and other Surat in the Qur'an explain that Jesus was a Prophet a messenger from God. Jesus furthermore, as explained in the Qur'an, was born without a father (virgin birth), and that he is not the son of God. 

The Qur'an emphasizes continuity with earlier prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, John the Baptist, and Jesus. Muslims believe that Muhammad was sent as the final prophet in a long line of messengers who preached the worship of one God. Respect and honor are accorded to all prophets, and Muslims commonly invoke blessings upon them when mentioning their names. 

=== Islam ===
The Amman Message issued on 9 November 2004 (27th of Ramadan 1425 AH),is an Islamic declaration that affirms the legitimacy of eight recognized schools of Islamic jurisprudence (''[[w:Madhab|madhāhib]]''). It also emphasizes ,mutual respect among Muslims  and discourage the practice of declaring other Muslims to be unbelievers (Takfir). The eight schools recognized are: 

#Sunni Hanafi
#Sunni Hanbali
#Sunni Maliki
#Sunni Shafi'i
#Shia Ja'fari 
#Shia Zaidiyyah
#Ibadi
#Zahiri

==== Islam in the world ====
*[[Islam In The World/Countries|Countries' relations with Islam]]
*[[Islam In The World/Organizations|Organizations' relations with Islam]]

==== Relation with other religions ====
*[[Islam In The World/Christianity|Christianity]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Hinduism/The Puranas|Hinduism]]
*[[Buddhist Philosophy|Buddhism]]

=== Muslim ===
A person enters Islam by sincerely accepting and publicly reciting the '''Shahada''' (Arabic: ''shahādah''), the Islamic declaration of faith:

'''Arabic (transliteration):'''

''Ashhadu an lā ilāha illā Allāh, wa ashhadu anna Muḥammadan rasūlu Allāh.''

'''English translation:'''

''&quot;I bear witness that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.&quot;''

The Shahada is the first of the '''Five Pillars of Islam''' and is regarded by Muslims as the fundamental statement of Islamic belief. By sincerely professing it with conviction, a person affirms belief in the oneness of God (''Tawhid'') and the prophethood of Muhammad, thereby entering the Islamic faith.

==== Personal ====
*[[/George W.Bush/]]
*[[/Al Waleed Bin Talal/]]
*[[/Akhtar Aly Kureshy/]]

==== Manners ====
*[[/With Animals/]]
{{Shelves|Islam}}
{{Alphabetical|I}}
{{status|0%}}

__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__
[[ar:حقوق الله]]</text>
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      <text bytes="13158" sha1="7vqfjekiew3m3q3xkow50t87t0kq8kz" xml:space="preserve">''The global interwiki list is located on [[meta:Spam blacklist]]''.

== Unblocking AWS documentation ==
I understand blocking amazon.com, but we should whitelist docs.aws.amazon.com

Thank you for your consideration

== Specific page unlocking ==
Is there any way that I can get a spcific page unblocked. The page is a custome google search I created in order to show an example of the ease of use when creating a search that yields results from only a specific set of website. Within my custom search the only websites that are being searched are those that are links within my classes wikibook. The class is Econ 452 at the University of Arizona, course titled Information, the Internet and Economics.[[User:Orngjuce5|Orngjuce5]] ([[User talk:Orngjuce5|talk]]) 06:51, 4 November 2010 (UTC)

:Can you provide the link?  Just put spaces around any periods in the name on this page so that it doesn't get recognized as a link and then I can add it to the whitelist. &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Adrignola|talk]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:37, 4 November 2010 (UTC)

I am trying to add a link to the Chemical Acronyms and Abbreviations Dictionary, but the spam filter blocks it because ads is on the spam filter.  The entire URL for the dictionary is: http://bl-libg-doghill.ads.iu.edu/chem-web/databases/acronyms/index.php 
Can you fix it so the site can be added to: Chemical Informaiton Sources/SIRCh/Deep Background Reading?

: Done --&lt;span style=&quot;font: bold 10pt 'courier new', comic, sans, ms;&quot;&gt;[[User:Darklama|&lt;span style=&quot;color:midnightblue&quot;&gt;dark&lt;/span&gt;]][[User_talk:Darklama|&lt;span style=&quot;color:green&quot;&gt;lama&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 14:58, 21 November 2010 (UTC)

== remove redirect from blacklist ==

Hi, i would like to include an external link to the page that i am creating. it is a redirect which i can only include here with spaces h t t p : / / b e a m . t o / z f i s h t o x. Can that be done? Leo [[User:Leovanderven|Leo van der Ven]] ([[User talk:Leovanderven|talk]]) 22:25, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

:You need to include the link to the final destination.  URL redirect services are not permitted because they hide the true destination of the link.  That is used by vandals to create links to &quot;shock&quot; pages.  The site you want is http://zfishtoxpat.comoj.com/ &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Adrignola|talk]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:51, 14 January 2011 (UTC)

== http://repraprip . blogspot . com/2011/05/inkscape-to-openscad-dxf-tutorial.html ==


http://repraprip . blogspot . com/2011/05/inkscape-to-openscad-dxf-tutorial.html

Please whitelist this website. thanks. i need it for http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=OpenSCAD_User_Manual/DXF_Extrusion 
[[User:Decora|Decora]] ([[User talk:Decora|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Decora|contribs]]) 23:05, 21 May 2011 (UTC)
:{{done}}. &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Adrignola|discuss]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:33, 22 May 2011 (UTC)
::thanks! [[User:Decora|Decora]] ([[User talk:Decora|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Decora|contribs]]) 14:23, 29 May 2011 (UTC)

== Request to remove &lt;nowiki&gt;http://strugglingthroughproblems.blogspot.com/search/label/R&lt;/nowiki&gt; from blacklist ==

Hi,

[[R Programming/Sources]] is collecting R-related blogs to use for an R WikiBook. Alas, my blog appears to be blacklisted, so I cannot add it. [[Special:Contributions/69.121.182.189|69.121.182.189]] ([[User talk:69.121.182.189|discuss]]) 21:59, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

== Request to remove http://  70-informational-mindbending-essays   .com from blacklist ==

Hello I am not sure why its telling me im blacklisted for prior spam I just created this site couple weeks ago and would like to allow viewers to see my page couple helpful tips on writing essays as well as a link to an essay writing product that I use myself.  This is not intended to be a sales or gimmick page but some of the info will be helpful to people.

:For which specific textbook do you think this link would be useful? In general links to blogs are not used as they do not often contain useful educational material that couldn't be better incorporated in a book. If you think the information would be helpful to people reading Wikibooks I suggest you incorporate the material itself in a book rather than link to it. [[User:QuiteUnusual|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#E66C2C&quot;&gt;'''QU'''&lt;/span&gt; ]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#306754&quot;&gt;TalkQu&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:29, 13 February 2012 (UTC)

Thanks

==Request to remove &lt;nowiki&gt;http://rtutorialseries.blogspot.com&lt;/nowiki&gt; from blacklist ==
I am also trying to contribute to the R Programming wikibook. It appears that all blogspot.com addresses are blocked from wikibooks and therefore I cannot share my content from the R Tutorial Series (rtutorialseries.blogspot.com). Please remove my address from the blacklist. Thank you.

== Blogspot ==

Why is all of blogspot raw-blacklisted?
\bblogspot\.com\b

I'd like to link http://f a b i a n m e j  i a . b l o g s p o t . c o m / 2 0 0 8 / 0 9 / c o d e b l o c k s - a n d - o p e n g l .h t m l [[User:Beuc|Beuc]] ([[User talk:Beuc|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Beuc|contribs]]) 20:50, 19 September 2011 (UTC)

:In general only reliable sources are suitable as references. That rules out blogs, social networking sites and other non-authoritative sources. More generally as books are meant to be self-contained rather than consisting of external links then I find it hard to see why linking to a blog is useful (but I'm happy to be proved wrong). That is, if a blog isn't suitable as a reference and linking to non-authoritative content rather than incorporating content is discouraged then I can't see any reason for linking to them. But that's just my opinion [[User:QuiteUnusual|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#E66C2C&quot;&gt;'''QU'''&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#306754&quot;&gt;TalkQu&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:59, 19 September 2011 (UTC)

:: In this particular case I'd like to reference this link in an in-progress wikipage.  I don't have the time, right here, right now, to talk the blogger into free-ing his documentation, or to recreate it.  However, I'd very much like to note this reference so that one of the wikibook contributors can get the facts from that page, or for myself in a couple weeks when I'll work again on it.
:: More generally wikibooks regularly get &quot;contributions&quot; of external links from various hosts, so mass-blacklisting blogspot in particular doesn't really help (got one of those a couple days ago on the MySQL wikibook).
:: And to finish, a counter-example: one of the most-referenced intro on OpenGL these days is http://duriansoftware.com/joe/An-intro-to-modern-OpenGL.-Chapter-1:-The-Graphics-Pipeline.html - which is in the form of a handful of blog posts.
:: Keep the wiki spirit: moderation always ''a posteriori'', ''a priori'' when emergency :)

::: Please remove blogspot from the Blacklist. Increasing numbers of researcher's use it for developmental notes, even accessible versions of their publications, not to mention people in talk pages and Userspaces linking to pages on Blogger for developmental notes. [[User:Leighblackall|leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 03:07, 4 October 2011 (UTC)

I have started &quot;[[Wikibooks:Reading_room/Proposals#Blog host blacklisting|Blog host blacklisting]]&quot; to allow discussion by the community given some of the comments on this page over the course of about a year. --&lt;span style=&quot;font: bold 10pt 'courier new', comic, sans, ms;&quot;&gt;[[User:Darklama|&lt;span style=&quot;color:midnightblue&quot;&gt;dark&lt;/span&gt;]][[User_talk:Darklama|&lt;span style=&quot;color:green&quot;&gt;lama&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 17:21, 4 October 2011 (UTC)
*To put up a URL that will not be blocked by the blacklist, simply eliminate the http:// at the beginning. Someone desiring to look at the page can then copy and paste that into most browsers directly, the browser will supply the initial part.
*Blogspot was locally blacklisted.[http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Spam-blacklist&amp;diff=2095668&amp;oldid=2094610], with the comment &quot;no blogs.&quot; Books, however, often will contain references for further reading. Links are not only used as &quot;reliable source.&quot; Nevertheless, blogs are often blacklisted on WMF wikis, especially the 'pedias, because they are not, generally, reliable source. There are exceptions.
*Classically, the fix for the situation that a particular blog URL is considered useful is to whitelist it. My own opinion is that whitelisting of particular links should be liberally allowed upon request by any registered user with a history of positive contributions. If there are many whitelisted pages from a particular domain, then delisting and only blacklisting abused URLs becomes appropriate.
*Blogspot, per se, is ''not'' globally blacklisted. Only a couple of pages from blogspot are globally blacklisted. I note, as well, that Wikipedia does not have the domain blacklisted. It has a long list of specifically blacklisted blogs, probably because they were spammed. Given this situation -- and without more detailed review -- I'd recommend delisting blogspot, the blacklisting is probably causing more trouble than it's worth. Blacklisting was not designed for content control, but only for dealing with linkspam. Using the blacklist for a generic &quot;no blogs&quot; decision is thus contrary to the original blacklist intention. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 13:44, 11 October 2011 (UTC)

:: I have removed blogspot from the blacklist. If we start to get a spamming problem then it may have to be blacklisted again, guess we'll see [[User:QuiteUnusual|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#E66C2C&quot;&gt;'''QU'''&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#306754&quot;&gt;TalkQu&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 13:50, 11 October 2011 (UTC)

== Please remove adsabs from the blacklist ==

&quot;http://adsabs.harvard.edu/&quot; is the major reference site for astronomical and astrophysical journals. It is quite awkward that this is treated as spam here.--[[User:SiriusB|SiriusB]] ([[User talk:SiriusB|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SiriusB|contribs]]) 15:02, 30 May 2012 (UTC)
:[[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px]] {{#ifeq:|small|&lt;small&gt;|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|&lt;/small&gt;|}}.  I think the &quot;ads&quot; portion of the URL may have matched a portion of some catch-all rule in the blacklist.  It is now whitelisted. &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Adrignola|discuss]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:03, 30 May 2012 (UTC)
::Thanks. BTW, esodads.eso.org wasn't blacklisted, maybe only sites with &quot;ads&quot; directly at the beginnung.--[[User:SiriusB|SiriusB]] ([[User talk:SiriusB|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SiriusB|contribs]]) 08:12, 31 May 2012 (UTC)

== iabin ==

I would like this link to be whitelisted.
http://2 0 0 . 14 4 . 18 9 .7 3/ po rt al/datasets/resource/45

It has a database of biodiversity data that is of interest to our book on [[Citizen Science]]. {{unsigned|Thomas Levine|28 September 2013‎}}
:We can't authorize IPs, would it be possible to get a domain name for this site please? [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 19:37, 4 August 2016 (UTC)

== specific link unblock ==
Hi there, I was hoping to have a specific link unblocked to complete a wikibook project on Problem Based Learning - youtu.be/sNhismExIwU - this is an educational video demonstrating how Problem Based Learning works. This is for a course I am taking at Simon Fraser University in the Education Graduate studies Program. Thanks! MrJanzen1984 &lt;small&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autosigned&quot;&gt;—Preceding comment added 17:11, 4 August 2016&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;!-- Template:Unsigned --&gt;
:Hello, YouTube is not blocked here but on all the wikis via [[meta:Spam blacklist]]. Would it be possible to duplicate your video on [[commons:Special:UploadWizard]] please? [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 19:35, 4 August 2016 (UTC)


=== kibrit.com.tr ===
{{linksummary|kibrit.com.tr}}
Could you please remove kibrit.com.tr from blacklisted domain. thank you so much for your effort

== Request for review of directmacro.com blacklist entry ==

Hello,

I represent DirectMacro.com. We recently discovered that our domain is listed on the spam blacklist.

We understand Wikipedia's policy against promotional linking and appreciate the importance of protecting Wikipedia from spam.

If the domain was blacklisted because of previous inappropriate external link additions, those actions do not reflect our current practices.

We have reviewed our website and are committed to complying with Wikipedia's External Links and Spam policies. We respectfully request that the domain be reviewed for removal from the blacklist if the administrators determine it no longer presents a spam risk.

Thank you for your time and consideration. [[User:Brookchris47|Brookchris47]] ([[User talk:Brookchris47|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Brookchris47|contribs]]) 17:24, 15 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 11</title>
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      <text bytes="3428" sha1="hson4n865hmgfuif73fcw9pn78m4ogj" xml:space="preserve">{{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}}
= Lesson 11: Taiwan / 第十一課：臺灣 =
{| width=&quot;80%&quot;
! Traditional Characters
! Simplified Characters
|-
|
臺灣是一個海島。 &lt;br /&gt;
臺灣的主要語言是中文（繁體中文）。&lt;br /&gt;
它有各種文化，有名的特產。&lt;br /&gt;
它處於大陸棚上。所以有海鮮。&lt;br /&gt;
它有山脈，所以有美麗的風景。&lt;br /&gt;
|
台湾是一个海岛。&lt;br /&gt;
台湾的主要语言是中文（繁体中文）。&lt;br /&gt;
它有各种文化，有名的特产。&lt;br /&gt;
它处于大陆架上。所以有海鲜。&lt;br /&gt;
它有山脉，所以有美丽的风景。&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! Pīnyīn
! English
|-
|
Táiwān shì yígè hǎidǎo.&lt;br /&gt;
Táiwān de zhǔyào yǔyán shì zhōngwén (fántǐ zhōngwén).&lt;br /&gt;
Tā yǒu gèzhǒng wénhuà, yǒumíng de tèchǎn.&lt;br /&gt;
Tā chǔyú dàlùjià shàng. Suǒyǐ yǒu hǎixiān.&lt;br /&gt;
Tā yǒu shānmài, suǒyǐ yǒu měilì de fēngjǐng.&lt;br /&gt;
|
Taiwan is an island. &lt;br /&gt;
Its main language is Chinese (Traditional Chinese).&lt;br /&gt;
It has a variety kinds of culture, famous local products.&lt;br /&gt;
It is on the continental shelf. So there is seafood.&lt;br /&gt;
It has mountains, it has beautiful scenery.
|}

== Vocabulary ==
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Trad. Chinese !! Simp. Chinese !! Pinyin !! English
|-
| 東海 || 东海 || Dōnghǎi || East China Sea
|-
| 南海 || = || Nánhǎi || South China Sea
|-
| 山脈 || 山脉 || shānmài || mountain
|-
| 特產 || 特产 || tèchǎn || local products
|-
| 海鮮 || 海鲜 || hǎixiān || seafood
|-
| 大陸*棚 || 大陆*架 || dàlùpéng（dàlùjià） || continental shelf
|-
| 風景 || 风景 || fēngjǐng || scenery
|-
| 文化 || = || wénhuà || culture
|}
; Note:
*'''=''' means there are no differences in characters.
*'''*''' means those are different in using words, rather than in characters.

=== Chinese Characters ===
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
! Traditional !! Simplified || Note || Pinyin
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;臺&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;台&lt;/span&gt; || &quot;台&quot; is also widely used in Traditional Chinese. Always feel free to use it. || tái
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;灣&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;湾&lt;/span&gt; || || wān
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;海&lt;/span&gt; || - || || hǎi
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;島&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;岛&lt;/span&gt; || || dǎo
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;東&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;东&lt;/span&gt; || || dōng
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;南&lt;/span&gt; || - || || nán
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;產&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;产&lt;/span&gt; || || chǎn
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;鮮&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;鲜&lt;/span&gt; || || xiān
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;麗&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;丽&lt;/span&gt; || || lì
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;風&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;风&lt;/span&gt; || || fēng
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;景&lt;/span&gt; || - || || jǐng
|}

== Grammar ==
美麗（的）風景 = beautiful scenery&lt;br&gt;
Sometimes Chinese people drop the ‘的’ for adjectives to keep it from appearing too many times. They will say ‘美麗風景’ and ‘免費圖書（Free book）’ without the adverb '的'.
{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>一隻北極熊</username>
        <id>3609960</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lesson 11: Taiwan / 第十一課：臺灣 */</comment>
      <origin>4654669</origin>
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      <text bytes="3452" sha1="g5xqwdeavm58agd10bg2yj4otxcdbwr" xml:space="preserve">{{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}}
= Lesson 11: Taiwan / 第十一课：台湾/ 第十一課：臺灣  =
{| width=&quot;80%&quot;
! Traditional Characters
! Simplified Characters
|-
|
臺灣是一個海島。 &lt;br /&gt;
臺灣的主要語言是中文（繁體中文）。&lt;br /&gt;
它有各種文化，有名的特產。&lt;br /&gt;
它處於大陸棚上。所以有海鮮。&lt;br /&gt;
它有山脈，所以有美麗的風景。&lt;br /&gt;
|
台湾是一个海岛。&lt;br /&gt;
台湾的主要语言是中文（繁体中文）。&lt;br /&gt;
它有各种文化，有名的特产。&lt;br /&gt;
它处于大陆架上。所以有海鲜。&lt;br /&gt;
它有山脉，所以有美丽的风景。&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! Pīnyīn
! English
|-
|
Táiwān shì yígè hǎidǎo.&lt;br /&gt;
Táiwān de zhǔyào yǔyán shì zhōngwén (fántǐ zhōngwén).&lt;br /&gt;
Tā yǒu gèzhǒng wénhuà, yǒumíng de tèchǎn.&lt;br /&gt;
Tā chǔyú dàlùjià shàng. Suǒyǐ yǒu hǎixiān.&lt;br /&gt;
Tā yǒu shānmài, suǒyǐ yǒu měilì de fēngjǐng.&lt;br /&gt;
|
Taiwan is an island. &lt;br /&gt;
Its main language is Chinese (Traditional Chinese).&lt;br /&gt;
It has a variety kinds of culture, famous local products.&lt;br /&gt;
It is on the continental shelf. So there is seafood.&lt;br /&gt;
It has mountains, it has beautiful scenery.
|}

== Vocabulary ==
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Trad. Chinese !! Simp. Chinese !! Pinyin !! English
|-
| 東海 || 东海 || Dōnghǎi || East China Sea
|-
| 南海 || = || Nánhǎi || South China Sea
|-
| 山脈 || 山脉 || shānmài || mountain
|-
| 特產 || 特产 || tèchǎn || local products
|-
| 海鮮 || 海鲜 || hǎixiān || seafood
|-
| 大陸*棚 || 大陆*架 || dàlùpéng（dàlùjià） || continental shelf
|-
| 風景 || 风景 || fēngjǐng || scenery
|-
| 文化 || = || wénhuà || culture
|}
; Note:
*'''=''' means there are no differences in characters.
*'''*''' means those are different in using words, rather than in characters.

=== Chinese Characters ===
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
! Traditional !! Simplified || Note || Pinyin
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;臺&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;台&lt;/span&gt; || &quot;台&quot; is also widely used in Traditional Chinese. Always feel free to use it. || tái
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;灣&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;湾&lt;/span&gt; || || wān
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;海&lt;/span&gt; || - || || hǎi
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;島&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;岛&lt;/span&gt; || || dǎo
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;東&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;东&lt;/span&gt; || || dōng
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;南&lt;/span&gt; || - || || nán
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;產&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;产&lt;/span&gt; || || chǎn
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;鮮&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;鲜&lt;/span&gt; || || xiān
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;麗&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;丽&lt;/span&gt; || || lì
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;風&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;风&lt;/span&gt; || || fēng
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: xxx-large;&quot;&gt;景&lt;/span&gt; || - || || jǐng
|}

== Grammar ==
美麗（的）風景 = beautiful scenery&lt;br&gt;
Sometimes Chinese people drop the ‘的’ for adjectives to keep it from appearing too many times. They will say ‘美麗風景’ and ‘免費圖書（Free book）’ without the adverb '的'.
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>Peeragogy Handbook</title>
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        <username>LoveElectronicLiterature</username>
        <id>3414389</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Made the language a bit clearer</comment>
      <origin>4654577</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6688" sha1="pe48c7qwz36hpu4lorvmvhmv4cwidxd" xml:space="preserve">Welcome to the '''&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial; &quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(0, 29, 142); &quot;&gt;P&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(239, 0, 0); &quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(250, 196, 0); &quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(49, 139, 15); &quot;&gt;r&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(65, 189, 255); &quot;&gt;a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(240, 0, 0); &quot;&gt;g&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(239, 0, 202); &quot;&gt;o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(242, 82, 27); &quot;&gt;g&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(0, 29, 142); &quot;&gt;y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;  Handbook''','''Wikibook Edition'''! 

{{PDF version}}

Peeragogy is a word for a techniques that self-motivated learners can use to connect with each other and develop stronger communities and collaborations. This book picks up where the Wikipedia [[w:peer learning|Peer Learning]] and [[w:peer production|Peer Production]] articles leave off. It is addressed to everyone who is interested in how [[w:learning|learning]] works, whether you’re an [[wikt:educator|educator]], a hobbyist, an [[w:Artist|artist]], a student, an employee, a parent, an activist, an archivist, a mathematician, tennis player, and/or if you just think learning is cool.

[[File:PeeragogyV3.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The Peeragogy Handbook, 3rd Ed.]]

[[wikt:peer|Peers]] began working as on the first edition&lt;ref&gt;The Peeragogy Handbook ({{ISBN|9780985572211}})&lt;/ref&gt; of this Handbook in 2012. [[w:Howard Rheingold|Howard Rheingold]] convened them in connection with his [[w:University_of_California,_Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]] Regents Lecture on January 23rd &quot;Social Media and Peer Learning: From Mediated Pedagogy to Peeragogy&quot;&lt;ref&gt;You can read more about the lecture on the [https://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/events/2012/social-media-and-peer-learning-mediated-pedagogy-peeragogy school website]. On a different school website [https://bcnm.berkeley.edu/events/109/special-events/1320/social-media-and-peer-learning-from-mediated-pedagogy-to-peeragogy page] it states that [https://rheingold.com/ Rheingold] 'offers an abstract on what will be addressed in his UC Berkeley Regents Lecture: &quot;My career-long compulsion has been to take new media to their limits. In the field of learning, this means developing a method of teaching and learning that amplifies the affordances of online media to depart from the millennia-old model of professor-lecture-texts-tests. The first stage of this evolution was the application of online media to classroom teaching. The second stage was the transformation of my teaching because of the affordances and biases of social media. The third stage was to move from blended learning that combines face to face classes and online engagement. The fourth stage was to deliver mini-courses that took place entirely online, with an emphasis on cultivating a community of co-learners. The next and most radical stage, which I hope to initiate with the Regent's lecture and accompanying master-class and seminar, is to use the same media for a purely peer-organized pedagogy.&quot;'&lt;/ref&gt; Since then two&lt;ref&gt;Peeragogy Handbook V2 ({{ISBN|9780977639649}})&lt;/ref&gt; more&lt;ref&gt;The Peeragogy Handbook, 3rd Edition ({{ISBN|9780996097512}})&lt;/ref&gt; editions of the Peeragogy Handbook were crafted and papers were written&lt;ref&gt;The first one was published [[v:File:Paragogy-final.pdf|on Wikiversity in 2011 named &quot;Paragogy: Synergizing individual and organizational learning&quot;]].&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Over the course of working on the handbooks [http://peeragogy.org peeragogues] worked hard, practiced peeragogy, learned a lot about it, and had a lot of fun! This Wikibook Edition of the Handbook stands on its own as their successor with ongoing updates. 

The Peeragogy Project has found that flattened hierarchies do not necessarily mean decisions go by consensus — people often take the ball and run with it. The handbook includes co-edited pages as well as single-author works: often the lines and voices are blurred. One constant throughout the book is our interest in making something useful. To this end, the book is available under the Wikibook non-restrictive legal terms, which allow you to reuse portions of it however you see fit it. Among other things, we include instructions on how to join us in further developing this resource, one way is to view our [[Wikibooks:Peeragogy|Wikbooks project page]].

{{status|75%}} 
{{reading level|intermediate}}
{{Alphabetical|P}}

:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Overview|Overview]]
:# [[Peeragogy Handbook/Preface to the 3rd Edition|Preface]]
:# [[Peeragogy Handbook/Foreword|Foreword]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook/Revised Intro|Intro]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/How to use this Handbook|How to use this Handbook]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Convening|Convening]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/K-12 Peeragogy|K-12 Peeragogy]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Researching Peeragogy|Researching Peeragogy]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Organizing Co-Learning|Organizing Co-Learning]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Adding Structure|Adding Structure]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/The Student authored syllabus|The Student authored syllabus]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/How to Organize a MOOC|How to Organize a MOOC]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Participation|Participation]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/The Workscape|The Workscape]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Co-Facilitation|Co-Facilitation]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Designs for Co-Working|Designs for Co-Working]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Platform Design|Platform Design]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Peeragogical Assessment|Peeragogical Assessment]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Following the money|Following the money]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Thinking about patterns|Thinking about patterns]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Patterns and Heuristics|Patterns and Heuristics]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Patterns|Patterns]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Antipatterns|Antipatterns]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Use Case|Use Case]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Peeragogies Technology|Peeragogies Technology]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Wiki|Wiki]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Real-time Meetings|Real-time Meetings]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/How to get involved|How to get involved]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Peeragogy in Action|Peeragogy in Action]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Style Guide|Style Guide]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Meet the Authors|Meet the Authors]]


[[File:Peeragogy - Welcome 2 -.webm|thumb|right|200px|This is a welcome to peeragogy video with [https://www.visualsforchange.com/bio Amanda].]]

{{Shelves|Education|Learning theory}}
{{BookCat}}

[[id:Peeragogy Handbook V1.0 (Id)]]
[[pt:Peeragogy Handbook V1.1 (pt-Brazilian)]]
[[fr:Peeragogie Manuel V1.3]]

==References==
{{Reflist|40em}}</text>
      <sha1>pe48c7qwz36hpu4lorvmvhmv4cwidxd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654581</id>
      <parentid>4654577</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T19:56:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Jeffrey Danoff</username>
        <id>293364</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleaned up intro</comment>
      <origin>4654581</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6701" sha1="q0fhnuodsukweq0e2ul6l7o4mzjrmbg" xml:space="preserve">Welcome to the '''&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial; &quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(0, 29, 142); &quot;&gt;P&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(239, 0, 0); &quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(250, 196, 0); &quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(49, 139, 15); &quot;&gt;r&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(65, 189, 255); &quot;&gt;a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(240, 0, 0); &quot;&gt;g&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(239, 0, 202); &quot;&gt;o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(242, 82, 27); &quot;&gt;g&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(0, 29, 142); &quot;&gt;y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;  Handbook''','''Wikibook Edition'''! 

{{PDF version}}

Peeragogy is a word for a techniques that self-motivated learners can use to connect with each other and develop stronger communities and collaborations. This book picks up where the Wikipedia [[w:peer learning|Peer Learning]] and [[w:peer production|Peer Production]] articles leave off. It is addressed to everyone who is interested in how [[w:learning|learning]] works, whether you’re an [[wikt:educator|educator]], a hobbyist, an [[w:Artist|artist]], a student, an employee, a parent, an activist, an archivist, a mathematician, tennis player, and/or if you just think learning is cool.

[[File:PeeragogyV3.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The Peeragogy Handbook, 3rd Ed.]]

[[wikt:peer|Peers]] began working as on the first edition&lt;ref&gt;The Peeragogy Handbook ({{ISBN|9780985572211}})&lt;/ref&gt; of this Handbook in 2012. [[w:Howard Rheingold|Howard Rheingold]] convened them in connection with his [[w:University_of_California,_Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]] Regents Lecture on January 23rd &quot;Social Media and Peer Learning: From Mediated Pedagogy to Peeragogy&quot;&lt;ref&gt;You can read more about the lecture on the [https://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/events/2012/social-media-and-peer-learning-mediated-pedagogy-peeragogy school website]. On a different school website [https://bcnm.berkeley.edu/events/109/special-events/1320/social-media-and-peer-learning-from-mediated-pedagogy-to-peeragogy page] it states that [https://rheingold.com/ Rheingold] 'offers an abstract on what will be addressed in his UC Berkeley Regents Lecture: &quot;My career-long compulsion has been to take new media to their limits. In the field of learning, this means developing a method of teaching and learning that amplifies the affordances of online media to depart from the millennia-old model of professor-lecture-texts-tests. The first stage of this evolution was the application of online media to classroom teaching. The second stage was the transformation of my teaching because of the affordances and biases of social media. The third stage was to move from blended learning that combines face to face classes and online engagement. The fourth stage was to deliver mini-courses that took place entirely online, with an emphasis on cultivating a community of co-learners. The next and most radical stage, which I hope to initiate with the Regent's lecture and accompanying master-class and seminar, is to use the same media for a purely peer-organized pedagogy.&quot;'&lt;/ref&gt; Since then two&lt;ref&gt;Peeragogy Handbook V2 ({{ISBN|9780977639649}})&lt;/ref&gt; more&lt;ref&gt;The Peeragogy Handbook, 3rd Edition ({{ISBN|9780996097512}})&lt;/ref&gt; editions of the Peeragogy Handbook were crafted and papers were written&lt;ref&gt;The first one was published [[v:File:Paragogy-final.pdf|on Wikiversity in 2011 named &quot;Paragogy: Synergizing individual and organizational learning&quot;]].&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Over the course of working on the handbooks [http://peeragogy.org peeragogues] worked hard, practiced peeragogy, learned a lot about it, and had a lot of fun! This Wikibook Edition of the Handbook stands on its own as their successor with ongoing updates. 

The Peeragogy Project has found that flattened hierarchies do not necessarily mean decisions go by consensus — people often take the ball and run with it on their own. The handbook includes co-edited pages as well as single-author works: often the lines and voices are blurred. One constant throughout the book is our interest in making something useful. To this end, the book is available under the Wikibook non-restrictive legal terms, which allow you to reuse portions of it however you see fit it. Among other things, we include instructions on how to join us in further developing this resource, one way is to view our [[Wikibooks:Peeragogy|Wikbooks project page]].

{{status|75%}} 
{{reading level|intermediate}}
{{Alphabetical|P}}

:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Overview|Overview]]
:# [[Peeragogy Handbook/Preface to the 3rd Edition|Preface]]
:# [[Peeragogy Handbook/Foreword|Foreword]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook/Revised Intro|Intro]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/How to use this Handbook|How to use this Handbook]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Convening|Convening]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/K-12 Peeragogy|K-12 Peeragogy]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Researching Peeragogy|Researching Peeragogy]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Organizing Co-Learning|Organizing Co-Learning]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Adding Structure|Adding Structure]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/The Student authored syllabus|The Student authored syllabus]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/How to Organize a MOOC|How to Organize a MOOC]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Participation|Participation]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/The Workscape|The Workscape]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Co-Facilitation|Co-Facilitation]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Designs for Co-Working|Designs for Co-Working]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Platform Design|Platform Design]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Peeragogical Assessment|Peeragogical Assessment]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Following the money|Following the money]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Thinking about patterns|Thinking about patterns]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Patterns and Heuristics|Patterns and Heuristics]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Patterns|Patterns]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Antipatterns|Antipatterns]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Use Case|Use Case]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Peeragogies Technology|Peeragogies Technology]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Wiki|Wiki]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Real-time Meetings|Real-time Meetings]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/How to get involved|How to get involved]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Peeragogy in Action|Peeragogy in Action]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Style Guide|Style Guide]]
:#[[Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/Meet the Authors|Meet the Authors]]


[[File:Peeragogy - Welcome 2 -.webm|thumb|right|200px|This is a welcome to peeragogy video with [https://www.visualsforchange.com/bio Amanda].]]

{{Shelves|Education|Learning theory}}
{{BookCat}}

[[id:Peeragogy Handbook V1.0 (Id)]]
[[pt:Peeragogy Handbook V1.1 (pt-Brazilian)]]
[[fr:Peeragogie Manuel V1.3]]

==References==
{{Reflist|40em}}</text>
      <sha1>q0fhnuodsukweq0e2ul6l7o4mzjrmbg</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Peeragogy Handbook V1.0/How to get involved</title>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>4342962</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Jeffrey Danoff</username>
        <id>293364</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adapted page to wikibooks</comment>
      <origin>4654586</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4879" sha1="6sup15tqg46mviqalj33ztxg4yuwqig" xml:space="preserve">On this Wikibooks version of the handbook, you can get involved by making edits yourself! Click the edit button above.


''Illustrations in print version by Amanda Lyons.''
== Hello and welcome! ==

The peeragogy project was kicked off around the time of [http://rheingold.com/ Howard Rheingold’s] January 23, 2012 [http://vimeo.com/35685124 Regents Lecture] at UC Berkeley on ''Social Media and Peer Learning: From Mediated Pedagogy to Peeragogy''. We have put together a handbook about peer learning: you're reading it -- maybe on [[http://peeragogy.org|our website]], or in your hammock with the beverage of your choice and our [http://www.lulu.com/shop/howard-rheingold-and-peeragogyorg-editors/the-peeragogy-handbook/paperback/product-20607425.html print on demand] paperback. Or maybe you grabbed our [http://peeragogy.net/peeragogy-handbook-v1-1.pdf free PDF] or some other remixed version in some other format or flavor from some other place (which would be [http://peeragogy.org/resources/license/ cool]!).

But: there’s still [http://peeragogy.org/peeragogy-org-roadmap/ more work to be done]. We created this page because you might be interested in getting involved in improving the book or furthering the project in other ways. If so, we’re happy to have you aboard!

What you do here is largely up to you. 

The goal we have in mind for our book is for it be a useful guide to peer learning! To achieve that goal we have in mind multiple opportunities for peers to contribute:

* We're particularly interested in case studies about [http://peeragogy.org/peeragogy-in-action/ Peeragogy in Action]!
* Organize a team to tackle a larger section or topic.
* Make a video (like these on our [http://www.youtube.com/channel/UCIQY4ja8e4Br-i9U5KnmyZQ YouTube Channel]),
* Take notes of live meetings, or [http://cmapspublic3.ihmc.us/rid=1K81VLSK7-1RL0RQ4-WZK/Peeragogy%20Cmap.cmap grow concept maps,]
* Organize a newsletter for your group or the whole team,
* Add general purpose bookmarks or post comments and editorial notes about peeragogy.org in [http://groups.diigo.com/group/peering-into-peeragogy%20 this one]; and
* Discuss peer learning matters and this handbook informally with us and with others!

We regularly use Google+, Google Hangouts, forums, and email to communicate asynchronously and pretty much continuously. We also meet irregularly as a group for synchronous audio-video sessions. Further details about all these methods of communication can be found below.

In short: here's how it works:


== Summary: Ways we Communicate ==

FORUMS AND WIKI - The project got started in the [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/wiki/main-page Social Media Classroom] hosted by Howard at Howard Rheingold University. To use this resource, you'll need to contact Howard via the email address above, and he'll create a login for you. This system is asynchronous (you can participate whenever you'd like). There are lots of old conversations in the forums that you can read to see how the community of peeragogy handbook creators formed -- and you can add your own voice. You'll find extended discussions of issues and decisions raised in live sessions.

GOOGLE+ COMMUNITY - We created the &amp;quot;Peeragogy in Action&amp;quot; community as a place to gather stories about how people are applying peeragogy techniques. We're also using it to coordinate work on the Peeragogy Project itself. Feel free to j[https://plus.google.com/u/0/communities/107386162349686249470 oin us]!

LIVE SESSIONS - We meet synchronously at agreed-upon times, using audio, video, text chat, slides, screen-sharing. For groups of ten or more, we use Blackboard Collaborate, for which Howard has a 50-seat-at-a-time license. These sessions are recorded. For information about scheduling, and recordings, see [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/live-sessions-schedule-recordings-notes-mindmaps the forum topic]. Participation requires a fairly fast (broadband) Internet connection, a microphone or headset, and (if you wish), a webcam. For groups of ten or smaller (usually for project teams), we use Google+ Hangouts. Individual teams do their own scheduling.

TWITTER LIST - Follow [http://twitter.com/Peeragogy/ @Peeragogy] &amp;amp; to get added to the Peeragogy Twitter list please post your Twitter name [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/the-tools-we-are-using-and-how-access-them here]. Stephanie Schipper will then add you.

TWITTER HASHTAG: [http://twitter.com/search?q=%23peeragogy&amp;src=typd #peeragogy] We even have a [https://www.facebook.com/peeragogy FACEBOOK PAGE.] '''[http://peeragogy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/questions_1000.gif]''' [[Image:http://peeragogy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/questions_1000-300x50.gif|questions_1000]]

== Questions? ==

If you have questions, that's good! Post a comment on this page
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== Electronic Literature Online 2026 Workshop ==
On July 15, 2026 there was a workshop at the 2026 ELO conference about this wikibook! We learned more about peeragogy, wikimedia, and wikibooks! There is even a Wikipedia project about [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:WikiProject_Electronic_literature|Electronic Literature]] and we discovered independent scholars researching '''[https://www.deenalarsen.net/firs/ Multiple Hereditary Exostoses]''' (MHE),

= From peer production to peer learning =
=== Main actor ===

Julian, an enthusiastic convert to the power of peer-learning.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Reflecting on the success of [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/patterns-and-use-cases#comment-1749 Strategy as Learning], Julian notes that other housing associations might benefit from this process. He also notes that as most housing association boards are made up of volunteers like himself, there is a very wide variation in background, knowledge and skills, and therefore not only a need for low cost (free) learning opportunities, but a range of skills available to enable them.
# Julian sets up a peer learning resource on the web, drawing on the experiences in implementing [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/patterns-and-use-cases#comment-1749 Strategy as Learning], and promotes it through industry-specific web forums. He draws attention from an online journalist writing in the housing field who writes a positive article, and as a result a growing number of collaborators come forward.
# Over a period of a year or so, the core team of active users collaborate to create standards and exemplars in relation to different aspects of housing association governance that become a de facto standard in the sector.

=== Thoughts ===

# Obviously a very specific use case that could easily be generalised
# Possible patterns to extract? Seeding Peer Communities, Emergent Standards, Emergent Assessment ???

= C'est la vie=

=== Main Actors ===

Pierre and Marie - recently married.

=== Main Success Scenario ===

# They furnished off an apartment from a Sears &amp; Roebuck sale. Their coolerator was crammed with TV dinners and ginger ale. (She couldn't cook.)
# But when Pierre found work, the little money coming in worked out well. They got a hi-fi phono, and boy, did they let it blast -- Seven hundred little EPs, all rock, rhythm and jazz.
# When the sun went down, the rapid tempo of the music sort of fell (for various reasons).
# They bought a souped up Mercedes -- a cherry red '53 -- and drove it down to New Orleans to celebrate their anniversary.
# &quot;C'est la vie,&quot; say the old folks, &quot;It goes to show you never ca E
(Après Chuck Berry.)

=== Thoughts ===

I tried to use the familiar song to suggest that pæragogy works in personal relationships, too. Compare the above story with this quote from Leopold von Sacher-Massoch...:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&amp;quot;That woman, as nature has created her and as man is at present educating her, is his enemy. She can only be his slave or his despot, but ''never his companion''. This she can become only when she has the same rights as he, and is his equal in education and work.&amp;quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
I don't know if Sacher-Massoch is particularly reliable as a feminist. But it ''is'' interesting to look at &quot;companionship&quot; (along with membership in the same age cohort) as a criterion for a peer-like and working relationship in the story. It's unclear as to whether Pierre &amp; Marie have &quot;equal&quot; roles (he found work, but it's not in any way implied that she was working... so how did she spend her time? Etc.).

=Distributed project management=


=== Main Actor ===

Kim, a Ph. D. student in Geography.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Kim has 5 different people on her supervision team: some in her field, others from geology. They all have somewhat different ideas about what she should be doing with her thesis work. None of them are co-located. This situation can be quite frustrating.
# Kim decides to go spend a few weeks working in close proximity to the one member of the team who she has the most rapport with. This will also give her a chance to be in touch with other students in her field.
# In the mean time, she establishes contact with yet another researcher whose work is quite closely related to hers. Although he does not have any formal responsibilities or ties to her project, they are already colleagues in an academic sense, and they have more congruent views on what her project is about. After she visits her favorite supervisor, she may plan to spend a month or so visiting this other researcher in his home country.

=== Note ===

I think this sort of networking to create an informal supervision team happens fairly frequently for postgrad students in the UK system. Certainly there are other examples of distributed project management - e.g. W3C working groups come to mind.

= Prolegomena =


=== Main Actor ===

A student, Madeleine, who is trying to learn multivariable calculus.

=== Main Success Scenario ===

# Madeleine is enrolled in an advanced calculus course at university. She learns about PlanetMath from her instructor who recommends it as a place for extra practice with homework problems. Madeleine creates an account, fills in basic profile information, and starts solving problems that the system supplies based on the information she supplied in her profile.
# The problems that the system supplies are automatically linked to reference resources in PlanetMath’s encyclopaedia. This expository material gives Madeleine easy access to the relevant mathematical concepts, examples, and hints needed for solving the increasingly difficult practice problems. However, she eventually runs into a problem where neither the automatically supplied information, nor her current knowledge of the subject, is sufficient. She’s completely stuck on a problem having to do with water flow in a pipe! Madeleine attaches a help request to the problem: “I understand that I have to use the two variables ''x'' and ''y'' to solve for water flow, but I don’t understand what the boundary limits of the equations would be: do I have to convert it to polar coordinates?&amp;quot;
# This request is noticed by Natalie, a mathematics graduate student who regularly looks at the feed showing “recent requests for help with advanced calculus.” She sees that the reference resources linked to Madeleine’s problem are probably not sufficient, and that Madeleine’s idea about using polar coordinates would work. Natalie makes some changes to the encyclopaedia indicating that converting to converting to polar coordinates can be necessary in pipe flow problems, and sketches an example. Natalie then checks that this information links to Madeleine’s problem correctly, and alerts Madeleine to the changes. With this new information, Madeleine is not only able to solve her problem, but can proceed with confidence: she had the right idea after all!

= Improved adaptivity = 

=== Main Actor ===

Madeleine, a few years later on, trying to learn real analysis.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Madeleine has been using a peer-learning website for mathematics for a while now. When she gets stuck, she asks for help in context, and her request is brought to the attention of the appropriate community member, who improves the pedagogic quality of the material. This help enables her to solve math problems very effectively.
# Now, however, the system's software is being updated. Instead of being solely a &quot;Web 2.0&quot; system for communicating about the subject, the system can keep track of new concepts that Madeleine is using in the problems she solves and the questions she asks. It can suggest heuristics that have been used by other students solving similar problems. (It knows about these things through a combination of textual analysis and &quot;tagging&quot; of text by Madeleine and other users, e.g. Natalie, who sometimes gives comments on problems that Madeleine solves.)
# As the system grows and improves (through efforts of students and mentors), learning mathematics becomes increasingly easy. The material has been gone over by 100s of students and learning pathways are optimized. Madeleine sometimes can get a quick tutoring gig helping out another younger student, and make some money, but mostly she's thinking about what other subjects she will need to add to her portfolio in order to become an architect... by the time she's 23!

= Research funding =

=== Main actor ===

Javier, who works for the European Commission.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Javier is interested in research topics like &quot;data analytics&quot; and &quot;emerging topics in ICT&quot; -- things that will influence learning technology in the next 5 years. He is also concerned about how best to fund work on new learning and teaching environments.
# He wonders what the barriers and incentives are in this niche. For example, why does research work frequently not have the broad-scale societal impact that the EC hopes it might?
# Javier is invited to a pæragogy event, in which some unexpected experts on &quot;broad scale impact&quot; help him understand that intensive funding for research is often not going to have the desired effect, since, for various reasons, even well-funded research projects are frequently not well connected to actual practice.
# He starts to build pæragogy into funding calls: smaller pots of money going to projects that connect with what people actually do, working with partners like the Wikimedia Foundation and the Free Software Foundation to multiply effort by involving volunteers. It's time for him to take a well-earned vacation.

= A journalist enters the whispering gallery =

=== Main actor ===

Jorge Luis is a journalist for a London business paper.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Jorge Luis writes on a daily and even hourly basis about the eurozone crisis. He uses social dashboards and curating tools and produces lots of curated stories about the causes of the problems, the stupidity of the continental europeans and how it will all end soon in complete and utter disaster. His sources are other journalists, well-known economists and famous bloggers.
# On his way to the newsroom he usually passes St Pauls cathedral, where Occupy London people protest. He thinks they rather look like losers, except for one very interesting young lady. She tells him where he can find the center of the universe: at the Whispering Gallery of the cathedral. He thinks she is nuts, but also very beautiful and interesting, so he walks the 259 steps from ground level to the Gallery. Once he gets there, he realizes that the girl was right. It IS the center of the universe. There are murmurs to be heard there - it seems they come from everywhere. He hears about guilds and the craftsmen who built the cathedral. He learns about how proud they were and how they formed communities of practice, educating the uninitiated, teaching each other to create.
# He returns to ground level. The girl is gone, but yet he feels happy. He realizes he can do more than repackage the social media streams, that there is more than Twitter-the-new broadcast medium. He starts a new journey: finding a guild, a community of practice, but restyled in a 21st century fashion. It will be more open, more connected to others then the old guilds. He will still use a social dashboard and curaring tools, but also he uses wikis, and synchronous communication. And most importantly, he starts building, together with others. For instance, together with the people formerly known as his readers. They will co-create the analysis, the search for solutions and sense-making, rather than helplessly listening to &quot;experts&quot;, passively consuming the knowledge and information. Instead, they'll start building their own destiny as a community, and the newsroom will be part of the platform.

= Living the OER dream =

=== Main Actor ===

Charlie, who does tutoring and educational consulting, and who has been doing research on paragogy.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Charlie usually tutors one-on-one but has been putting work into understanding and exploring peer learning and peer production, putting it into practice on P2PU and in courses and projects with Howard Rheingold.
# X-Y-Z peer learning theory (paragogy?) helps him design learning activities that work well for groups of students
# He deploys the new model on [http://paragogy.net paragogy.net] as an educational startup, and realizes the &quot;OER dream&quot;!

=Making our own tools=

=== Main Actor ===

Howard runs [http://www.rheingold.com/university/ Rheingold University] and teaches courses at UCB and Stanford.

# Howard created the peeragogy project, as a place to experiment and learn: &quot;I want to experiment as much as possible with peeragogy, with the group of contributors here, with the co-learners in Rheingold U, and with other groups in the future. I want to personally use the tools we're building. I know something about how to do it, and can make substantial contributions. But I also am learning a lot about how to do it from others, and expect that to continue.&quot;
# Although &quot;bringing a volunteer project to completion [...] isn't a guaranteed slam-dunk&quot;, Howard learns by doing: &quot;If I had it to do over again, I would have thought out the work flow and delineated it before we started talking about how to do the project.&quot;
# With both frequent, and other less frequent, but thoughtful, contributors, the project continues to develop, and will indeed complete somehow (even if no one knew quite what to expect in advance). Howard and other contributors have learned a lot in the process - and this will be useful both for the duration of the peeragogy project, and in future projects. As hoped!


= Work at the technical edge =

=== Main Actor ===

Jess, a hacker and engineer who develops new libraries and programs quickly and on the bleeding edge of new technologies.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Jess develops something new and totally cool and drops the source code in GitHub. These tools are developed rapidly and are a much lighter &quot;learning lift&quot; than learning say an entirely new programming language.
# She creates documentation for her new library and puts it up on a web site for other developers to read.
# She is trying to find a better way for other developers to learn how to use the new tools and libraries she creates and starts thinking about peer learning.
# How can she use what tools and processes or methods that are already out there to engage other developers to learn from and with each other digitally? (Jess has no background in learning theory and is not in the educational field.) She finds the peeragogy handbook and a lot of this stuff starts to click.

=Peeragogy helps connect the dots=

=== Main Actor ===

Neo, who is a hacker by night, and an office worker by day (and who reads Baudrillard in his spare time).

=== Main Success Scenario ===

# Neo lives in New York City, and works as a programmer in an office near Wall Street. His day-job involves finding patterns in market data (see Kevin Slavin's [http://www.ted.com/talks/kevin_slavin_how_algorithms_shape_our_world.html TED talk]).
# He has been walking past [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuccotti_Park Zucotti Park] on his way home and more or less he finds this protest stuff annoying (he has other stuff on his mind). But one of these evenings, one of the protestors catches his attention (she's dressed rather strikingly...). They talk a bit, and he comes away thinking about what she said: “[http://www.nycga.net/files/2011/11/DeclarationFlowchart_v2_large.jpg All our grievances are interconnected.]” What if all the solutions are interconnected too?
# Night time: Neo becomes increasingly obsessed with this idea. He's pulling down lots of web pages from OWS activists, from companies, from government websites -- again, looking for patterns. What would it take for OWS folks to solve the problems they worry so much about?
# He eventually stumbles across the idea of pæragogy and it works like the “red pill”: it's possible to solve the problems but only by working together. It would be hard to engineer a social media platform that will actually help with this (OWS folks mostly use Tumblr and aren't necessarily all that technologically minded). But he starts working on a [http://campus.ftacademy.org/wiki/index.php/Free_Technology_Guild tool] that's geared towards learning and sharing skills, while working on real projects. At first, it's just hackers who are using the tool, but over time they adapt it for popular use. Then things start to get interesting...

=Starting a company=

=== Introduction ===

I think that Peeragogy has flavors -- learning for learning sake for personal ends in a progression toward learning about the world to take action as a group. The latter gets heavily into Action Research (Stringer, 2007), which I love and work heavily in. It is research in cycles, or loops with feedback to try something, measure it, see how it worked with the real world, then plan the next question and set of actions. In each cycle, the group is Learning. I look with that lens at company start-ups as a perpectual action research cycle. I heard Eric Reis at SXSW talk about the Lean Startup in this mode, including this direction in how he even wrote the book. Hypothesis, experiment, feedback, learn, pivot, next hypothesis... Is the group in this peeragogy learning set knowledge or creating new knowledge? Or through new knowledge making a change in the world? A great spectrum of alternatives! Here, my scenario about a company I was on the board on early on:

=== Main actors ===

* Cycle 1: Nick, an MBA student, plus a Computer Science PhD, John, at a major university. John had created a unique technology for identifying video clips and had no idea what to do with it. Nick was an ex-engineer learning about how to launch new businesses.

* Cycle 2: Additional &quot;learners&quot; and co-teachers as board members, each adding new learning elements and expertise.

* Cycle 3+: New learners as investors and clients.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Nick and John used a new business plan competition as the catalyst and structure to experiment with what ideas might be possible to grow this idea. They named it Findable (not the real name; the company did launch with some interesting success, but we'll come to that later). They brought three other MBAs into the initial group, and within the confines of a business plan structure, researched the stereotypical elements of a business plan -- addressable market, competition, expense and revenue projections, etc. They knew nothing of the area, and each person did independent research work to provide some primary (interview-based) and secondary (existing text) information about their hypothesis of what the technology could do for what audience in what environment. They worked hard up until the competition deadline, and won the business plan competition, gaining $15,000 in the process plus the attention of some VCs on the judging panel. Each person had learned a lot about the technology, the creative process of writing the business plan, the rituals involved of asking for money, and the flaws in their own plan that they found on its creation. They used fairly traditional technology tools: email, shared Word and Excel files, telephone, search, and a shared file system to store everything that they worked on.
# Nick and Fred wanted to move forward with this project. Their next hypothesis was that they could launch this in a specific market. They first came to the idea, from the learning from the business plan and lots of feedback from the VCs, that they could start with the advertising market, as they could now identify and &quot;tag&quot; any ad that they could find on cable or the internet. They got seed capital from three interested parties, who become part of their Action Research learning team. They realized to launch that they needed more voices on their learning team, so they added their first 3 employees to design and sell the product. They also added an advisory board, including yours truly, assuming they would be working in the advertising market. Technologies? Traditional, though they now included all sorts of tech development resources. New information into the mix? They had not put together great resources to optimize their time learning, and spent a lot of energy keeping up with things, information, and opportunities. Learning? Some initial users loved their product, but the market size was smaller than they thought...plus was very entrenched. The companies did not see a real pain point that was being solved.
# Cycle 3 -- what the heck do Nick and Fred do with this? This became the true learning phase. Different companies and advisors saw different needs for their intriguing product set. They spent 4 years (!!!) getting pulled this way and that, using the VC money and needing more. (This is VERY much the learning path I see in many small tech companies.) Technologies? Same stuff. Learning team? Ebbed and flowed with new opportunities and people's patience. My expertise was in the &quot;old&quot; model, so peaceably left the team (but got options!).
# Cycle 4+ -- a major public company &quot;found&quot; them through their learning cycles, and found that they solved a pain point. They invested a sizeable sum into a chunk of the company, and launched their product into that solution. This opened a whole other set of learning doors.
# Final cycle -- Happily, I cashed out my options. Two major media technology companies ended up buying two areas of key technologies in 2011, much to my own pocketbook's happiness. Nick and Fred had moved on earlier, turning the company learning over to specialized managers. I need to see what Nick is up to next....

=== Thoughts ===

# Many great patterns were tucked into many cycles of this use case, often unspoken assumptions in a new business start-up, including environment scanning, codifying specialist knowledge, themes, modeling, etc. Consensus building -- an interesting element.
# For me, the additional elements are (a) the scaffolding of the &quot;norms&quot; of cycles (e.g., business plan creation, a competition, a launch of a product) help provide &quot;norming&quot; frameworks that can help groups achieve as well as limit their looking at the structural norms as anything but &quot;required&quot; and (b) the lens of Action Research Cycles from my own POV. Are we setting a hard limit of providing a hypothesis in our co-creation, so we know when we are &quot;done&quot; and what we have to study? Then once that chunk is done (and CELEBRATED) that another hypothesis can be investigated, explored, proven, and co-created? I believe that having pre-structured points of learning achievement, reflection, and celebration can really help in moving forward.
# My own brain is rethinking these issues around content creation after hearing Eric Reis speak on how he tested his content creation for his ''New York Times'' best-selling book.
# How are we testing this Handbook, other than living through it? :)

=Steal this book =


&quot;Obviously such a project as Steal This Book could not have been carried out alone. Izak Haber shared the vision from the beginning. He did months of valuable research and contributed many of the survival techniques. Carole Ramer and Gus Reichbach of the New York Law Commune guided the book through its many stages. Anna Kaufman Moon did almost all the photographs. The cartoonists who have made contributions include Ski Williamson and Gilbert Sheldon. Tom Forcade, of the UPS, patiently did the editing. Bert Cohen of Concert Hall did the book's graphic design. Amber and John Wilcox set the type. Anita Hoffman and Lynn Borman helped me rewrite a number of sections. There are others who participated in the testing of many of the techniques demonstrated in the following pages and for obvious reasons have to remain anonymous. There were perhaps over 50 brothers and sisters who played particularly vital roles in the grand conspiracy. Some of the many others are listed on the following page. We hope to keep the information up to date. If you have comments, law suits, suggestions or death threats, please send them to: Dear Abbie P.0. Box 213, Cooper Station, New York, NY 10003. Many of the tips might not work in your area, some might be obsolete by the time you get to try them out, and many addresses and phone numbers might be changed. ''If the reader becomes a participating researcher then we will have achieved our purpose.''&quot; -- Abbie Hoffman (emphasis added)

= Strategy as learning =


'''Main actors'''

The non-executive (Jim, Pamela, Julian) and executive (Clare, Malcolm, Colin &amp; Jenny) directors of a housing association (a not-for-profit organisation building and letting &quot;social&quot; housing for families in housing need) '''Main success scenario'''

# The board of the housing association need to set a strategy that takes account of significant changes in legislation, the UK [welfare] benefits system and the availability of long term construction loans.
# Julian, eager to make use of his new-found peeragogical insights suggests an approach where individuals research specific factors and the team work together to draw out themes and strategic options. As a start he proposes that each board member researches an area of specific knowledge or interest.
# Jim, the Chairman, identifies questions he wants to ask the Chairs of other Housing Associations. Pamela (a lawyer) agrees to do an analysis of the relevant legislation. Clare, the CEO, plans out a series of meetings with the local councils in the boroughs of interest to understand their reactions to the changes from central government. Jenny, the operations director, starts modelling the impact on occupancy from new benefits rules. Colin, the development director, re-purposes existing work on options for development sites to reflect different housing mixes on each site. Malcolm, the finance director, prepares a briefing on the new treasury landscape and the changing positions of major lenders.
# Each member of the board documents their research in a private wiki. Julian facilitates some synchronous and asynchronous discussion to draw out themes in each area and map across the areas of interest. Malcolm, the FD, adapts his financial models to take differet options as parameters.
# Clare refines the themes into a set of strategic options for the association, with associated financial modelling provided by Malcolm.
# Individual board members explore the options asynchronously before convening for an all-day meeting to confirm the strategy.

'''Thoughts'''

# This may be a little close to the &quot;peer production&quot; end of peeragogy, but on the other hand, where (if anywhere) do we draw the line?
# This probably needs to be made a little more abstract to be a useful use case, and in doing so I suspect will start to overlap with [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/patterns-and-use-cases#comment-1509 Pæragogy helps solve complex problems]
# It looks to me as if there may be some candidate patterns buried in this use case, e.g. Environment Scanning, Codifying Specialist Knowledge, Extracting Themes, Modelling Outcomes, Consensus Building

=We are the 1%=

=== Main Actor ===

Trinity, the daughter of a Texas oil magnate.

=== Soundtrack ===

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWsX9ggfL2Q You Make Me Like Charity] by The Knife

=== Main success scenario ===

# Trinity has spent the last year traveling around the world to join in various #Occupy protests. Her aim is to get people in the movement thinking about how they can empower themselves.
# It's tricky though, because as much as she knows she has an impact on individuals, she still sees a lot of problems in the world, which, given her manic-depressive tendencies, she tends to find very disturbing.
# She reaches out to other folks who are privileged in one way or another -- and a bunch of &quot;normal folks&quot; -- trying not only to bring about political change, but trying to establish a degree of personal friendship and camaraderie, and a feeling of &quot;belonging in the world&quot;. For her, this is a constant struggle. She finds that working with other people on concrete tasks keeps her from spiraling into a state of gloom. In the mean time, she's also building a tremendous amount of knowledge about the way social movements and political processes work.

=== Footnote ===

&quot;The Knife is now recording a new album to be released in 2012. Lately we have read a lot about the ongoing discrimination of Romani people in Europe which is totally unacceptable. The forced evictions must stop and adequate alternative housing must be arranged. Now!&quot; -- [http://theknife.net/take-action-for-the-housing-rights-of-roma-in-rome The Knife]

=Young aspiring blogger struggles to avoid starvation=


=== Main actor: Simone ===

Simone is a young media department graduate, who followed the adventures of the journalist Jorge Luis. Jorge Luis was transforming the newspaper operation into a kind of collective learning project, turning the newsroom into a platform for discussion and learning, and inciting the developers to provide an API for external coders. Simone wrote a paper about all this in her last year at the media department. She also runs a blog about tools which empower people to participate in politics (local, nation-wide and international).

=== Main success scenario ===

# Simone loves her blog. She believes verticals and specialization are the future in blogging. However, she needs money to live, and to pay back the debts she made to finance her studies. Her media department was moderately interesting, but nobody ever thought of organizing a course &quot;entrepreneurial blogging/journalism&quot;.
# Posting every day about collaborative online tools such as wikis, forums, blogs, mindmaps, synchronous sessions, social bookmarks, visualization tools, Simone decides to reach out and look online for others who are experiencing the same challenges.
# As she encounters various other people, they start curating stuff about blogging business models and best practices. They find lots of useful stuff for free at Robin Good's website, and they manage to get access to online resources at a strange group which seems to specialize in &quot;mind amplifying tools&quot; and &quot;literacies of cooperation&quot;. They also discover that &quot;entrepreneurial journalism&quot; is taught at various colleges, and invariably the professors and most of the students there indulge in blogging and publishing about their insights and experiments. All that material is being discussed on the collaborative platform Simone built.
# Simone uses the discussions to blog about her experience. After all, issues about financing media who empower people in order to broaden and deepen the democracy is something which is rather on topic for her own blogging practice. Also, because of her reaching out, her contacts increased considerably. She works together with someone to share a virtual co-working space, and people start noticing her. Some ask her for customized expert advice about collaborative tools and collaboration methodologies. The city council expresses some vague interest and considers hiring her as a consultant.
# Even though she gets several gigs, Simone realizes it's not easy to earn a living as a blogger. But it seems to open other doors... however, she continues her investigation about business models for collaborative media. As yet we don't know whether Simone's blog will be profitable in itself, but we do see a network around her projects, exchanging insights but also valuable business information and opening more doors.

=== Thoughts ===

I had the opportunity to give some seminars at media departments here in Belgium. In my experience, the students were not familiar with curation practices or infotention strategies. They also lack courses in entrepreneurial journalism. In other words, they're still educated for the big media companies, but they're not prepared to start the next TechCrunch or Huffington Post. Often the students asked me, after the seminar, &quot;how can we learn all this? they won't teach us these things here&quot;. I think there is a need for P2P learning about not only curation, infotention, social dashboards, communities and governance of common pool recourses, but also about publishing strategies, social media workflows and business models.
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== Electronic Literature Online 2026 Workshop ==
On July 15, 2026 there was a workshop at the 2026 ELO conference about this wikibook! We learned more about peeragogy, wikimedia, and wikibooks! There is even a Wikipedia project about [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:WikiProject_Electronic_literature|Electronic Literature]] and we discovered independent scholars researching '''[https://www.deenalarsen.net/firs/ Multiple Hereditary Exostoses]''' (MHE), femme and indigenous knowledge (which meshes nicely with peeragogy!), and knitting.

= From peer production to peer learning =
=== Main actor ===

Julian, an enthusiastic convert to the power of peer-learning.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Reflecting on the success of [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/patterns-and-use-cases#comment-1749 Strategy as Learning], Julian notes that other housing associations might benefit from this process. He also notes that as most housing association boards are made up of volunteers like himself, there is a very wide variation in background, knowledge and skills, and therefore not only a need for low cost (free) learning opportunities, but a range of skills available to enable them.
# Julian sets up a peer learning resource on the web, drawing on the experiences in implementing [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/patterns-and-use-cases#comment-1749 Strategy as Learning], and promotes it through industry-specific web forums. He draws attention from an online journalist writing in the housing field who writes a positive article, and as a result a growing number of collaborators come forward.
# Over a period of a year or so, the core team of active users collaborate to create standards and exemplars in relation to different aspects of housing association governance that become a de facto standard in the sector.

=== Thoughts ===

# Obviously a very specific use case that could easily be generalised
# Possible patterns to extract? Seeding Peer Communities, Emergent Standards, Emergent Assessment ???

= C'est la vie=

=== Main Actors ===

Pierre and Marie - recently married.

=== Main Success Scenario ===

# They furnished off an apartment from a Sears &amp; Roebuck sale. Their coolerator was crammed with TV dinners and ginger ale. (She couldn't cook.)
# But when Pierre found work, the little money coming in worked out well. They got a hi-fi phono, and boy, did they let it blast -- Seven hundred little EPs, all rock, rhythm and jazz.
# When the sun went down, the rapid tempo of the music sort of fell (for various reasons).
# They bought a souped up Mercedes -- a cherry red '53 -- and drove it down to New Orleans to celebrate their anniversary.
# &quot;C'est la vie,&quot; say the old folks, &quot;It goes to show you never ca E
(Après Chuck Berry.)

=== Thoughts ===

I tried to use the familiar song to suggest that pæragogy works in personal relationships, too. Compare the above story with this quote from Leopold von Sacher-Massoch...:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&amp;quot;That woman, as nature has created her and as man is at present educating her, is his enemy. She can only be his slave or his despot, but ''never his companion''. This she can become only when she has the same rights as he, and is his equal in education and work.&amp;quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
I don't know if Sacher-Massoch is particularly reliable as a feminist. But it ''is'' interesting to look at &quot;companionship&quot; (along with membership in the same age cohort) as a criterion for a peer-like and working relationship in the story. It's unclear as to whether Pierre &amp; Marie have &quot;equal&quot; roles (he found work, but it's not in any way implied that she was working... so how did she spend her time? Etc.).

=Distributed project management=


=== Main Actor ===

Kim, a Ph. D. student in Geography.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Kim has 5 different people on her supervision team: some in her field, others from geology. They all have somewhat different ideas about what she should be doing with her thesis work. None of them are co-located. This situation can be quite frustrating.
# Kim decides to go spend a few weeks working in close proximity to the one member of the team who she has the most rapport with. This will also give her a chance to be in touch with other students in her field.
# In the mean time, she establishes contact with yet another researcher whose work is quite closely related to hers. Although he does not have any formal responsibilities or ties to her project, they are already colleagues in an academic sense, and they have more congruent views on what her project is about. After she visits her favorite supervisor, she may plan to spend a month or so visiting this other researcher in his home country.

=== Note ===

I think this sort of networking to create an informal supervision team happens fairly frequently for postgrad students in the UK system. Certainly there are other examples of distributed project management - e.g. W3C working groups come to mind.

= Prolegomena =


=== Main Actor ===

A student, Madeleine, who is trying to learn multivariable calculus.

=== Main Success Scenario ===

# Madeleine is enrolled in an advanced calculus course at university. She learns about PlanetMath from her instructor who recommends it as a place for extra practice with homework problems. Madeleine creates an account, fills in basic profile information, and starts solving problems that the system supplies based on the information she supplied in her profile.
# The problems that the system supplies are automatically linked to reference resources in PlanetMath’s encyclopaedia. This expository material gives Madeleine easy access to the relevant mathematical concepts, examples, and hints needed for solving the increasingly difficult practice problems. However, she eventually runs into a problem where neither the automatically supplied information, nor her current knowledge of the subject, is sufficient. She’s completely stuck on a problem having to do with water flow in a pipe! Madeleine attaches a help request to the problem: “I understand that I have to use the two variables ''x'' and ''y'' to solve for water flow, but I don’t understand what the boundary limits of the equations would be: do I have to convert it to polar coordinates?&amp;quot;
# This request is noticed by Natalie, a mathematics graduate student who regularly looks at the feed showing “recent requests for help with advanced calculus.” She sees that the reference resources linked to Madeleine’s problem are probably not sufficient, and that Madeleine’s idea about using polar coordinates would work. Natalie makes some changes to the encyclopaedia indicating that converting to converting to polar coordinates can be necessary in pipe flow problems, and sketches an example. Natalie then checks that this information links to Madeleine’s problem correctly, and alerts Madeleine to the changes. With this new information, Madeleine is not only able to solve her problem, but can proceed with confidence: she had the right idea after all!

= Improved adaptivity = 

=== Main Actor ===

Madeleine, a few years later on, trying to learn real analysis.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Madeleine has been using a peer-learning website for mathematics for a while now. When she gets stuck, she asks for help in context, and her request is brought to the attention of the appropriate community member, who improves the pedagogic quality of the material. This help enables her to solve math problems very effectively.
# Now, however, the system's software is being updated. Instead of being solely a &quot;Web 2.0&quot; system for communicating about the subject, the system can keep track of new concepts that Madeleine is using in the problems she solves and the questions she asks. It can suggest heuristics that have been used by other students solving similar problems. (It knows about these things through a combination of textual analysis and &quot;tagging&quot; of text by Madeleine and other users, e.g. Natalie, who sometimes gives comments on problems that Madeleine solves.)
# As the system grows and improves (through efforts of students and mentors), learning mathematics becomes increasingly easy. The material has been gone over by 100s of students and learning pathways are optimized. Madeleine sometimes can get a quick tutoring gig helping out another younger student, and make some money, but mostly she's thinking about what other subjects she will need to add to her portfolio in order to become an architect... by the time she's 23!

= Research funding =

=== Main actor ===

Javier, who works for the European Commission.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Javier is interested in research topics like &quot;data analytics&quot; and &quot;emerging topics in ICT&quot; -- things that will influence learning technology in the next 5 years. He is also concerned about how best to fund work on new learning and teaching environments.
# He wonders what the barriers and incentives are in this niche. For example, why does research work frequently not have the broad-scale societal impact that the EC hopes it might?
# Javier is invited to a pæragogy event, in which some unexpected experts on &quot;broad scale impact&quot; help him understand that intensive funding for research is often not going to have the desired effect, since, for various reasons, even well-funded research projects are frequently not well connected to actual practice.
# He starts to build pæragogy into funding calls: smaller pots of money going to projects that connect with what people actually do, working with partners like the Wikimedia Foundation and the Free Software Foundation to multiply effort by involving volunteers. It's time for him to take a well-earned vacation.

= A journalist enters the whispering gallery =

=== Main actor ===

Jorge Luis is a journalist for a London business paper.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Jorge Luis writes on a daily and even hourly basis about the eurozone crisis. He uses social dashboards and curating tools and produces lots of curated stories about the causes of the problems, the stupidity of the continental europeans and how it will all end soon in complete and utter disaster. His sources are other journalists, well-known economists and famous bloggers.
# On his way to the newsroom he usually passes St Pauls cathedral, where Occupy London people protest. He thinks they rather look like losers, except for one very interesting young lady. She tells him where he can find the center of the universe: at the Whispering Gallery of the cathedral. He thinks she is nuts, but also very beautiful and interesting, so he walks the 259 steps from ground level to the Gallery. Once he gets there, he realizes that the girl was right. It IS the center of the universe. There are murmurs to be heard there - it seems they come from everywhere. He hears about guilds and the craftsmen who built the cathedral. He learns about how proud they were and how they formed communities of practice, educating the uninitiated, teaching each other to create.
# He returns to ground level. The girl is gone, but yet he feels happy. He realizes he can do more than repackage the social media streams, that there is more than Twitter-the-new broadcast medium. He starts a new journey: finding a guild, a community of practice, but restyled in a 21st century fashion. It will be more open, more connected to others then the old guilds. He will still use a social dashboard and curaring tools, but also he uses wikis, and synchronous communication. And most importantly, he starts building, together with others. For instance, together with the people formerly known as his readers. They will co-create the analysis, the search for solutions and sense-making, rather than helplessly listening to &quot;experts&quot;, passively consuming the knowledge and information. Instead, they'll start building their own destiny as a community, and the newsroom will be part of the platform.

= Living the OER dream =

=== Main Actor ===

Charlie, who does tutoring and educational consulting, and who has been doing research on paragogy.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Charlie usually tutors one-on-one but has been putting work into understanding and exploring peer learning and peer production, putting it into practice on P2PU and in courses and projects with Howard Rheingold.
# X-Y-Z peer learning theory (paragogy?) helps him design learning activities that work well for groups of students
# He deploys the new model on [http://paragogy.net paragogy.net] as an educational startup, and realizes the &quot;OER dream&quot;!

=Making our own tools=

=== Main Actor ===

Howard runs [http://www.rheingold.com/university/ Rheingold University] and teaches courses at UCB and Stanford.

# Howard created the peeragogy project, as a place to experiment and learn: &quot;I want to experiment as much as possible with peeragogy, with the group of contributors here, with the co-learners in Rheingold U, and with other groups in the future. I want to personally use the tools we're building. I know something about how to do it, and can make substantial contributions. But I also am learning a lot about how to do it from others, and expect that to continue.&quot;
# Although &quot;bringing a volunteer project to completion [...] isn't a guaranteed slam-dunk&quot;, Howard learns by doing: &quot;If I had it to do over again, I would have thought out the work flow and delineated it before we started talking about how to do the project.&quot;
# With both frequent, and other less frequent, but thoughtful, contributors, the project continues to develop, and will indeed complete somehow (even if no one knew quite what to expect in advance). Howard and other contributors have learned a lot in the process - and this will be useful both for the duration of the peeragogy project, and in future projects. As hoped!


= Work at the technical edge =

=== Main Actor ===

Jess, a hacker and engineer who develops new libraries and programs quickly and on the bleeding edge of new technologies.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Jess develops something new and totally cool and drops the source code in GitHub. These tools are developed rapidly and are a much lighter &quot;learning lift&quot; than learning say an entirely new programming language.
# She creates documentation for her new library and puts it up on a web site for other developers to read.
# She is trying to find a better way for other developers to learn how to use the new tools and libraries she creates and starts thinking about peer learning.
# How can she use what tools and processes or methods that are already out there to engage other developers to learn from and with each other digitally? (Jess has no background in learning theory and is not in the educational field.) She finds the peeragogy handbook and a lot of this stuff starts to click.

=Peeragogy helps connect the dots=

=== Main Actor ===

Neo, who is a hacker by night, and an office worker by day (and who reads Baudrillard in his spare time).

=== Main Success Scenario ===

# Neo lives in New York City, and works as a programmer in an office near Wall Street. His day-job involves finding patterns in market data (see Kevin Slavin's [http://www.ted.com/talks/kevin_slavin_how_algorithms_shape_our_world.html TED talk]).
# He has been walking past [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuccotti_Park Zucotti Park] on his way home and more or less he finds this protest stuff annoying (he has other stuff on his mind). But one of these evenings, one of the protestors catches his attention (she's dressed rather strikingly...). They talk a bit, and he comes away thinking about what she said: “[http://www.nycga.net/files/2011/11/DeclarationFlowchart_v2_large.jpg All our grievances are interconnected.]” What if all the solutions are interconnected too?
# Night time: Neo becomes increasingly obsessed with this idea. He's pulling down lots of web pages from OWS activists, from companies, from government websites -- again, looking for patterns. What would it take for OWS folks to solve the problems they worry so much about?
# He eventually stumbles across the idea of pæragogy and it works like the “red pill”: it's possible to solve the problems but only by working together. It would be hard to engineer a social media platform that will actually help with this (OWS folks mostly use Tumblr and aren't necessarily all that technologically minded). But he starts working on a [http://campus.ftacademy.org/wiki/index.php/Free_Technology_Guild tool] that's geared towards learning and sharing skills, while working on real projects. At first, it's just hackers who are using the tool, but over time they adapt it for popular use. Then things start to get interesting...

=Starting a company=

=== Introduction ===

I think that Peeragogy has flavors -- learning for learning sake for personal ends in a progression toward learning about the world to take action as a group. The latter gets heavily into Action Research (Stringer, 2007), which I love and work heavily in. It is research in cycles, or loops with feedback to try something, measure it, see how it worked with the real world, then plan the next question and set of actions. In each cycle, the group is Learning. I look with that lens at company start-ups as a perpectual action research cycle. I heard Eric Reis at SXSW talk about the Lean Startup in this mode, including this direction in how he even wrote the book. Hypothesis, experiment, feedback, learn, pivot, next hypothesis... Is the group in this peeragogy learning set knowledge or creating new knowledge? Or through new knowledge making a change in the world? A great spectrum of alternatives! Here, my scenario about a company I was on the board on early on:

=== Main actors ===

* Cycle 1: Nick, an MBA student, plus a Computer Science PhD, John, at a major university. John had created a unique technology for identifying video clips and had no idea what to do with it. Nick was an ex-engineer learning about how to launch new businesses.

* Cycle 2: Additional &quot;learners&quot; and co-teachers as board members, each adding new learning elements and expertise.

* Cycle 3+: New learners as investors and clients.

=== Main success scenario ===

# Nick and John used a new business plan competition as the catalyst and structure to experiment with what ideas might be possible to grow this idea. They named it Findable (not the real name; the company did launch with some interesting success, but we'll come to that later). They brought three other MBAs into the initial group, and within the confines of a business plan structure, researched the stereotypical elements of a business plan -- addressable market, competition, expense and revenue projections, etc. They knew nothing of the area, and each person did independent research work to provide some primary (interview-based) and secondary (existing text) information about their hypothesis of what the technology could do for what audience in what environment. They worked hard up until the competition deadline, and won the business plan competition, gaining $15,000 in the process plus the attention of some VCs on the judging panel. Each person had learned a lot about the technology, the creative process of writing the business plan, the rituals involved of asking for money, and the flaws in their own plan that they found on its creation. They used fairly traditional technology tools: email, shared Word and Excel files, telephone, search, and a shared file system to store everything that they worked on.
# Nick and Fred wanted to move forward with this project. Their next hypothesis was that they could launch this in a specific market. They first came to the idea, from the learning from the business plan and lots of feedback from the VCs, that they could start with the advertising market, as they could now identify and &quot;tag&quot; any ad that they could find on cable or the internet. They got seed capital from three interested parties, who become part of their Action Research learning team. They realized to launch that they needed more voices on their learning team, so they added their first 3 employees to design and sell the product. They also added an advisory board, including yours truly, assuming they would be working in the advertising market. Technologies? Traditional, though they now included all sorts of tech development resources. New information into the mix? They had not put together great resources to optimize their time learning, and spent a lot of energy keeping up with things, information, and opportunities. Learning? Some initial users loved their product, but the market size was smaller than they thought...plus was very entrenched. The companies did not see a real pain point that was being solved.
# Cycle 3 -- what the heck do Nick and Fred do with this? This became the true learning phase. Different companies and advisors saw different needs for their intriguing product set. They spent 4 years (!!!) getting pulled this way and that, using the VC money and needing more. (This is VERY much the learning path I see in many small tech companies.) Technologies? Same stuff. Learning team? Ebbed and flowed with new opportunities and people's patience. My expertise was in the &quot;old&quot; model, so peaceably left the team (but got options!).
# Cycle 4+ -- a major public company &quot;found&quot; them through their learning cycles, and found that they solved a pain point. They invested a sizeable sum into a chunk of the company, and launched their product into that solution. This opened a whole other set of learning doors.
# Final cycle -- Happily, I cashed out my options. Two major media technology companies ended up buying two areas of key technologies in 2011, much to my own pocketbook's happiness. Nick and Fred had moved on earlier, turning the company learning over to specialized managers. I need to see what Nick is up to next....

=== Thoughts ===

# Many great patterns were tucked into many cycles of this use case, often unspoken assumptions in a new business start-up, including environment scanning, codifying specialist knowledge, themes, modeling, etc. Consensus building -- an interesting element.
# For me, the additional elements are (a) the scaffolding of the &quot;norms&quot; of cycles (e.g., business plan creation, a competition, a launch of a product) help provide &quot;norming&quot; frameworks that can help groups achieve as well as limit their looking at the structural norms as anything but &quot;required&quot; and (b) the lens of Action Research Cycles from my own POV. Are we setting a hard limit of providing a hypothesis in our co-creation, so we know when we are &quot;done&quot; and what we have to study? Then once that chunk is done (and CELEBRATED) that another hypothesis can be investigated, explored, proven, and co-created? I believe that having pre-structured points of learning achievement, reflection, and celebration can really help in moving forward.
# My own brain is rethinking these issues around content creation after hearing Eric Reis speak on how he tested his content creation for his ''New York Times'' best-selling book.
# How are we testing this Handbook, other than living through it? :)

=Steal this book =


&quot;Obviously such a project as Steal This Book could not have been carried out alone. Izak Haber shared the vision from the beginning. He did months of valuable research and contributed many of the survival techniques. Carole Ramer and Gus Reichbach of the New York Law Commune guided the book through its many stages. Anna Kaufman Moon did almost all the photographs. The cartoonists who have made contributions include Ski Williamson and Gilbert Sheldon. Tom Forcade, of the UPS, patiently did the editing. Bert Cohen of Concert Hall did the book's graphic design. Amber and John Wilcox set the type. Anita Hoffman and Lynn Borman helped me rewrite a number of sections. There are others who participated in the testing of many of the techniques demonstrated in the following pages and for obvious reasons have to remain anonymous. There were perhaps over 50 brothers and sisters who played particularly vital roles in the grand conspiracy. Some of the many others are listed on the following page. We hope to keep the information up to date. If you have comments, law suits, suggestions or death threats, please send them to: Dear Abbie P.0. Box 213, Cooper Station, New York, NY 10003. Many of the tips might not work in your area, some might be obsolete by the time you get to try them out, and many addresses and phone numbers might be changed. ''If the reader becomes a participating researcher then we will have achieved our purpose.''&quot; -- Abbie Hoffman (emphasis added)

= Strategy as learning =


'''Main actors'''

The non-executive (Jim, Pamela, Julian) and executive (Clare, Malcolm, Colin &amp; Jenny) directors of a housing association (a not-for-profit organisation building and letting &quot;social&quot; housing for families in housing need) '''Main success scenario'''

# The board of the housing association need to set a strategy that takes account of significant changes in legislation, the UK [welfare] benefits system and the availability of long term construction loans.
# Julian, eager to make use of his new-found peeragogical insights suggests an approach where individuals research specific factors and the team work together to draw out themes and strategic options. As a start he proposes that each board member researches an area of specific knowledge or interest.
# Jim, the Chairman, identifies questions he wants to ask the Chairs of other Housing Associations. Pamela (a lawyer) agrees to do an analysis of the relevant legislation. Clare, the CEO, plans out a series of meetings with the local councils in the boroughs of interest to understand their reactions to the changes from central government. Jenny, the operations director, starts modelling the impact on occupancy from new benefits rules. Colin, the development director, re-purposes existing work on options for development sites to reflect different housing mixes on each site. Malcolm, the finance director, prepares a briefing on the new treasury landscape and the changing positions of major lenders.
# Each member of the board documents their research in a private wiki. Julian facilitates some synchronous and asynchronous discussion to draw out themes in each area and map across the areas of interest. Malcolm, the FD, adapts his financial models to take differet options as parameters.
# Clare refines the themes into a set of strategic options for the association, with associated financial modelling provided by Malcolm.
# Individual board members explore the options asynchronously before convening for an all-day meeting to confirm the strategy.

'''Thoughts'''

# This may be a little close to the &quot;peer production&quot; end of peeragogy, but on the other hand, where (if anywhere) do we draw the line?
# This probably needs to be made a little more abstract to be a useful use case, and in doing so I suspect will start to overlap with [http://socialmediaclassroom.com/host/peeragogy/forum/patterns-and-use-cases#comment-1509 Pæragogy helps solve complex problems]
# It looks to me as if there may be some candidate patterns buried in this use case, e.g. Environment Scanning, Codifying Specialist Knowledge, Extracting Themes, Modelling Outcomes, Consensus Building

=We are the 1%=

=== Main Actor ===

Trinity, the daughter of a Texas oil magnate.

=== Soundtrack ===

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWsX9ggfL2Q You Make Me Like Charity] by The Knife

=== Main success scenario ===

# Trinity has spent the last year traveling around the world to join in various #Occupy protests. Her aim is to get people in the movement thinking about how they can empower themselves.
# It's tricky though, because as much as she knows she has an impact on individuals, she still sees a lot of problems in the world, which, given her manic-depressive tendencies, she tends to find very disturbing.
# She reaches out to other folks who are privileged in one way or another -- and a bunch of &quot;normal folks&quot; -- trying not only to bring about political change, but trying to establish a degree of personal friendship and camaraderie, and a feeling of &quot;belonging in the world&quot;. For her, this is a constant struggle. She finds that working with other people on concrete tasks keeps her from spiraling into a state of gloom. In the mean time, she's also building a tremendous amount of knowledge about the way social movements and political processes work.

=== Footnote ===

&quot;The Knife is now recording a new album to be released in 2012. Lately we have read a lot about the ongoing discrimination of Romani people in Europe which is totally unacceptable. The forced evictions must stop and adequate alternative housing must be arranged. Now!&quot; -- [http://theknife.net/take-action-for-the-housing-rights-of-roma-in-rome The Knife]

=Young aspiring blogger struggles to avoid starvation=


=== Main actor: Simone ===

Simone is a young media department graduate, who followed the adventures of the journalist Jorge Luis. Jorge Luis was transforming the newspaper operation into a kind of collective learning project, turning the newsroom into a platform for discussion and learning, and inciting the developers to provide an API for external coders. Simone wrote a paper about all this in her last year at the media department. She also runs a blog about tools which empower people to participate in politics (local, nation-wide and international).

=== Main success scenario ===

# Simone loves her blog. She believes verticals and specialization are the future in blogging. However, she needs money to live, and to pay back the debts she made to finance her studies. Her media department was moderately interesting, but nobody ever thought of organizing a course &quot;entrepreneurial blogging/journalism&quot;.
# Posting every day about collaborative online tools such as wikis, forums, blogs, mindmaps, synchronous sessions, social bookmarks, visualization tools, Simone decides to reach out and look online for others who are experiencing the same challenges.
# As she encounters various other people, they start curating stuff about blogging business models and best practices. They find lots of useful stuff for free at Robin Good's website, and they manage to get access to online resources at a strange group which seems to specialize in &quot;mind amplifying tools&quot; and &quot;literacies of cooperation&quot;. They also discover that &quot;entrepreneurial journalism&quot; is taught at various colleges, and invariably the professors and most of the students there indulge in blogging and publishing about their insights and experiments. All that material is being discussed on the collaborative platform Simone built.
# Simone uses the discussions to blog about her experience. After all, issues about financing media who empower people in order to broaden and deepen the democracy is something which is rather on topic for her own blogging practice. Also, because of her reaching out, her contacts increased considerably. She works together with someone to share a virtual co-working space, and people start noticing her. Some ask her for customized expert advice about collaborative tools and collaboration methodologies. The city council expresses some vague interest and considers hiring her as a consultant.
# Even though she gets several gigs, Simone realizes it's not easy to earn a living as a blogger. But it seems to open other doors... however, she continues her investigation about business models for collaborative media. As yet we don't know whether Simone's blog will be profitable in itself, but we do see a network around her projects, exchanging insights but also valuable business information and opening more doors.

=== Thoughts ===

I had the opportunity to give some seminars at media departments here in Belgium. In my experience, the students were not familiar with curation practices or infotention strategies. They also lack courses in entrepreneurial journalism. In other words, they're still educated for the big media companies, but they're not prepared to start the next TechCrunch or Huffington Post. Often the students asked me, after the seminar, &quot;how can we learn all this? they won't teach us these things here&quot;. I think there is a need for P2P learning about not only curation, infotention, social dashboards, communities and governance of common pool recourses, but also about publishing strategies, social media workflows and business models.
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{{DISPLAYTITLE:&lt;span style=&quot;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:1%;font-style:italic;line-height:1em;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;}}
[[File:USA CATALOG LOGO3.png|400px]|center]]

&lt;div class=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[File: USA A2new.jpg|130px]] [[File: USA F1.jpg|240px]] [[File: USA PC-E2.jpg|240px]] [[File: USA E8.jpg|180px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:xx-large; color:BLUE;&quot;&gt;'''''Welcome to the United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog!'''''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;


&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA A1.jpg|right|190px]]
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:medium;&quot;&gt;
* In 1897 the United States became the first country in the world to use postage meters on an experimental basis to frank live mail. After years of further experimentation and development postage meters were finally approved for use by the general public in 1920. Experimentation continued long after this date as the machines continued to be improved and perfected. All this activity and fermentation makes the U.S. one of the most interesting and complex countries to collect for postage meter stamps.

* This online edition of ''The United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog'' is an expansion and update of the paper edition, written and published by Joel Hawkins and Rick Stambaugh in 1994 and updated previously in 2001. It uses a new, more logical, decimal system for assigning Type numbers. Type numbers that are different from the earlier edition show the previous designation as follows: &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:x-small; color:blue;&quot;&gt;''Type '''XXX''' in 2001 edition''&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;div style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt; Comments, suggested changes, corrections, and additions to the catalog are encouraged. Email &lt;span style=&quot;color:blue;&quot;&gt; &quot;''' Alan Knutson'''&quot;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;  boris1951@charter.net&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;


----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:medium; color:teal;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;'''''Latest changes:'''''&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
{|
|- 

|style=&quot;width:50%; color: teal;&quot;|
*15  Jul: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-I2.1'''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B and Peter E!)
*12  Jul: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F1.2'''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B!)
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C9.3 '''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B!)
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C9.2 '''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B!)
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.3.3. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.5.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.6.1. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.4.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.4. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.3.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.3. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C5.3. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.4.'''&quot;
*8  Jul {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C6.2. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.5.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C6.1. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.5.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C7. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.3.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C8. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.7.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C6.1.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C4.3.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C3.4.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I3.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C3.2.2.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I3.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.9.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.6.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.8.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.5.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.6.0A'''&quot; corrected to &quot;'''PC-C2.6.0.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.6.0B'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.4.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.5.2'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.3.'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.1A.2'''&quot; 4 usages added   (Thank you Karim R!)
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2B'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.2.1'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.1.1'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Subgroup &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; added, &quot;'''stamps/endicia'''&quot;
*6  JuL: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.8.0'''&quot; added
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.8'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-D5.8.1'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.9A.0'''&quot; 4 usages added  (Thank you Karim R!)
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.0'''&quot; 4 usages added  (Thank you Karim R!)
*5  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1A'''&quot; 5 usages added  (Thank you Karim R!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-G2.5'''&quot; added (Thank you Frankie S!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.1'''&quot; added (Thank you Karim R!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D4.3.1'''&quot; added (Thank you Karim R!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D4.3'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-D4.3.2'''&quot;
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; usage added, unusually wide label  (Thank you Otto B!)
*23  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.9'''&quot; added &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; (Thank you Mark S!)
*23  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.3C'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.3D'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-E3.8.1'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.8.2'''&quot;
*21  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F2.2'''&quot; added &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; (Thank you Mark H!)
*21  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F2'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-F2.1'''&quot;
*14  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''IA4.1Bb'''&quot; missing last digit of meter number (''61168'')
*1   Jan: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PO-A6.2BB.f'''&quot; with large &quot;'''PO'''&quot; added
*1   Jan: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PO-A6.2BB.b'''&quot; illustration added
*5   Dec: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''QD1c'''&quot; added, &quot;'''CERTIFIED MAIL'''&quot;(Thank you Babs N!)
*5   Dec: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.7.1'''&quot; added, &quot;'''CERTIFIED MAIL'''&quot;(Thank you Frankie S and Otto B!)
*1   Dec: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.7'''&quot; added (Thank you Frankie S and Otto B!)
*11  Nov: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''IA4.6'''&quot; 700000 series added  
*22  Oct: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''HC1.1-5.3'''&quot; added &quot;'''ADD'L 1/4¢ ''' at bottom line of slogan/ad (''9007'')&quot;
*2   Oct: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.3A'''&quot; ''' HAZMAT ''' label added    (Thank you Frankie S!)
*2   Oct: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-A1.11'''&quot; added, a version with several differences from the initial issue (Thank you Mark R!!)
*2   Oct: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-A1.1'''&quot; Renumbered to &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot;
*14 Sep: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''QA7.2.1'''&quot; added, &quot;'''IMI'''&quot;     (Thank you Frankie S!)
*14 Sep: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''QA7.2'''&quot; renumbered to &quot;'''QA7.2.0'''&quot;
*14 Sep: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''PC-D4.4'''&quot; added    (Thank you Frankie S!)
*3   Sep: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PPS-AG49'''&quot; &quot;'''Orbitran'''&quot; with complete box  (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*1   Sep: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F4.6'''&quot; &quot;'''EASYPOST'''&quot; with &quot;'''POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot;  added   (Thank you Frankie S!)
*1   Sep: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''IC4.1f'''&quot; meter with right digit missing (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*13 Aug: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''DF3.3'''&quot; added meter number to 8c usage [RRRR]   (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*7   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.5'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.5A'''&quot;, &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.5B'''&quot; added   (Thank you Frankie S!)
*5   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PFF4.1'''&quot; added &quot;'''Mrs Lyndon B. Johnson'''&quot;
*2   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.4'''&quot; added   (Thank you Frankie S!)
*2   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2D'''&quot; deleted
*29  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''SPE-IA1'''&quot; colors known noted (red or green) (second known example).   (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*20  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PO-B14.1A-3'''&quot; added (Thank you Otto B!)
*18  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PPS-AD31.1A'''&quot; New illustration added  (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*18  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PPS-AD30'''&quot; note, illustration added  (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*18  Jul: {{space|5}} Group &quot;'''PPS-A'''&quot;  Reorganized
*13  Jul: {{space|5}} Types &quot;'''CA1.2'''&quot; note added, solid filled rectangle in place of permit number (Meisel variety) (Thank you Robert O!)


|style=&quot;width:50%; color: teal;&quot;|

*


|}

&lt;br&gt;
== &lt;div class=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red; font-size:xx-large;&quot;&gt;'''Table of Contents'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:medium;&quot;&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Information for collectors/]]'''&lt;/u&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;color:purple;&quot;&gt; (''the basics of U.S. meter stamp collecting'')&lt;/span&gt;
: •• [[/Postage meters and mailing machines/|Postage meters and mailing machines]]
: •• [[/Meter and Permit numbers/|Meter and Permit numbers]]
: •• [[/Ink colors and fluorescence/|Ink colors and fluorescence]]
: •• [[/Town and date marks/|Town and date marks]]
: •• [[/Surcharge slugs/|Surcharge slugs]]
: •• [[/Essays/Specimens/Proofs/|Essays/Specimens/Proofs]]
: •• [[/Rarity and values/|Rarity and values]]
&lt;/div&gt;

* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Glossary and Abbreviations/]]'''&lt;/u&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;color:purple;&quot;&gt; (''understanding the stamp descriptions'')&lt;/span&gt; 
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Postage Meter Manufacturers (with time chart)/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Adhesive paper tapes/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Directional slugs/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Bibliography/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
----
&lt;br&gt;
::&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt; '''(''Types A through Q represent the general commercial meters available to the public, the groups after Type Q  are for special services or types not generally available to the public,this latter group is not arranged in any particular order, but follow the general order established by Werner Simon.'')'''&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP A – Early experimental franks, prior to 1920/|'''GROUP A – Early experimental franks, prior to 1920''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA meter catalog Group A thumbnail.jpeg|150px]]
* [[/GROUP B – Square frank with wavy lines at the sides/|'''GROUP B – Square frank with wavy lines at the sides''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA B1.jpg|150px]]
* [[/GROUP C – Oval frank with wavy lines at the sides/|'''GROUP C – Oval frank with wavy lines at the sides''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA CA1.jpg|150px]]
* [[/GROUP D – Square or nearly square frank with simulated perforation outer frame/|'''GROUP D – Square or nearly square frank with simulated perforation outer frame''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: Group D thumb.jpg|180px]]
* [[/GROUP E – Frameless design with arcs in the corners/|'''GROUP E – Frameless design with arcs in the corners (NCR)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA E8.jpg|80px]]
* [[/GROUP F – Wide rectangular frank with flying eagle in center/|'''GROUP F – Wide rectangular frank with flying eagle in center (Pitney Bowes)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA F1.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA F4A.jpg|120px]]
* [[/GROUP G – Wide rectangular frank with sitting eagle in center/|'''GROUP G – Wide rectangular frank with sitting eagle in center (Pitney Bowes)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA G1.jpg|120px]] [[File: USA G3.jpg|120px]]
* [[/GROUP H – Rectangular frank with simulated perforation frame, separate town mark/|'''GROUP H – Rectangular frank with simulated perforation frame, separate town mark''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA H2.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA H3.jpg|120px]]
* [[/GROUP I – Frameless design with large sitting eagle in center/|'''GROUP I – Frameless design with large sitting eagle in center (Pitney Bowes)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA IA1.jpg|100px]] [[File: USA IB4.jpg|90px]] [[File: USA IC1.jpg|110px]]
* [[/GROUP J – Square design with straight outer frame, separate town mark/|'''GROUP J – Square design with straight outer frame, separate town mark (Postalia)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA J1.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA J6.jpg|140px]]
* [[/GROUP K – Frank with torch motif/|'''GROUP K – Frank with hand held torch''']] [[File: USA KA2.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA KB1.jpg|100px]][[File: USA KD1.jpg|90px]] [[File: USA KE1.jpg|140px]]
* [[/GROUP L – Frank with profile of eagle/|'''GROUP L – Frank with profile of eagle (Hasler)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA LA1.jpg|120px]] [[File: USA LB1A.jpg|140px]] 
* [[/GROUP M – Simple rectangle with star ornaments/|'''GROUP M – Simple rectangle with stars (Neopost)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA P1.jpg|140px]]
* [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode/|'''GROUP N – Digital stamps without 2D barcode''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode#/Sub-group NA – Pitney Bowes, eagle head and wing/|Sub-group NA – Pitney Bowes, eagle head and wing  (also ''LOW VALUE'')]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA M2.jpg|110px]] [[File:USA M5.jpg|120px]] [[File:USA M6A.jpg|120px]]
[[File:USA meter stamp NA examples.jpg|right|240px]]
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode/#Sub-group NB – Neopost-Hasler, frameless rectangular design with profile of eagle at right facing left/|Sub-group NB – Neopost-Hasler, complete profile of eagle facing left]]  [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA LC1.jpg|110px]]
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode#/Sub-group NC – Neopost, torch-in-hand/|Sub-group NC – Neopost, torch-in-hand]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA N1.jpg|110px]] [[File:USA N2.jpg|120px]]
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode#/Sub-group ND – Francotyp-Postalia, bird in oval/|Sub-group ND – Francotyp-Postalia, bird in oval]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA MB1.jpg|140px]]
&lt;/div&gt;


::&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;'''(''Groups O and P not used to avoid confusion with Groups OO, PC, PO, PD, and PV.'')'''&lt;/span&gt;


* [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode/|'''GROUP Q – Digital stamps with &quot;Datamatrix&quot; or &quot;IBI Lite&quot; 2D barcode''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QA – Neopost-Hasler, Neopost (branded as Neopost, Hasler, or ASCOM Hasler)/|Sub-group QA – Hasler, Neopost-Hasler, Neopost, Quadient]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA meter stamp QA2.jpg|70px]] [[File:USA N3.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA R2A.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA stamp type R8.jpg|150px]]
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QB – Pitney Bowes#/|Sub-group QB – Pitney Bowes]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA M9.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA M13.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA M11.jpg|160px]]
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QC – Francotyp-Postalia/|Sub-group QC – Francotyp-Postalia]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA R5.jpg|130px]][[File:USA stamp type R10.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QD – Data-Pac/|Sub-group QD – Data-Pac]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA S1.jpg|130px]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
::&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt; '''(''The groups after Type Q  are for special services or types not generally available to the public, this latter group is not arranged in any particular order, but follow the general order established by Werner Simon.'')'''&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online/|'''GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#/Sub-group PC-A – E-stamp/|Sub-group PC-A – E-stamp]][[File:PC thumb.jpg|right|400px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-B – Neopost/|Sub-group PC-B – Neopost]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-C – Stamps.com/|Sub-group PC-C – Stamps.com]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-D – Pitney Bowes/|Sub-group PC-D – Pitney Bowes]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-E – Envelope Management Software (Endicia)/|Sub-group PC-E – Envelope Management Software (Endicia)]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-F – easypost/|Sub-group PC-F – easypost]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-G – USPS/|Sub-group PC-G – USPS]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-H – Francotyp-Postalia/|Sub-group PC-H – Francotyp-Postalia]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-I – Francotyp-Postalia/|Sub-group PC-I – stamps/endicia]]
&lt;/div&gt;


* [[/GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters operated by Post Office window clerks/|'''GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters and franking systems operated by Post Office window clerks''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters operated by Post Office window clerks/|Sub-group PO-A – Stamps generated by commercial postage meters modified for use in post offices]]
: •• [[/GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters operated by Post Office window clerks/|Sub-group PO-B – Stamps generated by machines or systems unique to Post Office use, with no resemblance to any commercial meter stamp]]
&lt;/div&gt;


* [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|'''GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-A – Thin arrow pointing right, inverted &quot;POSTAGE DUE&quot; above, inverted &quot;COLLECT&quot; below]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type A thumbnail.jpg|120px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-B – Right-pointing outline arrow containing &quot;POSTAGE DUE/PAID&quot;, barbs on pointed end]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type B thumbnail.jpg|120px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-C – Right-pointing outline arrow containing &quot;POSTAGE DUE/PAID&quot;, no barbs, lines thick on bottom]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type C thumbnail.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-D – Vertical rectangle containing &quot;POSTAGE/DUE&quot;]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type D thumbnail.jpg|110px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-E – Wide &quot;T&quot; containing &quot;POSTAGE/DUE&quot; (Pitney Bowes)]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type E thumbnail.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-F – Wide &quot;T&quot; containing &quot;POSTAGE/DUE&quot; (Friden)]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type F thumbnail.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-G – Digital label with &quot;POSTAGE DUE&quot; across top, Intermec]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type G thumbnail.jpg|140px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-H – Digital P.O. counter label with &quot;PD&quot; in town line, MOS-UNISYS]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Types H and J spacer.jpg|180px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-J – Digital P.O. counter label with &quot;POSTAGE DUE&quot; at top]]
&lt;/div&gt;


* [[/GROUP PV – Self-service variable-rate stamp vending machine franks/|'''GROUP PV – Self-service variable-rate stamp vending machine franks''']]


* [[/GROUP OO – Official government business mail franks/|'''GROUP OO – Official government business mail franks''']]


* [[/GROUP OA – Official Armed Forces government business mail franks/|'''GROUP OA – Official Armed Forces government business mail franks''']]
: •• Sub-group OA-NAV – U.S. Navy
: •• Sub-group OA-AAF – U.S. Army &amp; Air Force 
: •• Sub-group OA-ARM – U.S. Army
: •• Sub-group OA-AIR – U.S. Air Force
: •• Sub-group OA-MAR – U.S. Marine Corps
: •• Sub-group OA-APO – Overseas Army and Air Force Post Offices
: •• Sub-group OA-FPO – Overseas Fleet Post Offices
: •• Sub-group OA-NGD – National Guard
&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP AR/|'''GROUP AR – Meter stamps used by the Armed Forces''']]
: •• Sub-group AR-NAV – U.S. Navy
: •• Sub-group AR-AAF – U.S. Army &amp; Air Force 
: •• Sub-group AR-ARM – U.S. Army
: •• Sub-group AR-AIR – U.S. Air Force
: •• Sub-group AR-MAR – U.S. Marine Corps
: •• Sub-group AR-APO – Overseas Army and Air Force Post Offices
: •• Sub-group AR-FPO – Overseas Fleet Post Offices
: •• Sub-group AR-NGD – National Guard

&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|'''GROUP ESY – Essays''']]
: •• Sub-group ESY-A – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Essays from before meters were approved for general use in 1920]]
: •• Sub-group ESY-B – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Early competitive development, 1921 to 1938]]
: •• Sub-group ESY-C – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Later competitive development (mechanical meters), 1938 to 1990s]]
: •• Sub-group ESY-D – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Digital meter essays, 1980 to date]]
&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP MEI – Meisel/|'''GROUP MEI – Meisel''']]
&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP PFF – Presidential Free Franks/|'''GROUP PFF – Presidential Free Franks''']]
&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/ |''' GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps''']]
: •• Sub-group PPS-A – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from the UPS (United Parcel Service)]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-B – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from the Rochester Package Delivery]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-C – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from the Retail Delivery Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-D – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from TNT]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-E – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Purolator]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-F – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from EFD Package Express]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-G – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from American Messenger Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-H – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from APD]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-I – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Berkshire Apparel Corporation]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-J – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Canpar]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-K – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from CMR]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-L – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from State of North Carolina Courier Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-M – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from DSI (Mr. Messenger, Inc ?)]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-N – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Hourly]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-O – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Local Parcel Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-P – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Maclen Express Co]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-Q – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Merchants Delivery Co]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-R – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Parcel Delivery Co]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-S – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Parcel Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-T – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Post Par]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-U – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Spee-Dee Delivery Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-V – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Metroline]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-W – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Amazon Prime]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-X – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from FEDEX/Federal Express]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-Y – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Global Mail]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from P R CHINA POST / USPS Partnership]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-2Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from DHL]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-3Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from uniuni]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-4Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Too Express]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-5Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from OnTrac]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-6Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Jitsu]]


&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUPS REV and SRV: Non-postal franks used to collect tax/|'''GROUPS REV and SRV– Non-postal franks used to collect tax, also known as fiscal or revenue franks''']]
: •• [[/GROUP REV – Non-postal franks used to collect tax/|Sub-group REV –Non-postal franks used to collect Federal tax/
: •• [[/GROUP SRV – Non-postal franks used to collect tax/|Sub-group SRV –Non-postal franks used to collect State and local tax/

&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP SPE – Specimens/|'''GROUP SPE – Specimens''']]
&lt;br&gt;

* [[/GROUP TST – Test stamps/|'''GROUP TST – Test stamps''']]
&lt;br /&gt;


&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue; font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;· ♦ ·&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue; font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;·&lt;/span&gt;[[/sandbox3/|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue; font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;·&lt;/span&gt;]]
&lt;/div&gt;
----

&lt;!--Book Templates --&gt;

{{Shelves|Collecting}}
{{alphabetical}}
{{status|25%}}</text>
      <sha1>neh447nur6un2r76403swqdxoclhicf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654597</id>
      <parentid>4654572</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:30:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boris1951zz</username>
        <id>3378369</id>
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      <text bytes="26211" sha1="jopo9n6vchbj0a3s18mr1ozlrb2ys07" xml:space="preserve">{{DISPLAYTITLE:&lt;span style=&quot;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:1%;font-style:italic;line-height:1em;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:&lt;span style=&quot;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:1%;font-style:italic;line-height:1em;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;}}
[[File:USA CATALOG LOGO3.png|400px]|center]]

&lt;div class=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[File: USA A2new.jpg|130px]] [[File: USA F1.jpg|240px]] [[File: USA PC-E2.jpg|240px]] [[File: USA E8.jpg|180px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:xx-large; color:BLUE;&quot;&gt;'''''Welcome to the United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog!'''''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;


&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA A1.jpg|right|190px]]
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:medium;&quot;&gt;
* In 1897 the United States became the first country in the world to use postage meters on an experimental basis to frank live mail. After years of further experimentation and development postage meters were finally approved for use by the general public in 1920. Experimentation continued long after this date as the machines continued to be improved and perfected. All this activity and fermentation makes the U.S. one of the most interesting and complex countries to collect for postage meter stamps.

* This online edition of ''The United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog'' is an expansion and update of the paper edition, written and published by Joel Hawkins and Rick Stambaugh in 1994 and updated previously in 2001. It uses a new, more logical, decimal system for assigning Type numbers. Type numbers that are different from the earlier edition show the previous designation as follows: &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:x-small; color:blue;&quot;&gt;''Type '''XXX''' in 2001 edition''&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;div style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt; Comments, suggested changes, corrections, and additions to the catalog are encouraged. Email &lt;span style=&quot;color:blue;&quot;&gt; &quot;''' Alan Knutson'''&quot;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;  boris1951@charter.net&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;


----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:medium; color:teal;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;'''''Latest changes:'''''&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
{|
|- 

|style=&quot;width:50%; color: teal;&quot;|
*15  Jul: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E1.3B.4'''&quot; usages added  (Thank you Karim R!)
*15  Jul: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-I2.1'''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B and Peter E!)
*12  Jul: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F1.2'''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B!)
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C9.3 '''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B!)
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C9.2 '''&quot; usage added  (Thank you Otto B!)
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.3.3. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.5.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.6.1. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.4.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.4. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.3.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.3. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-C9.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C5.3. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.4.'''&quot;
*8  Jul {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C6.2. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.5.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C6.1. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.5.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C7. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.3.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C8. '''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.7.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C6.1.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C4.3.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I4.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C3.4.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I3.2.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C3.2.2.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I3.1.'''&quot;
*8  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.9.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.6.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.8.'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.5.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.6.0A'''&quot; corrected to &quot;'''PC-C2.6.0.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.6.0B'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.4.'''&quot;
*7  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.5.2'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.3.'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.1A.2'''&quot; 4 usages added   (Thank you Karim R!)
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2B'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.2.1'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-I1.1.1'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Subgroup &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; added, &quot;'''stamps/endicia'''&quot;
*6  JuL: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.8.0'''&quot; added
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.8'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-D5.8.1'''&quot;
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.9A.0'''&quot; 4 usages added  (Thank you Karim R!)
*6  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.0'''&quot; 4 usages added  (Thank you Karim R!)
*5  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1A'''&quot; 5 usages added  (Thank you Karim R!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-G2.5'''&quot; added (Thank you Frankie S!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.1'''&quot; added (Thank you Karim R!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D4.3.1'''&quot; added (Thank you Karim R!)
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D4.3'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-D4.3.2'''&quot;
*30  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; usage added, unusually wide label  (Thank you Otto B!)
*23  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.9'''&quot; added &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; (Thank you Mark S!)
*23  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.3C'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.3D'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-E3.8.1'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.8.2'''&quot;
*21  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F2.2'''&quot; added &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; (Thank you Mark H!)
*21  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F2'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-F2.1'''&quot;
*14  Jun: {{space|3.5}} Type &quot;'''IA4.1Bb'''&quot; missing last digit of meter number (''61168'')
*1   Jan: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PO-A6.2BB.f'''&quot; with large &quot;'''PO'''&quot; added
*1   Jan: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PO-A6.2BB.b'''&quot; illustration added
*5   Dec: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''QD1c'''&quot; added, &quot;'''CERTIFIED MAIL'''&quot;(Thank you Babs N!)
*5   Dec: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.7.1'''&quot; added, &quot;'''CERTIFIED MAIL'''&quot;(Thank you Frankie S and Otto B!)
*1   Dec: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-E3.7'''&quot; added (Thank you Frankie S and Otto B!)
*11  Nov: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''IA4.6'''&quot; 700000 series added  
*22  Oct: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''HC1.1-5.3'''&quot; added &quot;'''ADD'L 1/4¢ ''' at bottom line of slogan/ad (''9007'')&quot;
*2   Oct: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.3A'''&quot; ''' HAZMAT ''' label added    (Thank you Frankie S!)
*2   Oct: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-A1.11'''&quot; added, a version with several differences from the initial issue (Thank you Mark R!!)
*2   Oct: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-A1.1'''&quot; Renumbered to &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot;
*14 Sep: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''QA7.2.1'''&quot; added, &quot;'''IMI'''&quot;     (Thank you Frankie S!)
*14 Sep: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''QA7.2'''&quot; renumbered to &quot;'''QA7.2.0'''&quot;
*14 Sep: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''PC-D4.4'''&quot; added    (Thank you Frankie S!)
*3   Sep: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PPS-AG49'''&quot; &quot;'''Orbitran'''&quot; with complete box  (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*1   Sep: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-F4.6'''&quot; &quot;'''EASYPOST'''&quot; with &quot;'''POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot;  added   (Thank you Frankie S!)
*1   Sep: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''IC4.1f'''&quot; meter with right digit missing (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*13 Aug: {{space|3}} Type &quot;'''DF3.3'''&quot; added meter number to 8c usage [RRRR]   (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*7   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.5'''&quot; changed to &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.5A'''&quot;, &quot;'''PC-D3.3B.5B'''&quot; added   (Thank you Frankie S!)
*5   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PFF4.1'''&quot; added &quot;'''Mrs Lyndon B. Johnson'''&quot;
*2   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.4'''&quot; added   (Thank you Frankie S!)
*2   Aug: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2D'''&quot; deleted
*29  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''SPE-IA1'''&quot; colors known noted (red or green) (second known example).   (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*20  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PO-B14.1A-3'''&quot; added (Thank you Otto B!)
*18  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PPS-AD31.1A'''&quot; New illustration added  (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*18  Jul: {{space|5}} Type &quot;'''PPS-AD30'''&quot; note, illustration added  (Thank you Ronnie R!)
*18  Jul: {{space|5}} Group &quot;'''PPS-A'''&quot;  Reorganized
*13  Jul: {{space|5}} Types &quot;'''CA1.2'''&quot; note added, solid filled rectangle in place of permit number (Meisel variety) (Thank you Robert O!)


|style=&quot;width:50%; color: teal;&quot;|

*


|}

&lt;br&gt;
== &lt;div class=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red; font-size:xx-large;&quot;&gt;'''Table of Contents'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:medium;&quot;&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Information for collectors/]]'''&lt;/u&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;color:purple;&quot;&gt; (''the basics of U.S. meter stamp collecting'')&lt;/span&gt;
: •• [[/Postage meters and mailing machines/|Postage meters and mailing machines]]
: •• [[/Meter and Permit numbers/|Meter and Permit numbers]]
: •• [[/Ink colors and fluorescence/|Ink colors and fluorescence]]
: •• [[/Town and date marks/|Town and date marks]]
: •• [[/Surcharge slugs/|Surcharge slugs]]
: •• [[/Essays/Specimens/Proofs/|Essays/Specimens/Proofs]]
: •• [[/Rarity and values/|Rarity and values]]
&lt;/div&gt;

* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Glossary and Abbreviations/]]'''&lt;/u&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;color:purple;&quot;&gt; (''understanding the stamp descriptions'')&lt;/span&gt; 
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Postage Meter Manufacturers (with time chart)/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Adhesive paper tapes/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Directional slugs/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;'''[[/Bibliography/]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
----
&lt;br&gt;
::&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt; '''(''Types A through Q represent the general commercial meters available to the public, the groups after Type Q  are for special services or types not generally available to the public,this latter group is not arranged in any particular order, but follow the general order established by Werner Simon.'')'''&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP A – Early experimental franks, prior to 1920/|'''GROUP A – Early experimental franks, prior to 1920''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA meter catalog Group A thumbnail.jpeg|150px]]
* [[/GROUP B – Square frank with wavy lines at the sides/|'''GROUP B – Square frank with wavy lines at the sides''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA B1.jpg|150px]]
* [[/GROUP C – Oval frank with wavy lines at the sides/|'''GROUP C – Oval frank with wavy lines at the sides''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA CA1.jpg|150px]]
* [[/GROUP D – Square or nearly square frank with simulated perforation outer frame/|'''GROUP D – Square or nearly square frank with simulated perforation outer frame''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: Group D thumb.jpg|180px]]
* [[/GROUP E – Frameless design with arcs in the corners/|'''GROUP E – Frameless design with arcs in the corners (NCR)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA E8.jpg|80px]]
* [[/GROUP F – Wide rectangular frank with flying eagle in center/|'''GROUP F – Wide rectangular frank with flying eagle in center (Pitney Bowes)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA F1.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA F4A.jpg|120px]]
* [[/GROUP G – Wide rectangular frank with sitting eagle in center/|'''GROUP G – Wide rectangular frank with sitting eagle in center (Pitney Bowes)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA G1.jpg|120px]] [[File: USA G3.jpg|120px]]
* [[/GROUP H – Rectangular frank with simulated perforation frame, separate town mark/|'''GROUP H – Rectangular frank with simulated perforation frame, separate town mark''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA H2.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA H3.jpg|120px]]
* [[/GROUP I – Frameless design with large sitting eagle in center/|'''GROUP I – Frameless design with large sitting eagle in center (Pitney Bowes)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA IA1.jpg|100px]] [[File: USA IB4.jpg|90px]] [[File: USA IC1.jpg|110px]]
* [[/GROUP J – Square design with straight outer frame, separate town mark/|'''GROUP J – Square design with straight outer frame, separate town mark (Postalia)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA J1.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA J6.jpg|140px]]
* [[/GROUP K – Frank with torch motif/|'''GROUP K – Frank with hand held torch''']] [[File: USA KA2.jpg|110px]] [[File: USA KB1.jpg|100px]][[File: USA KD1.jpg|90px]] [[File: USA KE1.jpg|140px]]
* [[/GROUP L – Frank with profile of eagle/|'''GROUP L – Frank with profile of eagle (Hasler)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA LA1.jpg|120px]] [[File: USA LB1A.jpg|140px]] 
* [[/GROUP M – Simple rectangle with star ornaments/|'''GROUP M – Simple rectangle with stars (Neopost)''']] [[File: MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File: USA P1.jpg|140px]]
* [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode/|'''GROUP N – Digital stamps without 2D barcode''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode#/Sub-group NA – Pitney Bowes, eagle head and wing/|Sub-group NA – Pitney Bowes, eagle head and wing  (also ''LOW VALUE'')]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA M2.jpg|110px]] [[File:USA M5.jpg|120px]] [[File:USA M6A.jpg|120px]]
[[File:USA meter stamp NA examples.jpg|right|240px]]
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode/#Sub-group NB – Neopost-Hasler, frameless rectangular design with profile of eagle at right facing left/|Sub-group NB – Neopost-Hasler, complete profile of eagle facing left]]  [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA LC1.jpg|110px]]
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode#/Sub-group NC – Neopost, torch-in-hand/|Sub-group NC – Neopost, torch-in-hand]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA N1.jpg|110px]] [[File:USA N2.jpg|120px]]
: •• [[/GROUP N – Digital stamps, no 2D barcode#/Sub-group ND – Francotyp-Postalia, bird in oval/|Sub-group ND – Francotyp-Postalia, bird in oval]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA MB1.jpg|140px]]
&lt;/div&gt;


::&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;'''(''Groups O and P not used to avoid confusion with Groups OO, PC, PO, PD, and PV.'')'''&lt;/span&gt;


* [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode/|'''GROUP Q – Digital stamps with &quot;Datamatrix&quot; or &quot;IBI Lite&quot; 2D barcode''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QA – Neopost-Hasler, Neopost (branded as Neopost, Hasler, or ASCOM Hasler)/|Sub-group QA – Hasler, Neopost-Hasler, Neopost, Quadient]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA meter stamp QA2.jpg|70px]] [[File:USA N3.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA R2A.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA stamp type R8.jpg|150px]]
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QB – Pitney Bowes#/|Sub-group QB – Pitney Bowes]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA M9.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA M13.jpg|130px]] [[File:USA M11.jpg|160px]]
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QC – Francotyp-Postalia/|Sub-group QC – Francotyp-Postalia]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA R5.jpg|130px]][[File:USA stamp type R10.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP Q – Digital stamps with 2D barcode#/Sub-group QD – Data-Pac/|Sub-group QD – Data-Pac]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA S1.jpg|130px]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
::&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt; '''(''The groups after Type Q  are for special services or types not generally available to the public, this latter group is not arranged in any particular order, but follow the general order established by Werner Simon.'')'''&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online/|'''GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#/Sub-group PC-A – E-stamp/|Sub-group PC-A – E-stamp]][[File:PC thumb.jpg|right|400px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-B – Neopost/|Sub-group PC-B – Neopost]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-C – Stamps.com/|Sub-group PC-C – Stamps.com]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-D – Pitney Bowes/|Sub-group PC-D – Pitney Bowes]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-E – Envelope Management Software (Endicia)/|Sub-group PC-E – Envelope Management Software (Endicia)]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-F – easypost/|Sub-group PC-F – easypost]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-G – USPS/|Sub-group PC-G – USPS]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-H – Francotyp-Postalia/|Sub-group PC-H – Francotyp-Postalia]]
: •• [[/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online#Sub-group PC-I – Francotyp-Postalia/|Sub-group PC-I – stamps/endicia]]
&lt;/div&gt;


* [[/GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters operated by Post Office window clerks/|'''GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters and franking systems operated by Post Office window clerks''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters operated by Post Office window clerks/|Sub-group PO-A – Stamps generated by commercial postage meters modified for use in post offices]]
: •• [[/GROUP PO – Franks generated by meters operated by Post Office window clerks/|Sub-group PO-B – Stamps generated by machines or systems unique to Post Office use, with no resemblance to any commercial meter stamp]]
&lt;/div&gt;


* [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|'''GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due''']]
&lt;div style=&quot;color:#0000A0;&quot;&gt;
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-A – Thin arrow pointing right, inverted &quot;POSTAGE DUE&quot; above, inverted &quot;COLLECT&quot; below]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type A thumbnail.jpg|120px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-B – Right-pointing outline arrow containing &quot;POSTAGE DUE/PAID&quot;, barbs on pointed end]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type B thumbnail.jpg|120px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-C – Right-pointing outline arrow containing &quot;POSTAGE DUE/PAID&quot;, no barbs, lines thick on bottom]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type C thumbnail.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-D – Vertical rectangle containing &quot;POSTAGE/DUE&quot;]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type D thumbnail.jpg|110px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-E – Wide &quot;T&quot; containing &quot;POSTAGE/DUE&quot; (Pitney Bowes)]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type E thumbnail.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-F – Wide &quot;T&quot; containing &quot;POSTAGE/DUE&quot; (Friden)]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type F thumbnail.jpg|130px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-G – Digital label with &quot;POSTAGE DUE&quot; across top, Intermec]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Type G thumbnail.jpg|140px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-H – Digital P.O. counter label with &quot;PD&quot; in town line, MOS-UNISYS]] [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|20px]] [[File:USA Postage Due Types H and J spacer.jpg|180px]]
: •• [[/GROUP PD – Franks generated to indicate Postage Due/|Sub-group PD-J – Digital P.O. counter label with &quot;POSTAGE DUE&quot; at top]]
&lt;/div&gt;


* [[/GROUP PV – Self-service variable-rate stamp vending machine franks/|'''GROUP PV – Self-service variable-rate stamp vending machine franks''']]


* [[/GROUP OO – Official government business mail franks/|'''GROUP OO – Official government business mail franks''']]


* [[/GROUP OA – Official Armed Forces government business mail franks/|'''GROUP OA – Official Armed Forces government business mail franks''']]
: •• Sub-group OA-NAV – U.S. Navy
: •• Sub-group OA-AAF – U.S. Army &amp; Air Force 
: •• Sub-group OA-ARM – U.S. Army
: •• Sub-group OA-AIR – U.S. Air Force
: •• Sub-group OA-MAR – U.S. Marine Corps
: •• Sub-group OA-APO – Overseas Army and Air Force Post Offices
: •• Sub-group OA-FPO – Overseas Fleet Post Offices
: •• Sub-group OA-NGD – National Guard
&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP AR/|'''GROUP AR – Meter stamps used by the Armed Forces''']]
: •• Sub-group AR-NAV – U.S. Navy
: •• Sub-group AR-AAF – U.S. Army &amp; Air Force 
: •• Sub-group AR-ARM – U.S. Army
: •• Sub-group AR-AIR – U.S. Air Force
: •• Sub-group AR-MAR – U.S. Marine Corps
: •• Sub-group AR-APO – Overseas Army and Air Force Post Offices
: •• Sub-group AR-FPO – Overseas Fleet Post Offices
: •• Sub-group AR-NGD – National Guard

&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|'''GROUP ESY – Essays''']]
: •• Sub-group ESY-A – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Essays from before meters were approved for general use in 1920]]
: •• Sub-group ESY-B – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Early competitive development, 1921 to 1938]]
: •• Sub-group ESY-C – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Later competitive development (mechanical meters), 1938 to 1990s]]
: •• Sub-group ESY-D – [[/GROUP ESY – Essays/|Digital meter essays, 1980 to date]]
&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP MEI – Meisel/|'''GROUP MEI – Meisel''']]
&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUP PFF – Presidential Free Franks/|'''GROUP PFF – Presidential Free Franks''']]
&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/ |''' GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps''']]
: •• Sub-group PPS-A – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from the UPS (United Parcel Service)]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-B – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from the Rochester Package Delivery]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-C – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from the Retail Delivery Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-D – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from TNT]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-E – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Purolator]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-F – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from EFD Package Express]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-G – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from American Messenger Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-H – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from APD]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-I – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Berkshire Apparel Corporation]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-J – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Canpar]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-K – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from CMR]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-L – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from State of North Carolina Courier Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-M – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from DSI (Mr. Messenger, Inc ?)]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-N – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Hourly]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-O – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Local Parcel Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-P – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Maclen Express Co]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-Q – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Merchants Delivery Co]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-R – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Parcel Delivery Co]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-S – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Parcel Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-T – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Post Par]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-U – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Spee-Dee Delivery Service]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-V – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Metroline]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-W – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Amazon Prime]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-X – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from FEDEX/Federal Express]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-Y – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Global Mail]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from P R CHINA POST / USPS Partnership]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-2Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from DHL]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-3Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from uniuni]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-4Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Too Express]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-5Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from OnTrac]]
: •• Sub-group PPS-6Z – [[/GROUP PPS – Private Parcel Service stamps/|stamps originating from Jitsu]]


&lt;br /&gt;

* [[/GROUPS REV and SRV: Non-postal franks used to collect tax/|'''GROUPS REV and SRV– Non-postal franks used to collect tax, also known as fiscal or revenue franks''']]
: •• [[/GROUP REV – Non-postal franks used to collect tax/|Sub-group REV –Non-postal franks used to collect Federal tax/
: •• [[/GROUP SRV – Non-postal franks used to collect tax/|Sub-group SRV –Non-postal franks used to collect State and local tax/

&lt;br&gt;
* [[/GROUP SPE – Specimens/|'''GROUP SPE – Specimens''']]
&lt;br&gt;

* [[/GROUP TST – Test stamps/|'''GROUP TST – Test stamps''']]
&lt;br /&gt;


&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue; font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;· ♦ ·&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue; font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;·&lt;/span&gt;[[/sandbox3/|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue; font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;·&lt;/span&gt;]]
&lt;/div&gt;
----

&lt;!--Book Templates --&gt;

{{Shelves|Collecting}}
{{alphabetical}}
{{status|25%}}</text>
      <sha1>jopo9n6vchbj0a3s18mr1ozlrb2ys07</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/MandelbrotSetExterior</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>367335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654556</id>
      <parentid>4653287</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T15:05:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aokoroko</username>
        <id>3059689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* C++ High-Precision Perturbation CLI Renderer */</comment>
      <origin>4654556</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="39015" sha1="83ztzwoj0gv9bdmbevjd9v4zfe3s9r0" xml:space="preserve">[[Fractals/color_mandelbrot|Colouring]] of exterior of Mandelbrot set can be :
* non-smooth = Escape Time = dwell
** Boolean/binary Escape Time Method   ( bETM/M )
** discrete = Level Set Method =  LSM/M = integer ETM = iETM/M
* Smooth  :
** radial measures
*** Real Escape Time Method( rETM/M ) 
*** Distance Estimation Method( DEM/M )
*** radius of complex potential = Complex Potential Method ( CPM/M )
** angular measures
*** argument of complex potential 
*** SAC = stripe average coloring 
*** other
**** &quot;triangle inequality&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hiddendimension.com/fractalmath/divergent_fractals_main.html Mathematics of Divergent Fractals by ]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://jussiharkonen.com/gallery/coloring-techniques/ jussi harkonen : coloring-techniques]&lt;/ref&gt;
**** Orbit trap &lt;ref&gt;[[w:Orbit trap|wikipedia : Orbit trap]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tnMNamKPy6k Mandelbrot Orbit Trap Rendering! Programming How-To  Video by DKM101]&lt;/ref&gt;


One can also draw curves : 
* external rays
* equipotential lines ( closed curves - quasi circles)


Similar projects:
* [http://mathr.co.uk/blog/2014-03-06_mandelbrot_notebook.html  Mandelbrot Notebook by Claude Heiland-Allen ]
** [https://code.mathr.co.uk/mandelbrot-book mandelbrot-book]
** [https://gitlab.com/adammajewski/mandelbrot-book_book mandelbrot-book/book : one file c programs , images and description]
** [https://gitlab.com/adammajewski/my-book fork of the mandelbrot-book] and [https://gitlab.com/adammajewski/git-book-pdf book in pdf format]
* [https://www.math.univ-toulouse.fr/~cheritat/wiki-draw/index.php/Main_Page  different drawing techniques and algorithms by Arnaud Cheritat ]
** [https://www.math.univ-toulouse.fr/~cheritat/wiki-draw/index.php/Mandelbrot_set Mandelbrot set] and [https://gitlab.com/adammajewski/mandelbrot_wiki_ACh example C programs ( not by A Cheritat)]
* Linas Vepstas' Art Gallery:
** [http://linas.org/art-gallery/index.html original site]
** [https://gitlab.com/adammajewski/LinasArtGallery_MandelbrotSet fork at gitlab]

=='''Escape time''' or dwell==
Here for given point c on parameter plane one checks how critical point &lt;math&gt; z = 0.0 &lt;/math&gt; behaves on dynamical plane under [[Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/q-iterations#Forward iteration|forward iteration]].  If you change initial point you will get different result &lt;ref&gt;[http://mathesim.degruyter.de/jws_en/show_simulation.php?id=1052&amp;type=RoessMa&amp;lang=en Java program by Dieter Röß showing result of changing initial point of Mandelbrot iterations]&lt;/ref&gt;

To draw given plane one needs to [[Fractals/Computer graphic techniques/2D#Scanning|check/scan]] (all) its points. See [[Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/Mandelbrot set#Period detection|here for more details ( optimisation)]]
Read [[Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/def cqp|definitions]] first.

===How to find the number of iterations required to escape the mandelbrot set ?===
* [https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4056809/is-there-an-equation-for-the-number-of-iterations-required-to-escape-the-mandelb/4059340 math.stackexchange question: is-there-an-equation-for-the-number-of-iterations-required-to-escape-the-mandelb]
* [https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/16970/a-way-to-determine-the-ideal-number-of-maximum-iterations-for-an-arbitrary-zoom?rq=1 math.stackexchange question: a-way-to-determine-the-ideal-number-of-maximum-iterations-for-an-arbitrary-zoom?]

===Boolean escape time ===

This algorithm answers the question: “For which values of c will the Julia fractal, J(c), be line-like and for which dust-like?”&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ntg.nl/maps/45/03.pdf  Julia fractals in PostScript by Kees van der Laan, EUROTEX 2012 &amp; 6CM PROCEEDINGS 47]&lt;/ref&gt;

Here complex plane consists of 2 sets : Mandelbrot set &lt;math&gt;M\,&lt;/math&gt; and its complement &lt;math&gt;M^c\,&lt;/math&gt; :

&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}= M \cup M^c&lt;/math&gt;

====ASCI graphic ( on screen) ====
[[File:Mandel.png|right|thumb|ASCI graphic : Boolean escape time in text mode]]

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=c&gt;
// http://mrl.nyu.edu/~perlin/
main(k){float i,j,r,x,y=-16;while(puts(&quot;&quot;),y++&lt;15)for(x
=0;x++&lt;84;putchar(&quot; .:-;!/&gt;)|&amp;IH%*#&quot;[k&amp;15]))for(i=k=r=0;
j=r*r-i*i-2+x/25,i=2*r*i+y/10,j*j+i*i&lt;11&amp;&amp;k++&lt;111;r=j);}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=haskell&gt;
-- Haskell code by Ochronus
-- http://blog.mostof.it/mandelbrot-set-in-ruby-and-haskell/
import Data.Complex
mandelbrot a = iterate (\z -&gt; z^2 + a) a !! 500
main = mapM_ putStrLn [[if magnitude (mandelbrot (x :+ y)) &lt; 2 then '*' else ' '
                           | x &lt;- [-2, -1.9685 .. 0.5]]
                           | y &lt;- [1, 0.95 .. -1]]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=lisp&gt;
; common lisp
(loop for y from -1.5 to 1.5 by 0.05 do
      (loop for x from -2.5 to 0.5 by 0.025 do
		(let* ((c (complex x y)) ; parameter
                   	(z (complex 0 0))
                   	(iMax 20) ; maximal number of iterations
			(i 0)) ; iteration number

		(loop  	while (&lt; i iMax ) do 
			(setq z (+ (* z z) c)) ; iteration
			(incf i)
			(when (&gt; (abs z) 2) (return i)))
	   ; color of pixel
           (if (= i iMax) (princ (code-char 42)) ; inside M
                          (princ (code-char 32))))) ; outside M
      (format t &quot;~%&quot;)) ; new line
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Comparison programs in various languages &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.timestretch.com/tag/mandelbrot Fractal Benchmark by Erik Wrenholt]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.righto.com/2015/03/12-minute-mandelbrot-fractals-on-50.html 12-minute Mandelbrot: fractals on a 50 year old IBM 1401 mainframe]&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Graphic file ( PPM ) ====
Here are various programs for creating pbm file &lt;ref&gt;[https://benchmarksgame-team.pages.debian.net/benchmarksgame/description/mandelbrot.html#mandelbrotThe Computer Language  Benchmarks Game ]&lt;/ref&gt;
* GLSL using [[Fractals/shadertoy#Boolean escape time|shadertoy]]
* short c programs by ed Burke&lt;ref&gt;[https://batchloaf.wordpress.com/2016/02/13/example-code-from-presentation-ways-of-seeing-julia-sets/ example-code-from-presentation-ways-of-seeing-julia-sets by ed Burke]&lt;/ref&gt;
=====C=====
This is complete code of C one file program. 
*It makes a ppm file which consists an image. To see the file (image) use external application ( graphic viewer).
*Program consists of 3 loops:
** iY and iX, which are used to scan rectangle area of parameter plane 
**iterations.
For each point of screen (iX,iY) it's complex value is computed c=cx+cy*i.

For each point c is computed iterations of critical point &lt;math&gt;z_0 = z_{cr} = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt;

It uses some [[Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/Mandelbrot set#Speed improvements - optimisation|speed_improvement]]. Instead of checking :

 sqrt(Zx2+Zy2)&lt;ER

it checks :

 (Zx2+Zy2)&lt;ER2 // ER2 = ER*ER

It gives the same result but is faster.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=C&gt;

 /* 
 c program:
 --------------------------------
  1. draws Mandelbrot set for Fc(z)=z*z +c
  using Mandelbrot algorithm ( boolean escape time )
 -------------------------------         
 2. technique of creating ppm file is  based on the code of Claudio Rocchini
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Color_complex_plot.jpg
 create 24 bit color graphic file ,  portable pixmap file = PPM 
 see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_pixmap
 to see the file use external application ( graphic viewer)
  */
 #include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
 #include &lt;math.h&gt;
 int main()
 {
          /* screen ( integer) coordinate */
        int iX,iY;
        const int iXmax = 800; 
        const int iYmax = 800;
        /* world ( double) coordinate = parameter plane*/
        double Cx,Cy;
        const double CxMin=-2.5;
        const double CxMax=1.5;
        const double CyMin=-2.0;
        const double CyMax=2.0;
        /* */
        double PixelWidth=(CxMax-CxMin)/iXmax;
        double PixelHeight=(CyMax-CyMin)/iYmax;
        /* color component ( R or G or B) is coded from 0 to 255 */
        /* it is 24 bit color RGB file */
        const int MaxColorComponentValue=255; 
        FILE * fp;
        char *filename=&quot;new1.ppm&quot;;
        char *comment=&quot;# &quot;;/* comment should start with # */
        static unsigned char color[3];
        /* Z=Zx+Zy*i  ;   Z0 = 0 */
        double Zx, Zy;
        double Zx2, Zy2; /* Zx2=Zx*Zx;  Zy2=Zy*Zy  */
        /*  */
        int Iteration;
        const int IterationMax=200;
        /* bail-out value , radius of circle ;  */
        const double EscapeRadius=2;
        double ER2=EscapeRadius*EscapeRadius;
        /*create new file,give it a name and open it in binary mode  */
        fp= fopen(filename,&quot;wb&quot;); /* b -  binary mode */
        /*write ASCII header to the file*/
        fprintf(fp,&quot;P6\n %s\n %d\n %d\n %d\n&quot;,comment,iXmax,iYmax,MaxColorComponentValue);
        /* compute and write image data bytes to the file*/
        for(iY=0;iY&lt;iYmax;iY++)
        {
             Cy=CyMin + iY*PixelHeight;
             if (fabs(Cy)&lt; PixelHeight/2) Cy=0.0; /* Main antenna */
             for(iX=0;iX&lt;iXmax;iX++)
             {         
                        Cx=CxMin + iX*PixelWidth;
                        /* initial value of orbit = critical point Z= 0 */
                        Zx=0.0;
                        Zy=0.0;
                        Zx2=Zx*Zx;
                        Zy2=Zy*Zy;
                        /* */
                        for (Iteration=0;Iteration&lt;IterationMax &amp;&amp; ((Zx2+Zy2)&lt;ER2);Iteration++)
                        {
                            Zy=2*Zx*Zy + Cy;
                            Zx=Zx2-Zy2 +Cx;
                            Zx2=Zx*Zx;
                            Zy2=Zy*Zy;
                        };
                        /* compute  pixel color (24 bit = 3 bytes) */
                        if (Iteration==IterationMax)
                        { /*  interior of Mandelbrot set = black */
                           color[0]=0;
                           color[1]=0;
                           color[2]=0;                           
                        }
                     else 
                        { /* exterior of Mandelbrot set = white */
                             color[0]=255; /* Red*/
                             color[1]=255;  /* Green */ 
                             color[2]=255;/* Blue */
                        };
                        /*write color to the file*/
                        fwrite(color,1,3,fp);
                }
        }
        fclose(fp);
        return 0;
 }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight &gt;

===Integer escape time = LSM/M = dwell bands===
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Mandelbrot seq.png|Number of details is proportional to maximal number of iterations
File:Animation of the growth of the Mandelbrot set as you iterate towards infinity.gif|Mandelbrot animation based on a static number of iterations per pixel. Here you can see why '''offset''' is sometimes used ( because - color gradient changes : for high MaxIteration disapears.
&lt;/gallery&gt;
Here color is proportional to last iteration ( of final_n, final iteration).&lt;ref&gt;[http://plus.maths.org/content/computing-mandelbrot-set Computing the Mandelbrot set by Andrew Williams]&lt;/ref&gt;

This is also called [[w:Level Set Method|Level Set Method]] ( LSM )

&lt;math&gt;L_n= \{ c : z_n \in T ~~\mbox{and} ~~ z_k \notin T ~~\mbox{where}~~ k&lt;n \}\,&lt;/math&gt;

====C====

[[Image:Mandel_lsm_bw.jpg|thumb|LSM/M image with full code in C]]

Difference between Mandelbrot algorithm and LSM/M is in only in part instruction, which computes  pixel color of exterior of Mandelbrot set. In LSM/M is :
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=C&gt;
 if (Iteration==IterationMax)
   { /* interior of Mandelbrot set = black */
     color[0]=0;
     color[1]=0;
     color[2]=0;                           
   }
   /* exterior of Mandelbrot set = LSM */
   else if ((Iteration%2)==0) 
             { /* even number = black */
             color[0]=0; /* Red */
             color[1]=0; /* Green */ 
             color[2]=0; /* Blue */
             }
           else 
             {/* odd number =  white */
             color[0]=255; /* Red */
             color[1]=255; /* Green */ 
             color[2]=255; /* Blue */    
             };

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Here is [[w:C (programming language)|C]] function whithout explicit complex numbers, only doubles:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c&quot;&gt;
int GiveEscapeTime(double C_x, double C_y, int iMax, double _ER2)
{ 
    int i;
    double Zx, Zy;
    double Zx2, Zy2; /* Zx2=Zx*Zx;  Zy2=Zy*Zy  */
 
    Zx=0.0; /* initial value of orbit = critical point Z= 0 */
    Zy=0.0;
    Zx2=Zx*Zx;
    Zy2=Zy*Zy;
 
    for (i=0;i&lt;iMax &amp;&amp; ((Zx2+Zy2)&lt;_ER2);i++)
    {
      Zy=2*Zx*Zy + C_y;
      Zx=Zx2-Zy2 +C_x;
      Zx2=Zx*Zx;
      Zy2=Zy*Zy;
    };
 return i;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

here a short code with complex numbers:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=c&gt;
// https://gitlab.com/adammajewski/mandelbrot_wiki_ACh/blob/master/betm.c
int iterate(double complex C , int iMax)
  {
   int i;
   double complex Z= 0.0; // initial value for iteration Z0
   
   for(i=0;i&lt;iMax;i++)
    {
      Z=Z*Z+C; // https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6418807/how-to-work-with-complex-numbers-in-c
      if(cabs(Z)&gt;EscapeRadius) break;
    }
   return i; 
 }
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

====C++====
Here is C++ function which can be used to draw LSM/M :

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=Cpp&gt;
 int iterate_mandel(complex C , int imax, int bailout)
  {
   int i;
   std::complex Z(0,0); // initial value for iteration Z0
   
   for(i=0;i&lt;=imax-1;i++)
    {
      Z=Z*Z+C; // overloading of operators
      if(abs(Z)&gt;bailout)break;
    }
   return i;
 }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

I think that it can't be coded simpler (it looks better than pseudocode),  but it can be coded in other way which can  be executed faster .

Here is faster code :
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=Cpp&gt;
// based on cpp code by Geek3
inline int fractal(double cx, double cy, int max_iters)
// gives last iteration 
{
	double zx = 0, zy = 0;	
	if (zx * zx + zy * zy &gt; 4) return(0); // it=0
	for (int it = 1; it &lt; max_iters; it++)
	{	double zx_old = zx;
		zx = zx * zx - zy * zy;
		zy = 2 * zx_old * zy;
		zx += cx;
		zy += cy;
		if (zx * zx + zy * zy &gt; 4.0) return(it);
	}
	return(max_iters);
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A touch more optimised :
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=Cpp&gt;
// optimised from cpp code by Geek3
inline int fractal(double cReal, double cImg, int max_iters)
// gives last iteration 
{
	double zReal = 0, zImg = 0, zReal2 = 0, zImg2 = 0;
	//iteration zero is always 0^2+0^2, it will never escape
	for (int it = 1; it &lt; max_iters; it++)
	{	//because we have zReal^2 and zImg^2 pre-calculated
		//we can calculate zImg first
		//then we don't need to calculate/store the &quot;old&quot; zReal
		zImg = (2 * zReal * zImg ) + cImg;
		zReal = zReal2 - zImg2 + cReal;

		// calculate next iteration: zReal^2 and zImg^2
		// they are used twice so calculate them once
		zReal2 = zReal * zReal;
		zImg2 = zImg * zImg;
		if (zReal2 + zImg2 &gt; 4.0) return(it);
	}
	return(max_iters);
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

 See also :
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkf6icQln7w Rendering The Mandelbrot Set In C++: Part 1 - Saving Images , Video by Superdavo0001]


====C++ High-Precision Perturbation CLI Renderer====

[[Image:Mandelbrot_Set_Image_106.png|thumb|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. 4.31e-51]]
[[Image:Mandelbrot_Set_Image_107.png|thumb|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. 2.4e-57]]
[[Image:Mandelbrot_Set_Image_108.png|thumb|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. 1.01e-55]]
[[Image:Mandelbrot_Set_Image_109.png|thumb|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. 7.17e-36]]
[[Image:Mandelbrot_Set_Image_110.png|thumb|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. 1.53e-62]]
[[Image:Mandelbrot_Set_Image_111.png|thumb|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. 2.84e-82]]
[[Image:Mandelbrot_Set_Image_112.png|thumb|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. 1.15e-119]]

Here is a complete, highly optimized C++ implementation for high-precision rendering of the Mandelbrot set using perturbation theory, 8x8 Super-Sampling Anti-Aliasing (SSAA), and OpenMP multi-threading. Created by [[User:Aokoroko]].

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;cpp&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;
#include &lt;fstream&gt;
#include &lt;vector&gt;
#include &lt;cmath&gt;
#include &lt;cstdint&gt;
#include &lt;string&gt;
#include &lt;atomic&gt;
#include &lt;omp.h&gt;
#include &lt;cstdio&gt;
#include &lt;iomanip&gt;
#include &lt;gmp.h&gt;
#include &lt;mpfr.h&gt;

using namespace std;

const double PI = 3.14159265358979323846;
const mpfr_prec_t MPFR_BITS = 5000;

#pragma pack(push, 1)
struct BMPHeader {
    uint16_t type{0x4D42};
    uint32_t size{0};
    uint16_t reserved1{0};
    uint16_t reserved2{0};
    uint32_t offBits{54};
    uint32_t structSize{40};
    int32_t  width{0};
    int32_t  height{0};
    uint16_t planes{1};
    uint16_t bitCount{24};
    uint32_t compression{0};
    uint32_t sizeImage{0};
    int32_t  xpelsPerMeter{2834};
    int32_t  ypelsPerMeter{2834};
    uint32_t clrUsed{0};
    uint32_t clrImportant{0};
};
#pragma pack(pop)

struct ComplexDouble {
    double re;
    double im;
};

int main() {
    string absc_str, ordi_str, size_str;
    absc_str = &quot;-1.99999543561201124623198345433951143502785679245726844745821388800402678499411681518036306219179273434395557574279985918047221291197081186140687781560831995&quot;; 
    ordi_str = &quot;-0.00000000000000000000000026198152173811047783694060060607013913873144250985383083459221663448338433592617272786772587281530484110756597337683912309313885172&quot;; 
    size_str = &quot;1.15e-119&quot;;
    
    const int targetW = 10000;
    const int targetH = 10000;
    const int scale = 8;
    const int rawW = targetW * scale;
    const int rawH = targetH * scale;
    const int frame = 200;
    
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Step 1: Calculating Reference Orbit using Perturbation...&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    mpfr_t rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st;
    mpfr_inits2(MPFR_BITS, rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st, NULL);
    mpfr_set_str(rx, absc_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_str(ry, ordi_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_str(sz, size_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_div_ui(st, sz, rawW, MPFR_RNDN);
    double step_d = mpfr_get_d(st, MPFR_RNDN);
    
    double ref_rec_d = mpfr_get_d(rx, MPFR_RNDN);
    double ref_imc_d = mpfr_get_d(ry, MPFR_RNDN);
    
    vector&lt;ComplexDouble&gt; ref_orbit_double(50005);
    mpfr_set_ui(zr, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_ui(zi, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_ui(zr2, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_ui(zi2, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    uint32_t ref_i = 0;
    bool escaped = false;
    
    while (ref_i &lt; 50000) {
        ref_orbit_double[ref_i].re = mpfr_get_d(zr, MPFR_RNDN);
        ref_orbit_double[ref_i].im = mpfr_get_d(zi, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul(tmp, zr, zi, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul_ui(zi, tmp, 2, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_add(zi, zi, ry, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_sub(zr, zr2, zi2, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_add(zr, zr, rx, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul(zr2, zr, zr, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul(zi2, zi, zi, MPFR_RNDN);
        if (escaped) {
            ref_i++;
            break;
        }
        mpfr_add(tmp, zr2, zi2, MPFR_RNDN);
        if (mpfr_cmp_d(tmp, 40000.0) &gt;= 0) {
            escaped = true;
        }
        ref_i++;
    }
    ref_orbit_double[ref_i].re = mpfr_get_d(zr, MPFR_RNDN);
    ref_orbit_double[ref_i].im = mpfr_get_d(zi, MPFR_RNDN);
    uint32_t max_valid_ref_iter = ref_i; 
    mpfr_clears(rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st, NULL);
    
    uint8_t pal[256][3];
    for (int a = 0; a &lt; 255; ++a) {
        pal[a][0] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * cos(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0));
        pal[a][1] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * sin(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0));
        pal[a][2] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * sin(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0));
    }
    pal[255][0] = 255; pal[255][1] = 255; pal[255][2] = 255;
    
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Step 2: Stream rendering Mandelbrot Set Image 112.bmp (&quot; &lt;&lt; targetW &lt;&lt; &quot;x&quot; &lt;&lt; targetH &lt;&lt; &quot;)...&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    int rowSize = (targetW * 3 + 3) &amp; ~3;
    BMPHeader header;
    header.width = targetW;
    header.height = targetH;
    header.sizeImage = rowSize * targetH;
    header.size = header.sizeImage + 54;
    ofstream f(&quot;Mandelbrot Set Image 112.bmp&quot;, ios::binary);
    f.write(reinterpret_cast&lt;char*&gt;(&amp;header), 54);
    vector&lt;uint8_t&gt; rowBuffer(rowSize);
    
    for (int y = 0; y &lt; targetH; ++y) {
        #pragma omp parallel for schedule(dynamic)
        for (int x = 0; x &lt; targetW; ++x) {
            uint32_t rSum = 0, gSum = 0, bSum = 0;
            const ComplexDouble* ref_ptr = ref_orbit_double.data();
            
            for (int j = 0; j &lt; scale; ++j) {
                size_t b = (size_t)y * scale + j;
                double delta_imc = (double)((long long)b - (rawH / 2)) * step_d;
                
                for (int i = 0; i &lt; scale; ++i) {
                    size_t a = (size_t)x * scale + i;
                    double delta_rec = (double)((long long)a - (rawW / 2)) * step_d;
                    
                    uint32_t index = 0;    
                    double delta_re = 0.0; 
                    double delta_im = 0.0;
                    double z_re = 0.0;     
                    double z_im = 0.0;
                    uint32_t iter = 0;
                    bool has_re_based = false;
                    
                    while (iter &lt; 50000) {
                        if ((z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) &gt;= 40000.0) {
                            break;
                        }
                        
                        if (index &gt;= max_valid_ref_iter) {
                            if (!has_re_based) {
                                break; 
                            } else {
                                double ld_cx = ref_rec_d + delta_rec;
                                double ld_cy = ref_imc_d + delta_imc; 
                                while (iter &lt; 50000 &amp;&amp; (z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) &lt; 40000.0) {
                                    double old_re = z_re;
                                    double old_im = z_im;
                                    z_re = old_re * old_re - old_im * old_im + ld_cx;
                                    z_im = 2.0 * old_re * old_im + ld_cy;
                                    iter++;
                                }
                                break;
                            }
                        }
                        
                        if ((z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) &lt; (delta_re * delta_re + delta_im * delta_im)) {
                            index = 0; 
                            delta_re = z_re;
                            delta_im = z_im;
                            has_re_based = true;
                        }
                        
                        for (int k = 0; k &lt; 2; ++k) {
                            double Ur = ref_ptr[index].re;
                            double Ui = ref_ptr[index].im;
                            double next_delta_im = 2.0 * Ur * delta_im + 2.0 * Ui * delta_re + 2.0 * delta_re * delta_im + delta_imc;
                            delta_re = 2.0 * Ur * delta_re - 2.0 * Ui * delta_im + delta_re * delta_re - delta_im * delta_im + delta_rec;
                            delta_im = next_delta_im;
                            index++;
                        }
                        z_re = ref_ptr[index].re + delta_re;
                        z_im = ref_ptr[index].im + delta_im;
                        iter += 2; 
                    }
                    
                    int final_t = 50000 - iter;
                    uint8_t t = (final_t == 0) ? 255 : (uint8_t)(final_t % 254);
                    int colorIdx = (t == 255) ? 255 : (t - frame + 255) % 255;
                    bSum += pal[colorIdx][0];
                    gSum += pal[colorIdx][1];
                    rSum += pal[colorIdx][2];
                }
            }                
            int outIdx = x * 3;
            rowBuffer[outIdx + 0] = (uint8_t)(bSum &gt;&gt; 6);
            rowBuffer[outIdx + 1] = (uint8_t)(gSum &gt;&gt; 6);
            rowBuffer[outIdx + 2] = (uint8_t)(rSum &gt;&gt; 6);
        }
        f.write(reinterpret_cast&lt;const char*&gt;(rowBuffer.data()), rowSize);
        if ((y + 1) % 10 == 0 || y == targetH - 1) {
            cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Progress: &quot; &lt;&lt; (y + 1) &lt;&lt; &quot;/&quot; &lt;&lt; targetH &lt;&lt; &quot;\r&quot; &lt;&lt; flush;
        }
    }
    f.close();
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;\nDone! Mandelbrot Set Image 112.bmp successfully saved.&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

See the full project and compiled releases on the official [https://github.com/Divetoxx/Mandelbrot Mandelbrot CLI GitHub repository].
* [https://rosettacode.org/wiki/Mandelbrot_set#Perturbation_Theory C++ Perturbation Theory Optimization] showcased in the global algorithm repository on Rosetta Code.

====GLSL====
* [[Fractals/shadertoy#LSM|shadertoy]]

====Java ====

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;java&quot;&gt;

//Java code by Josef Jelinek 
// http://java.rubikscube.info/
 
 int mandel(double cx, double cy) {
    double zx = 0.0, zy = 0.0;
    double zx2 = 0.0, zy2 = 0.0;
    int iter = 0;
    while (iter &lt; iterMax &amp;&amp; zx2 + zy2 &lt; 4.0) {
      zy = 2.0 * zx * zy + cy;
      zx = zx2 - zy2 + cx;
      zx2 = zx * zx;
      zy2 = zy * zy;
      iter++;
    }
    return iter;
  }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

====Java Script====
Here is JavaScript function  which does not give last iteration but LastIteration modulo maxCol. It makes colour cycling ( if maxCol &lt; maxIt ).

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
function iterate(Cr,Ci) {
// JavaScript function by Evgeny Demidov
// http://www.ibiblio.org/e-notes/html5/fractals/mandelbrot.htm
  var I=0, R=0,  I2=0, R2=0,   n=0;
  if (R2+I2 &gt; max) return 0;
  do  {  I=(R+R)*I+Ci;  R=R2-I2+Cr;  R2=R*R;  I2=I*I;  n++;
  } while ((R2+I2 &lt; max) &amp;&amp; (n &lt; maxIt) );
  if (n == maxIt) return maxCol;  else return n % maxCol;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Above functions do not use explicit definition of [[w:complex number|complex number]].

====Khan Academy====
* [https://www.khanacademy.org/computer-programming/mandelbrot-set/1274517860 khan academy mandelbrot-set]

====Lisp program ====

Whole Lisp program making ASCII graphic based on code by [http://www.frank-buss.de/ Frank Buss] 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.lisp/msg/dd505fd509fc8512 LIsp Program by Frank Buss]&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;[http://bc.tech.coop/blog/040811.html Mandelbrot Set ASCII art at Bill Clementson's blog]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=lisp&gt;
; common lisp
(loop for y from -1.5 to 1.5 by 0.1 do
      (loop for x from -2.5 to 0.5 by 0.04 do
            (let* ((i 0)
                   (z (complex x y))
                   (c z))
              (loop while (&lt; (abs
                              (setq z (+ (* z z) c)))
                             2)
                    while (&lt; (incf i) 32))
              (princ (code-char (+ i 32))))) ; ASCII chars &lt;= 32 contains non-printing characters
      (format t &quot;~%&quot;))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

====MathMap plugin for [[GIMP|Gimp]]====
&lt;pre&gt;
filter mandelbrot (gradient coloration)
    c=ri:(xy/xy:[X,X]*1.5-xy:[0.5,0]);
    z=ri:[0,0]; # initial value z0 = 0 
    # iteration of z
    iter=0;
    while abs(z)&lt;2 &amp;&amp; iter&lt;31
    do
        z=z*z+c;  # z(n+1) = fc(zn)
        iter=iter+1
    end;
    coloration(iter/32) # color of pixel
end
&lt;/pre&gt;

====Pov-Ray====
Pov-Ray has a built-in function mandel&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.povray.org/documentation/view/3.6.1/377/ mandel function from 2.5.11.14 Fractal Patterns at Pov-Ray docs]&lt;/ref&gt;

====Wolfram Mathematica====
Here is [http://www.bugman123.com/Fractals/index.html code by Paul Nylander]

===Level Curves of escape time Method = LCM/M===
[[Image:LCMM.jpg|right|thumb|edge detection of Level sets]]
[[Image:Lemniscates5.png|thumb|right|Lemniscates of Mandelbrot set]]

Lemniscates are boundaries of Level Sets of escape time ( LSM/M ). They can be drawn using :
* edge detection of Level sets. 
** Algorithm described in paper by M. Romera et al.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.iec.csic.es/~miguel/Preprint3.ps Drawing the Mandelbrot set by the method of escape lines. M. Romera et al.]&lt;/ref&gt; This method is fast and allows  looking for high iterations.
*boundary trace&lt;ref&gt;http://www.metabit.org/~rfigura/figura-fractal/math.html boundary trace by Robert Figura&lt;/ref&gt;
* drawing curves &lt;math&gt;L_n(T)=\{c: abs(z_n)=ER  \}\,&lt;/math&gt;, see [[:Image:Lemniscates5.png| explanation and source code]]. This method is very complicated for iterations &gt; 5.

===Decomposition of target set for Mandelbrot set drawing===
Decomposition is modification of escape time algorithm.

The '''target set''' is divided into parts (2 or more). 
Very large escape radius is used, for example ER = 12.

====Binary decomposition of LSM/M====

[[Image:Mandel_bd.png|thumb|binary decomposition: image with full code in C]]

Here target set &lt;math&gt;T\,&lt;/math&gt; on dynamic plane  is divided into 2 parts (binary decomposition = 2-decomposition ):

* upper half ( white) &lt;math&gt;T_u = \{ z : |z| &gt; ER ~~\mbox{and}~~ Im (z) &gt; 0\}\,&lt;/math&gt;
* lower half (black) &lt;math&gt;T_l = \{ z : |z| &gt; ER ~~\mbox{and}~~ Im (z) \le 0 \}\,&lt;/math&gt;

Division of target set induces decomposition of level sets &lt;math&gt;L_n\,&lt;/math&gt; into &lt;math&gt;2^{n+1}\,&lt;/math&gt; parts ( cells, subsets):

* &lt;math&gt;L_{n,u}  =\{ c:  |z_n| &gt; ER ~~\mbox{and}~~ Im (z_n) &gt; 0 \}\,&lt;/math&gt; which is colored white,
* &lt;math&gt;L_{n,l} = \{ c : |z_n| &gt; ER ~~\mbox{and}~~ Im (z_n) \le 0 \}\,&lt;/math&gt; which is colored black.


 &quot;The Level Sets and Field Lines are superimposed, creating a sort of grid, and the &quot;squares&quot; of the grid are filled with N-digit binary numbers giving the first N binary digits of the external angles of field lines passing through the square. (Alternately, only the Nth binary digit is used.) Each level set is divided into 2n squares. It is easy to &quot;read&quot; the external arguments of points in the boundary of the Mandelbrot Set using a binary decomposition.&quot; Robert P. Munafo

For binary decomposition use exp(pi) as escape radius, so that the boxes appear square (a tip from mrob).

External rays of angles (measured in turns):

&lt;math&gt;angle = (k / 2^n ) ~~\mbox{mod }~1\,&lt;/math&gt;

can be seen as borders of subsets.

Difference between binary decomposition algorithm and Mandel or LSM/M is in only in part of instruction , which computes  pixel color of exterior of Mandelbrot set. In binary decomposition is :
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=C&gt;
 if (Iteration==IterationMax)
  { /* interior of Mandelbrot set = black */
   color[0]=0;
   color[1]=0;
   color[2]=0;           
  }
  /* exterior of Mandelbrot set = LSM */
  else if (Zy&gt;0) 
         { 
          color[0]=0; /* Red */
          color[1]=0; /* Green */ 
          color[2]=0; /* Blue */
         }
        else 
          {
           color[0]=255; /* Red */
           color[1]=255; /* Green */ 
           color[2]=255; /* Blue */    
          };

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

also GLSL code from [[Fractals/fragmentarium|Fragmentarium]] :

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=GLSL&gt;
#include &quot;2D.frag&quot;
#group Simple Mandelbrot

// maximal number of iterations
uniform int iMax; slider[1,100,1000] // increase iMax
// er2= er^2 wher er= escape radius = bailout
uniform float er2; slider[4.0,1000,10000] // increase er2

// compute color of pixel
 vec3 color(vec2 c) {
   vec2 z = vec2(0.0);  // initial value

 // iteration
  for (int i = 0; i &lt; iMax; i++) {
    z = vec2(z.x*z.x-z.y*z.y,2*z.x*z.y) +  c; // z= z^2+c
    if (dot(z,z)&gt; er2)   // escape test 
      // exterior
      if (z.x&gt;0){ return vec3( 1.0);} // upper part of the target set 
      else return vec3(0.0); //lower part of the target set 
  }
  return vec3(0.0); //interior
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=GLSL&gt;
// zoomasm -- zoom video assembler
// (c) 2019,2020,2021,2022 Claude Heiland-Allen
// SPDX-License-Identifier: AGPL-3.0-only

// recommended KF bailout settings: linear smoothing, custom radius 25
vec3 colour(void)
{
  if (getInterior())
  {
    return vec3(1.0, 0.0, 0.0);
  }
  bool decomp = getT() &lt; 0.5;
  return vec3(decomp ? 0.0 : 1.0);
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


Point c is plotting white or black if [[w:complex number|imaginary value]] of last iteration ( Zy) is positive or negative.&lt;ref&gt;http://web.archive.org/20010415125044/www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/5113/fr27.htm| An open letter to Dr. Meech from Joyce Haslam in FRACTAL REPORT 27&lt;/ref&gt;

==== nth-decomposition ====

This method is extension of binary decomposition.

The target set T = { z : |zn| &gt; R } with a very large escape radius ( for example R = 12 ) is divided into more than 2 parts ( for example 8).&lt;ref&gt;[http://fraktal.republika.pl/mset_decomposition.html mandelbrot set n-th-decomposition ]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Real Escape Time===

Other names of this method/algorithm are :
* the fully-renormalized fractional iteration count ( by  Linas Vepstas in 1997)&lt;ref&gt;[http://linas.org/art-gallery/escape/escape.html linas.org : Renormalizing the Mandelbrot Escape]&lt;/ref&gt; 
* smooth iteration count for generalized Mandelbrot sets ( by Inigo Quilez in 2016)&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.iquilezles.org/www/articles/mset_smooth/mset_smooth.htm I Quilez : mset_smooth]&lt;/ref&gt;
* continuous iteration count for the Mandelbrot set
* Normalized Iteration Count Algorithm
* Continuous  coloring
* smooth colour gradient
* fractional iterations
* fractional escape time

Here color of exterior of Mandelbrot set is proportional not to Last Iteration ( which is integer number) but to real number :

: &lt;math&gt;\nu(z) = \lim_{i \to \infty} (i - \log_2 \log_2 |z_i|)\,&lt;/math&gt;

Other methods and speedups

Colouring formula in Ultrafractal :&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fractalforums.com/programming/what-rangeprecision-for-fractional-escape-counts-for-mandelbrotjulia-sets/ fractalforums : What range/precision for fractional escape counts for Mandelbrot/Julia sets? ]&lt;/ref&gt;
 smooth iter = iter + 1 + ( log(log(bailout)-log(log(cabs(z))) )/log(2)

where :
* log(log(bailout) can be precalculated
*
====theory====
Description by Claude : 

'''First description :''' 

If R is large, the first z to escape satisfies (approximately)&lt;ref&gt;[https://fractalforums.org/noobs-corner/76/gradient-pallet-with-two-colors/4498 fractalforums : gradient-pallet-with-two-colors]&lt;/ref&gt;

 &lt;math&gt;R &lt; |z| &lt; R^p&lt;/math&gt;
so taking logs

 &lt;math&gt;\log(R) &lt; \log(|z|) &lt; p \log(R)&lt;/math&gt;

so taking logs again

 &lt;math&gt;\log(\log(R)) &lt; \log(\log(|z|)) &lt; \log(p) + \log(\log(R))&lt;/math&gt;

so by algebra

 &lt;math&gt;0 &lt; \frac{\log(\log(|z|)) - \log(\log(R))}{\log(p)} &lt; 1&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;|z|&lt;/math&gt; at escape is bigger, the smooth iteration count should be smaller, so this value needs to be subtracted from the integer iteration count

Alternatively this fraction can be used for interpolation, or used with arg(z) for exterior tiling / binary decomposition.


'''Second description'''&lt;ref&gt;[https://fractalforums.org/programming/11/can-anyone-help-me-understand-smooth-coloring/4597/msg37885 fractalforums.org : can-anyone-help-me-understand-smooth-coloring]&lt;/ref&gt;

pick a radius R &gt; 2, then |Z| &gt; R implies that |Z^2 + C| &gt; |Z| and more generally that |Z| -&gt; infinity, this gives R the name escape radius.  proof is on math.stackexchange.com somewhere

now suppose R is large, and n is the first iteration where |Z_n| &gt; R.

consider what happens when |Z_n| increases as you move the point C a bit further from the Mandelbrot set boundary.

eventually |Z_n| &gt; R^2, but then |Z_{n-1}| &gt; R, so the iteration count should be n - 1.

for smoothing, we want a value to add to n that is 0 when |Z_n| = R and -1 when |Z_n| = R^2.

taking logs, get log |Z| is between log(R) and 2 log(R)

taking logs again, get log log |Z| is between log log R and log log R + log 2

dividing by log 2, get log_2 log |Z| is between log_2 log R and log_2 log R + 1

subtracting log_2 log R gives (log_2 log |Z| - log_2 log R) is between 0 and 1

negating it gives a value between 0 and -1, as desired

so the smooth iteration count is  

 &lt;math&gt;n - (log_2 log |Z| - log_2 log R)&lt;/math&gt;

(replace 2 by P if you do Z^P + C)

see also http://linas.org/art-gallery/escape/escape.html  which makes a value independent of R, but that is not so useful for some colouring algorithms (e.g. smooth part of escape count doesn't align with angle of final iterate)

====C====
To use log2 function add :

&lt;nowiki&gt; #include &lt;math.h&gt;  &lt;/nowiki&gt;

at the beginning of program.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=C&gt;
if (Iteration==IterationMax)
 { /*  interior of Mandelbrot set = black */
  color[0]=0;
  color[1]=0;
  color[2]=0;                           
 }
 /* exterior of Mandelbrot set  */
 else GiveRainbowColor((double)(Iteration- log2(log2(sqrt(Zx2+Zy2))))/IterationMax,color);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

where :
* Zx2 = Zx*Zx
* Zy2 = Zy*Zy

Here is another version by Tony Finch&lt;ref&gt;[http://dotat.at/prog/mandelbrot/ Making Mandelbrot Set Movies by Tony Finch]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=C&gt;
while (n++ &lt; max &amp;&amp;
 x2+y2 &lt; inf) {
y = 2*x*y + b;
x = x2-y2 + a;
y2 = y*y;
x2 = x*x;
}
nu = n - log(log(x2+y2)/2)/ log(2);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight &gt;

based on equation &lt;ref&gt;[http://linas.org/art-gallery/escape/escape.html Linas Vepstas. Renormalizing the mandelbrot escape.]&lt;/ref&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\nu(z) = n - \log_2 \log (z_n)\,&lt;/math&gt;

====C++====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=cpp&gt;
// based on cpp code by Geek3 from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/File:Mandelbrot_set_rainbow_colors.png
sqrxy = x * x + y * y;
double m = LastIteration + 1.5 - log2(log2(sqrxy));
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

====java====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=java&gt;
 /**
Smooth coloring algorithm
https://gitlab.com/shreyas.siravara/mandelbrot-with-smooth-coloring/blob/master/Mandelbrot.java
Mandelbrot with Smooth Coloring by Shreyas Siravara

*/
                double nsmooth = (iterations + 1 - Math.log(Math.log(Zn.getMagnitude())) / Math.log(ESCAPE_RADIUS));

                double smoothcolor = nsmooth / MAX_ITERATIONS;

                if (iterations &lt; MAX_ITERATIONS) {
                    int rgb = Color.HSBtoRGB((float) (0.99f + 1.9 * smoothcolor), 0.9f, 0.9f);
                    g2d.setColor(new Color(rgb));
                } else {
                    g2d.setColor(Color.black.darker());
                }

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

====Matemathica====

Here is [http://www.bugman123.com/Fractals/index.html code by Paul Nylander]. It uses different formula :

&lt;math&gt;cet = n + log_2ln(R) - log_2ln|z|&lt;/math&gt;

====Python====
Python code using mpmath library&lt;ref&gt;[http://code.google.com/p/mpmath/ mpmath Python library]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
def mandelbrot(z):
    c = z
    for i in xrange(ITERATIONS):
        zprev = z
        z = z*z + c
        if abs(z) &gt; ESCAPE_RADIUS:
            return ctx.exp(1j*(i + 1 - ctx.log(ctx.log(abs(z)))/ctx.log(2)))
    return 0

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Distance estimation DEM/M==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Demm_2000_Mandelbrot_set.jpg|Exterior DEM/M
File:Boundary mandelbrot set.png|simple boundary with DEM/M 
File:Mandelbrot DEM Sobel.png|Boundary with DEM/M and Sobel filter 
&lt;/gallery&gt;
Variants :
* exterior DEM/M
* interior DEM/M

[[Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/demm|Description]]

==Complex potential==

[[Fractals/Iterations_in_the_complex_plane/MandelbrotSetExteriorComplex_potential|Description]]

=See also=
* https://web.archive.org/web/20071008112609/http://rgba.scenesp.org/iq/trastero/fieldlines/
* http://fraktal.republika.pl/mset_bottcher.html

=References=
&lt;references/&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>83ztzwoj0gv9bdmbevjd9v4zfe3s9r0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Scouting/BSA/Fish and Wildlife Management Merit Badge</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>376231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654558</id>
      <parentid>4654541</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T16:13:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-39789-70|~2026-39789-70]] ([[User talk:~2026-39789-70|talk]]) to last version by ErinNik</comment>
      <origin>3124105</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4220" sha1="bzf20p3fvtha3pkjihls98esnehk4qa" xml:space="preserve">{{Meritbadgedisclaimer}}
[[Image:Status iucn3.1.svg|thumb|600px|International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List]]

==Requirement 1==
Describe the meaning and purposes of fish and wildlife conservation and management.

==Requirement 2==
List and discuss at least three major problems that continue to threaten your state's fish and wildlife resources.

==Requirement 3==
Describe some practical ways in which everyone can help with the fish and wildlife effort.

==Requirement 4==
List and describe five major fish and wildlife management practices used by managers in your state.

==Requirement 5==
'''Do &lt;u&gt;ONE&lt;/u&gt; of the following:'''

:A. Construct, erect, and check regularly at least two artificial nest boxes (wood duck, bluebird, squirrel, etc.) and keep written records for one nesting season.

:B. Construct, erect, and check regularly bird feeders and keep written records of the kinds of birds visiting the feeders.

:C. Design and implement a backyard wildlife habitat improvement project and report the results.

:D. Design and construct a wildlife blind near a game trail, water hole, salt lick, bird feeder, or birdbath and take good photographs or make sketches from the blind of any combination of 10 wild birds, mammals, reptiles, or amphibians.

==Requirement 6==
'''Do &lt;u&gt;ONE&lt;/u&gt; of the following:'''

:A. Observe and record 25 species of wildlife. Your list may include mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Write down when and where each animal was seen.

:B. List the wildlife species in your state that are classified as [[w:Lists_of_IUCN_Red_List_endangered_species|endangered]], [[w:IUCN_Red_List|threatened], exotic, game species, furbearers, or migratory game birds.

:C. Start a scrapbook of North American wildlife. Insert markers to divide the book into separate parts for mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Collect articles on such subjects as life histories, habitat, behavior, and feeding habits on all of the five categories and place them in your notebook accordingly. Articles and pictures may be taken from newspapers or science, nature and outdoor magazines; or from other sources including the Internet (with your parent's permission). Enter at least five articles on mammals, five on birds, five on reptiles, five on amphibians, and five on fish. Put each animal in alphabetical order. Include pictures whenever possible.

==Requirement 7==
'''Do &lt;u&gt;ONE&lt;/u&gt; of the following:'''

:A. Determine the [[w:Estimating_the_age_of_fish|age of five species of fish]] from scale samples or identify various age classes of one species in a lake and report the results.

:B. Conduct a [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/creel%20census creel census] on a small lake to estimate catch per unit effort.

:C. Examine the stomach contents of three fish and record the findings. It is not necessary to catch any fish for this option. You may (must) visit a cleaning station set up for fishermen or find another, similar alternative.

:D. Make a freshwater aquarium. Include at least four species of native plants and four species of animal life, such as [[w:Whirligig_beetle|whirligig beetles]], freshwater shrimp, tadpoles, water snails, and [[w:Golden_shiner|golden shiners]]. After 60 days or observation, discuss with your counselor the life cycles, food chains, and management needs you have recognized. After completing requirement 7d to your counselor's satisfaction, with your counselor's assistance, check local laws to determine what you should do with the specimens you have collected.

==Requirement 8==
Using resources found at the library and in periodicals, books, and the Internet (with your parent's permission), learn about three different kinds of work done by fish and wildlife managers. Find out the education and training requirements for each position.

==External links==
* [http://meritbadge.org/wiki/index.php/Fish_and_Wildlife_Management {{SUBPAGENAME}}] with Workbook PDF, current requirements, and resources.
* [http://www.slideshare.net/moultrietech/wildlife-management-power-point Merit Badge Presentation] from Moultrie Technical College

{{Naturemeritbadges}}
{{EarningmeritbadgesintheBoyScoutsofAmerica}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>bzf20p3fvtha3pkjihls98esnehk4qa</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Visual physics and mathematics</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>381758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654664</id>
      <parentid>4372789</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T09:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thierry Dugnolle</username>
        <id>2807160</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ What is a space-time reference frame?</comment>
      <origin>4654664</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="695" sha1="jdm2y3k6hvj25w9fz4gzzyeljlv8z2a" xml:space="preserve">[[/Pythagoras and the origin of harmony/]]

[[Electricity and magnetism/Light|Light]]

[[/Gravitation/]]

[[/Fluid dynamics/]]

[[/Crystal structures/]]

[[/Quantum Physics/]]

[[/Relativity/]]

[[/Heat/]]

[[/Chua system/]]

[[/Percolation/]]

[[/Vibrations/]]

[[/Shock waves/]]

== See also ==

[[Wikipedia:User:Thierry Dugnolle/Python/Mathematical painter|First lesson in mathematical painting]]

[[Electricity and magnetism/E = m c²|E = m c²]]

[https://sites.google.com/view/principles-of-science/accueil Principles of science]

[[Visual physics and mathematics/What is a space-time reference frame?|What is a space-time reference frame?]]

{{Shelves|Physics|Mathematics}}
{{status|25%}}</text>
      <sha1>jdm2y3k6hvj25w9fz4gzzyeljlv8z2a</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>384906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654567</id>
      <parentid>4654268</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T18:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boris1951zz</username>
        <id>3378369</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* {{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-I: Franks generated by stamps/endicia}} */</comment>
      <origin>4654567</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="129754" sha1="n5hgm5kl5haaypr9x7wbw66rwot17qm" xml:space="preserve">==&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #1F75FE;&quot;&gt;'''GROUP PC: Special designs generated by personal computer'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;==
[[United_States_Postage_Meter_Stamp_Catalog |&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;''&lt;u&gt;Click here to return to the United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog&lt;/u&gt;''&lt;/span&gt;]]

{{font/top|size=3|color=#08457E}}
'''NOTE''': ''All the stamps listed here are valid only on the date generated. PC stamps with unrestricted validity, i.e. savable for future use, are more like traditional stamps than meter stamps and thus are not cataloged here. PC stamps with unrestricted validity are cataloged in '''&lt;i&gt;USA: Variable Denomination Stamps (1989-2020)&lt;/i&gt;''' by Karim Roder (available on Amazon).''

* Group PC stamps can vary considerably in size, font styles, and color within the same stamp type depending on personal printer settings, available fonts, etc. Size variations or colors other than black are unusual but are user controlled variables (an attempt will be made to note said varieties in the usage lists).

* The stamps are found on plain paper and adhesive labels depending on what the user has in his printer. Self-adhesive labels are sold by the various PC stamp companies and also by outside vendors. These labels exist both with and without fluorescent tagging. As with color and font, paper or label type is a user controlled variable, however to a great extent the parameters are set by United States Postal Service ( see: https://postalpro.usps.com/parcellabelingguide). It is recommended that the collector save the '''entire label'''.

* PC stamps are often found in a frame at the top right of large address labels. To the left of the stamp is a smaller frame containing a large letter or number representing the class of mail. Codes found are: &quot;'''1'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''fcm'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''P'''&quot; (priority), &quot;'''E'''&quot; (express), &quot;'''M'''&quot; (media), &quot;'''T'''&quot; (parcel post), solid block (media, or other), &quot;'''H'''&quot; (Hazardous), &quot;'''G'''&quot; (Ground Advantage), &quot;'''X'''&quot; (Media). Not all the codes are found with all the stamp types that use the labels.

* 2-Dimensional barcodes occur in two major types and several subtypes:
::::: PDF417 A horizontally stacked 2-dimensional barcode, each consists of  2 punctuators, 2 indicators and a variable number of data blocks.

::::::  subvariety PDF417(4) has 4 datablocks [[File: PDF417-224.png|right|250px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(6) has 6 datablocks [[File: PDF417-226.png|right|275px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(7) has 7 datablocks [[File: PDF417-227.png|right|300px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(8) has 8 datablocks [[File: PDF417-228.png|right|350px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(9) has 9 datablocks [[File: PDF417-229.png|right|375px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(12) has 12 datablocks [[File: PDF417-2212.png|right|400px]]


::::: Data matrix is a 2 dimensional barcode consisting of square or rectangular data blocks

::::::  subvariety DM-2H (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged horizontally [[File: DM-2HZ.png|right|100px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-2V (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged vertically [[File: DM-2VR.png|right|50px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-4 has 4 datablocks arranged as a square [[File: DM-4SQ.png|right|100px]]


* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-A: Franks from E-Stamp software, ID numbers with 05#E prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All stamps have large, negative “e” logo at top right and &quot;PDF417&quot; bar code across the bottom with identification number at bottom right.
* &quot;US Postage&quot; and date are at top center, usually below a mail classification statement.
* Found both with and without FIM barcode at top left and also with and without slogan or directional slug at left.
* One hundred FD covers were prepared by E-Stamp in cooperation with the National Postal Museum on March 31, 1998. Trials took place for several more months. The first day of national availability was September 27, 1999.
* Although we must assume other mail classes were available, only '''First Class''', '''First-Class''', '''Priority''', and '''Priority Mail''' have been reported.
* E-stamp ceased operations at the end of 2000.
{{font/end}}


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

----

&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-A1 FDC stamp.jpg|right|425px]]

'''PC-A1.10.''' March 31, 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]

: This stamp is found only on the First Day Covers prepared by E-Stamp and the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are large, 4mm tall. 
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''without hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, 4mm tall''}})

'''PC-A1.11.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [RR][[File: PC-A1.11 251004.png|right|375px]]

: This stamp is found only on covers by the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are smaller than on &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot; but larger than on &quot;'''PC-A1.2'''&quot; ettc.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix  and about the same length as in &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, about 3½mm tall''}})

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1e''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.2.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.1 but with smaller value figures, 2 to 3mm tall.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; normally at bottom left below the barcode. 
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''small figures, 2-3mm tall''}})

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''.  First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B1'''. Priority {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''B2'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [R]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. With recipient's identity instead of &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at left below bar code field {{space|2}} [RR]
:: '''c'''. With 4-digit ZIP code

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''RA1c and d''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1p3A.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.3.''' {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.2 but value figures show decimal fractions of a cent and have wide spacing between the dollar sign and the decimal digit with the other figures.
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
:: '''A'''. V/F regular: {{space|4}} ${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1.4A.jpg|right|535px]]

'''PC-A1.4.'''
:  As PC-A1.3B but the value figures are spaced closely together.
:  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(12) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:: '''A'''.  Destination town name at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 051E prefix {{space|4}} [RRRR]&lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 053E prefix {{space|4}} [S]
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
: V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; ''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|Type PC-A1.4A is possibly the first E-stamp placed in use with paying customers, earlier than when PC-A1.2, PC-A1.3, and PC-A1.4B were issued.}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A2.''' March 2000. {{space|2}} [S]
:  As Type PC-A1.2 but the inscriptions are larger.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode. 
:  With PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:  ID# with 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $ 0'''.'''00

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''. First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [S]

[[File: USA PC-A2a.jpg|right|380px]]
:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; ({{font|size=2|''see below''}}) {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. &quot;Mailed From ZIP Code&quot; town line with 4-digit ZIP code instead of normal 5-digit code {{space|2}} [RR]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-B: Franks from Neopost software, ID numbers with 04#N or NO4#N prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The stamp designs are quite different from each other. One has a four-pointed star logo, two have a torch in hand logo, and one has no logo. Even the bar codes are dissimilar.
* Neopost was the second company to enter the PC postage business with an experimental design sometime in early 1998. Circumstances of the trial remain unknown to us.
* Stamps are found both with and without FIM barcode at top left. Examples are not known with slogan or slug.
* &lt;u&gt;Classes of mail seen on PC-B stamps&lt;/u&gt;:

::{|
| '''A.''' {{space|4}} FIRST CLASS LTR [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''F.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 2 [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''M.''' {{space|4}} INTL LETTER

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Aa.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS LTR

| '''G.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 3

| '''N.''' {{space|4}} INTL CAN LTR

|-

| '''B.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVERSZ

| '''H.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 4

| '''P.''' {{space|4}} INTL MEX LTR

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Ba.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVSZ

| '''I.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 5

| '''Q.''' {{space|4}} NEXT DAY EXP MAIL

|-

| '''C'''. {{space|4}} PRIORITY MAIL

| '''J.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 6

| '''R.''' {{space|4}} MEDIA MAIL

|-

| '''D.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY LOCAL

| '''K.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 7

|-

| '''E.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 1

| '''L.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 8

|}
* Mail classes E through L were discontinued in June 2002. Examples are exceptionally rare. Most mail classes except the First Class variations are scarce to very rare.
* Neopost PC stamps became available nationally in May 1999.

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-B1.''' {{font|color=green|''The stamp previously cataloged here has not been found used on actual mail. For this reason the Type has been deleted and the stamp re-cataloged as Type ESY-DF2 in the Essay section.''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D1.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-B2. ”Postage Plus”™''', '''“PC Stamp™”''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RRR]
: This too is an experimental stamp. It was first seen in live tests in and near Washington DC and parts of northern California. It was offered nationally in May 1999 but saw little use.
: The stamp was used by two different systems, &quot;Postage Plus&quot; which used a live internet connection, and &quot;PC Stamp&quot; which downloaded postage credit into a rented hardware vault. 
: The design shows at top right two horizontal bars with &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; above the top one and the town line below the bottom one. Between the bars at right are a torch-in-hand logo left of small &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; reading up. Also between the ars are the class of mail, the value figures (centered), and the date.
: PDF417(7) barcode across the bottom 
: With &quot;DEVICE and identification number at bottom right. 
: Meter number with N041N, N041NA, or 041N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; at bottom left
:: '''b'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; baarcode at top left


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-B3.1.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-B3.1. “Simply Postage”™''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Similar to PC-B2 with torch-in-hand logo and point of sale data mixed with two horizontal bars, but otherwise quite different.
: The stamp is found only on self-adhesive labels with rounded corners and fluorescent red bar across the bottom edge.
: &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is vertical at far right just left of a double line of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Between the bars are the identification number, value figures, and date. Below the bottom bar is the town line, '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: Large value figures, 4½ to 5mm tall
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØ ({{font|size=2|''with slashed zeros''}})


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-B3.2. “Simply Postage” '''. {{space|2}} [RR]
: As Type PC-B3.1 but the value figures have a tenths of a cent figure.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $Ø'''.'''ØØ&lt;u&gt;ø&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1A''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1A.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.1. “ProMail” ''', 1998? {{space|2}} [S]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Also printed on self-adhesive labels this stamp is much smaller than the PC-B3 stamps and contains the point-of-sale data at left and a square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Point-of-sale data have the value figures at top followed by the class of mail, '''MAILED FROM''' (ZIP code) town line, &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, date and identification number.
: Fluorescent bar at far left just outside two lines of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Meter number with 045N prefix.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1B''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1B.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.2. “ProMail” '''. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-B4.1 but the value figures are slightly larger and the text is slightly bolder.
: square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Labels have fluorescent bar at right.
: Meter number with 047N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-C: Franks generated by software from Stamps.com (StampMaster before 1999), ID numbers with 06#S prefix}}====


{{font/top|color=#0018A8|size=3}}
* The first stamp design has a negative {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''S'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} in oval logo. All others contain {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps.com'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} somewhere in the design. Some time after Stamps.com acquired Endicia in November 2015 (see Sub-group PC-E) the logo {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps'''&lt;sub&gt;'''endicia'''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} came into use (see Sub-group PC-I). The individual divisions (Stamps and Endicia) have since returned to a semi-independent status.

* The stamps are found both with and without a FIM barcode at upper left.
* &lt;u&gt;Mail classes found with PC-C stamps&lt;/u&gt;:
::  {{space|4}}  FIRST CLASS, FIRST CLASS MAIL, FCI (first class international)  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  PRIORITY MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  EXPRESS MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  MEDIA MAIL &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
: &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt; Collectors should be aware that the primary mail classes are found in a multitude of variations. For example, FIRST CLASS can be found as FIRST-CLASS PKG RATE, FIRST-CLASS MAIL PARCEL, FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE INTL, USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL, etc.. We do not know them all. Please inform the catalog manager regarding something different (&quot;'''Alan Knutson, boris1951@charter.net'''&quot;) if possible also include a scan.
* The StampMaster/stamps.com system was first trialed in the Washington DC area and in parts of California sometime before August 1998. It was made available nationally on September 27, 1999.

* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label &quot;'''size FS5 (with 5 horizontal boxes, A thru E) or size FS6 (with six horizontal boxes, A thru F)'''&quot;, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Icon/ Postage Payment'']}}
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc,{{font|size=2|color=blue| ['''USPS''' ''Service Icon'']}}
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Postage Payment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Banner'']}}
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Address and Delivery Information Segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Intelligent Mail package barcode segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'') {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Additional Information and User Segment'']}}

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C1.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-C1. StampMaster''', summer 1998. {{space|2}} [RRRR]
: Experimental stamp with negative “S”/Internet Postage logo at top center. 
: At top right are value figures, mail class, &quot;US POSTAGE”, and date. 
: &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code across bottom with town line below at left and identification number below at right.
: Identification number with 061S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C2.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-C2.1. stamps.com''', 1999.
: As Type PC-C1 but with &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo instead of the '''S''' in oval logo.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at upper left
: At top right are the value figures, date, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, and town line.
: 2-D barcode PDF417(6} across lower portion
: &quot;STAMPS.COM&quot; is below left of the bar code.
: Identification number with 061S or 062S prefix below right of bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt; 
[[File: USA PC-C2 redate.jpg|right|180px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing, blank below bar code
:: '''d'''. Bottom line present but without bar code
:: '''e'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''f'''. With nonsense characters across the bottom (''system malfunction'')

'''NOTES''':
* The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo can vary considerably in size.
* The system could produce a re-date stamp without postage value, as shown (''right'').
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C3.jpg|right|360px]]
[[File: USA PC-C3 redate.jpg|right|200px]]
'''PC-C2.2.''' 2000. 
: As Type PC-C2.1 but with larger inscriptions.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(6)&quot; barcode.
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
[[File:USA stamp type PC2p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing (blank below bar code)
:: '''d'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''e'''. With mailer's name replacing town line
:: '''f'''. With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at the upper left.

'''NOTES''':
* The NOTES below PC-C2.1 apply to PC-C2.2 also.
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right.
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


[[File: USA PC-C4B.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C2.3.1''' 2005.

: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Basic stamp without framing

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.2''' 

: &quot;Stamps / Endicia” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.3''' 

: As '''PC-C2.3.2''', [[File: PC-C2.3.3p.png|right|500px]]
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left. 
: Class of mail spelled out below V/F, with type of pricing below
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above customer ID, above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.4.1''' 2005.
:  As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
:  Stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
:  Meter number with 062S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
:: '''A'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code
::: '''1'''. Basic stamp without framing[[File: USA PC-C5A.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-C5B.jpg|right|540px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
!
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0005418699
| 
| A7
| B0
| C5
| 11/21/2005
| 02845 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0006097059
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/26/2015
| 40228 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0005715741
|
| A6
| B3
| C1
| 09/06/2011 
| 66030 
| GARDNER, KS
| Box F split horizontally in two, &quot;Thank You&quot; in bottom half.
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 05/28/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/02/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 07/15/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009033522
| 
| A4
| B0
| C0
| 11/09/2016
| 57401
| Aberdeen, SD
| No tracking number in Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009034923
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 11365
| Fresh Meadows, NY
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009143056
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 08080
| Mount Holly, NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009151784
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/01/2015
| 92154
| San Diego, CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009200477
| 
| A2
| B3
| C3
| 09/05/2018
| 11355
| Flushing, NY
|
|}


:: '''B'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code
::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

[[File:USA stamp type PC-C2point4b.jpeg|right|400px]]


'''NOTE''': Sub-type '''B''' has been found printed directly onto a plastic bag. See image below.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4 NOTE.JPG|right|300px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C10.jpg|right|880px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-C2.5. ''' 

'''PC-C2.5.1 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the manufacturer's logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps.com'''&quot;. With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p7.jpg|right|880px]]

'''PC-C2.5.3''' ''2012.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.4 but with date between the &quot;FROM&quot; (ZIP code) and the Stamps.com logo.
: Seen with tracking number at right of the frank, on a customs form.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: PDF417(7) barcode

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC2point6.jpg|right|500px]]


'''PC-C2.6.0.''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps.com'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-C2.7.1.'''
: With &quot;DPDF417&quot; barcode as with Types PC-C2.1 through PC-C2.5 but without &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo.
: Top panel contains USPS eagle logo and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at left.
: Tracking number above the barcode.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00, {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the 2D barcode


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4B.jpg|right|1000px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C2.7.2.'''


: Similar to Type PC-C2.7.1 but very wide imprint with '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo above usps.com (without the eagle-head logo)/ &quot;US POSTAGE / PAID&quot; at left.
: Along the bottom are the weight, date, Mailed from ZIP code, and meter identification number with &quot;062S&quot; prefix.
: ''It appears that this stamp is generated only for International Priority and Express mail services.''
: Two versions are known:
:: '''A'''. Tracking barcode at far left in the panel. Smaller lower panel contains the mail class statement.
:: '''B'''. Smaller stamp, traditional barcode at center of panel, USPS logo at far left. A Customs Declaration statement appears above the traditional barcode. No lower panel containing a mail class statement, and no indication anywhere of the mail service being used.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-C6.jpg|right|140px]]

'''PC-C3.1.''' 2007.
: Stamp with horizontal &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode.
: Small frank with value figures at top above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, class of mail, &quot;FROM&quot; ZIP code, and date.
: Below the date are the stamps.com logo, the barcode, and identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C7.jpg|right|195px]]

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2aa.jpg|right|175px]]
'''PC-C3.2.1'''
:  As Type PC-C3.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
:  '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
:: '''a'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''b'''. Town line without ZIP code showing &quot;FROM&quot; alone
[[File: USA stamp type PC3p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''NOTE''': These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right. Other label sizes and shapes exist. See below.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3p3.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-C3.3.''' 2018.
: Identification number and Stamps.com logo read down at far right.
: From the top down, point-of-sale data is:
:: Value figures
:: '''US POSTAGE'''
:: mail class
:: ZIP code and date
:: Horizontal IBI Lite bar code
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-C3.2 250115.png|right|150px]]

'''PC-C3.5.''' 2022.
: Most similar to Type PC-C3.1 but without company identification.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 

::::-A [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
::::-B [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
[[File:PC-C3.5B 250116.png|right|150px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA PC-F10.jpg|right|940px]]


'''PC-C4.1.1.''' 2002.
:  Very wide design with large &quot;Delivery Confirmation&quot; 1D barcode at center and square Datamatrix barcode at right.
: Above the 2D barcode are the weight, ZIP code, ID# with 062S prefix, and date.
: At far left is the class of mail above “US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID”.
: Without value figures. The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo is below the 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

 '''PC-C4.1.2.'''. With value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.1.''' (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo below 2D barcode)[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1D.jpg|right|940px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.1.'''. With &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo and value figures at top above the 2D barcode: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo at top)[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10B.jpg|right|940px]]

:: '''a'''. Without tracking barcode at center[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10aa.jpg|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.2.'''. Without value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.2.1.''' 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9 complete.jpg|right|540px]]


'''PC-C5.1.''' 2011.
:  The point-of-sale text is immediately to the left of the square Datamatrix barcode rather than above. 
: The frank appears unframed at the top of an address label.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.  
: The country name is not in or near the frank, but &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; is found at bottom below the mail class.
: With value figures
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C5.2.'''. As '''PC-C5.1.''',Without value figures[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9B.jpeg|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''SE1''' and '''SE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F7.jpg|right|540px]]
[[File: USA PC-F8.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C6.3.1.''' 2002.[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|6px]]V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: Downloaded directly from the Stamps.com web site. 
: Square Datamatrix barcode at right with &quot;stamps.com&quot; reading up to its right. 
: Text left justified as follows: 
: Value figures at top above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, ID number, and ZIP code
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C6.3.2.''' Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; above date, ID# with 062S prefix, ZIP code, rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''PC-C9.1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.1 250331.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} Similar to &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} New &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Mail class indicator using &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font as opposed to &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; in &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;.
::: {{space|10}} Prefix &quot;'''063S'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with three lines in upper right and &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.3'''&quot;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C9.2.''' 2024.[[File: PC-C2.4.3.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo replacing the stamps / endicia logo at the right of &quot;PDF417(8)&quot; barcode. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with two lines in upper right and &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.1'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| (063S0002805278)?
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 11/25/2024
| ID number misprinted
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 03/19/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 05/19/2025
|
|-

|}


'''PC-C9.3''' 2025.[[File: PC-C2.4.4 250802.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer's ID number and mailer’s Zip code at top right below &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| 063S0001442661
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950305
| 9786065
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 03580
| 
| 07/28/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950364
| 10606251
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 20850
| Rockville, MD
| 12/03/2024
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950380 
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.4.''' ''2025.''
: As Type PC-C2.6.0 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE imi&quot; is to the right of the value figures.[[File: PC-C2.6.1.png|right|500px]]
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: New '''Stamps''' logo to the right of the bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.5.'''  ''2025''
:  As Type PC-C3.2.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE IMI'''&quot;
:  tHE NEW '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''063S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;

[[File: PC-C3.2.3 250217.png|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''NOTES''':
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-D: Franks from Pitney Bowes software, ID numbers with 02#P, 02#W, or 07#P prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The earlier stamps show logos consisting of an eagle's head and wing. Later stamps are generic, text and bar code only, but most include &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; in the design. One stamp, Type PC-D4, does not include the company name and is identifiable as a Pitney Bowes product only by the identification number with &quot;02&quot; prefix.
* Identification number prefixes seen so far are 022P, 024P, 022W, 026W and 071P.
* Pitney Bowes PC stamps began field testing in the Washington DC area in December 1998.

{{font/end}}
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0B.jpg|right|415px]]
'''PC-D0. “ClickStamp Online”''', probably 1998. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with small eagle profile image at upper right. Left of the eagle are the date, value figures,  and “US POSTAGE” with three stars. Above the “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode field are the identification number at left and “Mailed From Zip Code” and ZIP code.

: Identification number with 022P000230 prefix.
:: '''A'''. The type font is somewhat heavy. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has no serif. Three reported:
::: 1) ID number 022P0002300165, ZIP code 20260 
::: 2) ID number 022P0002306771, ZIP code 20032
::: 3) ID number 022P0002307167, ZIP code 13057
:: '''B'''. The type font is somewhat lighter. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has serif at bottom. ID number 022P0002306600, ZIP code 20260
: V/F: {{space|2}} $ ~0.00&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 
 
: '''NOTE''': This stamp type was previously cataloged as an essay (ESY-DB4.4) until verifiably postally used covers were identified.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E2.jpg|right|415px]]

'''PC-D1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 21 April 1999. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with eagle with wavy wing below &quot;FIM&quot; barcode. 
: Stamp with “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, date, value figures, ZIP code, and identification number stacked at right.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Class of mail vertical at left side.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o
 
: '''NOTE''': When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2B.jpg|right|430px]]

'''PC-D2.1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 2000. 
: Similar to Type PC-D1 but straight eagle's wing above &quot;PITNEY BOWES&quot;. 
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. Inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; with stops. &quot;MAILED FROM ZIP CODE&quot; one line, all capitals.
:: '''B'''. Inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; without stops. &quot;Mailed from ZIP Code&quot; in two lines, mixed case.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

'''NOTES''':
: 1)  When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.
: 2)  The system allows for a re-date stamp without postage value (as shown below).

: 3)  Pitney Bowes required at least some users of ClickStamp Online to send them a sample print once a year on an envelope marked withe the components of the user's system. (Example shown below right.)

[[File: USA PC-E3 redate.jpg|left|330px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2.1 NOTE 3.jpeg|right|500px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E4.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-D2.2. “ClickStamp Online”'''. 
: This is the postage correction frank used with the software system that produced type PC-D2.1.
: The eagle is larger than with type PC-D2.1 and in line with the date which is above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; rather than below.
: Large “POSTAGE CORRECTION” below eagle.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Without town line or ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc, 
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address 
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'')
{{font/end}}
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p1A.jpg|right|345px]]
[[File: USA PC-F6.jpg|right|515px]]

'''PC-D3.1A. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: As with PC-D1 through PC-D2.3, with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the ID number with 071P prefix. 
: Basic stamp without framing. Top line contains value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;. 
::: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.1B. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: Box B2 &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below. Top line &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;.  With rate statement instead of value figures.
: No Box A, Box B the dividing line extends the entire height of the box. 
: Identification number  071P prefix

:: '''A'''. &quot;'''FCM'''&quot; in Box B1
::: '''a'''.  Box B2 &quot;'''US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID'''&quot;/DATE    &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; / / &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode / &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;     Identification number
:::: '''1'''. Box C: &quot;'''USPS FIRST CLASS'''&quot;
::::: '''-a'''. Box B2: 3rd line &quot;1oz First-Class Parcel rate&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD5''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1A.jpg|right|530px]]
[[File: USA PC-G1B.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-D3.2.''' 
: Found only on labels downloaded from internet vendor eBay. 
: In panel across the top are the USPS eagle logo at left and the '''eBay''' logo at right.
: Inside the stamp frame: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and rate statement centered above the &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the identification number with 024P prefix.
: Large rate indicator in frame at left.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: {{font|size=2|color=red|See also '''PC-D3.3B.6'''}}

:: '''A'''. With value figures
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3'''.
: Similar to Type PC-D3.2,
: A large label formatted with as many as 7 subsections (&quot;'''boxes'''&quot;)
: Below &quot;'''Box A'''&quot; if present, or at the top there are two boxes (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; at the left and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; at the right)
: Within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the “'''PDF417(7)'''” 2D barcode there is nothing above the barcode. 
: Also within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; are 3 '''stacks''', 
: '''Stack B2.1''' &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; (''or variation''), date, “From” and ZIP code, weight, and optionally a Zone number are stacked at left.
: '''Stack B2.2''' Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and a rate statement or statements at the center. 
: '''Stack B2.3''' Meter number/ID number at right.
: The ID number has 022W, 024P, or 026W prefix.
: In a smaller box at left (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot;) is a large letter code representing the mail class.
: In a wide box (&quot;'''Box C'''&quot;) below &quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the class of mail.
: If present the value figures appear above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;.
: '''Labels may be framed or unframed'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A'''. With value figures
: A large label with 6 boxes &quot;'''FS5'''&quot;(&quot;'''Boxes B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A1'''.
:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A2'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date   [[File: PC-D3.3A3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''A'''. '''026W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0004

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 32961
| VERO BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897622
| CommPrice
| 10/18/2023
| 29568
| 
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:: '''B'''. '''028W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0002

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310688
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2024
| 34293
| VENICE FL
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A3'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date as &quot;'''PC-D3.3A3'''&quot;, Box A with &quot;'''UNITED STATES / POSTAL SERVICE ®'''&quot; and emblem on left.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B'''. With rate statement

'''PC-D3.3B.1'''.[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3.jpg|right|500px]]

::''' Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

'''PC-D3.3B.1.1'''.  Prefix &quot;'''21B'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0050723999
| CommPrice
| 07/20/2022
| 07112
| Newark NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060312094
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 07036
| Linden NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060494251
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 90670
| Santa fe springs CA
| Box F: order data
|}

'''PC-D3.3B.1.2'''.  Prefix &quot;'''26W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
|
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897242
| ComPlsPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 07419
|
|
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 026W0004897590
| 
| 01/02/2021
| 97239
| Portland OR
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897774
| CommPlsPrice
| 07/31/2020
| 60490
| Bolingbrook IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897814
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2021
| 91304
| Los Angeles CA
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
|
|
| 54843
|
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.1C''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4A.0.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.1A.B''' but with customer ID at lower right
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE''' above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897326
| 3000093152
| ComPlsPrice
| 12/04/2020
| 91706
| IRWINDALE CA
| ID numbers in larger font
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897491
| 3000008007
| CommPrice
| 05/23/2019
| 48114
| BRIGHTON MI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.2'''.[[File: PC-D3.3B.1.png|right|500px]]

:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE / PAID''' in two lines  above the date


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 12/29/2021
| 54843 
| Hayward WI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.3A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W [[File: PC-D3.3B.3A-H 2501002.png|right|500px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''H'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0002310502
| CommPrice
| 08/04/2025
| 33068
| North Lauderdale FL
| &quot;'''HAZMAT-Surface Transportation Only'''&quot;
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 01/26/2023
| 13147
| SCIPIO CENTER NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897242 
| CommPrice
| 08/16/2022
| 93943
| MONTEREY CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897400
| CommPrice
| 05/24/2023
| 16063
| ZELIENOPLE PA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897451
| CommPrice
| 11/24/2023
| 95240
| LODI CA
|
|-
| PS4
| '''P'''
| '''XIII'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/23/2023
| 98239
| COUPEVILLE WA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 03/07/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 02/02/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 12/06/2023
| 81413
| CEDAREDGE CO
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897778
| CommPrice
| 02/27/2023
| 76013
| PANTEGO TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 026W0004897790
| CommPrice
| 11/01/2022
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897812
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2023
| 11432
| JAMAICA NY
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897816
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2022
| 33770
| LARGO FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897817
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 77030
| HOUSTON TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897878
| CommPrice 
| 08/25/2022
| 66505
| MANHATTAN KS
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 01/23/2023
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 02/04/2022
| 45806
| CRIDERSVILLE OH
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 11/21/2023
| 95628
| FAIR OAKS CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897939
| CommPrice
| 03/28/2022
| 55304
| ANDOVER MN
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897942
| CommPrice
| 04/29/2022
| 06514
| HAMDEN CT
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004898023
| CommPrice
| 09/23/2022
| 75150
| MESQUITE TX
|
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.3B'''
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date [[File: PC-D3.3B.3B 250415.png|right|500px]]
:: Meter numbers: 028W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310364
| CommPrice
| 03/18/2024
| 96003
| REDDING CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 02/05/2024
| 34222
| ELLENTON FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2024
| 11735
| FARMINGDALE NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311374
| CommPrice
| 02/22/2024
| 33436
| BOYNTON BEACH FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311472
| CommPrice
| 03/04/2025
| 92376
| RIALTO CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.1''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897241
| 3001124484
| ComPlsPrice
| 06/17/2022
| 93380
| VISALIA CA
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.2''' 
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310218 
| 3000559694
| 
| 02/03/2023
| 98144
| SEATTLE WA
| Box F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 028W0002310350
| 3001704288
| CommPrice
| 02/03/2023
| 80907
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.4B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4B.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310174
| 3002184618
| CommPrice
| 07/08/2024
| 60647
| CHICAGO IL
| 
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5A''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5a.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897798
| CommPrice
| 01/24/2023
| 30907
| MARTINEZ GA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5B.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W
:: Customer Identification Number below meter number

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.6'''
:: A large label with 6 sections, 7 boxes  (&quot;'''Boxes A, B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
:: A box (&quot;'''Box A''') across the top containing the USPS eagle logo and &quot;UNITED STATES/ POSTAL SERVICE&quot; at left and a mailer's logo or identification at right. 
:: {{font|size=2|color=red|'''NOTE:''' ''For examples with'' '''Penalty of Fines Under 18 / USC 3571 for Private Use''' ''see'' '''OO-M1'''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6A'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.1.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''026W'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897242
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2022
| 19565
| WERNERSVILLE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897406
| CommPrice
| 05/30/2020
| 92859
| ORANGE CA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897486
| CommPrice
| 08/19/2023
| 76002
| ARLINGTON TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/24/2023
| 35952
| SNEAD AL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897526
| CommPrice
| 11/16/2020
| 98243
| Deer Harbor WA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 12/18/2020
| 49801
| Iron Mountain MI
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2020
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| small, 85 x 136mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897623
| CommPrice
| 05/08/2023
| 50010
| AMES IA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897876
| CommPrice
| 05/18/2020
| 92404
| San B CAernardino
| small, 83 x 130mm
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| 
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
|
| 30513
|
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| 
| 026W0004897941
| CommPrice
|
| 60108
|
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1B'''
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''028W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310428
| 
| 06/18/2024
| 60512
| MONTGOMERY IL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310575
| 
| 05/31/2024
| 34677
| OLDSMAR FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311092
| CommPrice
| 06/13/2024
| 11103
| ASTORIA NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B.1'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.11.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897813
| CommPrice
| 06/30/2022
| 07111
| IRVINGTON NJ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6C'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE / AND FEES PAID'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6C.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3C.jpg|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with “'''www.pitneybowes.com'''”

{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: For labels of this type used by an US Government Agency and with a Penalty statement see type &quot;'''OO-M1'''&quot;}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897572
| CommPrice
| 06/29/2021
| 76155
| 
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6D'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6D.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3dd.jpg|right|500px]]

: '''Box A''' with “'''www.paypal.com'''”


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6?
| '''X'''
| '''X'''
| 026W0004897485
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 55422
| 
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p4.jpg|right|530px]]
'''PC-D3.4'''
: Similar to PC-D3.3 but with tracking number added above the PDF417 2D barcode.
: Stacked at left of the 2D barcode are &quot;usps.com&quot;, the value figures, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, a rate statement, and in the bottom corner, the date.
: Centered below the 2D barcode are “Mailed from” and ZIP code and “024P”.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}}  $00'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|color=green|'''''NOTE: The stamp previously cataloged as Type PC-D3.5 is now a sub-type of PC-D3.3.'''''}}
[[File: PC-D3.5.png|right|1000px]]

'''PC-D3.5'''
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI'''&quot; in two lines
: Unboxed rate class designation letter
: &quot;'''PDF417(7)'''&quot; 2-D barcode on right
: Meter Identification on right above customer Identification number
: Meter identification number: 028W followed by 10 digits
: On customs declaration form (CD)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.1.'''
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G6.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Similar to Type PC-D3.4 but in wider format with the tracking barcode at far left.
: Meter number seen with &quot;024P&quot; prefix.
: With value figures below &quot;PAID&quot;.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.2.'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.7.jpeg|right|1000px]]

: Wide format as with PC-D4.1 but &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and the mail class are at far left with the tracking barcode below.
: The postage data is found below the PDF417 barcode, as follows:
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix
:: Pitney Bowes (with &quot;CommPrice&quot; [or value figures?] below)
:: date
:: &quot;From&quot; ZIP code
:: weight
:: (destination) zone

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.3.1.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.1 260630.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID '''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.3.2.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.4.'''[[File: PC-D4.4 250914.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.4 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; at right above Identification number.
:: Two black bars complete from left to right
:: ID# with &quot;028W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.1.'''
: At right is the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix
: At left: date/ ZIP code/ weight
: Always found on framed address label, and never with value figures.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.1A.''' [[File: USA PC-F9.jpg|right|500px]]
: At left solid block rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix at base


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.1B.'''[[File: PC-D5.1B.png|right|500px]]
: At left outline rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix in middle

::: '''-1'''. Meter identification number positioned as in the illustration  for '''PC-D5.1A.'''
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.2.''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B.jpg|right|307px]]
: Similar to Type PC-D4.1 but &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; is vertical reading up at left.
: The rate, date, ZIP code, and weight are stacked between &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; (italicized) at top and the identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &quot;'''Found only on International postage/address/customs forms purchased online from the USPS web site.'''&quot;
: The complete form is shown reduced at right. Occurs in at least two types:
::::{{space|5}}  Type I {{space|5}}  &quot;To/From&quot; horizontal
::::{{space|5}}  Type II {{space|4}}  &quot;To/From&quot; vertical
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00 or nil
:{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: &quot;'''For labels of this type the collector should save the whole form'''&quot;}}


:: '''A'''. With &quot;ONLINE DISCOUNT RATE&quot; below US POSTAGE PAID  
:: '''B'''. With postage paid shown in dollars and cents [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9point1B.jpg|right|307px]]
:: '''C'''. Without rate, blank between US POSTAGE PAID and the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B document.jpg|right|800px]]
[[File: PC-D5.2z.png|right|800px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.3. “Shipstream Manager”''', 2006.[[File: USA PC-F11.jpg|right|888px]]
: Very wide design with square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode at right and large tracking barcode at center.
: Above the 2D barcode are the date, ZIP code, weight, and &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: Below the 2D barcode is the ID number with 024P prefix.
: At far left is “US POSTAGE PAID” above the class of mail.
:: '''A'''. With rate statement instead of value figures.
:: '''B'''. With value figures above the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-D4point3B.jpeg|right|888px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3point1.jpg|right|570px]]

'''PC-D5.4. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2011. 
:  As Type PC-D4.5 but with &quot;www.pbSmartPostage.com&quot; instead of the eBay logo. 
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.5.''' (presumed to be '''“Shipstream Manager”'''), 2013.[[File: USA stamp type PC-F15.jpg|right|888px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D4.3 but with the elements rearranged.
: The identification number, date, &quot;From&quot; Zip code, and weight are below the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: The tracking barcode is at far left rather than center.
: At near left of the Datamatrix barcode is &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and the mail class are at far left above the tracking barcode.
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


:: '''A'''. With value figures above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.6. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2006. 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00 {{space|2}} [scarce]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.7. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA PC-G3B.jpg|right|495px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.8.0 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;'''[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3C.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.8.1 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-G3D.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  V/F: {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures or without but with rate statement
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9A.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260706.png|right|475px]]

:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629585
| ComBasPrice
| 12/28/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629647
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629652
| ComBasPrice
| 06/21/2014
| 10509
| BREWSTER NY
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007629756
| 
| 03/17/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629758
| ComBasPrice
| 12/11/2012
| 32812
| ORLANDO FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629777
| ComBasPrice
| 03/15/2017
| 17362
| SPRING GROVE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629797
| CommBasPrice
| 10/19/2015
| 01970
| Salem MA
| 108 x 155 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007632129
| ComBasPrice
| 06/01/2019
| 85203
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007776044
| 
| 02/25/2016
| 32701
| ALTAMONTE SPG FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776131
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776147
| ComBasPrice
| 10/17/2016
| 76251
| MONTAGUE TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776172
| ComBasPrice
| 11/27/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776173
| ComBasPrice
| 08/18/2015
| 20904
| SILVER SPRING MD
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776210
| ComBasPrice
| 10/27/2015
| 33187
| MIAMI FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776653
| ComBasPrice
| 09/12/2016
| 12992
| WEST CHAZY NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776711
| ComBasPrice
| 10/12/2016
| 60543
| OSWEGO IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 01/20/2015
| 85211
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 10/06/2015
| 33161
| FLORIDA CITY FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875960
| CommBasPrice
| 10/05/2015
| 01610
| Worcester MA
| 96 x 151 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876028
| ComBasPrice
| 01/12/2019
| 22301
| ALEXANDRIA VA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876132
| ComBasPrice
| 11/10/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 024P0007876133
| CommBasPrice
| 06/18/2018
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 92 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876173
| CommBasPrice
| 02/11/2019
| 30097
| Duluth GA
| 101 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876761
| ComBasPrice
| 10/13/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876771
| ComBasPrice
| 03/12/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.0.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.png|right|475px]]
[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260630.png|right|475px]]
:  Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Small &quot;'''ebay'''&quot;, large space between the base of the &quot;'''y'''&quot; and the frame


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629802
| CommBasPrice
| 11/25/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 86 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776072
| CommBasPrice
| 11/19/2018
| 65803
| Springfield MO
| Blue label stock, 96 x 156 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776728
| CommBasPrice
| 07/05/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 87 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875976
| CommBasPrice
| 11/22/2019
| 02532
| 
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876188
| CommBasPrice
| 05/28/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 96 x 155mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876772
| CommBasPrice
| 12/23/2019
| 98245
| Eastsound WA
| 96 x 155mm
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 4 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.2.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.2 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.1.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Font in Boxes B2 and C &quot;'''USPSIMB'''&quot; (either Compact or Standard?)
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 2 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.0 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 4 lines at left, Date/Zip Code/ Weight/ Zone


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 2 lines at left, Date/Zip Code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D5.7.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-D6.0''', 2021. 
:  Similar to PC-D5.2 but with '''Pitney Bowes''' at the top of the point-of-sale data stacked at left of the Datamatrix barcode. 
:  Datamatrix barcode (DM4) 19 mm square, with 4 data blocks
:  Below '''Pitney Bowes''' are the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''' or '''US POSTAGE IMI''', a mail class statement.
:   a ten-digit number, &quot;3000156428&quot; evidently the customer identification number, the ZIP code and the date.
:  V/F: $0.00o 
:  This stamp arises from the new partnership between eBay and Pitney Bowes for &quot;eBay Delivery Service&quot; shipping.

:: '''A'''.  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE''', identification number with 026W prefix,
:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;


'''NOTE''': Type PC-D6 is nearly identical in appearance to Type QB7. They differ only in color and in the ten-digit number that appears below the identification number, '''black''' and '''3''' for PC-D5.7, and '''red''' and '''2''' for QB7.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D6.1.0''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left, Datamatrix barcode 20 mm square, with 4 data blocks, identification number with 026W prefix,
:  Datamatrix barcode 15 mm square, with 4 data blocks, or 27mm square,
:  Identification number with 026W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D6.1.1''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left,
:  Datamatrix barcode 18-19 mm  with 4 data blocks, 
:  Identification number with 028W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-E: Franks from Envelope Manager (Endicia) software, ID numbers mostly with 07#V prefix but also 07#M, 07#S, 06#S and without ID number}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All the stamps have a generic design, bar code and text. The earlier stamps include &quot;endicia.com&quot; in the design and later ones are identifiable only by the identification number which is most commonly 071V although 071M and 071S are also found. From 2024 on, 062, and 063 are also found. An exception is Type PC-E2.2, Sub-type A, which does not show an identification number.
* When first released (February 2001) the system was labeled by Indicia as &quot;'''DAZzle 2000'''&quot;.

* On November 18, 2015 Stamps.com (see Sub-group PC-C) acquired Endicia. In 2024, Stamps.com and Endicia were once again seperate, being individual divisions under a holding company.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE1''' in 2001 edition''}}

'''PC-E1.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2000. [[File: USA PC-F2A.jpg|right|316px]]
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: “US POSTAGE” at top right. 
: Stacked at center: value figures / class of mail / date / town line. 
: ID# with 071M, 071S, or 071V prefix at bottom right.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000


::'''PC-E1.1A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''.  Top portion above 2D barcode shifted far to the left (shown at right). This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F2aa.jpg|right|316px]]
::: '''b'''.  With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of '&quot;endicia.com&quot; at bottom left
::: '''c'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


::'''PC-E1.1B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F2B.jpg|right|500px]]


::'''PC-E1.1C''' As '''PC-E1.1A''' but with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.


::: '''a'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F3A.jpg|right|310px]]


'''PC-E1.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: As Type PC-E1.1 but the point-of-sale data is at left rather than in the center, and the sequence of data is different. 
: At top left: value figures/ date/ rate information
: At top right: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;/ &quot;Mailed from ZIP...&quot;
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left
: Identification number with 071V prefix
: Never with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode.
: V/F: $0'''.'''00


:: '''PC-E1.2A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.
::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.2A-b.png|right|800px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F3B.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''d'''. Without rate information below the date[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p2dd.jpg|right|500px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2C'''. &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users


'''PC-E1.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.2 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: “POSTAGE AND FEES PAID” at top above date, ZIP code, and rate statement. 
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left


::'''PC-E1.3A'''. Basic stamp without framing [[File: USA PC-F4A.jpg|right|324px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F4bb.jpg|right|415px]]


::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.3A-b.png|right|800px]]


::'''PC-E1.3B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F4B.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Line A Equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00515554
| A13
| 
| OCT 27 2011
| 55337
| BURNSVILLE MN
| NO TRACKING BARCODE
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A11
| Commercial Base Price
| JAN 5 2015
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| APR 12 2016
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| JAN 3 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| FEB 17 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| MAR 1 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00548099
| A13
| 
| APR 17 2007
| 83333
|
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| solid black
| '''VIII'''
| 071V00682520
| A7
| 
| FEB 6 2009
| 80922
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|-
| '''FS3'''
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 071V01059238
| A11
| Commercial Plus Price
| SEP 8 2020
| 30071
| NORCROSS GA
|
|}
{{font/end}}


::: '''e'''. As '''B''', with question mark after the mail class statement: '''PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY?'''
::::  (This may be a computer error with the question mark printing in place of a registration mark (''R in circle'').)[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E1p3ee.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''f'''. Without the &quot;Box C&quot; containing the class of mail below the frank [[File: USA stamp type PC-E3p1ff.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''g'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, no tracking info[[File: PC-E1.3B-g.png|right|300px]]


::: '''h'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, endicia emblem at right[[File: PC-E1.3B-h.png|right|300px]]


::'''PC-E1.3C'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users[[File: USA PC-F4aa.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071M prefix


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::'''PC-E1.3D'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at lower left, [[File: PC-E1.3D.png|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 062S prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-E1.4. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.3B but with logo and &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at upper right.
: The ID number is above the 2D bar code at right.
: The date is below the mail class designation at left.
: Identification number with &quot;071V&quot; prefix.
: Seem on large label that includes customs information.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F5.jpg|right|530px]]

'''PC-E2.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) ''', 2002.
: Found only on the top of large address labels downloaded directly from the USPS web site. 
: In wide box at right is the 2D &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: To the left of the 2D barcode are &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; vertical, &quot;WWW.USPS.COM&quot;, value figures, and date.
: A series of nine 4-digit numbers is above the 2D barcode, and the ZIP code and identification number with 071V prefix are below.
: Very large “P” (for Priority Mail) or “E” (for Express Mail) in box at left. 
: Across the bottom is the class of mail spelled out.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00  [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|15px]]$00'''.'''00


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2 B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-E2.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Identification number, with 071V prefix, at right of the ZIP code

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00

:: '''Note'''. For similar item without identification number see &quot;'''PC-G3'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-E2.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. [[File: USA stamp type PC-G5.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Nearly identical to Types PC-C5.2 (Stamps.com) and PC-D3.3 (Pitney Bowes) except for the identification number which has &quot;071V&quot; prefix.


'''PC-E3.1. Endicia.com ''', 2010.

: Square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode at right with company identity reading down at far right.
: Text from top, at left of barcode: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;, mail class (''may be omitted''), date (mmm dd yyyy), ZIP code, rate statement (''may be omitted''), &quot;CommBasePrice&quot; or &quot;CommPlusPrice&quot; (''may be omitted'')
: Later stamps also include a second, more specific, rate statement. (''see the image for &quot;b&quot; below'')
: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


:: '''A1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (longer than DataMatrix is tall), barred &quot;I&quot; font[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12 better.jpg|right|520px]]

::: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''c'''. Printed on short label containing tracking bar code but not the destination address[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p1cc.jpg|right|320px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''e'''. Datamatrix bar code field contains vertical bars, probably caused by a malfunction [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E2p1ee.jpg|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''A2.1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font 

::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''b'''. Text at top truncated: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES P&quot;[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12bb.jpg|right|550px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071S00799149
| A17
| Commercial Plus Pricing
| Nov 27 2017
| 37801
| MARYVILLE TN
| 
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 19 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 22 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| 
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00913234
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice
| Aug 04 2014
| 33351
| SUNRISE FL
| subtype &quot;b&quot;
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Feb 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Oct 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|}

:: '''A2.2'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font [[File:PC-E3.1A2.png|right|550px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''f'''. Datamatrix bar code field is wider than tall, not square [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.1ff.jpg|right|380px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| black box
| VIII
| 071V00908463
| A16
| 
| Dec 21 2017
| 75104
| CEDAR HILL TX
| 2 copies, framed
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071V00970570
| A17
| CommercialBasePrice
| Jun 05 2018
| 28052
|
| shorter Enddicia on right
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}


:: '''B1'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; (''first seen in late 2018'')

::: Unframed
::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.

:::::'''-1''' Top two lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-1.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-2''' All but top line and fifth line bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-2.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-3''' All lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-3.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''B2'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; [[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.1B.jpg|right|540px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.

:  ''subtypes unknown ''
::::: '''a'''. Datamatrix barcode field omitted
::::: '''d'''. Printed without the tracking bar code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12point1.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.2. Endicia.com''', 2014.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 with square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode, but the value figures are at upper left and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; is alone at top center.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p3.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-E3.3A. Endicia.com''', 2015.
: Similar to Types PC-E3.1 and PC-E3.2 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is lower, below the date and ZIP code.
: The value figures are at far left.
: One seen, with &quot;FIM&quot; bar code at upper left.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads down.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3p3B.jpg|right|365px]]

'''PC-E3.3B. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads up.


Note:  Items formersly listed as &quot;'''PC-E3.3C'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.3D'''&quot; are now listed  as &quot;'''PC-E3.8.1'''&quot; AND &quot;'''PC-E3.8.2'''&quot; RESPECTIVELY.
      

[[File:USA stamp type PC-E2p4.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.4. Endicia.com''', 2016.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 but inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE PAID&quot; without &quot;AND FEES&quot;. Also the inscription is centered rather than high.
: Below &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; is &quot;From ZIP ##### and a rate statement.
: Rather than a large mail classification code, the mailer's name and address is found in the box at left.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.5.jpeg|right|410px]]

'''PC-E3.5. Endicia.com''', 2018.
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types but with round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; horizontal at bottom left instead of vertical at right.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, price modification statement, date, ZIP code, identification number, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID''' identification&lt;/i&gt;) number, and the Endicia logo.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.

: The example reported was used on international mail.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.6. Endicia''', 2024. [[File:PC-E3.6.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.1A2'''
: No line separating Box B1 and Box B2.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, '''IMI''' following mail class
: Price modification statement, date, ZIP code, Mail class 1, Mail class 2, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) number, Mail class 3.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.7. Endicia''', 2025. [[File:PC-E3.7 251201.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.6'''
: Text at left of barcode: At top: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; above the weight and mail class, 
: Stacked below are:Mail Class I with '''IMI''' following mail class, date, ZIP code, Mail class 2, Mail class 3, Mail class 4, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) 8 digit number, .
: F/V: &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

:: '''PC-E3.7.1'''. With green banner to left inscribed &quot;'''USPS CERTIFIED MAIL &lt;sup&gt;TM&lt;/sup&gt;'''&quot;, barcode below

[[File:PC-E3.7.1.png|right|650px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3B.jpg|right|230px]]

'''PC-E3.8.1. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with different endicia logo.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
'''NOTE''': The extremely narrow stamp impression shown appears to be a printer/feeder error rather than a software variation.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3D.jpg|right|365px]]
'''PC-E3.8.2. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3C but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-E3.9. Endicia''' [[File:PC-E3.9 260623.png|right|410px]]
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; on the rate class line
: ID# with '''063S''' prefix seen.
: '''endicia''' reads down.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E4.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E4.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 3 lines at top right, ID at top, customer ID below, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]:  &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot; ['''XXIX''']   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E5.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E5.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 2 lines at top right, ID at top, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]: &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE TM&quot; ['''VI'''],  &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”] ['''XVIII''']  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-F: Franks generated by EasyPost software, with &quot;easypost&quot; in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* EasyPost is a software company that provides companies with integrated shipping options through USPS and several private carriers.
* The company was founded in 2012 although the first stamp came to our attention in 2016.
{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F1.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2016 but possibly as early as 2012.
: The stamps we have seen appear on large address labels.
: The stamp contains a PDF417 barcode which sits under &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; and '''{{font|size=5|easypost}}''' at the right of the stamp.
: Left of the barcode are the date, ZIP code, &quot;CID&quot; (''number'') or &quot;C&quot; (number), and '''COMBASE''' or '''ComBasPrice''' (with no value figures).
: Along the bottom are the weight and identification number with &quot;0901&quot; prefix.
:: '''A'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
:: '''B'''. The stamp appears by itself with no framing or large mail class indicator


&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-F1.2.png|right|475px]]

'''PC-F1.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025 

: As type &quot;'''PC-F1.1'''&quot; With heavier and slightly different typeface and spacing.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter Number&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5?
| G
| 0901000008391
| C4190745
| 
| 2025-04-08
| 29169
|
|-
| FS5
| G
| 0901000019068
| C4002372
| 
| 2025-05-19
| 90640
|
|-
|}
 
 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1p2.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.1. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;
: The text, including '''{{font|size=4|easypost}}''', is in a lighter and wider font than found on PC-F1.
: Also, without &quot;CID&quot; and number and with small '''ComBasPrice''' instead of '''COMBASE'''.
: And finally, the zeros are slashed.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-F2.2 260621mh.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.2. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F2.1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID IMI&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;
: The text/ font is similar to that found on PC-F1.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1.3.jpg|right|540px]]

'''PC-F3.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2021.

: As Type PC-F1 but the {{font|size=4|'''easypost.'''}} logo now has a period after it. The web address &quot;{{size=2|'''easypost.com/signup'''}}&quot; was added below the logo.

: This stamp includes a postage value which is preceded by &quot;Retail&quot; on the stamp we have seen.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00
: '''Note''': The origin ZIP code and customer ID have been blurred in the stamp photo.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:Easypost PC-F1.4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F3.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo as PC-F3.1
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}} &quot;'''F'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004578 {{space|4}}C4000013 {{space|4}}83713 {{space|4}}2022-09-02{{space|4}}BOISE, ID
::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004698 {{space|4}} {{space|4}}28405 {{space|4}}{{space|4}}WILMINGTON, NC


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo different
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000005499 {{space|4}}C4017644 {{space|4}}83709 {{space|4}}2022-11-18{{space|4}}BOISE, ID


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F5.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.2a.png|right|650px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F4.4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.4. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot; without the web address.

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! Customer ID
! Note
|-
| FS5 wide
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000001316
| Commercial
| 2024-11-11
| 43228
| C4018567
| 012.0 ZONE 2
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000008901
| Commercial
| 2023-12-01
| 60607
| C4650528
| 0.10 CUBIC ZONE 3
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000010389
| Commercial
| 2023-12-28
| 63376
| C5299422
| 5.0 OZ ZONE 4
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''XXXI'''
| 0901000014322
| Commercial
| 2024-06-27
| 63376
| C5299422
| 0.20 CUBIC ZONE 4
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.5. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.5 250415.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.6. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2026.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.
::: &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot;


[[File:PC-F4.6 250901B.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F55.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F5. &quot;Chit Chats&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.2'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Chit Chats'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F6.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F6. &quot;Sendle&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Sendle&gt;'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-G: Franks generated by U.S. Postal Service software, without a vendor's identification number.}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* These stamps are a type of Post Office stamp (Group PO) but because they are generated online at the Postal Services's web site, they are listed here..
* The stamp was first reported in 2021.
{{font/end}}


----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1.jpg|right|400px]]

'''PC-G1.''' (digital), 2021 but possibly earlier.
: The stamp is a large tracking label similar to Type PC-C5.1 with the USPS logo and &quot;Click-N-Ship&quot;® in the top panel. The ''postage'' part of the label is immediately below and at right. It contains in its upper left corner, &quot;usps.com, the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''', and a rate statement. The date is at lower left. At top right is a tracking number. At lower center is '''Mailed from''' and the ZIP code. In the center is a larger '''U.S. POSTAGE PAID''' above a small '''Click-N-Ship'''®, all backed by a field of wavy pale blue lines.
: V/F:  $(00)0.00
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1 detail.jpg|left|500px]]
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-G2.1''' (digital), 2023 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G1'''&quot; but with a square Datamatrix barcode at the right of box &quot;'''B2'''&quot;.
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mail Rate Class
! Type
! Date
! Mailed from Zip Code
! &quot;'''Box C'''&quot; Mail Class
|-
| P
| Flat Rate Env
| 05/08/2023 
| 63005
| XXX
|-
| G
| Insured
| 06/20/2024
| 02453
| VI
|-
| 
| 
|
|
|}


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.2.png|right|250px]]
'''PC-G2.2''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but with security print under &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; more heavily segmented
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PPS-G2.3.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.3''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: &quot;Box D&quot; more similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.2'''&quot;
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.4.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.4''' (digital), 2024 
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: Box A with USPS logo to left, &quot;USPS APIs&quot; to right
: &quot;Box D&quot; only with return address and destination to the right of 2D barcode
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-G2.5''' (digital), 2026 [[File: PC-G2.5 260630.png|right|250px]]
: USPS Emblem at left, above &quot;'''USPS APIs'''&quot;
: Barcode at right, above date,  &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot;
: Value &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: Postage class at base (?)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-G2.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-G3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Without identification number
: See also &quot;'''PC-E2.2'''&quot; for similar item with identification number starting with &quot;071V&quot;

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00, 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-H: Franks generated by Francotyp-Postalia software, with &quot;FP&quot; logo in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* Francotyp-Postalia first entered the U.S. postage meter market in 2000. Only one stamp has been reported so far, and it is dated from 2019. Earlier dates are likely.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'' The status of this item has been questioned, more information or scans would be important to have, please reply to editor.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-H1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-H1. &quot;Francotyp-Postalia&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2019 but probably earlier.
: The one stamp reported appears on alarge address label with the top (postage) section containing a PDF417 barcode.
: Above the barcode are, at left: the value figures and date, at center: the FP logo, and at right: '''US POSTAGE''', Mailed From [5-digit ZIP code], and the identification number with 032A prefix.

: '''ComBasPrice''' appears below the date on this stamp.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F:  $ (00)0.000
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-I: Franks generated by stamps/endicia}}====
----
'''PC-I''' 2005.

:  With &quot;''''''PC-I4'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo  replacing the stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).


'''PC-I1.1.''' Prefix &quot;'''026W'''&quot; [[File: PC-I1.1 260706.png|right|450px]]
{{font/top|size=2}}
: ’’’Known usage’’’:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 026W00048272786
| &quot;'''FREES'''&quot;
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 04/11/2022
| 07036
| LINDEN, NJ
| Box F: order info?
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
::: '''PC-I1.2.''' Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;  
{{font/top|size=2}}
[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.png|right|450px]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/16/2019
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 02/25/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/02/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/30/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, 
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 05/19/2020
| 92324
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A5
| B7
| C4
| 10/05/2018
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''E'''
| '''XXXV'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A19
| B2
| C3
| 11/25/2019
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| III
| 062S0009416802
| 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 05/10/2022
| 14150
| Chesterfield MI
| Order info, framed
|}
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.5C.jpg|right|890px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2p5B.jpg|right|860px]]

'''PC-I1.3 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps endicia'''&quot;. 
:: '''.1'''.  With value figures: {{spaces|5}} $00'''.'''00
:: '''.2'''.  With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
 

'''PC-I1.4''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo[[File: PC-C2.6B.png|right|500px]]
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.5.''' 2020.

: With barcode as with  previous PC-C2 types but with the value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at top above the date and &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and ZIP code.

: Below the bar code is the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number at right.
: The identification number prefix is uncertain as the stamp we have seen appears to suffer from a software glitch. (See the illustration.)
: PDF417(4) barcode
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''1'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  large 
:: '''2'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  small 
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.8.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.8B.png|right|400px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.6.''' 2021.
: Similar to PC-C2.8 but with a rate statement rather than value figures.
: Above the &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code:
:- US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
:- date, Mailed from ZIP [code]
:- weight and rate statement(s)
: Below the bar code: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number with 062S prefix at right

:: '''1'''. Large '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 7 digits
:: '''2'''. Small '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 10 digits, FS5 label 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.9.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.9B.png|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.7.''' 2025. [[File: PC-C8 250601.png|right|360px]]

: Similar to types &quot;'''PC-C2.1, PC-C2.2'''&quot;
: Corporate logo as '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(3)&quot; barcode.
: With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at upper left
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I2.1'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). '''Box F''' blank or with Proprietary info.
:::{{space|10}}Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(7) across bottom
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4ccc.jpg|right|450px]]
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-

| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0001435225
| 11675116
| A7
| B1
| 
| 02/24/2023
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S00014423--
| 8014--
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/12/2022
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442380
| 9726250
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 28674
| PINEHURST, NC
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442584
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442597
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442618
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 92618
| IRVINE, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442648
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442652
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/16/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442674
| 7460441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 63367
| LAKE SAINT LOUIS, MO
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442685
| 9619750
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 94931
| COTATI, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S000144269-
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0001443299
| 6080690
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001484855
| 17633955 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 03/08/2023  
| 68048
| PLATTSMOUTH, (NE)
| PC malfunction? Missing Box B2 barcode and insignia
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0008589402
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022  
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009145384
| 8290678 
| A1
| B3
| C1
| 02/05/2018
| 98338  
| GRAHAM, WA
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009146178
| 8239329
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022  
| 60543
| OSWEGO, IL
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009418949
| 7523319
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 09/22/2020  
| 30518
| Buford, GA
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009564660
| 7778491
| A1
| B3
| C3
| 10/22/2018
| 91304
| CANOGA PARK, CA
| BOX F with Business Info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009564837
| 9850040
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 01/23/2020
| 91356 
| TARZANA, CA
| 85 x 140 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0009564879
| 7733098
| A20
| B6
| C3
| 10/17/2022
| 33619
| TAMPA, FL
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009565018
| 10860336
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/06/2020 
| 33458 
| JUPITER, FL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0010887747
| 8128979
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 06/13/2022
| 33167
| MIAMI, FL
| BOX F with Prop Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010937521
| 10709064
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 02/08/2021
| 92648
| HUNTINGTON BEACH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010984631
| 10354575
| A8
| B2
| C3
| 04/27/2020
| 11791
| SYOSSET, FL (ERROR FOR NY)
| BOX F ORDER Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011128915
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 10/19/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011129014
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 09/30/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011268712
| 6822160
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 04/24/2020
| 99224
| Spokane, WA
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 02/08/2021
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS4?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 09/29/2022
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011692018
| 9897390
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/30/2020
| 55358
| Maple Lake, MN
| order info in Box F
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011692109
| 9897299
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 30101
| ACWORTH, GA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584392
| 5455555
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 10/27/2020
| 33458
| JUPITER, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584433
| 16035441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 84096
| HERRIMAN, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584494  
| 6916215
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022
| 85298
| GILBERT, AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0012584517
| 17771454
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 08/22/2022
| 32401
| PANAMA CITY, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584551 
| 7778491
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/12/2020
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584560
| 17663543 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022 
| 27525 
| FUQUAY VARINA, NC
| Please Do Not Bend
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584561
| 8072505
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475 
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352599
| 10538570
| A1
| B1
| C4
| 09/21/2022 
| 45249
| CINCINNATI, OH
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352605
| 8072505 
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| BLACK FILL
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0014949809
| 7542988
| A7
| B1
| 
| 03/25/2024
| 80116
| FRANKTOWN, CO
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950040
| 10137355
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/16/2022  
| 38474
| MOUNT PLEASANT, TN
| BOX F with Order Info

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950074
| 8014787
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F:Thank You For Your Order
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950080
| 8014787
| A5
| B4
| C4
| 12/12/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| BOX F &quot;Thank you for your order!&quot;
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950085
| 9765391
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/11/2022
| 84606
| SPRINGVILLE, UT
| BOX F with order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950089
| 9716903
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/02/2022  
| 83442
| AMMON, ID
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950092
| 9728837
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/10/2022  
| 84026
| FORT DUCHESNE, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950241 
| 8570771
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/19/2022
| 84062
| PLEASANT GROVE, UT
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950278 
| 17957223
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/03/2023
| 78245
| SAN ANTONIO, TX
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950365
| 580628?
| A6
| B2
| C3
| 09/13/2023
| 75041
| 
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950507 
| 6080690
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950544 
| 10875452
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 03/14/2023
| 19317
| CHADDS FORD, PA
| 
|}
{{font/end}}


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.2'''. ''2023''
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''Arial Nova Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.0 250331.png|right|450px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001442545
| 7537397
| A3
| B1
| C7
| 01/22/2024
| 48212
| HAMTRAMCK, MI
| Box F: Order info.

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001443325
| 11683909
| A2
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2023
| 46323
| HAMMOND, IN
|

|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950062
| 9717116
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 03/16/2024
| 98467
| UNIVERSITY PL, WA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950187
| 4998344
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 02/27/2024
| 91761
| ONTARIO, CA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950544
| 19750766
| A9
| B2
| C7
| 08/22/2024
| 93105
| SANTA BARBARA, CA
| Green band at top and a portion of left
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950560
| 17195820
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 10/12/2023
| 85013
| PHOENIX, AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| ?
| 6636835
| A14
| B6
| C7
| 05/01/2024
| 43228
| COLUMBUS, OH
| Box F: Order Info
|}

{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.3'''. ''2024''[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.png|right|450px]]
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''New Helvetica Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001443239
| 6928035
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 01/22/2024
| 91733
| EL MONTE, CA
| Box F: Order info.
|}

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I3'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with &quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;  barcode 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2C label.jpeg|right|380px]]
'''PC-I3.1.'''. '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.

:: '''1'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''2'''. Numeric month in date, as: {{space|4}} 00/00/2018
:: '''3'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3.4 actual.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-I3.2.''' 2021.
: As Type PC-C3.3 but with '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at right.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with DataMatrix 2-D barcode 


'''PC-I4.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1E.jpg|right|800px]]


'''PC-I4.2.'''. As '''PC-C4.1.1.''', with new company  logo, '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-I4.3 260709.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-I4.3 ''' 2023. 

: DataMatrix 2-D barcode at right
: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is to the right of the &quot;DataMatrix(4)&quot; barcode.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.'''. As '''PC-C5.2.''', with  '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo [[File: PC-C5.3.png|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.3.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071'''&quot;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Apr 15 2022
| 90021
| (RIALTO CA)
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Feb 09 2023
| 90021
| (NEWARK NJ)
|
|}

{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.4.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.3.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Large Mail Class letter, taller than the barcode.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3B.jpg|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071S'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.5.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I4.5.2.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442198
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jul 05 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442222
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jun 07 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0009761530
| 13928181
| A7
| B1
| 
| Feb 02 2023
| 48375
| NOVI, MI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''X'''
| 062S0010968105
| 12429570
| A10
|
| C6
| Sep 20 2022
| 32207
| JACKSONVILLE, FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0012584411
| 17222940
| A10
| 
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0013352605
| 17222940
| A10
|
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950307
| 17222940
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Nov 10 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0014949919
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Sep 04 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950343
| 11746372
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Mar 06 2023
| 11716
| BOHEMIA NY
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Franks with &quot;E-postage&quot; or variant in the frank}}====
----

&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=3}}
* Shipping labels with '''E-Postage''', '''ePostage''', '''ePOSTAGE''' and other variants in the frank were first reported in 2011. They are used by online commerce companies with business volumes large enough to justify special arrangements with shippers such as USPS, FedX, and UPS. 

* E-Postage is a program developed by USPS to accommodate the growth of ecommerce. Online merchants such as Amazon and Etsy use ePostage. In 2016 new company Shippo began operation as a shipping aggregator offering ePostage to any business.

* The stamps appear to be more like &quot;post paid&quot; permit stamps rather than metered mail but are shown here until we determine their exact nature.
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F2.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F14.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F1bb.jpeg|right|300px]]

* The stamps are found only on address labels with the top section having an enclosed mail-service letter at left and a frank box at right above a panel containing the mail class.
: The central section contains the return address, date, and addressee.
: The stamps show no value figures or identification number.
: The labels do include a tracking bar code and number.
: So far they have been found in two general formats:
:: '''-''' With single-line border surrounding the complete design, printed on label 135 mm tall
:: '''-''' With no outer border, printed on smaller label, 115 mm tall

* Known variations:
:: '''-''' Mail class appears in the frank box
:: '''-''' Incomplete box around mail-service letter at upper left
:: '''-''' Mailer's name repeated at top outside the frank box
:: '''-''' &quot;ComBasPrice&quot; appearing left of the frank box

'''NOTES''':
* Merchants have some control over the appearance of the stamp. The e-Postage designation is found in different fonts. The frank box is found in a variety of sizes with contents left justified or centered.
* When inaugurated in September 2011 only certain mail services were available through e-Postage system: Express Mail, Priority Mail, First-Class Mail parcels, Package Services (except Library Mail), and Parcel Select bar-coded non-presort.
* What is common to all e-Postage stamps is that the frank box contains e-Postage (or variant), U.S. POSTAGE PAID (or variant), and the mailer's identification.
{{font/end}}


----{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>n5hgm5kl5haaypr9x7wbw66rwot17qm</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654570</id>
      <parentid>4654567</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T18:40:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boris1951zz</username>
        <id>3378369</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* {{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-I: Franks generated by stamps/endicia}} */</comment>
      <origin>4654570</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="129870" sha1="c99vqg5wna9erwubozpqgkisipj8qog" xml:space="preserve">==&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #1F75FE;&quot;&gt;'''GROUP PC: Special designs generated by personal computer'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;==
[[United_States_Postage_Meter_Stamp_Catalog |&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;''&lt;u&gt;Click here to return to the United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog&lt;/u&gt;''&lt;/span&gt;]]

{{font/top|size=3|color=#08457E}}
'''NOTE''': ''All the stamps listed here are valid only on the date generated. PC stamps with unrestricted validity, i.e. savable for future use, are more like traditional stamps than meter stamps and thus are not cataloged here. PC stamps with unrestricted validity are cataloged in '''&lt;i&gt;USA: Variable Denomination Stamps (1989-2020)&lt;/i&gt;''' by Karim Roder (available on Amazon).''

* Group PC stamps can vary considerably in size, font styles, and color within the same stamp type depending on personal printer settings, available fonts, etc. Size variations or colors other than black are unusual but are user controlled variables (an attempt will be made to note said varieties in the usage lists).

* The stamps are found on plain paper and adhesive labels depending on what the user has in his printer. Self-adhesive labels are sold by the various PC stamp companies and also by outside vendors. These labels exist both with and without fluorescent tagging. As with color and font, paper or label type is a user controlled variable, however to a great extent the parameters are set by United States Postal Service ( see: https://postalpro.usps.com/parcellabelingguide). It is recommended that the collector save the '''entire label'''.

* PC stamps are often found in a frame at the top right of large address labels. To the left of the stamp is a smaller frame containing a large letter or number representing the class of mail. Codes found are: &quot;'''1'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''fcm'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''P'''&quot; (priority), &quot;'''E'''&quot; (express), &quot;'''M'''&quot; (media), &quot;'''T'''&quot; (parcel post), solid block (media, or other), &quot;'''H'''&quot; (Hazardous), &quot;'''G'''&quot; (Ground Advantage), &quot;'''X'''&quot; (Media). Not all the codes are found with all the stamp types that use the labels.

* 2-Dimensional barcodes occur in two major types and several subtypes:
::::: PDF417 A horizontally stacked 2-dimensional barcode, each consists of  2 punctuators, 2 indicators and a variable number of data blocks.

::::::  subvariety PDF417(4) has 4 datablocks [[File: PDF417-224.png|right|250px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(6) has 6 datablocks [[File: PDF417-226.png|right|275px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(7) has 7 datablocks [[File: PDF417-227.png|right|300px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(8) has 8 datablocks [[File: PDF417-228.png|right|350px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(9) has 9 datablocks [[File: PDF417-229.png|right|375px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(12) has 12 datablocks [[File: PDF417-2212.png|right|400px]]


::::: Data matrix is a 2 dimensional barcode consisting of square or rectangular data blocks

::::::  subvariety DM-2H (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged horizontally [[File: DM-2HZ.png|right|100px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-2V (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged vertically [[File: DM-2VR.png|right|50px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-4 has 4 datablocks arranged as a square [[File: DM-4SQ.png|right|100px]]


* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-A: Franks from E-Stamp software, ID numbers with 05#E prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All stamps have large, negative “e” logo at top right and &quot;PDF417&quot; bar code across the bottom with identification number at bottom right.
* &quot;US Postage&quot; and date are at top center, usually below a mail classification statement.
* Found both with and without FIM barcode at top left and also with and without slogan or directional slug at left.
* One hundred FD covers were prepared by E-Stamp in cooperation with the National Postal Museum on March 31, 1998. Trials took place for several more months. The first day of national availability was September 27, 1999.
* Although we must assume other mail classes were available, only '''First Class''', '''First-Class''', '''Priority''', and '''Priority Mail''' have been reported.
* E-stamp ceased operations at the end of 2000.
{{font/end}}


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

----

&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-A1 FDC stamp.jpg|right|425px]]

'''PC-A1.10.''' March 31, 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]

: This stamp is found only on the First Day Covers prepared by E-Stamp and the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are large, 4mm tall. 
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''without hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, 4mm tall''}})

'''PC-A1.11.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [RR][[File: PC-A1.11 251004.png|right|375px]]

: This stamp is found only on covers by the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are smaller than on &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot; but larger than on &quot;'''PC-A1.2'''&quot; ettc.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix  and about the same length as in &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, about 3½mm tall''}})

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1e''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.2.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.1 but with smaller value figures, 2 to 3mm tall.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; normally at bottom left below the barcode. 
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''small figures, 2-3mm tall''}})

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''.  First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B1'''. Priority {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''B2'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [R]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. With recipient's identity instead of &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at left below bar code field {{space|2}} [RR]
:: '''c'''. With 4-digit ZIP code

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''RA1c and d''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1p3A.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.3.''' {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.2 but value figures show decimal fractions of a cent and have wide spacing between the dollar sign and the decimal digit with the other figures.
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
:: '''A'''. V/F regular: {{space|4}} ${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1.4A.jpg|right|535px]]

'''PC-A1.4.'''
:  As PC-A1.3B but the value figures are spaced closely together.
:  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(12) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:: '''A'''.  Destination town name at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 051E prefix {{space|4}} [RRRR]&lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 053E prefix {{space|4}} [S]
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
: V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; ''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|Type PC-A1.4A is possibly the first E-stamp placed in use with paying customers, earlier than when PC-A1.2, PC-A1.3, and PC-A1.4B were issued.}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A2.''' March 2000. {{space|2}} [S]
:  As Type PC-A1.2 but the inscriptions are larger.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode. 
:  With PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:  ID# with 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $ 0'''.'''00

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''. First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [S]

[[File: USA PC-A2a.jpg|right|380px]]
:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; ({{font|size=2|''see below''}}) {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. &quot;Mailed From ZIP Code&quot; town line with 4-digit ZIP code instead of normal 5-digit code {{space|2}} [RR]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-B: Franks from Neopost software, ID numbers with 04#N or NO4#N prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The stamp designs are quite different from each other. One has a four-pointed star logo, two have a torch in hand logo, and one has no logo. Even the bar codes are dissimilar.
* Neopost was the second company to enter the PC postage business with an experimental design sometime in early 1998. Circumstances of the trial remain unknown to us.
* Stamps are found both with and without FIM barcode at top left. Examples are not known with slogan or slug.
* &lt;u&gt;Classes of mail seen on PC-B stamps&lt;/u&gt;:

::{|
| '''A.''' {{space|4}} FIRST CLASS LTR [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''F.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 2 [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''M.''' {{space|4}} INTL LETTER

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Aa.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS LTR

| '''G.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 3

| '''N.''' {{space|4}} INTL CAN LTR

|-

| '''B.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVERSZ

| '''H.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 4

| '''P.''' {{space|4}} INTL MEX LTR

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Ba.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVSZ

| '''I.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 5

| '''Q.''' {{space|4}} NEXT DAY EXP MAIL

|-

| '''C'''. {{space|4}} PRIORITY MAIL

| '''J.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 6

| '''R.''' {{space|4}} MEDIA MAIL

|-

| '''D.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY LOCAL

| '''K.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 7

|-

| '''E.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 1

| '''L.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 8

|}
* Mail classes E through L were discontinued in June 2002. Examples are exceptionally rare. Most mail classes except the First Class variations are scarce to very rare.
* Neopost PC stamps became available nationally in May 1999.

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-B1.''' {{font|color=green|''The stamp previously cataloged here has not been found used on actual mail. For this reason the Type has been deleted and the stamp re-cataloged as Type ESY-DF2 in the Essay section.''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D1.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-B2. ”Postage Plus”™''', '''“PC Stamp™”''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RRR]
: This too is an experimental stamp. It was first seen in live tests in and near Washington DC and parts of northern California. It was offered nationally in May 1999 but saw little use.
: The stamp was used by two different systems, &quot;Postage Plus&quot; which used a live internet connection, and &quot;PC Stamp&quot; which downloaded postage credit into a rented hardware vault. 
: The design shows at top right two horizontal bars with &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; above the top one and the town line below the bottom one. Between the bars at right are a torch-in-hand logo left of small &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; reading up. Also between the ars are the class of mail, the value figures (centered), and the date.
: PDF417(7) barcode across the bottom 
: With &quot;DEVICE and identification number at bottom right. 
: Meter number with N041N, N041NA, or 041N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; at bottom left
:: '''b'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; baarcode at top left


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-B3.1.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-B3.1. “Simply Postage”™''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Similar to PC-B2 with torch-in-hand logo and point of sale data mixed with two horizontal bars, but otherwise quite different.
: The stamp is found only on self-adhesive labels with rounded corners and fluorescent red bar across the bottom edge.
: &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is vertical at far right just left of a double line of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Between the bars are the identification number, value figures, and date. Below the bottom bar is the town line, '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: Large value figures, 4½ to 5mm tall
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØ ({{font|size=2|''with slashed zeros''}})


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-B3.2. “Simply Postage” '''. {{space|2}} [RR]
: As Type PC-B3.1 but the value figures have a tenths of a cent figure.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $Ø'''.'''ØØ&lt;u&gt;ø&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1A''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1A.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.1. “ProMail” ''', 1998? {{space|2}} [S]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Also printed on self-adhesive labels this stamp is much smaller than the PC-B3 stamps and contains the point-of-sale data at left and a square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Point-of-sale data have the value figures at top followed by the class of mail, '''MAILED FROM''' (ZIP code) town line, &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, date and identification number.
: Fluorescent bar at far left just outside two lines of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Meter number with 045N prefix.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1B''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1B.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.2. “ProMail” '''. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-B4.1 but the value figures are slightly larger and the text is slightly bolder.
: square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Labels have fluorescent bar at right.
: Meter number with 047N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-C: Franks generated by software from Stamps.com (StampMaster before 1999), ID numbers with 06#S prefix}}====


{{font/top|color=#0018A8|size=3}}
* The first stamp design has a negative {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''S'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} in oval logo. All others contain {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps.com'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} somewhere in the design. Some time after Stamps.com acquired Endicia in November 2015 (see Sub-group PC-E) the logo {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps'''&lt;sub&gt;'''endicia'''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} came into use (see Sub-group PC-I). The individual divisions (Stamps and Endicia) have since returned to a semi-independent status.

* The stamps are found both with and without a FIM barcode at upper left.
* &lt;u&gt;Mail classes found with PC-C stamps&lt;/u&gt;:
::  {{space|4}}  FIRST CLASS, FIRST CLASS MAIL, FCI (first class international)  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  PRIORITY MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  EXPRESS MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  MEDIA MAIL &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
: &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt; Collectors should be aware that the primary mail classes are found in a multitude of variations. For example, FIRST CLASS can be found as FIRST-CLASS PKG RATE, FIRST-CLASS MAIL PARCEL, FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE INTL, USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL, etc.. We do not know them all. Please inform the catalog manager regarding something different (&quot;'''Alan Knutson, boris1951@charter.net'''&quot;) if possible also include a scan.
* The StampMaster/stamps.com system was first trialed in the Washington DC area and in parts of California sometime before August 1998. It was made available nationally on September 27, 1999.

* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label &quot;'''size FS5 (with 5 horizontal boxes, A thru E) or size FS6 (with six horizontal boxes, A thru F)'''&quot;, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Icon/ Postage Payment'']}}
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc,{{font|size=2|color=blue| ['''USPS''' ''Service Icon'']}}
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Postage Payment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Banner'']}}
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Address and Delivery Information Segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Intelligent Mail package barcode segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'') {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Additional Information and User Segment'']}}

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C1.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-C1. StampMaster''', summer 1998. {{space|2}} [RRRR]
: Experimental stamp with negative “S”/Internet Postage logo at top center. 
: At top right are value figures, mail class, &quot;US POSTAGE”, and date. 
: &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code across bottom with town line below at left and identification number below at right.
: Identification number with 061S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C2.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-C2.1. stamps.com''', 1999.
: As Type PC-C1 but with &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo instead of the '''S''' in oval logo.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at upper left
: At top right are the value figures, date, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, and town line.
: 2-D barcode PDF417(6} across lower portion
: &quot;STAMPS.COM&quot; is below left of the bar code.
: Identification number with 061S or 062S prefix below right of bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt; 
[[File: USA PC-C2 redate.jpg|right|180px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing, blank below bar code
:: '''d'''. Bottom line present but without bar code
:: '''e'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''f'''. With nonsense characters across the bottom (''system malfunction'')

'''NOTES''':
* The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo can vary considerably in size.
* The system could produce a re-date stamp without postage value, as shown (''right'').
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C3.jpg|right|360px]]
[[File: USA PC-C3 redate.jpg|right|200px]]
'''PC-C2.2.''' 2000. 
: As Type PC-C2.1 but with larger inscriptions.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(6)&quot; barcode.
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
[[File:USA stamp type PC2p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing (blank below bar code)
:: '''d'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''e'''. With mailer's name replacing town line
:: '''f'''. With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at the upper left.

'''NOTES''':
* The NOTES below PC-C2.1 apply to PC-C2.2 also.
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right.
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


[[File: USA PC-C4B.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C2.3.1''' 2005.

: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Basic stamp without framing

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.2''' 

: &quot;Stamps / Endicia” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.3''' 

: As '''PC-C2.3.2''', [[File: PC-C2.3.3p.png|right|500px]]
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left. 
: Class of mail spelled out below V/F, with type of pricing below
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above customer ID, above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.4.1''' 2005.
:  As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
:  Stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
:  Meter number with 062S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
:: '''A'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code
::: '''1'''. Basic stamp without framing[[File: USA PC-C5A.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-C5B.jpg|right|540px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
!
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0005418699
| 
| A7
| B0
| C5
| 11/21/2005
| 02845 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0006097059
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/26/2015
| 40228 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0005715741
|
| A6
| B3
| C1
| 09/06/2011 
| 66030 
| GARDNER, KS
| Box F split horizontally in two, &quot;Thank You&quot; in bottom half.
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 05/28/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/02/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 07/15/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009033522
| 
| A4
| B0
| C0
| 11/09/2016
| 57401
| Aberdeen, SD
| No tracking number in Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009034923
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 11365
| Fresh Meadows, NY
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009143056
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 08080
| Mount Holly, NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009151784
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/01/2015
| 92154
| San Diego, CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009200477
| 
| A2
| B3
| C3
| 09/05/2018
| 11355
| Flushing, NY
|
|}


:: '''B'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code
::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

[[File:USA stamp type PC-C2point4b.jpeg|right|400px]]


'''NOTE''': Sub-type '''B''' has been found printed directly onto a plastic bag. See image below.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4 NOTE.JPG|right|300px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C10.jpg|right|880px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-C2.5. ''' 

'''PC-C2.5.1 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the manufacturer's logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps.com'''&quot;. With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p7.jpg|right|880px]]

'''PC-C2.5.3''' ''2012.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.4 but with date between the &quot;FROM&quot; (ZIP code) and the Stamps.com logo.
: Seen with tracking number at right of the frank, on a customs form.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: PDF417(7) barcode

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC2point6.jpg|right|500px]]


'''PC-C2.6.0.''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps.com'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-C2.7.1.'''
: With &quot;DPDF417&quot; barcode as with Types PC-C2.1 through PC-C2.5 but without &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo.
: Top panel contains USPS eagle logo and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at left.
: Tracking number above the barcode.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00, {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the 2D barcode


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4B.jpg|right|1000px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C2.7.2.'''


: Similar to Type PC-C2.7.1 but very wide imprint with '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo above usps.com (without the eagle-head logo)/ &quot;US POSTAGE / PAID&quot; at left.
: Along the bottom are the weight, date, Mailed from ZIP code, and meter identification number with &quot;062S&quot; prefix.
: ''It appears that this stamp is generated only for International Priority and Express mail services.''
: Two versions are known:
:: '''A'''. Tracking barcode at far left in the panel. Smaller lower panel contains the mail class statement.
:: '''B'''. Smaller stamp, traditional barcode at center of panel, USPS logo at far left. A Customs Declaration statement appears above the traditional barcode. No lower panel containing a mail class statement, and no indication anywhere of the mail service being used.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-C6.jpg|right|140px]]

'''PC-C3.1.''' 2007.
: Stamp with horizontal &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode.
: Small frank with value figures at top above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, class of mail, &quot;FROM&quot; ZIP code, and date.
: Below the date are the stamps.com logo, the barcode, and identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C7.jpg|right|195px]]

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2aa.jpg|right|175px]]
'''PC-C3.2.1'''
:  As Type PC-C3.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
:  '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
:: '''a'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''b'''. Town line without ZIP code showing &quot;FROM&quot; alone
[[File: USA stamp type PC3p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''NOTE''': These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right. Other label sizes and shapes exist. See below.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3p3.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-C3.3.''' 2018.
: Identification number and Stamps.com logo read down at far right.
: From the top down, point-of-sale data is:
:: Value figures
:: '''US POSTAGE'''
:: mail class
:: ZIP code and date
:: Horizontal IBI Lite bar code
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-C3.2 250115.png|right|150px]]

'''PC-C3.5.''' 2022.
: Most similar to Type PC-C3.1 but without company identification.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 

::::-A [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
::::-B [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
[[File:PC-C3.5B 250116.png|right|150px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA PC-F10.jpg|right|940px]]


'''PC-C4.1.1.''' 2002.
:  Very wide design with large &quot;Delivery Confirmation&quot; 1D barcode at center and square Datamatrix barcode at right.
: Above the 2D barcode are the weight, ZIP code, ID# with 062S prefix, and date.
: At far left is the class of mail above “US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID”.
: Without value figures. The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo is below the 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

 '''PC-C4.1.2.'''. With value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.1.''' (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo below 2D barcode)[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1D.jpg|right|940px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.1.'''. With &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo and value figures at top above the 2D barcode: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo at top)[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10B.jpg|right|940px]]

:: '''a'''. Without tracking barcode at center[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10aa.jpg|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.2.'''. Without value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.2.1.''' 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9 complete.jpg|right|540px]]


'''PC-C5.1.''' 2011.
:  The point-of-sale text is immediately to the left of the square Datamatrix barcode rather than above. 
: The frank appears unframed at the top of an address label.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.  
: The country name is not in or near the frank, but &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; is found at bottom below the mail class.
: With value figures
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C5.2.'''. As '''PC-C5.1.''',Without value figures[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9B.jpeg|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''SE1''' and '''SE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F7.jpg|right|540px]]
[[File: USA PC-F8.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C6.3.1.''' 2002.[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|6px]]V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: Downloaded directly from the Stamps.com web site. 
: Square Datamatrix barcode at right with &quot;stamps.com&quot; reading up to its right. 
: Text left justified as follows: 
: Value figures at top above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, ID number, and ZIP code
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C6.3.2.''' Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; above date, ID# with 062S prefix, ZIP code, rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''PC-C9.1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.1 250331.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} Similar to &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} New &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Mail class indicator using &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font as opposed to &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; in &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;.
::: {{space|10}} Prefix &quot;'''063S'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with three lines in upper right and &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.3'''&quot;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C9.2.''' 2024.[[File: PC-C2.4.3.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo replacing the stamps / endicia logo at the right of &quot;PDF417(8)&quot; barcode. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with two lines in upper right and &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.1'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| (063S0002805278)?
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 11/25/2024
| ID number misprinted
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 03/19/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 05/19/2025
|
|-

|}


'''PC-C9.3''' 2025.[[File: PC-C2.4.4 250802.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer's ID number and mailer’s Zip code at top right below &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| 063S0001442661
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950305
| 9786065
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 03580
| 
| 07/28/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950364
| 10606251
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 20850
| Rockville, MD
| 12/03/2024
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950380 
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.4.''' ''2025.''
: As Type PC-C2.6.0 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE imi&quot; is to the right of the value figures.[[File: PC-C2.6.1.png|right|500px]]
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: New '''Stamps''' logo to the right of the bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.5.'''  ''2025''
:  As Type PC-C3.2.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE IMI'''&quot;
:  tHE NEW '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''063S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;

[[File: PC-C3.2.3 250217.png|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''NOTES''':
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-D: Franks from Pitney Bowes software, ID numbers with 02#P, 02#W, or 07#P prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The earlier stamps show logos consisting of an eagle's head and wing. Later stamps are generic, text and bar code only, but most include &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; in the design. One stamp, Type PC-D4, does not include the company name and is identifiable as a Pitney Bowes product only by the identification number with &quot;02&quot; prefix.
* Identification number prefixes seen so far are 022P, 024P, 022W, 026W and 071P.
* Pitney Bowes PC stamps began field testing in the Washington DC area in December 1998.

{{font/end}}
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0B.jpg|right|415px]]
'''PC-D0. “ClickStamp Online”''', probably 1998. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with small eagle profile image at upper right. Left of the eagle are the date, value figures,  and “US POSTAGE” with three stars. Above the “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode field are the identification number at left and “Mailed From Zip Code” and ZIP code.

: Identification number with 022P000230 prefix.
:: '''A'''. The type font is somewhat heavy. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has no serif. Three reported:
::: 1) ID number 022P0002300165, ZIP code 20260 
::: 2) ID number 022P0002306771, ZIP code 20032
::: 3) ID number 022P0002307167, ZIP code 13057
:: '''B'''. The type font is somewhat lighter. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has serif at bottom. ID number 022P0002306600, ZIP code 20260
: V/F: {{space|2}} $ ~0.00&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 
 
: '''NOTE''': This stamp type was previously cataloged as an essay (ESY-DB4.4) until verifiably postally used covers were identified.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E2.jpg|right|415px]]

'''PC-D1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 21 April 1999. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with eagle with wavy wing below &quot;FIM&quot; barcode. 
: Stamp with “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, date, value figures, ZIP code, and identification number stacked at right.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Class of mail vertical at left side.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o
 
: '''NOTE''': When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2B.jpg|right|430px]]

'''PC-D2.1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 2000. 
: Similar to Type PC-D1 but straight eagle's wing above &quot;PITNEY BOWES&quot;. 
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. Inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; with stops. &quot;MAILED FROM ZIP CODE&quot; one line, all capitals.
:: '''B'''. Inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; without stops. &quot;Mailed from ZIP Code&quot; in two lines, mixed case.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

'''NOTES''':
: 1)  When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.
: 2)  The system allows for a re-date stamp without postage value (as shown below).

: 3)  Pitney Bowes required at least some users of ClickStamp Online to send them a sample print once a year on an envelope marked withe the components of the user's system. (Example shown below right.)

[[File: USA PC-E3 redate.jpg|left|330px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2.1 NOTE 3.jpeg|right|500px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E4.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-D2.2. “ClickStamp Online”'''. 
: This is the postage correction frank used with the software system that produced type PC-D2.1.
: The eagle is larger than with type PC-D2.1 and in line with the date which is above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; rather than below.
: Large “POSTAGE CORRECTION” below eagle.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Without town line or ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc, 
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address 
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'')
{{font/end}}
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p1A.jpg|right|345px]]
[[File: USA PC-F6.jpg|right|515px]]

'''PC-D3.1A. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: As with PC-D1 through PC-D2.3, with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the ID number with 071P prefix. 
: Basic stamp without framing. Top line contains value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;. 
::: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.1B. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: Box B2 &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below. Top line &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;.  With rate statement instead of value figures.
: No Box A, Box B the dividing line extends the entire height of the box. 
: Identification number  071P prefix

:: '''A'''. &quot;'''FCM'''&quot; in Box B1
::: '''a'''.  Box B2 &quot;'''US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID'''&quot;/DATE    &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; / / &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode / &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;     Identification number
:::: '''1'''. Box C: &quot;'''USPS FIRST CLASS'''&quot;
::::: '''-a'''. Box B2: 3rd line &quot;1oz First-Class Parcel rate&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD5''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1A.jpg|right|530px]]
[[File: USA PC-G1B.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-D3.2.''' 
: Found only on labels downloaded from internet vendor eBay. 
: In panel across the top are the USPS eagle logo at left and the '''eBay''' logo at right.
: Inside the stamp frame: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and rate statement centered above the &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the identification number with 024P prefix.
: Large rate indicator in frame at left.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: {{font|size=2|color=red|See also '''PC-D3.3B.6'''}}

:: '''A'''. With value figures
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3'''.
: Similar to Type PC-D3.2,
: A large label formatted with as many as 7 subsections (&quot;'''boxes'''&quot;)
: Below &quot;'''Box A'''&quot; if present, or at the top there are two boxes (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; at the left and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; at the right)
: Within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the “'''PDF417(7)'''” 2D barcode there is nothing above the barcode. 
: Also within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; are 3 '''stacks''', 
: '''Stack B2.1''' &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; (''or variation''), date, “From” and ZIP code, weight, and optionally a Zone number are stacked at left.
: '''Stack B2.2''' Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and a rate statement or statements at the center. 
: '''Stack B2.3''' Meter number/ID number at right.
: The ID number has 022W, 024P, or 026W prefix.
: In a smaller box at left (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot;) is a large letter code representing the mail class.
: In a wide box (&quot;'''Box C'''&quot;) below &quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the class of mail.
: If present the value figures appear above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;.
: '''Labels may be framed or unframed'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A'''. With value figures
: A large label with 6 boxes &quot;'''FS5'''&quot;(&quot;'''Boxes B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A1'''.
:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A2'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date   [[File: PC-D3.3A3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''A'''. '''026W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0004

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 32961
| VERO BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897622
| CommPrice
| 10/18/2023
| 29568
| 
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:: '''B'''. '''028W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0002

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310688
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2024
| 34293
| VENICE FL
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A3'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date as &quot;'''PC-D3.3A3'''&quot;, Box A with &quot;'''UNITED STATES / POSTAL SERVICE ®'''&quot; and emblem on left.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B'''. With rate statement

'''PC-D3.3B.1'''.[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3.jpg|right|500px]]

::''' Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

'''PC-D3.3B.1.1'''.  Prefix &quot;'''21B'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0050723999
| CommPrice
| 07/20/2022
| 07112
| Newark NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060312094
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 07036
| Linden NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060494251
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 90670
| Santa fe springs CA
| Box F: order data
|}

'''PC-D3.3B.1.2'''.  Prefix &quot;'''26W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
|
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897242
| ComPlsPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 07419
|
|
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 026W0004897590
| 
| 01/02/2021
| 97239
| Portland OR
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897774
| CommPlsPrice
| 07/31/2020
| 60490
| Bolingbrook IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897814
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2021
| 91304
| Los Angeles CA
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
|
|
| 54843
|
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.1C''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4A.0.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.1A.B''' but with customer ID at lower right
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE''' above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897326
| 3000093152
| ComPlsPrice
| 12/04/2020
| 91706
| IRWINDALE CA
| ID numbers in larger font
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897491
| 3000008007
| CommPrice
| 05/23/2019
| 48114
| BRIGHTON MI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.2'''.[[File: PC-D3.3B.1.png|right|500px]]

:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE / PAID''' in two lines  above the date


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 12/29/2021
| 54843 
| Hayward WI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.3A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W [[File: PC-D3.3B.3A-H 2501002.png|right|500px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''H'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0002310502
| CommPrice
| 08/04/2025
| 33068
| North Lauderdale FL
| &quot;'''HAZMAT-Surface Transportation Only'''&quot;
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 01/26/2023
| 13147
| SCIPIO CENTER NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897242 
| CommPrice
| 08/16/2022
| 93943
| MONTEREY CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897400
| CommPrice
| 05/24/2023
| 16063
| ZELIENOPLE PA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897451
| CommPrice
| 11/24/2023
| 95240
| LODI CA
|
|-
| PS4
| '''P'''
| '''XIII'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/23/2023
| 98239
| COUPEVILLE WA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 03/07/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 02/02/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 12/06/2023
| 81413
| CEDAREDGE CO
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897778
| CommPrice
| 02/27/2023
| 76013
| PANTEGO TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 026W0004897790
| CommPrice
| 11/01/2022
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897812
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2023
| 11432
| JAMAICA NY
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897816
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2022
| 33770
| LARGO FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897817
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 77030
| HOUSTON TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897878
| CommPrice 
| 08/25/2022
| 66505
| MANHATTAN KS
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 01/23/2023
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 02/04/2022
| 45806
| CRIDERSVILLE OH
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 11/21/2023
| 95628
| FAIR OAKS CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897939
| CommPrice
| 03/28/2022
| 55304
| ANDOVER MN
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897942
| CommPrice
| 04/29/2022
| 06514
| HAMDEN CT
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004898023
| CommPrice
| 09/23/2022
| 75150
| MESQUITE TX
|
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.3B'''
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date [[File: PC-D3.3B.3B 250415.png|right|500px]]
:: Meter numbers: 028W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310364
| CommPrice
| 03/18/2024
| 96003
| REDDING CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 02/05/2024
| 34222
| ELLENTON FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2024
| 11735
| FARMINGDALE NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311374
| CommPrice
| 02/22/2024
| 33436
| BOYNTON BEACH FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311472
| CommPrice
| 03/04/2025
| 92376
| RIALTO CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.1''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897241
| 3001124484
| ComPlsPrice
| 06/17/2022
| 93380
| VISALIA CA
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.2''' 
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310218 
| 3000559694
| 
| 02/03/2023
| 98144
| SEATTLE WA
| Box F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 028W0002310350
| 3001704288
| CommPrice
| 02/03/2023
| 80907
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.4B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4B.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310174
| 3002184618
| CommPrice
| 07/08/2024
| 60647
| CHICAGO IL
| 
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5A''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5a.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897798
| CommPrice
| 01/24/2023
| 30907
| MARTINEZ GA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5B.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W
:: Customer Identification Number below meter number

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.6'''
:: A large label with 6 sections, 7 boxes  (&quot;'''Boxes A, B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
:: A box (&quot;'''Box A''') across the top containing the USPS eagle logo and &quot;UNITED STATES/ POSTAL SERVICE&quot; at left and a mailer's logo or identification at right. 
:: {{font|size=2|color=red|'''NOTE:''' ''For examples with'' '''Penalty of Fines Under 18 / USC 3571 for Private Use''' ''see'' '''OO-M1'''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6A'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.1.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''026W'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897242
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2022
| 19565
| WERNERSVILLE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897406
| CommPrice
| 05/30/2020
| 92859
| ORANGE CA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897486
| CommPrice
| 08/19/2023
| 76002
| ARLINGTON TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/24/2023
| 35952
| SNEAD AL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897526
| CommPrice
| 11/16/2020
| 98243
| Deer Harbor WA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 12/18/2020
| 49801
| Iron Mountain MI
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2020
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| small, 85 x 136mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897623
| CommPrice
| 05/08/2023
| 50010
| AMES IA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897876
| CommPrice
| 05/18/2020
| 92404
| San B CAernardino
| small, 83 x 130mm
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| 
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
|
| 30513
|
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| 
| 026W0004897941
| CommPrice
|
| 60108
|
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1B'''
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''028W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310428
| 
| 06/18/2024
| 60512
| MONTGOMERY IL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310575
| 
| 05/31/2024
| 34677
| OLDSMAR FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311092
| CommPrice
| 06/13/2024
| 11103
| ASTORIA NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B.1'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.11.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897813
| CommPrice
| 06/30/2022
| 07111
| IRVINGTON NJ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6C'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE / AND FEES PAID'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6C.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3C.jpg|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with “'''www.pitneybowes.com'''”

{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: For labels of this type used by an US Government Agency and with a Penalty statement see type &quot;'''OO-M1'''&quot;}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897572
| CommPrice
| 06/29/2021
| 76155
| 
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6D'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6D.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3dd.jpg|right|500px]]

: '''Box A''' with “'''www.paypal.com'''”


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6?
| '''X'''
| '''X'''
| 026W0004897485
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 55422
| 
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p4.jpg|right|530px]]
'''PC-D3.4'''
: Similar to PC-D3.3 but with tracking number added above the PDF417 2D barcode.
: Stacked at left of the 2D barcode are &quot;usps.com&quot;, the value figures, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, a rate statement, and in the bottom corner, the date.
: Centered below the 2D barcode are “Mailed from” and ZIP code and “024P”.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}}  $00'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|color=green|'''''NOTE: The stamp previously cataloged as Type PC-D3.5 is now a sub-type of PC-D3.3.'''''}}
[[File: PC-D3.5.png|right|1000px]]

'''PC-D3.5'''
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI'''&quot; in two lines
: Unboxed rate class designation letter
: &quot;'''PDF417(7)'''&quot; 2-D barcode on right
: Meter Identification on right above customer Identification number
: Meter identification number: 028W followed by 10 digits
: On customs declaration form (CD)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.1.'''
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G6.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Similar to Type PC-D3.4 but in wider format with the tracking barcode at far left.
: Meter number seen with &quot;024P&quot; prefix.
: With value figures below &quot;PAID&quot;.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.2.'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.7.jpeg|right|1000px]]

: Wide format as with PC-D4.1 but &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and the mail class are at far left with the tracking barcode below.
: The postage data is found below the PDF417 barcode, as follows:
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix
:: Pitney Bowes (with &quot;CommPrice&quot; [or value figures?] below)
:: date
:: &quot;From&quot; ZIP code
:: weight
:: (destination) zone

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.3.1.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.1 260630.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID '''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.3.2.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.4.'''[[File: PC-D4.4 250914.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.4 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; at right above Identification number.
:: Two black bars complete from left to right
:: ID# with &quot;028W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.1.'''
: At right is the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix
: At left: date/ ZIP code/ weight
: Always found on framed address label, and never with value figures.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.1A.''' [[File: USA PC-F9.jpg|right|500px]]
: At left solid block rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix at base


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.1B.'''[[File: PC-D5.1B.png|right|500px]]
: At left outline rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix in middle

::: '''-1'''. Meter identification number positioned as in the illustration  for '''PC-D5.1A.'''
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.2.''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B.jpg|right|307px]]
: Similar to Type PC-D4.1 but &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; is vertical reading up at left.
: The rate, date, ZIP code, and weight are stacked between &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; (italicized) at top and the identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &quot;'''Found only on International postage/address/customs forms purchased online from the USPS web site.'''&quot;
: The complete form is shown reduced at right. Occurs in at least two types:
::::{{space|5}}  Type I {{space|5}}  &quot;To/From&quot; horizontal
::::{{space|5}}  Type II {{space|4}}  &quot;To/From&quot; vertical
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00 or nil
:{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: &quot;'''For labels of this type the collector should save the whole form'''&quot;}}


:: '''A'''. With &quot;ONLINE DISCOUNT RATE&quot; below US POSTAGE PAID  
:: '''B'''. With postage paid shown in dollars and cents [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9point1B.jpg|right|307px]]
:: '''C'''. Without rate, blank between US POSTAGE PAID and the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B document.jpg|right|800px]]
[[File: PC-D5.2z.png|right|800px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.3. “Shipstream Manager”''', 2006.[[File: USA PC-F11.jpg|right|888px]]
: Very wide design with square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode at right and large tracking barcode at center.
: Above the 2D barcode are the date, ZIP code, weight, and &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: Below the 2D barcode is the ID number with 024P prefix.
: At far left is “US POSTAGE PAID” above the class of mail.
:: '''A'''. With rate statement instead of value figures.
:: '''B'''. With value figures above the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-D4point3B.jpeg|right|888px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3point1.jpg|right|570px]]

'''PC-D5.4. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2011. 
:  As Type PC-D4.5 but with &quot;www.pbSmartPostage.com&quot; instead of the eBay logo. 
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.5.''' (presumed to be '''“Shipstream Manager”'''), 2013.[[File: USA stamp type PC-F15.jpg|right|888px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D4.3 but with the elements rearranged.
: The identification number, date, &quot;From&quot; Zip code, and weight are below the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: The tracking barcode is at far left rather than center.
: At near left of the Datamatrix barcode is &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and the mail class are at far left above the tracking barcode.
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


:: '''A'''. With value figures above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.6. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2006. 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00 {{space|2}} [scarce]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.7. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA PC-G3B.jpg|right|495px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.8.0 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;'''[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3C.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.8.1 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-G3D.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  V/F: {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures or without but with rate statement
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9A.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260706.png|right|475px]]

:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629585
| ComBasPrice
| 12/28/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629647
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629652
| ComBasPrice
| 06/21/2014
| 10509
| BREWSTER NY
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007629756
| 
| 03/17/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629758
| ComBasPrice
| 12/11/2012
| 32812
| ORLANDO FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629777
| ComBasPrice
| 03/15/2017
| 17362
| SPRING GROVE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629797
| CommBasPrice
| 10/19/2015
| 01970
| Salem MA
| 108 x 155 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007632129
| ComBasPrice
| 06/01/2019
| 85203
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007776044
| 
| 02/25/2016
| 32701
| ALTAMONTE SPG FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776131
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776147
| ComBasPrice
| 10/17/2016
| 76251
| MONTAGUE TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776172
| ComBasPrice
| 11/27/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776173
| ComBasPrice
| 08/18/2015
| 20904
| SILVER SPRING MD
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776210
| ComBasPrice
| 10/27/2015
| 33187
| MIAMI FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776653
| ComBasPrice
| 09/12/2016
| 12992
| WEST CHAZY NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776711
| ComBasPrice
| 10/12/2016
| 60543
| OSWEGO IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 01/20/2015
| 85211
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 10/06/2015
| 33161
| FLORIDA CITY FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875960
| CommBasPrice
| 10/05/2015
| 01610
| Worcester MA
| 96 x 151 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876028
| ComBasPrice
| 01/12/2019
| 22301
| ALEXANDRIA VA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876132
| ComBasPrice
| 11/10/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 024P0007876133
| CommBasPrice
| 06/18/2018
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 92 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876173
| CommBasPrice
| 02/11/2019
| 30097
| Duluth GA
| 101 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876761
| ComBasPrice
| 10/13/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876771
| ComBasPrice
| 03/12/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.0.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.png|right|475px]]
[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260630.png|right|475px]]
:  Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Small &quot;'''ebay'''&quot;, large space between the base of the &quot;'''y'''&quot; and the frame


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629802
| CommBasPrice
| 11/25/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 86 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776072
| CommBasPrice
| 11/19/2018
| 65803
| Springfield MO
| Blue label stock, 96 x 156 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776728
| CommBasPrice
| 07/05/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 87 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875976
| CommBasPrice
| 11/22/2019
| 02532
| 
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876188
| CommBasPrice
| 05/28/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 96 x 155mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876772
| CommBasPrice
| 12/23/2019
| 98245
| Eastsound WA
| 96 x 155mm
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 4 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.2.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.2 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.1.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Font in Boxes B2 and C &quot;'''USPSIMB'''&quot; (either Compact or Standard?)
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 2 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.0 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 4 lines at left, Date/Zip Code/ Weight/ Zone


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 2 lines at left, Date/Zip Code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D5.7.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-D6.0''', 2021. 
:  Similar to PC-D5.2 but with '''Pitney Bowes''' at the top of the point-of-sale data stacked at left of the Datamatrix barcode. 
:  Datamatrix barcode (DM4) 19 mm square, with 4 data blocks
:  Below '''Pitney Bowes''' are the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''' or '''US POSTAGE IMI''', a mail class statement.
:   a ten-digit number, &quot;3000156428&quot; evidently the customer identification number, the ZIP code and the date.
:  V/F: $0.00o 
:  This stamp arises from the new partnership between eBay and Pitney Bowes for &quot;eBay Delivery Service&quot; shipping.

:: '''A'''.  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE''', identification number with 026W prefix,
:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;


'''NOTE''': Type PC-D6 is nearly identical in appearance to Type QB7. They differ only in color and in the ten-digit number that appears below the identification number, '''black''' and '''3''' for PC-D5.7, and '''red''' and '''2''' for QB7.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D6.1.0''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left, Datamatrix barcode 20 mm square, with 4 data blocks, identification number with 026W prefix,
:  Datamatrix barcode 15 mm square, with 4 data blocks, or 27mm square,
:  Identification number with 026W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D6.1.1''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left,
:  Datamatrix barcode 18-19 mm  with 4 data blocks, 
:  Identification number with 028W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-E: Franks from Envelope Manager (Endicia) software, ID numbers mostly with 07#V prefix but also 07#M, 07#S, 06#S and without ID number}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All the stamps have a generic design, bar code and text. The earlier stamps include &quot;endicia.com&quot; in the design and later ones are identifiable only by the identification number which is most commonly 071V although 071M and 071S are also found. From 2024 on, 062, and 063 are also found. An exception is Type PC-E2.2, Sub-type A, which does not show an identification number.
* When first released (February 2001) the system was labeled by Indicia as &quot;'''DAZzle 2000'''&quot;.

* On November 18, 2015 Stamps.com (see Sub-group PC-C) acquired Endicia. In 2024, Stamps.com and Endicia were once again seperate, being individual divisions under a holding company.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE1''' in 2001 edition''}}

'''PC-E1.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2000. [[File: USA PC-F2A.jpg|right|316px]]
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: “US POSTAGE” at top right. 
: Stacked at center: value figures / class of mail / date / town line. 
: ID# with 071M, 071S, or 071V prefix at bottom right.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000


::'''PC-E1.1A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''.  Top portion above 2D barcode shifted far to the left (shown at right). This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F2aa.jpg|right|316px]]
::: '''b'''.  With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of '&quot;endicia.com&quot; at bottom left
::: '''c'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


::'''PC-E1.1B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F2B.jpg|right|500px]]


::'''PC-E1.1C''' As '''PC-E1.1A''' but with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.


::: '''a'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F3A.jpg|right|310px]]


'''PC-E1.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: As Type PC-E1.1 but the point-of-sale data is at left rather than in the center, and the sequence of data is different. 
: At top left: value figures/ date/ rate information
: At top right: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;/ &quot;Mailed from ZIP...&quot;
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left
: Identification number with 071V prefix
: Never with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode.
: V/F: $0'''.'''00


:: '''PC-E1.2A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.
::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.2A-b.png|right|800px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F3B.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''d'''. Without rate information below the date[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p2dd.jpg|right|500px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2C'''. &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users


'''PC-E1.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.2 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: “POSTAGE AND FEES PAID” at top above date, ZIP code, and rate statement. 
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left


::'''PC-E1.3A'''. Basic stamp without framing [[File: USA PC-F4A.jpg|right|324px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F4bb.jpg|right|415px]]


::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.3A-b.png|right|800px]]


::'''PC-E1.3B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F4B.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Line A Equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00515554
| A13
| 
| OCT 27 2011
| 55337
| BURNSVILLE MN
| NO TRACKING BARCODE
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A11
| Commercial Base Price
| JAN 5 2015
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| APR 12 2016
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| JAN 3 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| FEB 17 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| Commercial Base Price
| MAR 1 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00548099
| A13
| 
| APR 17 2007
| 83333
|
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| solid black
| '''VIII'''
| 071V00682520
| A7
| 
| FEB 6 2009
| 80922
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|-
| '''FS3'''
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 071V01059238
| A11
| Commercial Plus Price
| SEP 8 2020
| 30071
| NORCROSS GA
|
|}
{{font/end}}


::: '''e'''. As '''B''', with question mark after the mail class statement: '''PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY?'''
::::  (This may be a computer error with the question mark printing in place of a registration mark (''R in circle'').)[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E1p3ee.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''f'''. Without the &quot;Box C&quot; containing the class of mail below the frank [[File: USA stamp type PC-E3p1ff.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''g'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, no tracking info[[File: PC-E1.3B-g.png|right|300px]]


::: '''h'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, endicia emblem at right[[File: PC-E1.3B-h.png|right|300px]]


::'''PC-E1.3C'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users[[File: USA PC-F4aa.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071M prefix


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::'''PC-E1.3D'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at lower left, [[File: PC-E1.3D.png|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 062S prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-E1.4. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.3B but with logo and &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at upper right.
: The ID number is above the 2D bar code at right.
: The date is below the mail class designation at left.
: Identification number with &quot;071V&quot; prefix.
: Seem on large label that includes customs information.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F5.jpg|right|530px]]

'''PC-E2.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) ''', 2002.
: Found only on the top of large address labels downloaded directly from the USPS web site. 
: In wide box at right is the 2D &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: To the left of the 2D barcode are &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; vertical, &quot;WWW.USPS.COM&quot;, value figures, and date.
: A series of nine 4-digit numbers is above the 2D barcode, and the ZIP code and identification number with 071V prefix are below.
: Very large “P” (for Priority Mail) or “E” (for Express Mail) in box at left. 
: Across the bottom is the class of mail spelled out.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00  [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|15px]]$00'''.'''00


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2 B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-E2.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Identification number, with 071V prefix, at right of the ZIP code

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00

:: '''Note'''. For similar item without identification number see &quot;'''PC-G3'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-E2.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. [[File: USA stamp type PC-G5.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Nearly identical to Types PC-C5.2 (Stamps.com) and PC-D3.3 (Pitney Bowes) except for the identification number which has &quot;071V&quot; prefix.


'''PC-E3.1. Endicia.com ''', 2010.

: Square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode at right with company identity reading down at far right.
: Text from top, at left of barcode: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;, mail class (''may be omitted''), date (mmm dd yyyy), ZIP code, rate statement (''may be omitted''), &quot;CommBasePrice&quot; or &quot;CommPlusPrice&quot; (''may be omitted'')
: Later stamps also include a second, more specific, rate statement. (''see the image for &quot;b&quot; below'')
: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


:: '''A1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (longer than DataMatrix is tall), barred &quot;I&quot; font[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12 better.jpg|right|520px]]

::: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''c'''. Printed on short label containing tracking bar code but not the destination address[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p1cc.jpg|right|320px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''e'''. Datamatrix bar code field contains vertical bars, probably caused by a malfunction [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E2p1ee.jpg|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''A2.1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font 

::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''b'''. Text at top truncated: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES P&quot;[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12bb.jpg|right|550px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071S00799149
| A17
| Commercial Plus Pricing
| Nov 27 2017
| 37801
| MARYVILLE TN
| 
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 19 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 22 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| 
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00913234
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice
| Aug 04 2014
| 33351
| SUNRISE FL
| subtype &quot;b&quot;
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Feb 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Oct 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|}

:: '''A2.2'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font [[File:PC-E3.1A2.png|right|550px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''f'''. Datamatrix bar code field is wider than tall, not square [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.1ff.jpg|right|380px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| black box
| VIII
| 071V00908463
| A16
| 
| Dec 21 2017
| 75104
| CEDAR HILL TX
| 2 copies, framed
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071V00970570
| A17
| CommercialBasePrice
| Jun 05 2018
| 28052
|
| shorter Enddicia on right
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}


:: '''B1'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; (''first seen in late 2018'')

::: Unframed
::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.

:::::'''-1''' Top two lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-1.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-2''' All but top line and fifth line bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-2.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-3''' All lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-3.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''B2'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; [[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.1B.jpg|right|540px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.

:  ''subtypes unknown ''
::::: '''a'''. Datamatrix barcode field omitted
::::: '''d'''. Printed without the tracking bar code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12point1.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.2. Endicia.com''', 2014.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 with square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode, but the value figures are at upper left and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; is alone at top center.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p3.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-E3.3A. Endicia.com''', 2015.
: Similar to Types PC-E3.1 and PC-E3.2 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is lower, below the date and ZIP code.
: The value figures are at far left.
: One seen, with &quot;FIM&quot; bar code at upper left.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads down.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3p3B.jpg|right|365px]]

'''PC-E3.3B. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads up.


Note:  Items formersly listed as &quot;'''PC-E3.3C'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.3D'''&quot; are now listed  as &quot;'''PC-E3.8.1'''&quot; AND &quot;'''PC-E3.8.2'''&quot; RESPECTIVELY.
      

[[File:USA stamp type PC-E2p4.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.4. Endicia.com''', 2016.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 but inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE PAID&quot; without &quot;AND FEES&quot;. Also the inscription is centered rather than high.
: Below &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; is &quot;From ZIP ##### and a rate statement.
: Rather than a large mail classification code, the mailer's name and address is found in the box at left.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.5.jpeg|right|410px]]

'''PC-E3.5. Endicia.com''', 2018.
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types but with round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; horizontal at bottom left instead of vertical at right.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, price modification statement, date, ZIP code, identification number, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID''' identification&lt;/i&gt;) number, and the Endicia logo.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.

: The example reported was used on international mail.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.6. Endicia''', 2024. [[File:PC-E3.6.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.1A2'''
: No line separating Box B1 and Box B2.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, '''IMI''' following mail class
: Price modification statement, date, ZIP code, Mail class 1, Mail class 2, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) number, Mail class 3.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.7. Endicia''', 2025. [[File:PC-E3.7 251201.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.6'''
: Text at left of barcode: At top: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; above the weight and mail class, 
: Stacked below are:Mail Class I with '''IMI''' following mail class, date, ZIP code, Mail class 2, Mail class 3, Mail class 4, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) 8 digit number, .
: F/V: &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

:: '''PC-E3.7.1'''. With green banner to left inscribed &quot;'''USPS CERTIFIED MAIL &lt;sup&gt;TM&lt;/sup&gt;'''&quot;, barcode below

[[File:PC-E3.7.1.png|right|650px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3B.jpg|right|230px]]

'''PC-E3.8.1. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with different endicia logo.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
'''NOTE''': The extremely narrow stamp impression shown appears to be a printer/feeder error rather than a software variation.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3D.jpg|right|365px]]
'''PC-E3.8.2. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3C but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-E3.9. Endicia''' [[File:PC-E3.9 260623.png|right|410px]]
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; on the rate class line
: ID# with '''063S''' prefix seen.
: '''endicia''' reads down.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E4.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E4.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 3 lines at top right, ID at top, customer ID below, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]:  &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot; ['''XXIX''']   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E5.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E5.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 2 lines at top right, ID at top, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]: &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE TM&quot; ['''VI'''],  &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”] ['''XVIII''']  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-F: Franks generated by EasyPost software, with &quot;easypost&quot; in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* EasyPost is a software company that provides companies with integrated shipping options through USPS and several private carriers.
* The company was founded in 2012 although the first stamp came to our attention in 2016.
{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F1.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2016 but possibly as early as 2012.
: The stamps we have seen appear on large address labels.
: The stamp contains a PDF417 barcode which sits under &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; and '''{{font|size=5|easypost}}''' at the right of the stamp.
: Left of the barcode are the date, ZIP code, &quot;CID&quot; (''number'') or &quot;C&quot; (number), and '''COMBASE''' or '''ComBasPrice''' (with no value figures).
: Along the bottom are the weight and identification number with &quot;0901&quot; prefix.
:: '''A'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
:: '''B'''. The stamp appears by itself with no framing or large mail class indicator


&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-F1.2.png|right|475px]]

'''PC-F1.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025 

: As type &quot;'''PC-F1.1'''&quot; With heavier and slightly different typeface and spacing.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter Number&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5?
| G
| 0901000008391
| C4190745
| 
| 2025-04-08
| 29169
|
|-
| FS5
| G
| 0901000019068
| C4002372
| 
| 2025-05-19
| 90640
|
|-
|}
 
 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1p2.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.1. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;
: The text, including '''{{font|size=4|easypost}}''', is in a lighter and wider font than found on PC-F1.
: Also, without &quot;CID&quot; and number and with small '''ComBasPrice''' instead of '''COMBASE'''.
: And finally, the zeros are slashed.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-F2.2 260621mh.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.2. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F2.1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID IMI&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;
: The text/ font is similar to that found on PC-F1.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1.3.jpg|right|540px]]

'''PC-F3.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2021.

: As Type PC-F1 but the {{font|size=4|'''easypost.'''}} logo now has a period after it. The web address &quot;{{size=2|'''easypost.com/signup'''}}&quot; was added below the logo.

: This stamp includes a postage value which is preceded by &quot;Retail&quot; on the stamp we have seen.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00
: '''Note''': The origin ZIP code and customer ID have been blurred in the stamp photo.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:Easypost PC-F1.4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F3.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo as PC-F3.1
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}} &quot;'''F'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004578 {{space|4}}C4000013 {{space|4}}83713 {{space|4}}2022-09-02{{space|4}}BOISE, ID
::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004698 {{space|4}} {{space|4}}28405 {{space|4}}{{space|4}}WILMINGTON, NC


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo different
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000005499 {{space|4}}C4017644 {{space|4}}83709 {{space|4}}2022-11-18{{space|4}}BOISE, ID


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F5.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.2a.png|right|650px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F4.4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.4. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot; without the web address.

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! Customer ID
! Note
|-
| FS5 wide
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000001316
| Commercial
| 2024-11-11
| 43228
| C4018567
| 012.0 ZONE 2
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000008901
| Commercial
| 2023-12-01
| 60607
| C4650528
| 0.10 CUBIC ZONE 3
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000010389
| Commercial
| 2023-12-28
| 63376
| C5299422
| 5.0 OZ ZONE 4
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''XXXI'''
| 0901000014322
| Commercial
| 2024-06-27
| 63376
| C5299422
| 0.20 CUBIC ZONE 4
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.5. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.5 250415.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.6. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2026.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.
::: &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot;


[[File:PC-F4.6 250901B.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F55.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F5. &quot;Chit Chats&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.2'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Chit Chats'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F6.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F6. &quot;Sendle&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Sendle&gt;'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-G: Franks generated by U.S. Postal Service software, without a vendor's identification number.}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* These stamps are a type of Post Office stamp (Group PO) but because they are generated online at the Postal Services's web site, they are listed here..
* The stamp was first reported in 2021.
{{font/end}}


----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1.jpg|right|400px]]

'''PC-G1.''' (digital), 2021 but possibly earlier.
: The stamp is a large tracking label similar to Type PC-C5.1 with the USPS logo and &quot;Click-N-Ship&quot;® in the top panel. The ''postage'' part of the label is immediately below and at right. It contains in its upper left corner, &quot;usps.com, the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''', and a rate statement. The date is at lower left. At top right is a tracking number. At lower center is '''Mailed from''' and the ZIP code. In the center is a larger '''U.S. POSTAGE PAID''' above a small '''Click-N-Ship'''®, all backed by a field of wavy pale blue lines.
: V/F:  $(00)0.00
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1 detail.jpg|left|500px]]
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-G2.1''' (digital), 2023 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G1'''&quot; but with a square Datamatrix barcode at the right of box &quot;'''B2'''&quot;.
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mail Rate Class
! Type
! Date
! Mailed from Zip Code
! &quot;'''Box C'''&quot; Mail Class
|-
| P
| Flat Rate Env
| 05/08/2023 
| 63005
| XXX
|-
| G
| Insured
| 06/20/2024
| 02453
| VI
|-
| 
| 
|
|
|}


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.2.png|right|250px]]
'''PC-G2.2''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but with security print under &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; more heavily segmented
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PPS-G2.3.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.3''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: &quot;Box D&quot; more similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.2'''&quot;
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.4.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.4''' (digital), 2024 
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: Box A with USPS logo to left, &quot;USPS APIs&quot; to right
: &quot;Box D&quot; only with return address and destination to the right of 2D barcode
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-G2.5''' (digital), 2026 [[File: PC-G2.5 260630.png|right|250px]]
: USPS Emblem at left, above &quot;'''USPS APIs'''&quot;
: Barcode at right, above date,  &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot;
: Value &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: Postage class at base (?)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-G2.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-G3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Without identification number
: See also &quot;'''PC-E2.2'''&quot; for similar item with identification number starting with &quot;071V&quot;

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00, 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-H: Franks generated by Francotyp-Postalia software, with &quot;FP&quot; logo in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* Francotyp-Postalia first entered the U.S. postage meter market in 2000. Only one stamp has been reported so far, and it is dated from 2019. Earlier dates are likely.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'' The status of this item has been questioned, more information or scans would be important to have, please reply to editor.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-H1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-H1. &quot;Francotyp-Postalia&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2019 but probably earlier.
: The one stamp reported appears on alarge address label with the top (postage) section containing a PDF417 barcode.
: Above the barcode are, at left: the value figures and date, at center: the FP logo, and at right: '''US POSTAGE''', Mailed From [5-digit ZIP code], and the identification number with 032A prefix.

: '''ComBasPrice''' appears below the date on this stamp.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F:  $ (00)0.000
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-I: Franks generated by stamps/endicia}}====
----
'''PC-I''' 2005.

:  With &quot;''''''PC-I4'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo  replacing the stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).


'''PC-I1.1.''' Prefix &quot;'''026W'''&quot; [[File: PC-I1.1 260706.png|right|450px]]
{{font/top|size=2}}
: ’’’Known usage’’’:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 026W00048272786
| &quot;'''FREES'''&quot;
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 04/11/2022
| 07036
| LINDEN, NJ
| Box F: order info?
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
::: '''PC-I1.2.''' Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;  
{{font/top|size=2}}
[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.png|right|450px]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/16/2019
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 02/25/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/02/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/30/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, 
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 05/19/2020
| 92324
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A5
| B7
| C4
| 10/05/2018
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''E'''
| '''XXXV'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A19
| B2
| C3
| 11/25/2019
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| III
| 062S0009416802
| 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 05/10/2022
| 14150
| Chesterfield MI
| Order info, framed
|}
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.5C.jpg|right|890px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2p5B.jpg|right|860px]]

'''PC-I1.3 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps endicia'''&quot;. 
:: '''.1'''.  With value figures: {{spaces|5}} $00'''.'''00
:: '''.2'''.  With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
 

'''PC-I1.4''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo[[File: PC-C2.6B.png|right|500px]]
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.5.''' 2020.

: With barcode as with  previous PC-C2 types but with the value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at top above the date and &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and ZIP code.

: Below the bar code is the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number at right.
: The identification number prefix is uncertain as the stamp we have seen appears to suffer from a software glitch. (See the illustration.)
: PDF417(4) barcode
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''1'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  large 
:: '''2'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  small 
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.8.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.8B.png|right|400px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.6.''' 2021.
: Similar to PC-C2.8 but with a rate statement rather than value figures.
: Above the &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code:
:- US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
:- date, Mailed from ZIP [code]
:- weight and rate statement(s)
: Below the bar code: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number with 062S prefix at right

:: '''1'''. Large '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 7 digits
:: '''2'''. Small '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 10 digits, FS5 label 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.9.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.9B.png|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.7.''' 2025. [[File: PC-C8 250601.png|right|360px]]

: Similar to types &quot;'''PC-C2.1, PC-C2.2'''&quot;
: Corporate logo as '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(3)&quot; barcode.
: With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at upper left
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I2.1'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). '''Box F''' blank or with Proprietary info.
:::{{space|10}}Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(7) across bottom
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4ccc.jpg|right|450px]]
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-

| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0001435225
| 11675116
| A7
| B1
| 
| 02/24/2023
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S00014423--
| 8014--
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/12/2022
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442380
| 9726250
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 28674
| PINEHURST, NC
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442584
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442597
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442618
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 92618
| IRVINE, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442648
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442652
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/16/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442674
| 7460441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 63367
| LAKE SAINT LOUIS, MO
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442685
| 9619750
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 94931
| COTATI, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S000144269-
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0001443299
| 6080690
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001484855
| 17633955 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 03/08/2023  
| 68048
| PLATTSMOUTH, (NE)
| PC malfunction? Missing Box B2 barcode and insignia
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0008589402
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022  
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009145384
| 8290678 
| A1
| B3
| C1
| 02/05/2018
| 98338  
| GRAHAM, WA
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009146178
| 8239329
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022  
| 60543
| OSWEGO, IL
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5
| '''Black'''
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0009180090
| 7054113
| A7
| B3
| C0
| 08/16/2018
| 19007
| BRISTOL, PA
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009418949
| 7523319
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 09/22/2020  
| 30518
| Buford, GA
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009564660
| 7778491
| A1
| B3
| C3
| 10/22/2018
| 91304
| CANOGA PARK, CA
| BOX F with Business Info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009564837
| 9850040
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 01/23/2020
| 91356 
| TARZANA, CA
| 85 x 140 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0009564879
| 7733098
| A20
| B6
| C3
| 10/17/2022
| 33619
| TAMPA, FL
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009565018
| 10860336
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/06/2020 
| 33458 
| JUPITER, FL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0010887747
| 8128979
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 06/13/2022
| 33167
| MIAMI, FL
| BOX F with Prop Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010937521
| 10709064
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 02/08/2021
| 92648
| HUNTINGTON BEACH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010984631
| 10354575
| A8
| B2
| C3
| 04/27/2020
| 11791
| SYOSSET, FL (ERROR FOR NY)
| BOX F ORDER Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011128915
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 10/19/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011129014
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 09/30/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011268712
| 6822160
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 04/24/2020
| 99224
| Spokane, WA
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 02/08/2021
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS4?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 09/29/2022
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011692018
| 9897390
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/30/2020
| 55358
| Maple Lake, MN
| order info in Box F
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011692109
| 9897299
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 30101
| ACWORTH, GA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584392
| 5455555
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 10/27/2020
| 33458
| JUPITER, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584433
| 16035441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 84096
| HERRIMAN, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584494  
| 6916215
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022
| 85298
| GILBERT, AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0012584517
| 17771454
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 08/22/2022
| 32401
| PANAMA CITY, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584551 
| 7778491
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/12/2020
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584560
| 17663543 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022 
| 27525 
| FUQUAY VARINA, NC
| Please Do Not Bend
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584561
| 8072505
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475 
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352599
| 10538570
| A1
| B1
| C4
| 09/21/2022 
| 45249
| CINCINNATI, OH
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352605
| 8072505 
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| BLACK FILL
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0014949809
| 7542988
| A7
| B1
| 
| 03/25/2024
| 80116
| FRANKTOWN, CO
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950040
| 10137355
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/16/2022  
| 38474
| MOUNT PLEASANT, TN
| BOX F with Order Info

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950074
| 8014787
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F:Thank You For Your Order
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950080
| 8014787
| A5
| B4
| C4
| 12/12/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| BOX F &quot;Thank you for your order!&quot;
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950085
| 9765391
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/11/2022
| 84606
| SPRINGVILLE, UT
| BOX F with order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950089
| 9716903
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/02/2022  
| 83442
| AMMON, ID
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950092
| 9728837
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/10/2022  
| 84026
| FORT DUCHESNE, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950241 
| 8570771
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/19/2022
| 84062
| PLEASANT GROVE, UT
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950278 
| 17957223
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/03/2023
| 78245
| SAN ANTONIO, TX
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950365
| 580628?
| A6
| B2
| C3
| 09/13/2023
| 75041
| 
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950507 
| 6080690
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950544 
| 10875452
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 03/14/2023
| 19317
| CHADDS FORD, PA
| 
|}
{{font/end}}


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.2'''. ''2023''
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''Arial Nova Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.0 250331.png|right|450px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001442545
| 7537397
| A3
| B1
| C7
| 01/22/2024
| 48212
| HAMTRAMCK, MI
| Box F: Order info.

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001443325
| 11683909
| A2
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2023
| 46323
| HAMMOND, IN
|

|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950062
| 9717116
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 03/16/2024
| 98467
| UNIVERSITY PL, WA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950187
| 4998344
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 02/27/2024
| 91761
| ONTARIO, CA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950544
| 19750766
| A9
| B2
| C7
| 08/22/2024
| 93105
| SANTA BARBARA, CA
| Green band at top and a portion of left
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950560
| 17195820
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 10/12/2023
| 85013
| PHOENIX, AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| ?
| 6636835
| A14
| B6
| C7
| 05/01/2024
| 43228
| COLUMBUS, OH
| Box F: Order Info
|}

{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.3'''. ''2024''[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.png|right|450px]]
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''New Helvetica Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001443239
| 6928035
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 01/22/2024
| 91733
| EL MONTE, CA
| Box F: Order info.
|}

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I3'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with &quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;  barcode 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2C label.jpeg|right|380px]]
'''PC-I3.1.'''. '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.

:: '''1'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''2'''. Numeric month in date, as: {{space|4}} 00/00/2018
:: '''3'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3.4 actual.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-I3.2.''' 2021.
: As Type PC-C3.3 but with '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at right.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with DataMatrix 2-D barcode 


'''PC-I4.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1E.jpg|right|800px]]


'''PC-I4.2.'''. As '''PC-C4.1.1.''', with new company  logo, '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-I4.3 260709.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-I4.3 ''' 2023. 

: DataMatrix 2-D barcode at right
: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is to the right of the &quot;DataMatrix(4)&quot; barcode.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.'''. As '''PC-C5.2.''', with  '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo [[File: PC-C5.3.png|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.3.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071'''&quot;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Apr 15 2022
| 90021
| (RIALTO CA)
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Feb 09 2023
| 90021
| (NEWARK NJ)
|
|}

{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.4.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.3.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Large Mail Class letter, taller than the barcode.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3B.jpg|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071S'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.5.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I4.5.2.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442198
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jul 05 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442222
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jun 07 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0009761530
| 13928181
| A7
| B1
| 
| Feb 02 2023
| 48375
| NOVI, MI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''X'''
| 062S0010968105
| 12429570
| A10
|
| C6
| Sep 20 2022
| 32207
| JACKSONVILLE, FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0012584411
| 17222940
| A10
| 
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0013352605
| 17222940
| A10
|
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950307
| 17222940
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Nov 10 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0014949919
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Sep 04 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950343
| 11746372
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Mar 06 2023
| 11716
| BOHEMIA NY
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Franks with &quot;E-postage&quot; or variant in the frank}}====
----

&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=3}}
* Shipping labels with '''E-Postage''', '''ePostage''', '''ePOSTAGE''' and other variants in the frank were first reported in 2011. They are used by online commerce companies with business volumes large enough to justify special arrangements with shippers such as USPS, FedX, and UPS. 

* E-Postage is a program developed by USPS to accommodate the growth of ecommerce. Online merchants such as Amazon and Etsy use ePostage. In 2016 new company Shippo began operation as a shipping aggregator offering ePostage to any business.

* The stamps appear to be more like &quot;post paid&quot; permit stamps rather than metered mail but are shown here until we determine their exact nature.
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F2.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F14.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F1bb.jpeg|right|300px]]

* The stamps are found only on address labels with the top section having an enclosed mail-service letter at left and a frank box at right above a panel containing the mail class.
: The central section contains the return address, date, and addressee.
: The stamps show no value figures or identification number.
: The labels do include a tracking bar code and number.
: So far they have been found in two general formats:
:: '''-''' With single-line border surrounding the complete design, printed on label 135 mm tall
:: '''-''' With no outer border, printed on smaller label, 115 mm tall

* Known variations:
:: '''-''' Mail class appears in the frank box
:: '''-''' Incomplete box around mail-service letter at upper left
:: '''-''' Mailer's name repeated at top outside the frank box
:: '''-''' &quot;ComBasPrice&quot; appearing left of the frank box

'''NOTES''':
* Merchants have some control over the appearance of the stamp. The e-Postage designation is found in different fonts. The frank box is found in a variety of sizes with contents left justified or centered.
* When inaugurated in September 2011 only certain mail services were available through e-Postage system: Express Mail, Priority Mail, First-Class Mail parcels, Package Services (except Library Mail), and Parcel Select bar-coded non-presort.
* What is common to all e-Postage stamps is that the frank box contains e-Postage (or variant), U.S. POSTAGE PAID (or variant), and the mailer's identification.
{{font/end}}


----{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>c99vqg5wna9erwubozpqgkisipj8qog</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654596</id>
      <parentid>4654570</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:28:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boris1951zz</username>
        <id>3378369</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* {{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-E: Franks from Envelope Manager (Endicia) software, ID numbers mostly with 07#V prefix but also 07#M, 07#S, 06#S and without ID number}} */</comment>
      <origin>4654596</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="130236" sha1="9s94u2p6vv82qvcw6j9wob38vv3ojvy" xml:space="preserve">==&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #1F75FE;&quot;&gt;'''GROUP PC: Special designs generated by personal computer'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;==
[[United_States_Postage_Meter_Stamp_Catalog |&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;''&lt;u&gt;Click here to return to the United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog&lt;/u&gt;''&lt;/span&gt;]]

{{font/top|size=3|color=#08457E}}
'''NOTE''': ''All the stamps listed here are valid only on the date generated. PC stamps with unrestricted validity, i.e. savable for future use, are more like traditional stamps than meter stamps and thus are not cataloged here. PC stamps with unrestricted validity are cataloged in '''&lt;i&gt;USA: Variable Denomination Stamps (1989-2020)&lt;/i&gt;''' by Karim Roder (available on Amazon).''

* Group PC stamps can vary considerably in size, font styles, and color within the same stamp type depending on personal printer settings, available fonts, etc. Size variations or colors other than black are unusual but are user controlled variables (an attempt will be made to note said varieties in the usage lists).

* The stamps are found on plain paper and adhesive labels depending on what the user has in his printer. Self-adhesive labels are sold by the various PC stamp companies and also by outside vendors. These labels exist both with and without fluorescent tagging. As with color and font, paper or label type is a user controlled variable, however to a great extent the parameters are set by United States Postal Service ( see: https://postalpro.usps.com/parcellabelingguide). It is recommended that the collector save the '''entire label'''.

* PC stamps are often found in a frame at the top right of large address labels. To the left of the stamp is a smaller frame containing a large letter or number representing the class of mail. Codes found are: &quot;'''1'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''fcm'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''P'''&quot; (priority), &quot;'''E'''&quot; (express), &quot;'''M'''&quot; (media), &quot;'''T'''&quot; (parcel post), solid block (media, or other), &quot;'''H'''&quot; (Hazardous), &quot;'''G'''&quot; (Ground Advantage), &quot;'''X'''&quot; (Media). Not all the codes are found with all the stamp types that use the labels.

* 2-Dimensional barcodes occur in two major types and several subtypes:
::::: PDF417 A horizontally stacked 2-dimensional barcode, each consists of  2 punctuators, 2 indicators and a variable number of data blocks.

::::::  subvariety PDF417(4) has 4 datablocks [[File: PDF417-224.png|right|250px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(6) has 6 datablocks [[File: PDF417-226.png|right|275px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(7) has 7 datablocks [[File: PDF417-227.png|right|300px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(8) has 8 datablocks [[File: PDF417-228.png|right|350px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(9) has 9 datablocks [[File: PDF417-229.png|right|375px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(12) has 12 datablocks [[File: PDF417-2212.png|right|400px]]


::::: Data matrix is a 2 dimensional barcode consisting of square or rectangular data blocks

::::::  subvariety DM-2H (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged horizontally [[File: DM-2HZ.png|right|100px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-2V (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged vertically [[File: DM-2VR.png|right|50px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-4 has 4 datablocks arranged as a square [[File: DM-4SQ.png|right|100px]]


* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-A: Franks from E-Stamp software, ID numbers with 05#E prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All stamps have large, negative “e” logo at top right and &quot;PDF417&quot; bar code across the bottom with identification number at bottom right.
* &quot;US Postage&quot; and date are at top center, usually below a mail classification statement.
* Found both with and without FIM barcode at top left and also with and without slogan or directional slug at left.
* One hundred FD covers were prepared by E-Stamp in cooperation with the National Postal Museum on March 31, 1998. Trials took place for several more months. The first day of national availability was September 27, 1999.
* Although we must assume other mail classes were available, only '''First Class''', '''First-Class''', '''Priority''', and '''Priority Mail''' have been reported.
* E-stamp ceased operations at the end of 2000.
{{font/end}}


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

----

&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-A1 FDC stamp.jpg|right|425px]]

'''PC-A1.10.''' March 31, 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]

: This stamp is found only on the First Day Covers prepared by E-Stamp and the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are large, 4mm tall. 
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''without hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, 4mm tall''}})

'''PC-A1.11.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [RR][[File: PC-A1.11 251004.png|right|375px]]

: This stamp is found only on covers by the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are smaller than on &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot; but larger than on &quot;'''PC-A1.2'''&quot; ettc.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix  and about the same length as in &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, about 3½mm tall''}})

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1e''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.2.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.1 but with smaller value figures, 2 to 3mm tall.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; normally at bottom left below the barcode. 
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''small figures, 2-3mm tall''}})

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''.  First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B1'''. Priority {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''B2'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [R]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. With recipient's identity instead of &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at left below bar code field {{space|2}} [RR]
:: '''c'''. With 4-digit ZIP code

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''RA1c and d''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1p3A.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.3.''' {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.2 but value figures show decimal fractions of a cent and have wide spacing between the dollar sign and the decimal digit with the other figures.
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
:: '''A'''. V/F regular: {{space|4}} ${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1.4A.jpg|right|535px]]

'''PC-A1.4.'''
:  As PC-A1.3B but the value figures are spaced closely together.
:  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(12) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:: '''A'''.  Destination town name at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 051E prefix {{space|4}} [RRRR]&lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 053E prefix {{space|4}} [S]
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
: V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; ''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|Type PC-A1.4A is possibly the first E-stamp placed in use with paying customers, earlier than when PC-A1.2, PC-A1.3, and PC-A1.4B were issued.}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A2.''' March 2000. {{space|2}} [S]
:  As Type PC-A1.2 but the inscriptions are larger.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode. 
:  With PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:  ID# with 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $ 0'''.'''00

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''. First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [S]

[[File: USA PC-A2a.jpg|right|380px]]
:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; ({{font|size=2|''see below''}}) {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. &quot;Mailed From ZIP Code&quot; town line with 4-digit ZIP code instead of normal 5-digit code {{space|2}} [RR]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-B: Franks from Neopost software, ID numbers with 04#N or NO4#N prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The stamp designs are quite different from each other. One has a four-pointed star logo, two have a torch in hand logo, and one has no logo. Even the bar codes are dissimilar.
* Neopost was the second company to enter the PC postage business with an experimental design sometime in early 1998. Circumstances of the trial remain unknown to us.
* Stamps are found both with and without FIM barcode at top left. Examples are not known with slogan or slug.
* &lt;u&gt;Classes of mail seen on PC-B stamps&lt;/u&gt;:

::{|
| '''A.''' {{space|4}} FIRST CLASS LTR [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''F.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 2 [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''M.''' {{space|4}} INTL LETTER

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Aa.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS LTR

| '''G.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 3

| '''N.''' {{space|4}} INTL CAN LTR

|-

| '''B.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVERSZ

| '''H.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 4

| '''P.''' {{space|4}} INTL MEX LTR

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Ba.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVSZ

| '''I.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 5

| '''Q.''' {{space|4}} NEXT DAY EXP MAIL

|-

| '''C'''. {{space|4}} PRIORITY MAIL

| '''J.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 6

| '''R.''' {{space|4}} MEDIA MAIL

|-

| '''D.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY LOCAL

| '''K.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 7

|-

| '''E.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 1

| '''L.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 8

|}
* Mail classes E through L were discontinued in June 2002. Examples are exceptionally rare. Most mail classes except the First Class variations are scarce to very rare.
* Neopost PC stamps became available nationally in May 1999.

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-B1.''' {{font|color=green|''The stamp previously cataloged here has not been found used on actual mail. For this reason the Type has been deleted and the stamp re-cataloged as Type ESY-DF2 in the Essay section.''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D1.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-B2. ”Postage Plus”™''', '''“PC Stamp™”''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RRR]
: This too is an experimental stamp. It was first seen in live tests in and near Washington DC and parts of northern California. It was offered nationally in May 1999 but saw little use.
: The stamp was used by two different systems, &quot;Postage Plus&quot; which used a live internet connection, and &quot;PC Stamp&quot; which downloaded postage credit into a rented hardware vault. 
: The design shows at top right two horizontal bars with &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; above the top one and the town line below the bottom one. Between the bars at right are a torch-in-hand logo left of small &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; reading up. Also between the ars are the class of mail, the value figures (centered), and the date.
: PDF417(7) barcode across the bottom 
: With &quot;DEVICE and identification number at bottom right. 
: Meter number with N041N, N041NA, or 041N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; at bottom left
:: '''b'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; baarcode at top left


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-B3.1.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-B3.1. “Simply Postage”™''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Similar to PC-B2 with torch-in-hand logo and point of sale data mixed with two horizontal bars, but otherwise quite different.
: The stamp is found only on self-adhesive labels with rounded corners and fluorescent red bar across the bottom edge.
: &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is vertical at far right just left of a double line of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Between the bars are the identification number, value figures, and date. Below the bottom bar is the town line, '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: Large value figures, 4½ to 5mm tall
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØ ({{font|size=2|''with slashed zeros''}})


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-B3.2. “Simply Postage” '''. {{space|2}} [RR]
: As Type PC-B3.1 but the value figures have a tenths of a cent figure.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $Ø'''.'''ØØ&lt;u&gt;ø&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1A''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1A.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.1. “ProMail” ''', 1998? {{space|2}} [S]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Also printed on self-adhesive labels this stamp is much smaller than the PC-B3 stamps and contains the point-of-sale data at left and a square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Point-of-sale data have the value figures at top followed by the class of mail, '''MAILED FROM''' (ZIP code) town line, &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, date and identification number.
: Fluorescent bar at far left just outside two lines of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Meter number with 045N prefix.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1B''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1B.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.2. “ProMail” '''. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-B4.1 but the value figures are slightly larger and the text is slightly bolder.
: square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Labels have fluorescent bar at right.
: Meter number with 047N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-C: Franks generated by software from Stamps.com (StampMaster before 1999), ID numbers with 06#S prefix}}====


{{font/top|color=#0018A8|size=3}}
* The first stamp design has a negative {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''S'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} in oval logo. All others contain {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps.com'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} somewhere in the design. Some time after Stamps.com acquired Endicia in November 2015 (see Sub-group PC-E) the logo {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps'''&lt;sub&gt;'''endicia'''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} came into use (see Sub-group PC-I). The individual divisions (Stamps and Endicia) have since returned to a semi-independent status.

* The stamps are found both with and without a FIM barcode at upper left.
* &lt;u&gt;Mail classes found with PC-C stamps&lt;/u&gt;:
::  {{space|4}}  FIRST CLASS, FIRST CLASS MAIL, FCI (first class international)  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  PRIORITY MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  EXPRESS MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  MEDIA MAIL &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
: &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt; Collectors should be aware that the primary mail classes are found in a multitude of variations. For example, FIRST CLASS can be found as FIRST-CLASS PKG RATE, FIRST-CLASS MAIL PARCEL, FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE INTL, USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL, etc.. We do not know them all. Please inform the catalog manager regarding something different (&quot;'''Alan Knutson, boris1951@charter.net'''&quot;) if possible also include a scan.
* The StampMaster/stamps.com system was first trialed in the Washington DC area and in parts of California sometime before August 1998. It was made available nationally on September 27, 1999.

* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label &quot;'''size FS5 (with 5 horizontal boxes, A thru E) or size FS6 (with six horizontal boxes, A thru F)'''&quot;, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Icon/ Postage Payment'']}}
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc,{{font|size=2|color=blue| ['''USPS''' ''Service Icon'']}}
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Postage Payment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Banner'']}}
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Address and Delivery Information Segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Intelligent Mail package barcode segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'') {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Additional Information and User Segment'']}}

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C1.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-C1. StampMaster''', summer 1998. {{space|2}} [RRRR]
: Experimental stamp with negative “S”/Internet Postage logo at top center. 
: At top right are value figures, mail class, &quot;US POSTAGE”, and date. 
: &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code across bottom with town line below at left and identification number below at right.
: Identification number with 061S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C2.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-C2.1. stamps.com''', 1999.
: As Type PC-C1 but with &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo instead of the '''S''' in oval logo.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at upper left
: At top right are the value figures, date, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, and town line.
: 2-D barcode PDF417(6} across lower portion
: &quot;STAMPS.COM&quot; is below left of the bar code.
: Identification number with 061S or 062S prefix below right of bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt; 
[[File: USA PC-C2 redate.jpg|right|180px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing, blank below bar code
:: '''d'''. Bottom line present but without bar code
:: '''e'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''f'''. With nonsense characters across the bottom (''system malfunction'')

'''NOTES''':
* The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo can vary considerably in size.
* The system could produce a re-date stamp without postage value, as shown (''right'').
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C3.jpg|right|360px]]
[[File: USA PC-C3 redate.jpg|right|200px]]
'''PC-C2.2.''' 2000. 
: As Type PC-C2.1 but with larger inscriptions.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(6)&quot; barcode.
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
[[File:USA stamp type PC2p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing (blank below bar code)
:: '''d'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''e'''. With mailer's name replacing town line
:: '''f'''. With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at the upper left.

'''NOTES''':
* The NOTES below PC-C2.1 apply to PC-C2.2 also.
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right.
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


[[File: USA PC-C4B.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C2.3.1''' 2005.

: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Basic stamp without framing

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.2''' 

: &quot;Stamps / Endicia” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.3''' 

: As '''PC-C2.3.2''', [[File: PC-C2.3.3p.png|right|500px]]
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left. 
: Class of mail spelled out below V/F, with type of pricing below
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above customer ID, above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.4.1''' 2005.
:  As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
:  Stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
:  Meter number with 062S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
:: '''A'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code
::: '''1'''. Basic stamp without framing[[File: USA PC-C5A.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-C5B.jpg|right|540px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
!
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0005418699
| 
| A7
| B0
| C5
| 11/21/2005
| 02845 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0006097059
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/26/2015
| 40228 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0005715741
|
| A6
| B3
| C1
| 09/06/2011 
| 66030 
| GARDNER, KS
| Box F split horizontally in two, &quot;Thank You&quot; in bottom half.
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 05/28/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/02/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 07/15/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009033522
| 
| A4
| B0
| C0
| 11/09/2016
| 57401
| Aberdeen, SD
| No tracking number in Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009034923
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 11365
| Fresh Meadows, NY
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009143056
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 08080
| Mount Holly, NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009151784
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/01/2015
| 92154
| San Diego, CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009200477
| 
| A2
| B3
| C3
| 09/05/2018
| 11355
| Flushing, NY
|
|}


:: '''B'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code
::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

[[File:USA stamp type PC-C2point4b.jpeg|right|400px]]


'''NOTE''': Sub-type '''B''' has been found printed directly onto a plastic bag. See image below.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4 NOTE.JPG|right|300px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C10.jpg|right|880px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-C2.5. ''' 

'''PC-C2.5.1 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the manufacturer's logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps.com'''&quot;. With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p7.jpg|right|880px]]

'''PC-C2.5.3''' ''2012.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.4 but with date between the &quot;FROM&quot; (ZIP code) and the Stamps.com logo.
: Seen with tracking number at right of the frank, on a customs form.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: PDF417(7) barcode

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC2point6.jpg|right|500px]]


'''PC-C2.6.0.''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps.com'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-C2.7.1.'''
: With &quot;DPDF417&quot; barcode as with Types PC-C2.1 through PC-C2.5 but without &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo.
: Top panel contains USPS eagle logo and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at left.
: Tracking number above the barcode.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00, {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the 2D barcode


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4B.jpg|right|1000px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C2.7.2.'''


: Similar to Type PC-C2.7.1 but very wide imprint with '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo above usps.com (without the eagle-head logo)/ &quot;US POSTAGE / PAID&quot; at left.
: Along the bottom are the weight, date, Mailed from ZIP code, and meter identification number with &quot;062S&quot; prefix.
: ''It appears that this stamp is generated only for International Priority and Express mail services.''
: Two versions are known:
:: '''A'''. Tracking barcode at far left in the panel. Smaller lower panel contains the mail class statement.
:: '''B'''. Smaller stamp, traditional barcode at center of panel, USPS logo at far left. A Customs Declaration statement appears above the traditional barcode. No lower panel containing a mail class statement, and no indication anywhere of the mail service being used.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-C6.jpg|right|140px]]

'''PC-C3.1.''' 2007.
: Stamp with horizontal &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode.
: Small frank with value figures at top above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, class of mail, &quot;FROM&quot; ZIP code, and date.
: Below the date are the stamps.com logo, the barcode, and identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C7.jpg|right|195px]]

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2aa.jpg|right|175px]]
'''PC-C3.2.1'''
:  As Type PC-C3.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
:  '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
:: '''a'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''b'''. Town line without ZIP code showing &quot;FROM&quot; alone
[[File: USA stamp type PC3p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''NOTE''': These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right. Other label sizes and shapes exist. See below.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3p3.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-C3.3.''' 2018.
: Identification number and Stamps.com logo read down at far right.
: From the top down, point-of-sale data is:
:: Value figures
:: '''US POSTAGE'''
:: mail class
:: ZIP code and date
:: Horizontal IBI Lite bar code
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-C3.2 250115.png|right|150px]]

'''PC-C3.5.''' 2022.
: Most similar to Type PC-C3.1 but without company identification.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 

::::-A [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
::::-B [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
[[File:PC-C3.5B 250116.png|right|150px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA PC-F10.jpg|right|940px]]


'''PC-C4.1.1.''' 2002.
:  Very wide design with large &quot;Delivery Confirmation&quot; 1D barcode at center and square Datamatrix barcode at right.
: Above the 2D barcode are the weight, ZIP code, ID# with 062S prefix, and date.
: At far left is the class of mail above “US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID”.
: Without value figures. The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo is below the 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

 '''PC-C4.1.2.'''. With value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.1.''' (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo below 2D barcode)[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1D.jpg|right|940px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.1.'''. With &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo and value figures at top above the 2D barcode: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo at top)[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10B.jpg|right|940px]]

:: '''a'''. Without tracking barcode at center[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10aa.jpg|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.2.'''. Without value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.2.1.''' 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9 complete.jpg|right|540px]]


'''PC-C5.1.''' 2011.
:  The point-of-sale text is immediately to the left of the square Datamatrix barcode rather than above. 
: The frank appears unframed at the top of an address label.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.  
: The country name is not in or near the frank, but &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; is found at bottom below the mail class.
: With value figures
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C5.2.'''. As '''PC-C5.1.''',Without value figures[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9B.jpeg|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''SE1''' and '''SE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F7.jpg|right|540px]]
[[File: USA PC-F8.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C6.3.1.''' 2002.[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|6px]]V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: Downloaded directly from the Stamps.com web site. 
: Square Datamatrix barcode at right with &quot;stamps.com&quot; reading up to its right. 
: Text left justified as follows: 
: Value figures at top above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, ID number, and ZIP code
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C6.3.2.''' Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; above date, ID# with 062S prefix, ZIP code, rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''PC-C9.1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.1 250331.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} Similar to &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} New &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Mail class indicator using &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font as opposed to &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; in &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;.
::: {{space|10}} Prefix &quot;'''063S'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with three lines in upper right and &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.3'''&quot;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C9.2.''' 2024.[[File: PC-C2.4.3.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo replacing the stamps / endicia logo at the right of &quot;PDF417(8)&quot; barcode. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with two lines in upper right and &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.1'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| (063S0002805278)?
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 11/25/2024
| ID number misprinted
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 03/19/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 05/19/2025
|
|-

|}


'''PC-C9.3''' 2025.[[File: PC-C2.4.4 250802.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer's ID number and mailer’s Zip code at top right below &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| 063S0001442661
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950305
| 9786065
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 03580
| 
| 07/28/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950364
| 10606251
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 20850
| Rockville, MD
| 12/03/2024
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950380 
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.4.''' ''2025.''
: As Type PC-C2.6.0 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE imi&quot; is to the right of the value figures.[[File: PC-C2.6.1.png|right|500px]]
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: New '''Stamps''' logo to the right of the bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.5.'''  ''2025''
:  As Type PC-C3.2.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE IMI'''&quot;
:  tHE NEW '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''063S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;

[[File: PC-C3.2.3 250217.png|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''NOTES''':
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-D: Franks from Pitney Bowes software, ID numbers with 02#P, 02#W, or 07#P prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The earlier stamps show logos consisting of an eagle's head and wing. Later stamps are generic, text and bar code only, but most include &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; in the design. One stamp, Type PC-D4, does not include the company name and is identifiable as a Pitney Bowes product only by the identification number with &quot;02&quot; prefix.
* Identification number prefixes seen so far are 022P, 024P, 022W, 026W and 071P.
* Pitney Bowes PC stamps began field testing in the Washington DC area in December 1998.

{{font/end}}
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0B.jpg|right|415px]]
'''PC-D0. “ClickStamp Online”''', probably 1998. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with small eagle profile image at upper right. Left of the eagle are the date, value figures,  and “US POSTAGE” with three stars. Above the “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode field are the identification number at left and “Mailed From Zip Code” and ZIP code.

: Identification number with 022P000230 prefix.
:: '''A'''. The type font is somewhat heavy. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has no serif. Three reported:
::: 1) ID number 022P0002300165, ZIP code 20260 
::: 2) ID number 022P0002306771, ZIP code 20032
::: 3) ID number 022P0002307167, ZIP code 13057
:: '''B'''. The type font is somewhat lighter. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has serif at bottom. ID number 022P0002306600, ZIP code 20260
: V/F: {{space|2}} $ ~0.00&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 
 
: '''NOTE''': This stamp type was previously cataloged as an essay (ESY-DB4.4) until verifiably postally used covers were identified.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E2.jpg|right|415px]]

'''PC-D1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 21 April 1999. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with eagle with wavy wing below &quot;FIM&quot; barcode. 
: Stamp with “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, date, value figures, ZIP code, and identification number stacked at right.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Class of mail vertical at left side.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o
 
: '''NOTE''': When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2B.jpg|right|430px]]

'''PC-D2.1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 2000. 
: Similar to Type PC-D1 but straight eagle's wing above &quot;PITNEY BOWES&quot;. 
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. Inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; with stops. &quot;MAILED FROM ZIP CODE&quot; one line, all capitals.
:: '''B'''. Inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; without stops. &quot;Mailed from ZIP Code&quot; in two lines, mixed case.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

'''NOTES''':
: 1)  When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.
: 2)  The system allows for a re-date stamp without postage value (as shown below).

: 3)  Pitney Bowes required at least some users of ClickStamp Online to send them a sample print once a year on an envelope marked withe the components of the user's system. (Example shown below right.)

[[File: USA PC-E3 redate.jpg|left|330px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2.1 NOTE 3.jpeg|right|500px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E4.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-D2.2. “ClickStamp Online”'''. 
: This is the postage correction frank used with the software system that produced type PC-D2.1.
: The eagle is larger than with type PC-D2.1 and in line with the date which is above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; rather than below.
: Large “POSTAGE CORRECTION” below eagle.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Without town line or ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc, 
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address 
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'')
{{font/end}}
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p1A.jpg|right|345px]]
[[File: USA PC-F6.jpg|right|515px]]

'''PC-D3.1A. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: As with PC-D1 through PC-D2.3, with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the ID number with 071P prefix. 
: Basic stamp without framing. Top line contains value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;. 
::: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.1B. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: Box B2 &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below. Top line &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;.  With rate statement instead of value figures.
: No Box A, Box B the dividing line extends the entire height of the box. 
: Identification number  071P prefix

:: '''A'''. &quot;'''FCM'''&quot; in Box B1
::: '''a'''.  Box B2 &quot;'''US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID'''&quot;/DATE    &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; / / &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode / &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;     Identification number
:::: '''1'''. Box C: &quot;'''USPS FIRST CLASS'''&quot;
::::: '''-a'''. Box B2: 3rd line &quot;1oz First-Class Parcel rate&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD5''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1A.jpg|right|530px]]
[[File: USA PC-G1B.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-D3.2.''' 
: Found only on labels downloaded from internet vendor eBay. 
: In panel across the top are the USPS eagle logo at left and the '''eBay''' logo at right.
: Inside the stamp frame: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and rate statement centered above the &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the identification number with 024P prefix.
: Large rate indicator in frame at left.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: {{font|size=2|color=red|See also '''PC-D3.3B.6'''}}

:: '''A'''. With value figures
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3'''.
: Similar to Type PC-D3.2,
: A large label formatted with as many as 7 subsections (&quot;'''boxes'''&quot;)
: Below &quot;'''Box A'''&quot; if present, or at the top there are two boxes (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; at the left and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; at the right)
: Within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the “'''PDF417(7)'''” 2D barcode there is nothing above the barcode. 
: Also within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; are 3 '''stacks''', 
: '''Stack B2.1''' &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; (''or variation''), date, “From” and ZIP code, weight, and optionally a Zone number are stacked at left.
: '''Stack B2.2''' Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and a rate statement or statements at the center. 
: '''Stack B2.3''' Meter number/ID number at right.
: The ID number has 022W, 024P, or 026W prefix.
: In a smaller box at left (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot;) is a large letter code representing the mail class.
: In a wide box (&quot;'''Box C'''&quot;) below &quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the class of mail.
: If present the value figures appear above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;.
: '''Labels may be framed or unframed'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A'''. With value figures
: A large label with 6 boxes &quot;'''FS5'''&quot;(&quot;'''Boxes B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A1'''.
:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A2'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date   [[File: PC-D3.3A3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''A'''. '''026W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0004

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 32961
| VERO BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897622
| CommPrice
| 10/18/2023
| 29568
| 
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:: '''B'''. '''028W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0002

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310688
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2024
| 34293
| VENICE FL
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A3'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date as &quot;'''PC-D3.3A3'''&quot;, Box A with &quot;'''UNITED STATES / POSTAL SERVICE ®'''&quot; and emblem on left.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B'''. With rate statement

'''PC-D3.3B.1'''.[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3.jpg|right|500px]]

::''' Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

'''PC-D3.3B.1.1'''.  Prefix &quot;'''21B'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0050723999
| CommPrice
| 07/20/2022
| 07112
| Newark NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060312094
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 07036
| Linden NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060494251
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 90670
| Santa fe springs CA
| Box F: order data
|}

'''PC-D3.3B.1.2'''.  Prefix &quot;'''26W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
|
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897242
| ComPlsPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 07419
|
|
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 026W0004897590
| 
| 01/02/2021
| 97239
| Portland OR
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897774
| CommPlsPrice
| 07/31/2020
| 60490
| Bolingbrook IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897814
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2021
| 91304
| Los Angeles CA
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
|
|
| 54843
|
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.1C''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4A.0.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.1A.B''' but with customer ID at lower right
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE''' above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897326
| 3000093152
| ComPlsPrice
| 12/04/2020
| 91706
| IRWINDALE CA
| ID numbers in larger font
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897491
| 3000008007
| CommPrice
| 05/23/2019
| 48114
| BRIGHTON MI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.2'''.[[File: PC-D3.3B.1.png|right|500px]]

:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE / PAID''' in two lines  above the date


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 12/29/2021
| 54843 
| Hayward WI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.3A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W [[File: PC-D3.3B.3A-H 2501002.png|right|500px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''H'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0002310502
| CommPrice
| 08/04/2025
| 33068
| North Lauderdale FL
| &quot;'''HAZMAT-Surface Transportation Only'''&quot;
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 01/26/2023
| 13147
| SCIPIO CENTER NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897242 
| CommPrice
| 08/16/2022
| 93943
| MONTEREY CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897400
| CommPrice
| 05/24/2023
| 16063
| ZELIENOPLE PA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897451
| CommPrice
| 11/24/2023
| 95240
| LODI CA
|
|-
| PS4
| '''P'''
| '''XIII'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/23/2023
| 98239
| COUPEVILLE WA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 03/07/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 02/02/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 12/06/2023
| 81413
| CEDAREDGE CO
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897778
| CommPrice
| 02/27/2023
| 76013
| PANTEGO TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 026W0004897790
| CommPrice
| 11/01/2022
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897812
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2023
| 11432
| JAMAICA NY
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897816
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2022
| 33770
| LARGO FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897817
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 77030
| HOUSTON TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897878
| CommPrice 
| 08/25/2022
| 66505
| MANHATTAN KS
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 01/23/2023
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 02/04/2022
| 45806
| CRIDERSVILLE OH
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 11/21/2023
| 95628
| FAIR OAKS CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897939
| CommPrice
| 03/28/2022
| 55304
| ANDOVER MN
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897942
| CommPrice
| 04/29/2022
| 06514
| HAMDEN CT
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004898023
| CommPrice
| 09/23/2022
| 75150
| MESQUITE TX
|
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.3B'''
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date [[File: PC-D3.3B.3B 250415.png|right|500px]]
:: Meter numbers: 028W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310364
| CommPrice
| 03/18/2024
| 96003
| REDDING CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 02/05/2024
| 34222
| ELLENTON FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2024
| 11735
| FARMINGDALE NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311374
| CommPrice
| 02/22/2024
| 33436
| BOYNTON BEACH FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311472
| CommPrice
| 03/04/2025
| 92376
| RIALTO CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.1''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897241
| 3001124484
| ComPlsPrice
| 06/17/2022
| 93380
| VISALIA CA
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.2''' 
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310218 
| 3000559694
| 
| 02/03/2023
| 98144
| SEATTLE WA
| Box F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 028W0002310350
| 3001704288
| CommPrice
| 02/03/2023
| 80907
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.4B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4B.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310174
| 3002184618
| CommPrice
| 07/08/2024
| 60647
| CHICAGO IL
| 
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5A''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5a.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897798
| CommPrice
| 01/24/2023
| 30907
| MARTINEZ GA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5B.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W
:: Customer Identification Number below meter number

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.6'''
:: A large label with 6 sections, 7 boxes  (&quot;'''Boxes A, B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
:: A box (&quot;'''Box A''') across the top containing the USPS eagle logo and &quot;UNITED STATES/ POSTAL SERVICE&quot; at left and a mailer's logo or identification at right. 
:: {{font|size=2|color=red|'''NOTE:''' ''For examples with'' '''Penalty of Fines Under 18 / USC 3571 for Private Use''' ''see'' '''OO-M1'''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6A'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.1.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''026W'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897242
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2022
| 19565
| WERNERSVILLE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897406
| CommPrice
| 05/30/2020
| 92859
| ORANGE CA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897486
| CommPrice
| 08/19/2023
| 76002
| ARLINGTON TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/24/2023
| 35952
| SNEAD AL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897526
| CommPrice
| 11/16/2020
| 98243
| Deer Harbor WA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 12/18/2020
| 49801
| Iron Mountain MI
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2020
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| small, 85 x 136mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897623
| CommPrice
| 05/08/2023
| 50010
| AMES IA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897876
| CommPrice
| 05/18/2020
| 92404
| San B CAernardino
| small, 83 x 130mm
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| 
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
|
| 30513
|
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| 
| 026W0004897941
| CommPrice
|
| 60108
|
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1B'''
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''028W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310428
| 
| 06/18/2024
| 60512
| MONTGOMERY IL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310575
| 
| 05/31/2024
| 34677
| OLDSMAR FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311092
| CommPrice
| 06/13/2024
| 11103
| ASTORIA NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B.1'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.11.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897813
| CommPrice
| 06/30/2022
| 07111
| IRVINGTON NJ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6C'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE / AND FEES PAID'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6C.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3C.jpg|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with “'''www.pitneybowes.com'''”

{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: For labels of this type used by an US Government Agency and with a Penalty statement see type &quot;'''OO-M1'''&quot;}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897572
| CommPrice
| 06/29/2021
| 76155
| 
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6D'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6D.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3dd.jpg|right|500px]]

: '''Box A''' with “'''www.paypal.com'''”


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6?
| '''X'''
| '''X'''
| 026W0004897485
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 55422
| 
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p4.jpg|right|530px]]
'''PC-D3.4'''
: Similar to PC-D3.3 but with tracking number added above the PDF417 2D barcode.
: Stacked at left of the 2D barcode are &quot;usps.com&quot;, the value figures, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, a rate statement, and in the bottom corner, the date.
: Centered below the 2D barcode are “Mailed from” and ZIP code and “024P”.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}}  $00'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|color=green|'''''NOTE: The stamp previously cataloged as Type PC-D3.5 is now a sub-type of PC-D3.3.'''''}}
[[File: PC-D3.5.png|right|1000px]]

'''PC-D3.5'''
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI'''&quot; in two lines
: Unboxed rate class designation letter
: &quot;'''PDF417(7)'''&quot; 2-D barcode on right
: Meter Identification on right above customer Identification number
: Meter identification number: 028W followed by 10 digits
: On customs declaration form (CD)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.1.'''
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G6.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Similar to Type PC-D3.4 but in wider format with the tracking barcode at far left.
: Meter number seen with &quot;024P&quot; prefix.
: With value figures below &quot;PAID&quot;.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.2.'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.7.jpeg|right|1000px]]

: Wide format as with PC-D4.1 but &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and the mail class are at far left with the tracking barcode below.
: The postage data is found below the PDF417 barcode, as follows:
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix
:: Pitney Bowes (with &quot;CommPrice&quot; [or value figures?] below)
:: date
:: &quot;From&quot; ZIP code
:: weight
:: (destination) zone

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.3.1.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.1 260630.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID '''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.3.2.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.4.'''[[File: PC-D4.4 250914.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.4 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; at right above Identification number.
:: Two black bars complete from left to right
:: ID# with &quot;028W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.1.'''
: At right is the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix
: At left: date/ ZIP code/ weight
: Always found on framed address label, and never with value figures.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.1A.''' [[File: USA PC-F9.jpg|right|500px]]
: At left solid block rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix at base


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.1B.'''[[File: PC-D5.1B.png|right|500px]]
: At left outline rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix in middle

::: '''-1'''. Meter identification number positioned as in the illustration  for '''PC-D5.1A.'''
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.2.''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B.jpg|right|307px]]
: Similar to Type PC-D4.1 but &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; is vertical reading up at left.
: The rate, date, ZIP code, and weight are stacked between &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; (italicized) at top and the identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &quot;'''Found only on International postage/address/customs forms purchased online from the USPS web site.'''&quot;
: The complete form is shown reduced at right. Occurs in at least two types:
::::{{space|5}}  Type I {{space|5}}  &quot;To/From&quot; horizontal
::::{{space|5}}  Type II {{space|4}}  &quot;To/From&quot; vertical
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00 or nil
:{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: &quot;'''For labels of this type the collector should save the whole form'''&quot;}}


:: '''A'''. With &quot;ONLINE DISCOUNT RATE&quot; below US POSTAGE PAID  
:: '''B'''. With postage paid shown in dollars and cents [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9point1B.jpg|right|307px]]
:: '''C'''. Without rate, blank between US POSTAGE PAID and the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B document.jpg|right|800px]]
[[File: PC-D5.2z.png|right|800px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.3. “Shipstream Manager”''', 2006.[[File: USA PC-F11.jpg|right|888px]]
: Very wide design with square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode at right and large tracking barcode at center.
: Above the 2D barcode are the date, ZIP code, weight, and &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: Below the 2D barcode is the ID number with 024P prefix.
: At far left is “US POSTAGE PAID” above the class of mail.
:: '''A'''. With rate statement instead of value figures.
:: '''B'''. With value figures above the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-D4point3B.jpeg|right|888px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3point1.jpg|right|570px]]

'''PC-D5.4. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2011. 
:  As Type PC-D4.5 but with &quot;www.pbSmartPostage.com&quot; instead of the eBay logo. 
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.5.''' (presumed to be '''“Shipstream Manager”'''), 2013.[[File: USA stamp type PC-F15.jpg|right|888px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D4.3 but with the elements rearranged.
: The identification number, date, &quot;From&quot; Zip code, and weight are below the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: The tracking barcode is at far left rather than center.
: At near left of the Datamatrix barcode is &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and the mail class are at far left above the tracking barcode.
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


:: '''A'''. With value figures above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.6. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2006. 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00 {{space|2}} [scarce]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.7. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA PC-G3B.jpg|right|495px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.8.0 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;'''[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3C.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.8.1 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-G3D.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  V/F: {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures or without but with rate statement
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9A.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260706.png|right|475px]]

:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629585
| ComBasPrice
| 12/28/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629647
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629652
| ComBasPrice
| 06/21/2014
| 10509
| BREWSTER NY
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007629756
| 
| 03/17/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629758
| ComBasPrice
| 12/11/2012
| 32812
| ORLANDO FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629777
| ComBasPrice
| 03/15/2017
| 17362
| SPRING GROVE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629797
| CommBasPrice
| 10/19/2015
| 01970
| Salem MA
| 108 x 155 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007632129
| ComBasPrice
| 06/01/2019
| 85203
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007776044
| 
| 02/25/2016
| 32701
| ALTAMONTE SPG FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776131
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776147
| ComBasPrice
| 10/17/2016
| 76251
| MONTAGUE TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776172
| ComBasPrice
| 11/27/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776173
| ComBasPrice
| 08/18/2015
| 20904
| SILVER SPRING MD
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776210
| ComBasPrice
| 10/27/2015
| 33187
| MIAMI FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776653
| ComBasPrice
| 09/12/2016
| 12992
| WEST CHAZY NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776711
| ComBasPrice
| 10/12/2016
| 60543
| OSWEGO IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 01/20/2015
| 85211
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 10/06/2015
| 33161
| FLORIDA CITY FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875960
| CommBasPrice
| 10/05/2015
| 01610
| Worcester MA
| 96 x 151 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876028
| ComBasPrice
| 01/12/2019
| 22301
| ALEXANDRIA VA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876132
| ComBasPrice
| 11/10/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 024P0007876133
| CommBasPrice
| 06/18/2018
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 92 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876173
| CommBasPrice
| 02/11/2019
| 30097
| Duluth GA
| 101 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876761
| ComBasPrice
| 10/13/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876771
| ComBasPrice
| 03/12/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.0.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.png|right|475px]]
[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260630.png|right|475px]]
:  Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Small &quot;'''ebay'''&quot;, large space between the base of the &quot;'''y'''&quot; and the frame


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629802
| CommBasPrice
| 11/25/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 86 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776072
| CommBasPrice
| 11/19/2018
| 65803
| Springfield MO
| Blue label stock, 96 x 156 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776728
| CommBasPrice
| 07/05/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 87 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875976
| CommBasPrice
| 11/22/2019
| 02532
| 
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876188
| CommBasPrice
| 05/28/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 96 x 155mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876772
| CommBasPrice
| 12/23/2019
| 98245
| Eastsound WA
| 96 x 155mm
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 4 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.2.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.2 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.1.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Font in Boxes B2 and C &quot;'''USPSIMB'''&quot; (either Compact or Standard?)
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 2 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.0 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 4 lines at left, Date/Zip Code/ Weight/ Zone


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 2 lines at left, Date/Zip Code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D5.7.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-D6.0''', 2021. 
:  Similar to PC-D5.2 but with '''Pitney Bowes''' at the top of the point-of-sale data stacked at left of the Datamatrix barcode. 
:  Datamatrix barcode (DM4) 19 mm square, with 4 data blocks
:  Below '''Pitney Bowes''' are the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''' or '''US POSTAGE IMI''', a mail class statement.
:   a ten-digit number, &quot;3000156428&quot; evidently the customer identification number, the ZIP code and the date.
:  V/F: $0.00o 
:  This stamp arises from the new partnership between eBay and Pitney Bowes for &quot;eBay Delivery Service&quot; shipping.

:: '''A'''.  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE''', identification number with 026W prefix,
:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;


'''NOTE''': Type PC-D6 is nearly identical in appearance to Type QB7. They differ only in color and in the ten-digit number that appears below the identification number, '''black''' and '''3''' for PC-D5.7, and '''red''' and '''2''' for QB7.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D6.1.0''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left, Datamatrix barcode 20 mm square, with 4 data blocks, identification number with 026W prefix,
:  Datamatrix barcode 15 mm square, with 4 data blocks, or 27mm square,
:  Identification number with 026W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D6.1.1''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left,
:  Datamatrix barcode 18-19 mm  with 4 data blocks, 
:  Identification number with 028W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-E: Franks from Envelope Manager (Endicia) software, ID numbers mostly with 07#V prefix but also 07#M, 07#S, 06#S and without ID number}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All the stamps have a generic design, bar code and text. The earlier stamps include &quot;endicia.com&quot; in the design and later ones are identifiable only by the identification number which is most commonly 071V although 071M and 071S are also found. From 2024 on, 062, and 063 are also found. An exception is Type PC-E2.2, Sub-type A, which does not show an identification number.
* When first released (February 2001) the system was labeled by Indicia as &quot;'''DAZzle 2000'''&quot;.

* On November 18, 2015 Stamps.com (see Sub-group PC-C) acquired Endicia. In 2024, Stamps.com and Endicia were once again seperate, being individual divisions under a holding company.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE1''' in 2001 edition''}}

'''PC-E1.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2000. [[File: USA PC-F2A.jpg|right|316px]]
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: “US POSTAGE” at top right. 
: Stacked at center: value figures / class of mail / date / town line. 
: ID# with 071M, 071S, or 071V prefix at bottom right.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000


::'''PC-E1.1A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''.  Top portion above 2D barcode shifted far to the left (shown at right). This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F2aa.jpg|right|316px]]
::: '''b'''.  With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of '&quot;endicia.com&quot; at bottom left
::: '''c'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


::'''PC-E1.1B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F2B.jpg|right|500px]]


::'''PC-E1.1C''' As '''PC-E1.1A''' but with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.


::: '''a'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F3A.jpg|right|310px]]


'''PC-E1.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: As Type PC-E1.1 but the point-of-sale data is at left rather than in the center, and the sequence of data is different. 
: At top left: value figures/ date/ rate information
: At top right: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;/ &quot;Mailed from ZIP...&quot;
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left
: Identification number with 071V prefix
: Never with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode.
: V/F: $0'''.'''00


:: '''PC-E1.2A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.
::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.2A-b.png|right|800px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F3B.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''d'''. Without rate information below the date[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p2dd.jpg|right|500px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2C'''. &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users


'''PC-E1.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.2 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: “POSTAGE AND FEES PAID” at top above date, ZIP code, and rate statement. 
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left


::'''PC-E1.3A'''. Basic stamp without framing [[File: USA PC-F4A.jpg|right|324px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F4bb.jpg|right|415px]]


::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.3A-b.png|right|800px]]


::'''PC-E1.3B.0'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F4B.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Line A Equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00515554
| A13
| 
| OCT 27 2011
| 55337
| BURNSVILLE MN
| NO TRACKING BARCODE
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A11
| C9
| JAN 5 2015
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| APR 12 2016
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| JAN 3 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| FEB 17 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| MAR 1 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00548099
| A13
| 
| APR 17 2007
| 83333
|
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| solid black
| '''VIII'''
| 071V00682520
| A7
| 
| FEB 6 2009
| 80922
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|-
| '''FS3'''
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 071V01059238
| A11
| C9
| SEP 8 2020
| 30071
| NORCROSS GA
|
|}
{{font/end}}


::: '''.1'''. As '''B''', with question mark after the mail class statement: '''PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY?'''
::::  (This may be a computer error with the question mark printing in place of a registration mark (''R in circle'').)[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E1p3ee.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''.2'''. Without the &quot;Box C&quot; containing the class of mail below the frank [[File: USA stamp type PC-E3p1ff.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''.3'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, no tracking info[[File: PC-E1.3B-g.png|right|300px]]


::: '''.4'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, endicia emblem at right[[File: PC-E1.3B-h.png|right|300px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Line A Equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00500361
| A21
| C9
| NOV 26 2014
| 94306
| PALO ALTO CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00500361
| A21
| C9
| MAY 5 2015
| 94306
| PALO ALTO CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V01254386
| A7
| 
| DEC 22 2017
| 94544
| HAYWARD CA
|
|-
|}
{{font/end}}


::'''PC-E1.3C'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users[[File: USA PC-F4aa.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071M prefix


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::'''PC-E1.3D'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at lower left, [[File: PC-E1.3D.png|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 062S prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-E1.4. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.3B but with logo and &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at upper right.
: The ID number is above the 2D bar code at right.
: The date is below the mail class designation at left.
: Identification number with &quot;071V&quot; prefix.
: Seem on large label that includes customs information.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F5.jpg|right|530px]]

'''PC-E2.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) ''', 2002.
: Found only on the top of large address labels downloaded directly from the USPS web site. 
: In wide box at right is the 2D &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: To the left of the 2D barcode are &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; vertical, &quot;WWW.USPS.COM&quot;, value figures, and date.
: A series of nine 4-digit numbers is above the 2D barcode, and the ZIP code and identification number with 071V prefix are below.
: Very large “P” (for Priority Mail) or “E” (for Express Mail) in box at left. 
: Across the bottom is the class of mail spelled out.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00  [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|15px]]$00'''.'''00


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2 B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-E2.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Identification number, with 071V prefix, at right of the ZIP code

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00

:: '''Note'''. For similar item without identification number see &quot;'''PC-G3'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-E2.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. [[File: USA stamp type PC-G5.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Nearly identical to Types PC-C5.2 (Stamps.com) and PC-D3.3 (Pitney Bowes) except for the identification number which has &quot;071V&quot; prefix.


'''PC-E3.1. Endicia.com ''', 2010.

: Square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode at right with company identity reading down at far right.
: Text from top, at left of barcode: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;, mail class (''may be omitted''), date (mmm dd yyyy), ZIP code, rate statement (''may be omitted''), &quot;CommBasePrice&quot; or &quot;CommPlusPrice&quot; (''may be omitted'')
: Later stamps also include a second, more specific, rate statement. (''see the image for &quot;b&quot; below'')
: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


:: '''A1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (longer than DataMatrix is tall), barred &quot;I&quot; font[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12 better.jpg|right|520px]]

::: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''c'''. Printed on short label containing tracking bar code but not the destination address[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p1cc.jpg|right|320px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''e'''. Datamatrix bar code field contains vertical bars, probably caused by a malfunction [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E2p1ee.jpg|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''A2.1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font 

::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''b'''. Text at top truncated: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES P&quot;[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12bb.jpg|right|550px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071S00799149
| A17
| Commercial Plus Pricing
| Nov 27 2017
| 37801
| MARYVILLE TN
| 
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 19 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 22 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| 
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00913234
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice
| Aug 04 2014
| 33351
| SUNRISE FL
| subtype &quot;b&quot;
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Feb 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Oct 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|}

:: '''A2.2'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font [[File:PC-E3.1A2.png|right|550px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''f'''. Datamatrix bar code field is wider than tall, not square [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.1ff.jpg|right|380px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| black box
| VIII
| 071V00908463
| A16
| 
| Dec 21 2017
| 75104
| CEDAR HILL TX
| 2 copies, framed
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071V00970570
| A17
| CommercialBasePrice
| Jun 05 2018
| 28052
|
| shorter Enddicia on right
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}


:: '''B1'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; (''first seen in late 2018'')

::: Unframed
::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.

:::::'''-1''' Top two lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-1.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-2''' All but top line and fifth line bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-2.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-3''' All lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-3.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''B2'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; [[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.1B.jpg|right|540px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.

:  ''subtypes unknown ''
::::: '''a'''. Datamatrix barcode field omitted
::::: '''d'''. Printed without the tracking bar code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12point1.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.2. Endicia.com''', 2014.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 with square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode, but the value figures are at upper left and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; is alone at top center.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p3.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-E3.3A. Endicia.com''', 2015.
: Similar to Types PC-E3.1 and PC-E3.2 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is lower, below the date and ZIP code.
: The value figures are at far left.
: One seen, with &quot;FIM&quot; bar code at upper left.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads down.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3p3B.jpg|right|365px]]

'''PC-E3.3B. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads up.


Note:  Items formersly listed as &quot;'''PC-E3.3C'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.3D'''&quot; are now listed  as &quot;'''PC-E3.8.1'''&quot; AND &quot;'''PC-E3.8.2'''&quot; RESPECTIVELY.
      

[[File:USA stamp type PC-E2p4.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.4. Endicia.com''', 2016.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 but inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE PAID&quot; without &quot;AND FEES&quot;. Also the inscription is centered rather than high.
: Below &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; is &quot;From ZIP ##### and a rate statement.
: Rather than a large mail classification code, the mailer's name and address is found in the box at left.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.5.jpeg|right|410px]]

'''PC-E3.5. Endicia.com''', 2018.
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types but with round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; horizontal at bottom left instead of vertical at right.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, price modification statement, date, ZIP code, identification number, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID''' identification&lt;/i&gt;) number, and the Endicia logo.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.

: The example reported was used on international mail.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.6. Endicia''', 2024. [[File:PC-E3.6.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.1A2'''
: No line separating Box B1 and Box B2.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, '''IMI''' following mail class
: Price modification statement, date, ZIP code, Mail class 1, Mail class 2, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) number, Mail class 3.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.7. Endicia''', 2025. [[File:PC-E3.7 251201.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.6'''
: Text at left of barcode: At top: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; above the weight and mail class, 
: Stacked below are:Mail Class I with '''IMI''' following mail class, date, ZIP code, Mail class 2, Mail class 3, Mail class 4, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) 8 digit number, .
: F/V: &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

:: '''PC-E3.7.1'''. With green banner to left inscribed &quot;'''USPS CERTIFIED MAIL &lt;sup&gt;TM&lt;/sup&gt;'''&quot;, barcode below

[[File:PC-E3.7.1.png|right|650px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3B.jpg|right|230px]]

'''PC-E3.8.1. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with different endicia logo.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
'''NOTE''': The extremely narrow stamp impression shown appears to be a printer/feeder error rather than a software variation.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3D.jpg|right|365px]]
'''PC-E3.8.2. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3C but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-E3.9. Endicia''' [[File:PC-E3.9 260623.png|right|410px]]
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; on the rate class line
: ID# with '''063S''' prefix seen.
: '''endicia''' reads down.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E4.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E4.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 3 lines at top right, ID at top, customer ID below, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]:  &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot; ['''XXIX''']   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E5.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E5.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 2 lines at top right, ID at top, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]: &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE TM&quot; ['''VI'''],  &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”] ['''XVIII''']  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-F: Franks generated by EasyPost software, with &quot;easypost&quot; in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* EasyPost is a software company that provides companies with integrated shipping options through USPS and several private carriers.
* The company was founded in 2012 although the first stamp came to our attention in 2016.
{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F1.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2016 but possibly as early as 2012.
: The stamps we have seen appear on large address labels.
: The stamp contains a PDF417 barcode which sits under &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; and '''{{font|size=5|easypost}}''' at the right of the stamp.
: Left of the barcode are the date, ZIP code, &quot;CID&quot; (''number'') or &quot;C&quot; (number), and '''COMBASE''' or '''ComBasPrice''' (with no value figures).
: Along the bottom are the weight and identification number with &quot;0901&quot; prefix.
:: '''A'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
:: '''B'''. The stamp appears by itself with no framing or large mail class indicator


&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-F1.2.png|right|475px]]

'''PC-F1.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025 

: As type &quot;'''PC-F1.1'''&quot; With heavier and slightly different typeface and spacing.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter Number&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5?
| G
| 0901000008391
| C4190745
| 
| 2025-04-08
| 29169
|
|-
| FS5
| G
| 0901000019068
| C4002372
| 
| 2025-05-19
| 90640
|
|-
|}
 
 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1p2.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.1. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;
: The text, including '''{{font|size=4|easypost}}''', is in a lighter and wider font than found on PC-F1.
: Also, without &quot;CID&quot; and number and with small '''ComBasPrice''' instead of '''COMBASE'''.
: And finally, the zeros are slashed.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-F2.2 260621mh.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.2. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F2.1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID IMI&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;
: The text/ font is similar to that found on PC-F1.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1.3.jpg|right|540px]]

'''PC-F3.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2021.

: As Type PC-F1 but the {{font|size=4|'''easypost.'''}} logo now has a period after it. The web address &quot;{{size=2|'''easypost.com/signup'''}}&quot; was added below the logo.

: This stamp includes a postage value which is preceded by &quot;Retail&quot; on the stamp we have seen.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00
: '''Note''': The origin ZIP code and customer ID have been blurred in the stamp photo.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:Easypost PC-F1.4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F3.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo as PC-F3.1
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}} &quot;'''F'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004578 {{space|4}}C4000013 {{space|4}}83713 {{space|4}}2022-09-02{{space|4}}BOISE, ID
::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004698 {{space|4}} {{space|4}}28405 {{space|4}}{{space|4}}WILMINGTON, NC


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo different
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000005499 {{space|4}}C4017644 {{space|4}}83709 {{space|4}}2022-11-18{{space|4}}BOISE, ID


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F5.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.2a.png|right|650px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F4.4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.4. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot; without the web address.

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! Customer ID
! Note
|-
| FS5 wide
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000001316
| Commercial
| 2024-11-11
| 43228
| C4018567
| 012.0 ZONE 2
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000008901
| Commercial
| 2023-12-01
| 60607
| C4650528
| 0.10 CUBIC ZONE 3
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000010389
| Commercial
| 2023-12-28
| 63376
| C5299422
| 5.0 OZ ZONE 4
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''XXXI'''
| 0901000014322
| Commercial
| 2024-06-27
| 63376
| C5299422
| 0.20 CUBIC ZONE 4
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.5. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.5 250415.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.6. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2026.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.
::: &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot;


[[File:PC-F4.6 250901B.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F55.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F5. &quot;Chit Chats&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.2'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Chit Chats'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F6.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F6. &quot;Sendle&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Sendle&gt;'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-G: Franks generated by U.S. Postal Service software, without a vendor's identification number.}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* These stamps are a type of Post Office stamp (Group PO) but because they are generated online at the Postal Services's web site, they are listed here..
* The stamp was first reported in 2021.
{{font/end}}


----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1.jpg|right|400px]]

'''PC-G1.''' (digital), 2021 but possibly earlier.
: The stamp is a large tracking label similar to Type PC-C5.1 with the USPS logo and &quot;Click-N-Ship&quot;® in the top panel. The ''postage'' part of the label is immediately below and at right. It contains in its upper left corner, &quot;usps.com, the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''', and a rate statement. The date is at lower left. At top right is a tracking number. At lower center is '''Mailed from''' and the ZIP code. In the center is a larger '''U.S. POSTAGE PAID''' above a small '''Click-N-Ship'''®, all backed by a field of wavy pale blue lines.
: V/F:  $(00)0.00
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1 detail.jpg|left|500px]]
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-G2.1''' (digital), 2023 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G1'''&quot; but with a square Datamatrix barcode at the right of box &quot;'''B2'''&quot;.
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mail Rate Class
! Type
! Date
! Mailed from Zip Code
! &quot;'''Box C'''&quot; Mail Class
|-
| P
| Flat Rate Env
| 05/08/2023 
| 63005
| XXX
|-
| G
| Insured
| 06/20/2024
| 02453
| VI
|-
| 
| 
|
|
|}


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.2.png|right|250px]]
'''PC-G2.2''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but with security print under &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; more heavily segmented
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PPS-G2.3.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.3''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: &quot;Box D&quot; more similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.2'''&quot;
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.4.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.4''' (digital), 2024 
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: Box A with USPS logo to left, &quot;USPS APIs&quot; to right
: &quot;Box D&quot; only with return address and destination to the right of 2D barcode
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-G2.5''' (digital), 2026 [[File: PC-G2.5 260630.png|right|250px]]
: USPS Emblem at left, above &quot;'''USPS APIs'''&quot;
: Barcode at right, above date,  &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot;
: Value &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: Postage class at base (?)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-G2.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-G3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Without identification number
: See also &quot;'''PC-E2.2'''&quot; for similar item with identification number starting with &quot;071V&quot;

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00, 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-H: Franks generated by Francotyp-Postalia software, with &quot;FP&quot; logo in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* Francotyp-Postalia first entered the U.S. postage meter market in 2000. Only one stamp has been reported so far, and it is dated from 2019. Earlier dates are likely.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'' The status of this item has been questioned, more information or scans would be important to have, please reply to editor.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-H1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-H1. &quot;Francotyp-Postalia&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2019 but probably earlier.
: The one stamp reported appears on alarge address label with the top (postage) section containing a PDF417 barcode.
: Above the barcode are, at left: the value figures and date, at center: the FP logo, and at right: '''US POSTAGE''', Mailed From [5-digit ZIP code], and the identification number with 032A prefix.

: '''ComBasPrice''' appears below the date on this stamp.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F:  $ (00)0.000
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-I: Franks generated by stamps/endicia}}====
----
'''PC-I''' 2005.

:  With &quot;''''''PC-I4'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo  replacing the stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).


'''PC-I1.1.''' Prefix &quot;'''026W'''&quot; [[File: PC-I1.1 260706.png|right|450px]]
{{font/top|size=2}}
: ’’’Known usage’’’:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 026W00048272786
| &quot;'''FREES'''&quot;
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 04/11/2022
| 07036
| LINDEN, NJ
| Box F: order info?
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
::: '''PC-I1.2.''' Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;  
{{font/top|size=2}}
[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.png|right|450px]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/16/2019
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 02/25/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/02/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/30/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, 
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 05/19/2020
| 92324
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A5
| B7
| C4
| 10/05/2018
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''E'''
| '''XXXV'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A19
| B2
| C3
| 11/25/2019
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| III
| 062S0009416802
| 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 05/10/2022
| 14150
| Chesterfield MI
| Order info, framed
|}
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.5C.jpg|right|890px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2p5B.jpg|right|860px]]

'''PC-I1.3 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps endicia'''&quot;. 
:: '''.1'''.  With value figures: {{spaces|5}} $00'''.'''00
:: '''.2'''.  With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
 

'''PC-I1.4''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo[[File: PC-C2.6B.png|right|500px]]
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.5.''' 2020.

: With barcode as with  previous PC-C2 types but with the value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at top above the date and &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and ZIP code.

: Below the bar code is the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number at right.
: The identification number prefix is uncertain as the stamp we have seen appears to suffer from a software glitch. (See the illustration.)
: PDF417(4) barcode
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''1'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  large 
:: '''2'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  small 
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.8.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.8B.png|right|400px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.6.''' 2021.
: Similar to PC-C2.8 but with a rate statement rather than value figures.
: Above the &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code:
:- US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
:- date, Mailed from ZIP [code]
:- weight and rate statement(s)
: Below the bar code: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number with 062S prefix at right

:: '''1'''. Large '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 7 digits
:: '''2'''. Small '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 10 digits, FS5 label 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.9.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.9B.png|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.7.''' 2025. [[File: PC-C8 250601.png|right|360px]]

: Similar to types &quot;'''PC-C2.1, PC-C2.2'''&quot;
: Corporate logo as '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(3)&quot; barcode.
: With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at upper left
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I2.1'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). '''Box F''' blank or with Proprietary info.
:::{{space|10}}Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(7) across bottom
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4ccc.jpg|right|450px]]
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-

| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0001435225
| 11675116
| A7
| B1
| 
| 02/24/2023
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S00014423--
| 8014--
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/12/2022
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442380
| 9726250
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 28674
| PINEHURST, NC
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442584
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442597
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442618
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 92618
| IRVINE, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442648
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442652
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/16/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442674
| 7460441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 63367
| LAKE SAINT LOUIS, MO
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442685
| 9619750
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 94931
| COTATI, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S000144269-
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0001443299
| 6080690
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001484855
| 17633955 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 03/08/2023  
| 68048
| PLATTSMOUTH, (NE)
| PC malfunction? Missing Box B2 barcode and insignia
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0008589402
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022  
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009145384
| 8290678 
| A1
| B3
| C1
| 02/05/2018
| 98338  
| GRAHAM, WA
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009146178
| 8239329
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022  
| 60543
| OSWEGO, IL
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5
| '''Black'''
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0009180090
| 7054113
| A7
| B3
| C0
| 08/16/2018
| 19007
| BRISTOL, PA
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009418949
| 7523319
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 09/22/2020  
| 30518
| Buford, GA
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009564660
| 7778491
| A1
| B3
| C3
| 10/22/2018
| 91304
| CANOGA PARK, CA
| BOX F with Business Info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009564837
| 9850040
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 01/23/2020
| 91356 
| TARZANA, CA
| 85 x 140 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0009564879
| 7733098
| A20
| B6
| C3
| 10/17/2022
| 33619
| TAMPA, FL
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009565018
| 10860336
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/06/2020 
| 33458 
| JUPITER, FL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0010887747
| 8128979
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 06/13/2022
| 33167
| MIAMI, FL
| BOX F with Prop Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010937521
| 10709064
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 02/08/2021
| 92648
| HUNTINGTON BEACH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010984631
| 10354575
| A8
| B2
| C3
| 04/27/2020
| 11791
| SYOSSET, FL (ERROR FOR NY)
| BOX F ORDER Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011128915
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 10/19/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011129014
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 09/30/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011268712
| 6822160
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 04/24/2020
| 99224
| Spokane, WA
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 02/08/2021
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS4?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 09/29/2022
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011692018
| 9897390
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/30/2020
| 55358
| Maple Lake, MN
| order info in Box F
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011692109
| 9897299
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 30101
| ACWORTH, GA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584392
| 5455555
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 10/27/2020
| 33458
| JUPITER, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584433
| 16035441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 84096
| HERRIMAN, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584494  
| 6916215
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022
| 85298
| GILBERT, AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0012584517
| 17771454
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 08/22/2022
| 32401
| PANAMA CITY, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584551 
| 7778491
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/12/2020
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584560
| 17663543 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022 
| 27525 
| FUQUAY VARINA, NC
| Please Do Not Bend
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584561
| 8072505
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475 
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352599
| 10538570
| A1
| B1
| C4
| 09/21/2022 
| 45249
| CINCINNATI, OH
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352605
| 8072505 
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| BLACK FILL
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0014949809
| 7542988
| A7
| B1
| 
| 03/25/2024
| 80116
| FRANKTOWN, CO
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950040
| 10137355
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/16/2022  
| 38474
| MOUNT PLEASANT, TN
| BOX F with Order Info

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950074
| 8014787
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F:Thank You For Your Order
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950080
| 8014787
| A5
| B4
| C4
| 12/12/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| BOX F &quot;Thank you for your order!&quot;
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950085
| 9765391
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/11/2022
| 84606
| SPRINGVILLE, UT
| BOX F with order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950089
| 9716903
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/02/2022  
| 83442
| AMMON, ID
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950092
| 9728837
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/10/2022  
| 84026
| FORT DUCHESNE, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950241 
| 8570771
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/19/2022
| 84062
| PLEASANT GROVE, UT
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950278 
| 17957223
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/03/2023
| 78245
| SAN ANTONIO, TX
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950365
| 580628?
| A6
| B2
| C3
| 09/13/2023
| 75041
| 
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950507 
| 6080690
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950544 
| 10875452
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 03/14/2023
| 19317
| CHADDS FORD, PA
| 
|}
{{font/end}}


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.2'''. ''2023''
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''Arial Nova Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.0 250331.png|right|450px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001442545
| 7537397
| A3
| B1
| C7
| 01/22/2024
| 48212
| HAMTRAMCK, MI
| Box F: Order info.

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001443325
| 11683909
| A2
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2023
| 46323
| HAMMOND, IN
|

|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950062
| 9717116
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 03/16/2024
| 98467
| UNIVERSITY PL, WA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950187
| 4998344
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 02/27/2024
| 91761
| ONTARIO, CA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950544
| 19750766
| A9
| B2
| C7
| 08/22/2024
| 93105
| SANTA BARBARA, CA
| Green band at top and a portion of left
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950560
| 17195820
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 10/12/2023
| 85013
| PHOENIX, AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| ?
| 6636835
| A14
| B6
| C7
| 05/01/2024
| 43228
| COLUMBUS, OH
| Box F: Order Info
|}

{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.3'''. ''2024''[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.png|right|450px]]
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''New Helvetica Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001443239
| 6928035
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 01/22/2024
| 91733
| EL MONTE, CA
| Box F: Order info.
|}

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I3'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with &quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;  barcode 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2C label.jpeg|right|380px]]
'''PC-I3.1.'''. '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.

:: '''1'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''2'''. Numeric month in date, as: {{space|4}} 00/00/2018
:: '''3'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3.4 actual.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-I3.2.''' 2021.
: As Type PC-C3.3 but with '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at right.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with DataMatrix 2-D barcode 


'''PC-I4.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1E.jpg|right|800px]]


'''PC-I4.2.'''. As '''PC-C4.1.1.''', with new company  logo, '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-I4.3 260709.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-I4.3 ''' 2023. 

: DataMatrix 2-D barcode at right
: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is to the right of the &quot;DataMatrix(4)&quot; barcode.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.'''. As '''PC-C5.2.''', with  '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo [[File: PC-C5.3.png|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.3.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071'''&quot;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Apr 15 2022
| 90021
| (RIALTO CA)
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Feb 09 2023
| 90021
| (NEWARK NJ)
|
|}

{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.4.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.3.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Large Mail Class letter, taller than the barcode.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3B.jpg|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071S'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.5.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I4.5.2.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442198
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jul 05 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442222
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jun 07 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0009761530
| 13928181
| A7
| B1
| 
| Feb 02 2023
| 48375
| NOVI, MI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''X'''
| 062S0010968105
| 12429570
| A10
|
| C6
| Sep 20 2022
| 32207
| JACKSONVILLE, FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0012584411
| 17222940
| A10
| 
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0013352605
| 17222940
| A10
|
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950307
| 17222940
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Nov 10 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0014949919
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Sep 04 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950343
| 11746372
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Mar 06 2023
| 11716
| BOHEMIA NY
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Franks with &quot;E-postage&quot; or variant in the frank}}====
----

&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=3}}
* Shipping labels with '''E-Postage''', '''ePostage''', '''ePOSTAGE''' and other variants in the frank were first reported in 2011. They are used by online commerce companies with business volumes large enough to justify special arrangements with shippers such as USPS, FedX, and UPS. 

* E-Postage is a program developed by USPS to accommodate the growth of ecommerce. Online merchants such as Amazon and Etsy use ePostage. In 2016 new company Shippo began operation as a shipping aggregator offering ePostage to any business.

* The stamps appear to be more like &quot;post paid&quot; permit stamps rather than metered mail but are shown here until we determine their exact nature.
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F2.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F14.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F1bb.jpeg|right|300px]]

* The stamps are found only on address labels with the top section having an enclosed mail-service letter at left and a frank box at right above a panel containing the mail class.
: The central section contains the return address, date, and addressee.
: The stamps show no value figures or identification number.
: The labels do include a tracking bar code and number.
: So far they have been found in two general formats:
:: '''-''' With single-line border surrounding the complete design, printed on label 135 mm tall
:: '''-''' With no outer border, printed on smaller label, 115 mm tall

* Known variations:
:: '''-''' Mail class appears in the frank box
:: '''-''' Incomplete box around mail-service letter at upper left
:: '''-''' Mailer's name repeated at top outside the frank box
:: '''-''' &quot;ComBasPrice&quot; appearing left of the frank box

'''NOTES''':
* Merchants have some control over the appearance of the stamp. The e-Postage designation is found in different fonts. The frank box is found in a variety of sizes with contents left justified or centered.
* When inaugurated in September 2011 only certain mail services were available through e-Postage system: Express Mail, Priority Mail, First-Class Mail parcels, Package Services (except Library Mail), and Parcel Select bar-coded non-presort.
* What is common to all e-Postage stamps is that the frank box contains e-Postage (or variant), U.S. POSTAGE PAID (or variant), and the mailer's identification.
{{font/end}}


----{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>9s94u2p6vv82qvcw6j9wob38vv3ojvy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First steps towards system programming under MS-DOS 7/Appendix</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>395663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654560</id>
      <parentid>4654198</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T16:17:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rejected the last text change (by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-39259-73|~2026-39259-73]]) and restored revision 3583034 by Matiia: Unexplained addition.</comment>
      <origin>4654560</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="339211" sha1="qvrtz6vgtghxvz6vu94go95ujq5idaz" xml:space="preserve">Appendices

== A.01 PC's main data structures ==
Both BIOS and DOS store their important data in especially devoted areas of computer's memory. Data placement inside these areas is not fixed for ever and may depend on version of BIOS and DOS. Therefore data in system structures should not be addressed directly, but rather should be accessed via special functions, described in chapter 8 of this book. One more reason is that data can't be updated properly unless the corresponding service function is called for.

Nevertheless direct access to system data structures may be necessary. It enables to get more information than you are allowed to know via service functions. For debugging purposes you may need to see data &quot;as they were&quot;, without being updated. You may need to intervene, to change certain settings in order to provoke desirable consequences. Of course, each such action is done exclusively at your own risk, but it may give you a chance, which otherwise would be lost.

=== A.01-1. BIOS data area ===
Just when computer is switched on its BIOS system begins to gather data and arrange its data area. In AT-compatible computers the BIOS data area occupies 100h bytes at 0040:0000h–0040:00FFh. The table below gives general disposition of selected data items with references to separate data tables for floppy drives (A.08-1), video system (A.10-6), keyboard (A.02-3) and other hardware (A.11-1).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Port COM-1 base I/O address
|-
| 02h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Port COM-2 base I/O address
|-
| 08h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Port LPT-1 base I/O address
|-
| 0Eh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Auxiliary BIOS data segment (0000h if absent)
|-
| 10h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Installed hardware word (A.11-1)
|-
| 12h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Status of POST self-test
|-
| 13h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Base memory size in kilobytes
|-
| 17h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 39
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Keyboard's buffer and flags (A.02-3)
|-
| 3Eh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Floppy drive status registers (A.08-1)
|-
| 49h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 22
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Current video mode data (A.10-6)
|-
| 67h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Restart address after CPU reset &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-4-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.12-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 6Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Timer ticks, counted since midnight
|-
| 70h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Count of days, reset after INT 1A\AH=00h call
|-
| 71h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bit 7 set after Ctrl-Break keystroke
|-
| 72h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Prescribed action of POST test &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.01-1-1-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 74h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | HDD's last operation error code (A.06-01)
|-
| 75h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of hard disk drives
|-
| 77h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Hard disk drive I/O port address
|-
| 78h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Port LPT-1 timeout counter
|-
| 7Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Port COM-1 timeout counter
|-
| 7Dh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Port COM 2 timeout counter
|-
| 80h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Keyboard buffer's start and end offsets (A.02-3)
|-
| 84h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Video control registers (A.10-6)
|-
| 8Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 3
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | HDD controller's status registers
|-
| 8Fh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Floppy drive controller's information (A.08-1)
|-
| 96h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Keyboard's status bytes (A.02-3)
|-
| 98h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to wait-complete flag (INT 15\AX=8300h)
|-
| 9Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Timer's wait count in microseconds
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | A0h
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top; text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | System timer's flags:
:bit 0: a call for INT 15\AH=86h has occurred
:bit 7: waiting time has elapsed
|-
| CEh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Count of days since last boot
|-
| F0h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 16
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Intra-application communication area
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.01-1-1&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.01-1-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.01-1-1-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; After a reboot, initiated by a jump far to F000:FFF0h address,&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-4-ref3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.12-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; POST test performance depends on contents, preserved in 0040:0072h memory cell :
::0000h – &quot;cold&quot; boot (full POST with memory test)
::1234h – &quot;warm&quot; boot (bypass memory test)&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.01-1-2&quot;&gt;Since data disposition in BIOS data area may depend on BIOS version, it is for you to decide, whether the data item at any particular offset is indeed the one you expect to find there.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.01-2 Selected entries in DOS' list-of-lists ===
List-of-lists is the basic data structure, created by IO.SYS loader at start of DOS loading procedure. A pointer to first byte of DOS's list-of-lists is returned by INT 21\AH=52h function (8.02-59). Fig.10 (in appendix A.03-3) illustrates process of access to list-of-lists. Selected information about data items in DOS's list-of-lists is given in the following table.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
!  style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | – 02h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Segment address of the first MSB (A.12-7)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to the first DPB block &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.01-2-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to SFT (System File Table, A.01-4)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to active CON (Console) device driver
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 10h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Maximum bytes per sector on any drive
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 16h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to first record in CDS structure (A.03-3)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 20h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Number of registered drives (block devices)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 21h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Number of records in CDS structure (A.03-3)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 22h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 18 || Actual NUL device driver header &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.01-2-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-2-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 34h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Number of virtual drives created by JOIN.EXE
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 37h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to SETVER's table (0000:0000h if none)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 3Dh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || PSP segment of the last executed program
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 43h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Boot drive (01h = A:, 03h = C:, and so on)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 45h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Extended memory size (in kilobytes).
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.01-2-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-2-1-ref|'''^''']] DPB blocks (Drive Parameter Blocks, A.03-1) are arranged in a chain, so that a pointer to the next DPB is at offset 19h in the previous DPB.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.01-2-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-2-2-ref|'''^''']] NUL device driver header at offset 22h is the first in a chain of driver headers. First dword in each header is a pointer to the next header. Another way to obtain a pointer to the second driver header is via INT 2F\AX=122Ch. Last header in the chain begins with word FFFFh.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.01-3. Selected items in DOS's swappable data area ===
Current address and size of DOS's swappable data area (SDA) are returned by INT 21\AX=5D06h function (8.02-70). SDA stores continuously updated data, including main DOS's system stacks. These data reflect ever changing DOS's status at each current moment. Total size of swappable area may be as large as several kilobytes, it depends on size of the stacks.

The SDA area is named &quot;swappable&quot;, because its swapping is the main mechanism of obtaining DOS's re-enterability, i.e. opportunity to call DOS's functions by TSRs and handlers, which themselves may be called while execution of previous DOS's function hasn't been finished. If interrupt handler reveals that either critical error flag (at offset 00h in SDA) or InDOS flag (at offset 01h in SDA) have a non-zero value, hence a call for this handler has interrupted execution of a DOS's function, and then the next call for any DOS's function can change data in SDA area so that a return back to proper resumption of the interrupted program will become impossible. Though sometimes resumption of interrupted program is possible (8.02-28, 8.02-87), nevertheless the most radical solution is to save contents of SDA before any DOS's function is called, and to restore SDA state afterwards on basis of the saved data. It also should be taken into account that INT 21\AX=5D06h function itself (8.02-70) is non-reentrant; therefore a call for SDA's address should be performed beforehand, during handler's initialization, so that at the moment of interrupt the handler may read a prepared SDA address without a new call for INT 21\AX=5D06h.

The table below shows selected data items inside swappable data area
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Critical error flag (&quot;ErrorMode&quot;)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || InDOS flag (INT 21\AH=34h, 8.02-28)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Drive, caused critical error, or FFh if no error
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Locus of the last error (A.06-4)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Extended code of the last error (A.06-1)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Suggested action after the last error (A.06-3)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Class of the last error (A.06-2)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 08h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || ES:DI pointer at the moment of last error
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Current address of DTA (8.02-16)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Current program's PSP segment (process identifier)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 14h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Errorlevel value from last program's termination
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 16h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Current logical disk number
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 17h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || The BREAK flag (3.01, 4.02, 8.02-25)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Ah
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Flag of FAIL response to INT 24 (8.02-84) call
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Bh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Allowable INT 24 actions (8.02-84)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 30h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Day of month
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 31h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Month
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 32h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Year, counted from 1980
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 34h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Number of days since 01-01-1980
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 36h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Day of week (0 = Sunday)
|}

=== A.01-4 System File Table structure ===
Associations between access handles and the corresponding &quot;opened&quot; objects are stored by DOS in a chain-like queue of tables, named SFT (System File Tables). This name is not quite correct, because &quot;opened&quot; objects may be not files only, but also allotted XMS areas, driver's access channels and other objects, known as &quot;character devices&quot;.

A pointer to the first SFT is at offset 04h in the list-of-lists (A.01-2). Each SFT begins at offset 00h with a dword pointer to the next SFT, except the last one, which is marked with word FFFFh at offset 00h. Such structure can easily be traced through from the first SFT to the last. A word at offset 04h in each SFT declares number of entries in this particular SFT. Each entry corresponds to one &quot;opened&quot; object. Total number of SFT entries is limited by FILES specification in CONFIG.SYS file (4.12).

Numbers of SFT entries, which are &quot;opened&quot; to a given program, are stored in JFT at offset 18h inside PSP (A.07-1), belonging to this program. The corresponding &quot;opened&quot; objects are addressed to with handles (INT 21\AH=3Dh, 8.02-33), which identify SFT entries according to disposition order of their numbers in JFT. The number of SFT entry, corresponding to a given handle, can be found also with INT 2F\AX=1220h (8.03-11). Then INT 2F\AX=1216h function (8.03-09), being given the SFT entry number, returns a pointer to this entry. Some information about active SFT entries and corresponding objects can be obtained via INT 21\AX=4400h function (8.02-40).

The first three SFT entry numbers have fixed default associations: 00h – AUX channel (COM1 port), 01h – the CON device (console), 02h – the PRN device (LPT1 port). These 3 SFT entry numbers are automatically written into JFT table of each program. Order of their disposition in JFT (01h, 01h, 01h, 00h, 02h) defines associated handles: 0000h – for STDIN channel, 0001h – for STDOUT channel, 0002h – for STDERR channel, 0003h – for COM1 port, 0004h – for LPT1 port. SFT entries for handles 0005h and on are created on requests by INT 21\AH=3Dh (8.02-33) and by INT 21\AX=6C00h (8.02-78) functions.

The first entry in each SFT table starts at offset 06h. As far as each entry has fixed length 3Bh, start points of the following entries can be easily calculated. The table below specifies selected data items inside each entry with offsets counted from start point of that entry. The first column &quot;CDE&quot; of the table corresponds to &quot;character device&quot; entries, the second column &quot;OFE&quot; – to entries, associated with ordinary files.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! CDE !! OFE !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left; | Description
|-
| 00h || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Number of handles to the object (FFFFh if none)
|-
| 02h || 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Access and sharing conditions (A.09-4)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 03h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Flags &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.01-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | File's attributes (A.09-2)
|-
| 05h || 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Object's info word (A.04-2 for files, A.05-2 for others)
|-
| 07h || 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Pointer to DPB (A.03-1) for files or pointer to driver's header (A.05-1) for other objects
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Starting cluster number (for local files only)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | File's packed time (INT 21\AX=5700h, 8.02-63)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | File's packed date (INT 21\AX=5700h, 8.02-63)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 11h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | File's size
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 15h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | File's pointer position (INT 21\AH=42h, 8.02-38)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 19h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Relative number of the last cluster accessed
|-
| 19h || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Pointer to IFS redirector records
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 1Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Number of directory sector containing file's entry
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 1Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Number of file's entry in directory sector
|-
| 20h || 20h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 11
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Name in FCB-format (A.09-5) of file or other object
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 31h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Identifier (PSP segment) of file's owner process
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 35h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Absolute number of the last accessed cluster
|-
| 37h || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left; | Pointer to IFS-driver or 0000:0000h for ordinary files
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.01-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-4-1-ref|'''^''']] Flags byte at 03h includes all BH register settings, specified for INT 21\AX=6C00h function (8.02-78). Besides this, set state of bit 7 in flags byte marks files opened by means of FCB.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== A.02 Keyboard codes and national adaptation ==
=== A.02-1 Key codes ===
User's control over PC via keyboard must be enabled always, even when operating system isn't loaded yet. Therefore motherboard's hardware and BIOS system are responsible for compatibility with different types of keyboards. Just when PC is switched on, its BIOS system loads INT 09 and INT 16 handlers, providing various keyboard functions.

Keyboard signals are received and transformed by keyboard controller. It responds to each change of key's state (press or release) with preparing code for port 60h and sending a request via IRQ 01 interrupt request line. Request invokes the INT 09 handler. Some keys induce keyboard controller to send a succession of codes, so that INT 09 handler is invoked several times. The code, read by INT 09 handler from port 60h, is most often the scan code of some key, but it may be a service code. Codes from E0h to FFh, and also 00h and AAh are interpreted as service codes. Service codes, charged with a special keystroke identification mission, are known as prefixes :
::E0h – prefix for discrimination between those keys, which for the sake of compatibility with obsolete 84-key keyboards have been given identical scan codes.
::E1h – prefix for keys having a two byte scan code. In ordinary keyboards there is only one such key: Pause/Break.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-6-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;

Reading of a prefix from port 60h makes INT 09 handler prepared to a specific interpretation of that scan code, which will be received by the next call for INT 09. In the second column (INT 09) of the table below hexadecimal scan codes of keystrokes are shown, read by INT 09 handler from port 60h. Key release codes are not shown in the table, because release codes can be easily derived from keystroke codes by making its 7th bit set. For example, key &quot;A&quot; sends keystroke (press) code 1Eh, hence its release code is 9Eh. But those scan codes, which are sent preceded by a prefix either E0h or E1h, are shown in the second table's column together with this prefix. Naturally, release codes of the same keys are preceded by the same prefix.

&quot;Raw&quot; scan code, read from port 60h, is translated by INT 09 and INT 16 handlers into a new pair — a unified scan code and ASCII value, corresponding to the pressed (or released) key. Just this data pair will be presented to program, sending a request for keyboard input via INT 16. Unified scan-code most often is equal to press scan code, but may be altered, if at the same time a &quot;functional&quot; key is kept pressed: SHIFT, CTRL, or ALT. Each &quot;functional&quot; key has its own scan code (in second column of the table below). Scan codes of &quot;functional&quot; keys are taken into account by INT 09 handler, but are not stored in keyboard buffer. States of &quot;functional&quot; keys are expressed otherwise: via a status word, returned by INT 16\AH=12 function (8.01-85).The following table represents keys of the most widely used 104-key &quot;enhanced&quot; keyboard. The word &quot;num&quot; before a key name in the first table's column denotes keys of a numeric keypad at the right side of keyboard. The shown codes for such keys correspond to turned OFF state of NUMLOCK switch.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-6-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; Data order is defined by key's scan codes values in the second table's column.

Hexadecimal numbers in columns 3–6 of the table below represent the data, returned in AX register by INT 16\AH=10h function (8.01-83). Left two digits in each number define unified scan-code, returned in AH register, and the right two digits — ASCII code of corresponding character, returned in AL register. Data in the 3rd column (AX) correspond to keystrokes, not accompanied by keeping pressed any &quot;functional&quot; key. Data in the 4th column (SHIFT) correspond to the case when SHIFT key is kept pressed, data in the 5th column (CTRL) — to the case of keeping pressed the CTRL key, data in the 6th column (ALT) — to the case of keeping pressed the ALT key. Blank space in place of any particular value means that corresponding key or key combination is sensed by BIOS, but isn't reported via INT 16 handler.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! colspan=2 | Keys
! style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | INT09
! style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | AX !! SHIFT !! CTRL
! style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | ALT !! Comments
|-
| colspan=2 | Esc
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01 || 011B
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 011B || 011B || 0100 || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 1 || !
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02 || 0231
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0221 || &amp;nbsp; || 7800
|-
| 2 || @
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03 || 0332
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0340 || 0300 || 7900
|-
| 3 || #
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04 || 0433
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0423 || &amp;nbsp; || 7A00
|-
| 4 || $
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05 || 0534
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0524 || &amp;nbsp; || 7B00
|-
| 5 || %
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06 || 0635
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0625 || &amp;nbsp; || 7C00
|-
| 6 || ^
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07 || 0736
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 075E || 071E || 7D00
|-
| 7 || &amp;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 08 || 0837
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0826 || &amp;nbsp; || 7E00
|-
| 8 || *
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 09 || 0938
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 092A || &amp;nbsp; || 7F00
|-
| 9 || (
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0A || 0A39
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0A28 || &amp;nbsp; || 8000
|-
| 0 || )
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0B || 0B30
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0B29 || &amp;nbsp; || 8100
|-
| – || _
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0C || 0C2D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0C5F || 0C1F || 8200
|-
| = || +
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0D || 0D3D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0D2B || &amp;nbsp; || 8300
|-
| colspan=2 | Backspace
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0E || 0E08
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0E08 || 0E7F || 0E00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Tab
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0F || 0F09
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0F00 || 9400 || A500 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Q
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10 || 1071
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1051 || 1011 || 1000
|-
| colspan=2 | W
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 11 || 1177
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1157 || 1117 || 1100
|-
| colspan=2 | E
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 12 || 1265
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1245 || 1205 || 1200
|-
| colspan=2 | R
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 13 || 1372
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1352 || 1312 || 1300
|-
| colspan=2 | T
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 14 || 1474
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1454 || 1414 || 1400
|-
| colspan=2 | Y
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 15 || 1579
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1559 || 1519 || 1500
|-
| colspan=2 | U
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 16 || 1675
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1655 || 1615 || 1600
|-
| colspan=2 | I
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 17 || 1769
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1749 || 1709 || 1700
|-
| colspan=2 | O
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 18 || 186F
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 184F || 180F || 1800
|-
| colspan=2 | P
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 19 || 1970
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1950 || 1910 || 1900
|-
| [ || {
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1A || 1A5B
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1A7B || 1A1B || 1A00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| ] || }
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1B || 1B5D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1B7D || 1B1D || 1B00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Enter
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1C || 1C0D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1C0D || 1C0A || 1C00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num Enter
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 1C || E00D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E00D || E00A || A600 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Left Ctrl
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1D || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Right Ctrl
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 1D || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | A
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1E || 1E61
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1E41 || 1E01 || 1E00
|-
| colspan=2 | S
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1F || 1F73
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1F53 || 1F13 || 1F00
|-
| colspan=2 | D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 20 || 2064
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2044 || 2004 || 2000
|-
| colspan=2 | F
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 21 || 2166
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2146 || 2106 || 2100
|-
| colspan=2 | G
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 22 || 2267
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2247 || 2207 || 2200
|-
| colspan=2 | H
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 23 || 2368
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2348 || 2308 || 2300
|-
| colspan=2 | J
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 24 || 246A
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 244A || 240A || 2400
|-
| colspan=2 | K
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 25 || 256B
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 254B || 250B || 2500
|-
| colspan=2 | L
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 26 || 266C
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 264C || 260C || 2600
|-
| ; || :
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 27 || 273B
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 273A || &amp;nbsp; || 2700 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| ' || &quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 28 || 2827
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2822 || &amp;nbsp; || 2800 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| ` || ~
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 29 || 2960
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 297E || &amp;nbsp; || 2900 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Left Shift
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2A || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | SysRq
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 2A || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 7200 || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| \ || &lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2B || 2B5C
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2B7C || 2B1C || 2B00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Z
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2C || 2C7A
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2C5A || 2C1A || 2C00
|-
| colspan=2 | X
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2D || 2D78
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2D58 || 2D18 || 2D00
|-
| colspan=2 | C
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2E || 2E63
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2E43 || 2E03 || 2E00
|-
| colspan=2 | V
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2F || 2F76
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2F56 || 2F16 || 2F00
|-
| colspan=2 | B
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 30 || 3062
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3042 || 3002 || 3000
|-
| colspan=2 | N
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 31 || 316E
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 314E || 310E || 3100
|-
| colspan=2 | M
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 32 || 326D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 324D || 320D || 3200
|-
| , || &lt;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 33 || 332C
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 333C || &amp;nbsp; || 3300 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| . || &gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 34 || 342E
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 343E || &amp;nbsp; || 3400 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| / || ?
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 35 || 352F
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 353F || &amp;nbsp; || 3500 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num /
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 35 || E02F
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E02F || 9500 || A400 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Right Shift
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 36 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num *
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 37 || 372A
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 372A || 9600 || 3700 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Left Alt
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 38 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Right Alt
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 38 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Spacebar
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 39 || 3920
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3920 || 3920 || 3920
|-
| colspan=2 | Caps Lock
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3A || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | F1
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3B || 3B00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5400 || 5E00 || 6800
|-
| colspan=2 | F2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3C || 3C00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5500 || 5F00 || 6900
|-
| colspan=2 | F3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3D || 3D00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5600 || 6000 || 6A00
|-
| colspan=2 | F4
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3E || 3E00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5700 || 6100 || 6B00
|-
| colspan=2 | F5
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3F || 3F00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5800 || 6200 || 6C00
|-
| colspan=2 | F6
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 40 || 4000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5900 || 6300 || 6D00
|-
| colspan=2 | F7
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 41 || 4100
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5A00 || 6400 || 6E00
|-
| colspan=2 | F8
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 42 || 4200
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5B00 || 6500 || 6F00
|-
| colspan=2 | F9
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 43 || 4300
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5C00 || 6600 || 7000
|-
| colspan=2 | F10
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 44 || 4400
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5D00 || 6700 || 7100
|-
| colspan=2 | NumLock
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 45 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Pause || E1 1D 45 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-6-ref3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | ScrollLock
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 46 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 7
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 47 || 4700
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4737 || 7700 || 0007 || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-7-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Home
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 47 || 47E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 47E0 || 77E0 || 9700 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 8
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 48 || 4800
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4838 || 8D00 || 0008 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Arrow Up
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 48 || 48E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 48E0 || 8DE0 || 9800 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 9
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 49 || 4900
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4939 || 8400 || 0009 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | PgUp
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 49 || 49E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 49E0 || 84E0 || 9900 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num &amp;minus;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4A || 4A2D
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4A2D || 8E00 || 4A00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 4
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4B || 4B00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4B34 || 7300 || 0004 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | LeftArrow
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 4B || 4BE0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4BE0 || 73E0 || 9B00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 5
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4C || 4C00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4C35 || 8F00 || 0005 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 6
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4D || 4D00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4D36 || 7400 || 0006 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | RightArrow
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 4D || 4DE0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4DE0 || 74E0 || 9D00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num +
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4E || 4E2B
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4E2B || 9000 || 4E00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 1
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4F || 4F00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4F31 || 7500 || 0001 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | End
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 4F || 4FE0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4FE0 || 75E0 || 9F00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 50 || 5000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5032 || 9100 || 0002 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | ArrowDown
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 50 || 50E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 50E0 || 91E0 || A000 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 51 || 5100
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5133 || 7600 || 0003 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | PgDn
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 51 || 51E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 51E0 || 76E0 || A100 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num 0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 52 || 5200
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5230 || 9200 || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Ins
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 52 || 52E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 52E0 || 92E0 || A200 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | num .
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 53 || 5300
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 532E || 9300 || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Del
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 53 || 53E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 53E0 || 93E0 || A300 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | F11
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 57 || 8500
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8700 || 8900 || 8B00 || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-1-8-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | F12
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 58 || 8600
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8800 || 8A00 || 8C00 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | LeftWin
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 5B || B6E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | C2E0 || CEE0 || DAE0 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | RightWin
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 5C || B7E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | C3E0 || CFE0 || DBE0 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Menu
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | E0 5D || B8E0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | C4E0 || D0E0 || DCE0 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-1-ref|'''^''']] The INT16\AH=00h function doesn't respond to this keystroke when &quot;functional&quot; key ALT is kept pressed.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-2-ref|'''^''']] The INT16\AH=00h function doesn't respond to this keystroke when &quot;functional&quot; key CTRL is kept pressed.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-3-ref|'''^''']] The INT16\AH=00h function returns 00h instead of ASCII code E0h, except for two keystrokes : after &quot;num /&quot; it returns ASCII code 35h, after &quot;num Enter&quot; keystroke it returns ASCII code 1Ch.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-4-ref|'''^''']] Code of this key is not written into keyboard buffer, but it does affect translation of other key's codes by INT 09 handler.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-5-ref|'''^''']] Keyboard controller responds to SysRq keystroke with &quot;E0 2A E0 37&quot; codes succession, and to SysRq key release — with inverse succession &quot;E0 B7 E0 AA&quot;. Some INT 16 handlers may return other response to CTRL-SysRq key combination.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-6&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-6-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.02-1-6-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.02-1-6-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[../Configuration commands#note-4.23-1|'''''d''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Release of Pause/Break key is not registered separately. After each Pause/Break keystroke its press code is immediately followed by release code, forming a succession &quot;E1 1D 45 E1 9D C5&quot;. Having received such succession of codes, the INT 09 handler resets keyboard buffer and calls for INT 1B (8.01-95).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-7&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-7-ref|'''^''']] The shown codes for this key correspond to turned OFF state of Numlock switch. When NumLock switch is turned ON, codes shown in 3rd and in 4th columns of the table get exchanged.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-8&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-1-8-ref|'''^''']] The INT 16\AH=00h function gives no response to these keys.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-1-9&quot;&gt;Several models of keyboards have three auxiliary keys for power control : &quot;Power&quot;, &quot;Sleep&quot; and &quot;Wake Up&quot;. Corresponding scan codes for these keys are E0 5E, E0 5F, E0 63.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.02-2 Keyboard layouts and national codepages ===
The following table comprises data for MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 national adaptation by those means, which are supplied in Microsoft's Windows&amp;nbsp;95/98 release. These means include data file COUNTRY.SYS, three files with keyboard layouts (KEYBOARD.SYS, KEYBRD2.SYS and KEYBRD3.SYS), and four files with fonts for different codepages (EGA.CPI, EGA2.CPI, EGA3.CPI and ISO.CPI).

The first column (Abbr) in this table contains literal country codes, the third column (ID) – keyboard layout identifiers. Both these items are needed for KEYB.COM driver's (5.02-04) command line composition. Layout identifier is necessary for those countries only, where more than one keyboard's layout is used, for other countries it may be omitted.

The 4th column (Keyb) of the table specifies which file with keyboard layout should be loaded : digit 1 corresponds to KEYBOARD.SYS, digit 2 – to KEYBRD2.SYS, digit 3 – to KEYBRD3.SYS, word &quot;Any&quot; – to either of these three files.

The 5th column (Code) of the table shows numeric country code, used for loading COUNTRY.SYS data file (5.02-01) with COUNTRY command (4.05).

Last 7th column of the table shows codepages used in various countries. Number of a codepage is needed for MORE.COM utility (6.18), which has to select one font from a group of fonts in each *.CPI file (example in 9.01-02). The ISO.CPI file supplies fonts, recommended by International Standards Organization. Proprietary Microsoft's fonts are in EGA*.CPI files, about 5 fonts in each. Therefore 6th table's column (Ega*) specifies which one of EGA*.CPI files should be loaded: digit 1 corresponds to file EGA.SYS, digit 2 – to EGA2.CPI, digit 3 – to EGA3.CPI, word &quot;Any&quot; – to either of these files.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Abbr !! Country !! ID !! Keyb !! Code !! Ega* !! Codepage
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | GR || Austria ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 043 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | BE || Belgium ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 032 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | BG || Bulgaria || 442
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 359 || 3 || CP855
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | BR || Brazil || 274, 275
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 055 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | CF || Canada French || 058
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 002 || 1 || CP863
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | CZ || Czech Republic || 243
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 042 || Any || CP852
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | DK || Denmark ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 045 || 1 || CP865
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | SU || Finland ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 358 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | FR || France || 120, 189
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 033 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | GR || Germany ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 049 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | GK || Greece || 319
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 030 || 2 || CP737, 869
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | HU || Hungary ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 036 || Any || CP852
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | IS || Iceland || 161
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 354 || 2 || CP861
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | IT || Italy || 141,142
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 039 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | LA || Latin America ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 003 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | NL || Netherlands ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 031 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | NO || Norway ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 047 || 1 || CP865
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | PL || Poland ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 048 || Any || CP852
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | PO || Portugal ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 351 || 1 || CP860
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | RO || Romania || 333
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 040 || Any || CP852
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | RU || Russia || 441
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2,3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 007 || 3 || CP866
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | SL || Slovakia || 245
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 421 || Any || CP852
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | SP || Spain ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 034 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | SV || Sweden ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 046 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | SF || Switzerland French ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 1,3
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 041 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | TR || Turkey || 440, 179
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 090 || 2 || CP857
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | UK || Britain + Ireland || 166, 168
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 044 || Any || CP850
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | US || USA + Australia ||
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 001 || 1,3 || CP437
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | YC || Yugoslavia Cyrillic || 118
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 038 || 3 || CP855
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | YU || Yugoslavia Latin || 234
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Any
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 038 || Any || CP852
|}

Note 1: KEYBOARD.SYS is the only file, which supports typewriter mode of keyboard layout.

Note 2: Microsoft's files for national adaptation are not compatible with KEYRUS.COM driver (5.02-05). The latter uses internal code tables and keyboard layouts.

Note 3: fonts for some other countries (China, Israel, Japan, etc.) are supplied exclusively with special national versions of Microsoft's operating systems.

=== A.02-3 Keyboard data fields in BIOS data area ===
The following table shows disposition of keyboard data in BIOS data area. All offsets are given relative to segment address 0040h, where BIOS data area starts.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 17h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Flags, returned in AX by INT 16\AH=12h (8.01-85)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 19h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Character input via ALT followed by ASCII code
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Ah
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Pointer to the next character in keyboard buffer
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Pointer to the first free cell in keyboard buffer
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Eh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 32
| colspan=2 |  Keyboard's circular buffer
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 71h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1
| Flag: || bit 7 set if Ctrl-Break has been pressed
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 80h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Keyboard buffer's start offset (normally 1Eh)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 82h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Keyboard buffer's END+1 offset (normally 3Eh)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 96h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Flags: || bit 0 set: last code read was E1h prefix
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 1 set: last code read was E0h prefix
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 2 set: right CTRL key has been pressed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 3 set: right ALT key has been pressed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 4 set: &quot;enhanced&quot; keyboard is installed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 6 set: 1st byte is received of 2-byte scan-code
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 97h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Status: || bit 0 set: the Scroll Lock LED is switched ON
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 1 set: the Num Lock LED is switched ON
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 2 set: the Caps Lock LED is switched ON
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 7 set: keyboard has sent error flag
|}

Note 1: presented data disposition may depend on BIOS version (A.01-1).

=== A.02-4 National adaptation parameters block ===
Data block with currently active national adaptation parameters is returned by INT 21\AX=6501h function (8.02-74). Data block of the same structure is accepted by INT 21\AX=7002h function (note 3 to 8.02-74), defining national adaptation for MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || = 01h on return &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Table size on return &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Country code in hexadecimal form (A.02-2)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Hexadecimal codepage number (A.02-2)
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top; text-align:center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top; text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Date format:
:= 0000h – American (mm dd yy)
:= 0001h – European (dd mm yy)
:= 0002h – Japanese (yy mm dd)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 09h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 5 || ASCII currency name, ending with 00h byte
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Eh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Thousands separator for numbers
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Integer and fractional parts separator
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 12h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || ASCII date separator character
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 14h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || ASCII time separator character
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 16h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || bit 0 set: currency symbol follows value (else precedes)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 1 set: space between value and currency symbol
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 2 set: currency symbol replaces decimal point
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 17h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Number of digits after decimal point in currency
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 18h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 1 || bit 1 set: 24-hour clock, else 12-hour clock
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 19h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Entrance address of case map routine &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-4-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Dh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;&quot; | 2 || ASCII data-list separator character
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-4-1-ref|'''^''']] When data block is sent to INT 21\AX=7002h function, then this item is ignored.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Case map routine translates national characters (with ASCII codes larger than 80h) into upper case and back. The case map routine should be called for with CALL FAR command (7.03-08). AL register is used for both sending ASCII code of the character to be translated and for returning the result back.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.02-5 Country-dependent restrictions for filenames ===
A pointer to this table is returned by INT 21\AX=6505h function (note 1 to 8.02-74).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Table's size (this word shouldn't be counted)
|-
| 03h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; |  Lowest permissible character value for filenames
|-
| 04h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; |  Highest permissible character value for filenames
|-
| 06h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; |  First character's value of prohibited range
|-
| 07h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; |  Last character's value of prohibited range
|-
| 09h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; |  Number (&quot;N&quot;) of filenames terminating codes
|-
| 0Ah || N
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; |  ASCII codes used to terminate filenames
|}

=== A.02-6 Information about available code pages ===
The following table shows structure of DISPLAY.SYS (5.02-02) driver's data block ; a pointer to this block is returned by INT 2F\AX=AD03h function (8.03-27).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! Description
|-
| 00h || 2 || number M of codepages, specified by configuration
|-
| 04h || 2 || number N of codepages, loaded by default
|-
| 06h || 2N || identifiers of codepages, loaded by default
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 06h+2N || 2M || identifiers of codepages, specified by configuration (or = FFFFh if configuration isn't prepared yet)
|}

=== A.02-7 Definition of &quot;hot&quot; keys in AMIS specification ===
Common practice for TSR programs is assignment of functions to predetermined &quot;hot&quot; keys irrespective to which keys have been charged yet with other missions by previously loaded TSR programs. The least harmful outcome of this practice is a loss of opportunities to invoke functions of previously loaded TSR programs and drivers. A real chance to prevent interception of &quot;hot&quot; key functions is suggested by AMIS specification (A.07-6). According to AMIS specification, resident modules must respond to calls for multiplex interrupt INT 2D with operation code AL = 05h, returning in DX:BX registers a pointer to a list of their active &quot;hot&quot; keys. Any program, which intends to arrange its own &quot;hot&quot; keys, should be given access to data about previous &quot;hot&quot; key assignments.

The first byte, at offset 00h from the start of &quot;hot&quot; keys list, informs about &quot;hot&quot; calls interception method.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-7-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; The second byte at offset 01h is a number of &quot;hot&quot; keys, kept active by responding resident module. This number also defines total length of the returned list, because after the second byte, starting at offset 02h, a group of &quot;hot&quot; key descriptors follows, each 6 bytes long. Structure of these descriptors is shown in table below. Offsets in the table are counted from start of each descriptor.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! Description !! Comments
|-
| 00h || 1 || Scan-code of the &quot;hot&quot; key || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-7-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 01h || 2 || Required shift states || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-7-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 03h || 2 || Disallowed shift states || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-7-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 05h || 1 || Auxiliary key's flags || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-7-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-7-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-1-ref|'''^''']] Byte at offset 00h in &quot;hot&quot; keys list informs about &quot;hot&quot; calls interception method. Bit 7 in this byte must be cleared; other bits have the following meaning :
::bit 0 set : interception before INT 09 handler
::bit 1 set : interception after INT 09 handler
::bit 2 set : interception before INT 15\AH=4Fh
::bit 3 set : interception after INT 15\AH=4Fh
::bit 4 set : interception of INT 16\AH=00h,01h,02h calls
::bit 5 set : interception of INT 16\AH=10h,11h,12h calls
::bit 6 set : interception of INT 16\AH=20h,21h,22h calls.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-7-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-2-ref|'''^''']] If the most significant bit of scan-code is clear, hence actuation is registered when the key is pressed; if the most significant bit of scan code is set, hence actuation is registered when the key is released. If actuation is caused exclusively by a specific states combination of &quot;functional&quot; keys, then 00h or 80h values should be specified instead of scan code.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-7-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-3-ref|'''^''']] A word of required shift states is almost identical to the word of keyboard flags, returned by INT 16\AH=12h function (8.01-85). The only difference is the meaning of bit 7: in a word of required shift states it corresponds to keeping pressed either (left or right) SHIFT key. Set state of any bit in a word of required shift states specifies a necessary condition for &quot;hot&quot; key actuation.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-7-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-4-ref|'''^''']] Bits in a word of disallowed shift states have the same meaning, as in a word of required shift states,&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; but their set state expresses the opposite condition : prevention of &quot;hot&quot; key actuation. Combination of required and disallowed conditions helps to decrease probability of false actuations.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-7-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-7-5-ref|'''^''']] The last byte in each &quot;hot&quot; key descriptor is a byte of auxiliary flags. Bits 6 and 7 in this byte must be cleared; states of other bits have the following meaning :
::bit 0 set: – actuation before module's execution
::bit 1 set: – actuation after module's execution
::bit 2 set: – monitoring interception is allowed
::bit 3 set: – actuation is blocked by other keys
::bit 4 set: – role of this &quot;hot&quot; key is redefined
::bit 5 set: – actuation depends on execution conditions.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.02-8. ASCII service marks and commands ===
Positions 0–31 in American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) are devoted to service marks and commands. All DOS's codepages have inherited these 32 service codes. Under MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 most part of these service codes is ignored, but some are executed as commands.

Some service codes can be entered by key combinations, described in article 1.05. Another way to input service codes is by their decimal ASCII number (0–31) with keys in numeric keypad while the ALT key is kept pressed.

First response to entered service code may be got from input module of the CON (console) device driver. Further response may be given by command interpreter. When a service code is sent to output, BIOS system enables to execute it as a command (8.01-21, 8.01-33) or to avoid its execution (8.01-17) as well. By default the output module of the CON (console) device driver doesn't attempt to avoid execution of some service codes. Such behavior may be altered by sending a parameters string (8.02-41) to the CON device driver, but there is no reason to do this because DOS programs are allowed to output data directly via desirable BIOS function(s).

Sometimes ASCII service codes may be useful, but it must be known beforehand, where and how each particular service code will be interpreted. Therefore the following table shows a list of those service codes, which are active under MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7, with description of actions, associated with these codes.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Code !! Number
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 0 || End marker of interpreted lines, including lines with names and with environmental variable's values.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 3 || &quot;End of Text&quot; marker, terminates execution of command files (example in article 3.21).
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 7 || &quot;Beep&quot; code. Being sent to output, it causes a short sound signal.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 08h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 8 || Shifts cursor one character cell leftwards. Being sent via CON device driver, erases the last character.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 09h
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 9 || Horizontal tabulation code. Being sent to display, it is automatically expanded into 8 spaces.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ah
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 10 || &quot;Line feed&quot; code, causes transition to the next line without cursor's return to start of line.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.02-8-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-8-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ch
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 12 || Command &quot;Eject Sheet&quot; for printers. Both BIOS and CON device driver ignore this command.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Dh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 13 || &quot;Carriage Return&quot; code, returns cursor to start of a line. Also marks end of line in DTA region (8.02-16).
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Ah
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 26 || Optional end mark for textual files; at this mark copying of a file may be disrupted (3.06).
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Bh
| style=&quot;text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;&quot; | 27 || &quot;Escape&quot; code is used as marker for commands, addressed to ANSI.SYS driver (if installed).
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-8-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.02-8-1-ref|'''^''']] Service codes 0Dh 0Ah together are used as end-of-line marker in all textual files typed under DOS.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.02-8-2&quot;&gt;There is a non-zero probability to encounter resident modules, responding to some service codes, which are not shown here and normally are ignored under DOS.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== A.03 Disks access databases ==
=== A.03-1. Structure of Drive Parameters Blocks (DPB) ===
DOS stores disk access parameters in DPB blocks – one per each available logical disk of any kind, and in one more copy of such block for default (current) drive. The INT 21\AX=7302h function (8.02-79) enables to copy any DPB block into a prepared buffer. Pointers to DPB blocks are returned by INT 21\AH=1Fh and by INT 21\AH=32h functions (8.02-24), documented in previous versions of DOS. In fig.8 below the whole access path to disk's C: DPB block is shown, including a call for INT 21\AH=32h function, reading block's address 00C9:13C0h from DS:BX registers and display of DPB block's dump. In the displayed dump at offset 19h there is address 00C9:13FDh of the next DPB block, related to next logical disk D:. A dump of DPB block for disk D: is also shown in fig.8.
[[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot8.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 8]]

The mentioned legal functions of access to DPB blocks automatically attempt to read the requested disk in order to update data in DPB block. This makes program's execution slower and sometimes can't be applied to removable media, which may be absent in the drive at that moment. Alternative is to read DPB block's address from a cell at offset 45h in CDS entry (A.03-3) of the same disk.

All DPB blocks have the same structure as that shown below. Bytes up to offset 20h are the same as in previous DOS versions, but bytes beyond offset 20h are specific for extended DPB blocks in MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Logical disk number (00h = A:, 02h = C:, and so on)
|-
| 01h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Disk's number in driver's list of disks
|-
| 02h || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Sector size (in bytes)
|-
| 04h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Highest sector number in a cluster
|-
| 05h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Shift count to convert clusters into sectors
|-
| 06h || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of reserved sectors (preceding FAT)
|-
| 08h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of FAT tables
|-
| 09h || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Maximum number of root directory entries
|-
| 0Bh || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of first sector containing user data
|-
| 0Dh || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Highest cluster number (number of clusters + 1)
|-
| 0Fh || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of sectors per FAT table
|-
| 11h || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Sector number of root directory first sector
|-
| 13h || 4
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to disk's driver header (A.05-1)
|-
| 17h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Media ID byte (INT 21\AH=1Ch, 8.02-17)
|-
| 18h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Flags (= 00h if disk was accessed, or = FFh if not)
|-
| 19h || 4
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to DPB block for the next disk
|-
| 1Dh || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Cluster at which to start search for free space
|-
| 1Fh || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of free clusters on disk (FFFFh if unknown)
|-
| 21h || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Most significant word of free cluster count
|-
| 23h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | – bits
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | 0–3
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | : zero-based FAT number of active FAT
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | – bit
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | : don't copy active FAT to inactive FATs
|-
| 25h || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of FAT information sector&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-1-2-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 27h || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Sector number of backup boot-sector
|-
| 29h || 4
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | First sector number of the first disk's cluster
|-
| 2Dh || 4
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of the last disk's cluster
|-
| 31h || 4
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of sectors occupied by FAT
|-
| 35h || 4
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Cluster number where root directory starts
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-1-1&quot;&gt;Data in DPB block are translated from BPB block (A.03-4) of the same disk by means of INT 21\AH=53h function.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-1-2&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.03-1-2-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.03-1-2-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; A word FFFFh at offset 25h means that there is no FAT information sector on a requested disk. If FAT information sector is present, it contains at offset 00h a fixed double-word signature 61417272h, the second double word at offset 04h is number of free clusters (or FFFFFFFFh if unknown), the third double word at offset 08h is a number of the most recently allocated cluster.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.03-2 Disk data tables (DDT) ===
DDT tables represent a special database for block device drivers, integrated into DOS's core. DDT tables correspond to local disks, which are properly detected and supported by BIOS, including those emulated by BIOS from disk's images on bootable CD/DVD-ROMs. There are no DDT tables for IFS drives, dummy disks, RAM-disks and all other disks, opened for access by drivers, specified in configuration files.

DDT tables are arranged as a chain-like queue of tables, each 96h bytes long. A pointer to the first table is returned by INT 2F\AX=0803h function (8.03-04). This is enough to trace the whole queue, since the first double word in each table is a pointer to DDT table for the next logical disk. The table having the first word FFFFh is the last one in the chain.
[[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot9.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 9]]
Fig.9 illustrates access to DDT tables for disks &lt;code&gt;A:&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;B:&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;C:&lt;/code&gt;, including a call for INT 2F\AX=0803h function, reading the returned address (0B52:0000h) of the first DDT table from DS:DI registers, display of a partial dump of DDT table for disk A:, reading from the first 4 bytes of that dump the address (0B52:0096h) of DDT table for the next disk B:, display of a partial dump of DDT table for disk B:, and repetition of the last two operations relative to DDT table for disk C:.

The table below shows data structure in one DDT table. The same data structure is accepted by INT 2F\AX=0801 function (8.03-02), appending a chain of DDT tables with a one more table for a new logical disk.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to next DDT table (or FFFFh if the last table)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Corresponding physical drive number :
:from 00h and on for floppy disk drives
:from 80h and on for hard (fixed) disk drives
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Logical disk number in a list of disks, accessed by DOS's core drivers. If disk's letter-names were not reassigned, then 00h = A:, 02h = C:, and so on.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 25 || Current disk's BPB block (up to offset 19h, A.03-4)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || – bit 6 : file system FAT-16,
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 7 : disk must return &quot;Not Ready&quot; to all appeals
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Counter of opened files belonging to this disk
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Device type (as byte at offset 01h in table A.04-3)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || – bit 0 : fixed hard disk
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 1 : door lock (&quot;changeline&quot;) supported
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 2 : changes of current BPB are not allowed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 3 : all sectors in a track have the same size
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 4 : LUN number must be specified&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-2-1-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 5 : several logical disks on that physical drive
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 6 : disk change detected
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 7 : disk's parameters were changed&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-2-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 8 : disk reformatted, media's BPB was changed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; || – bit 9 : access ban flag&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-2-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 43h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 25 || Default disk's BPB (A.03-4) block&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-2-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 12 || 11-byte long volume label, terminated with 00h
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 89h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Disk's serial number
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 9 || File system type name, terminated with 00h.
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-2-1&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.03-2-1-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[../Selected drivers#USBASPI.SYS-1|'''''c''''']] [[../Selected drivers#USBASPI.SYS-2|'''''d''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; LUN (Logical Unit Number) is used for discrimination between devices, sharing the same number on a bus. In particular, this is necessary for optical DVD-RAM drives, which present themselves with different LUN numbers either as removable HDD or as CD/DVD-ROM disk. Flash card adapters also represent flash cards in different slots as disks with different LUN numbers.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-2-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-2-ref|'''^''']] If disk's parameters were changed, data in DDT table must be reset by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4840h function (8.02-46).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-2-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Access ban flag disables both reads and writes. It is applied to HDDs only, in particular, to other primary partitions beyond the first primary partition. Inverse state of access ban flag is reported by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4867h function and may be set anew by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4847h function (8.02-46).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-2-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-4-ref|'''^''']] The BPB data block (A.03-4) at offset 43h corresponds not to the current media, but to default type of removable media for this drive. Normally default media is the highest capacity media.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.03-3 Current Directory Structure (CDS) ===
CDS table is an array of data blocks (entries). Each CDS entry corresponds to one logical disk and specifies several parameters of that disk, including a path to the current (default) directory.

A pointer to the first CDS entry is stored at offset 16h in DOS's list of lists (A.01-2). Just there a byte at offset 21h stores total number of entries in CDS table, defined by LASTDRIVE specification in CONFIG.SYS file (4.17). Each CDS entry is 58h bytes long.
[[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot10.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 10]]

Access to CDS table is illustrated by fig.10. The first step is a call for INT 21\AH=52h function (8.02-59), returning address of DOS's list-of-lists (00C9:0026h) in registers ES:BX. The next step is display of memory contents dump, starting at returned address. Length of the displayed dump is chosen so that the last 4 bytes at offsets 16h–19h show the address of CDS table (D203:0000h). Memory contents dump, starting at that address, presents CDS entry for disk A:. 58h bytes behind each previous CDS entry a next CDS entry follows, representing data for the next logical disk.

Among CDS table entries there are dummy entries, having no corresponding logical disks. Dummy entries reserve letter-names for those logical disks, which may be created or become accessible later: RAM-disks, IFS disks, network disks, etc. CDS table is created by IO.SYS loader during commands interpretation in CONFIG.SYS file. Later CDS table can't be appended with new entries. Therefore a sufficient number of dummy entries must be ordered beforehand by means of LASTDRIVE command (4.17).

Data structure of one CDS entry is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 67
| colspan=3 | Path to the current directory.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-3-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-3-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 43h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=3 | Attribute word of this logical disk :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 7 || : hide disk's letter-name from assign-list
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 12 || : virtual disk created by SUBST.EXE&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 13 || : virtual disk created by JOIN.EXE&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 14 || : disk is on a physical drive&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-3-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-3-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 15 || : disk is accessed via network redirector&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 45h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=3 | Pointer to DPB block for this disk (A.03-1)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 49h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=3 | Starting cluster of current directory&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-3-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=3 | Number of characters to hide&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-3-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 52h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=3 | pointer to redirector or to IFS driver (or zero if none)
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-3-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-1-ref|'''^''']] For local disks a path to the current directory includes disk's letter-name, colon, backslash, and the rest part of path. End of path must be marked with byte 00h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-3-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-2-ref|'''^''']] If either bit 12 or bit 13 in attribute word is set, then the path at offset 00h isn't a real path.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-3-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-3-ref|'''^''']] A zero value of both attribute bits 14 and 15 means that this entry is a dummy or is disabled. Such disks are kept hidden.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-3-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-4-ref|'''^''']] If both bits 14 and 15 in attribute word are set, hence this disk represents an IFS file system.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-3-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-5-ref|'''^''']] This cluster number is counted from the start of logical disk. Therefore for the root directory cluster number is 0000h. If disk hasn't been accessed yet, cluster field is filled with FFFFh.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-3-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-3-6-ref|'''^''']] DOS may report only the final part of the path to current directory, if a word at offset 4Fh defines a non-zero number of characters, which are to be hidden.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-3-7&quot;&gt;In early DOS versions CDS entry was 51h byte long; bytes 51h–57h have been added since MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;4 for IFS and network drivers.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.03-4 BIOS Parameter Block (BPB) for a disk ===
BPB is a part of boot sector on disk media. When DOS starts, BPB data are used to fill internal DOS's tables: DPB (A.03-1) and DDT (A.03-2). This procedure is repeated each time a media change is detected, so that data are always kept updated.

In disk's partitions with FAT-16 file system the BPB is 39h bytes long; its structure is shown in the first column (&quot;F16&quot;) of the table below. BPB data inside DDT table have a slightly different &quot;standard&quot; structure, shown in third column (&quot;STD&quot;). Standard BPB blocks are accepted by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=0840h function and are returned by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=0060h function (8.02-46). Both these functions can be applied to disks with FAT-12 or FAT-16 file systems only.

In disk's partitions with FAT-32 file system the BPB is 5Ah bytes long; its structure is shown in the second column (&quot;F32&quot;) of the table below. The same data inside DDT table are arranged according to new &quot;extended&quot; structure, shown in the fourth column (&quot;EXT&quot;) of the table. For these data structures MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 provides other functions (8.02-46), which were not available in previous DOS versions: INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4840h to refresh BPB data in DDT and INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4860h to read BPB data in DDT. Both these new functions should be applied to disks formatted with FAT-32 file system.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! F16 !! F32 !! Std !! Ext !! Size
! colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 00h || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 3
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Jump command
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | EBh 3Ch 90h for FAT-16
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | or
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | EBh 5Ah 90h for FAT-32
|-
| 03h || 03h || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | ID of program, which formed BPB block
|-
| 0Bh || 0Bh || 00h || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Sector's size (in bytes)
|-
| 0Dh || 0Dh || 02h || 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Sectors per cluster (FFh if unknown)
|-
| 0Eh || 0Eh || 03h || 03h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Reserved sectors preceding first FAT
|-
| 10h || 10h || 05h || 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of FATs (normally 2)
|-
| 11h || 11h || 06h || 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of entries in the root directory
|-
| 13h || &amp;nbsp; || 08h || 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 0000h&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 15h || 15h || 0Ah || 0Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Media ID byte&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-4-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 16h || 16h || 0Bh || 0Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of sectors per FAT&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-4-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 18h || 18h || 0Dh || 0Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of sectors per track
|-
| 1Ah || 1Ah || 0Fh || 0Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of heads
|-
| 1Ch || 1Ch || 11h || 11h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Starting sector number&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-4-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 20h || 20h || 15h || 15h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Total number of sectors&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 24h || &amp;nbsp; || 19h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of sectors per FAT&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 28h || &amp;nbsp; || 1Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Same as word 23h in DPB ([[#A.03-1. Structure of Drive Parameters Blocks (DPB)|A.03-1]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 1Fh || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of cylinders&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-4-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 2Ah || &amp;nbsp; || 1Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Version of file system
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 21h || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Device type (as byte 01h in A.04-3)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 2Ch || &amp;nbsp; || 21h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Root directory's first cluster number
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 22h || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Attributes (as word 02h in A.04-3)
|-
| 24h || 40h || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Physical drive number
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 25h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Information sector&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-1-2-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.03-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 26h || 42h || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Extended boot-sector signature (= 29h)
|-
| 27h || 43h || &amp;nbsp; || 27h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Disk's serial number (in binary form)
|-
| 2Bh || 47h || &amp;nbsp; || 2Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 11
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Volume's label (or &quot;NO NAME &quot;)
|-
| 36h || 52h || &amp;nbsp; || 36h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | File system type name
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-1-ref|'''^''']] For partitions smaller than 32 Mb a double word at offset 15h must be zero, the number of sectors in such partitions must be specified in a word at offset 08h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Media ID byte corresponds to specification of INT 21\AH=1Ch function (8.02-17). If type of removable media is not identified, then the 00h value is assigned to media ID byte.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-4-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-3-ref|'''^''']] In &quot;extended&quot; BPB blocks a cell at offset 0Bh has 0000h value, and number of sectors, occupied by FAT table, is expressed by a double word value in a cell at offset 19h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-4-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-4-ref|'''^''']] In BPBs of HDD's partitions the starting sector number is the same as that specified in corresponding partition's descriptor (A.13-5) at offset 08h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.03-4-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-4-5-ref|'''^''']] A word at 1Fh and following bytes 21h, 22h of the standard BPB block are not included in extended BPB block and in BPB blocks inside DDT table (A.03-2).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== A.04 I/O control data tables ==
=== A.04-1 Data block for IOCTL serial number functions ===
This data block is returned by functions INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4866h (8.02-46) and INT 21\AX=6900h (8.02-77), reading serial number from storage media. Data block of the same structure is accepted by functions INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4846h (8.02-46) and INT 21\AX=6901h (8.02-77) in order to assign new serial number to a disk.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || = 0000h
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Disk's serial number (in binary form)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 11 || Disk's volume label (or &quot;&lt;code&gt;NO&amp;nbsp;NAME&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;, if none)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 11h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8 || On return only : filesystem type name &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.04-1-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.04-1-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-1-1-ref|'''^''']] Name &quot;&lt;code&gt;CDROM&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; corresponds to High-Sierra CD-ROM file system, name &quot;&lt;code&gt;CD001&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; corresponds to ISO 9660 CD-ROM file system.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.04-2 File handle's information word ===
Handle's information word, read at offset 05h in SFT entry (A.01-4), is returned by INT 21\AX=4400h function (8.02-40). If specified handle refers to SFT entry, related to a non-file object, then returned information word should be interpreted according to table A.05-2. If specified handle refers to SFT entry, related to an opened file, then returned information word should be interpreted according to the table below. Distinctive feature of file handle's information word is clear state of its 7th bit.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Bits !! Description
|-
| 15 || File is not local, it is accessed via a redirector (network)
|-
| 14 || Don't set file date/time when file is closed
|-
| 11 || File is stored on a fixed (non-removable) media
|-
| 7 || Clear state of bit 7 is a distinctive feature of file's handle
|-
| 6 || Writing operation has not been performed yet
|-
| 5-0 || disk number (000000b = A:, 000001b = B:, 000010b = C:, and so on)
|}

=== A.04-3 Data block for disk parameters specification ===
A pointer to this data block should be prepared in DS:DX registers before subfunction INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4840h (8.02-46) is called for in order to update BPB data in tables DPB (A.03-1) and DDT (A.03-2). Data block of the same structure is returned by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4860h subfunction (8.02-46). Buffer's address for the returned data block should be prepared in advance in DS:DX registers. A byte of flags at offset 00h is not returned, it defines request conditions and should be specified before the call.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Flags (bits 3–7 must be zero) :
:bit 0 : apply operation to current BPB &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.04-3-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
:bit 1 : use track layout fields only &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.04-3-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
:bit 2 : sectors are of the same size &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.04-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Device type :
:= 00h – 320 kb or 360 kb floppy drive
:= 01h – 1.2 Mb floppy drive
:= 02h – 720 kb floppy drive
:= 05h – fixed (hard) disk drive
:= 06h – tape drive storage device
:= 07h – other devices (including 1.44 Mb floppy)
:= 08h – optical disc drive
:= 09h – 2.88 Mb floppy drive
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Storage device attributes (bits 2–15 must be zero) :
:bit 0 : device with non-removable medium
:bit 1 : media change registration supported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Number of cylinders (or number of tracks)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Media flags :
:= 01h – 320kb/360kb diskette
:= F8h – compressed logical disk
:= 00h – all other types of media
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 31 || BPB data block &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.04-3-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-3-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.04-3-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-3-1-ref|'''^''']] If bit 0 in flag's byte is set, then updating or copying of BPB block (A.03-4) causes an attempt of access to physical storage media. But when bit 0 in flag's byte is clear, then access to physical storage media wouldn't be attempted: subject of operation will be a copy of BPB block inside DDT table (A.03-2) at offset 43h, which specifies the default type of storage media for this particular device.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.04-3-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Bits 1 and 2 in flag's byte specify interpretation of optional sub-table, defining sector allocation in a track. This sub-table up to 256 bytes long may start at offset 26h for subfunction CX=0840h and at offset 5Ch for subfunction CX=4840h. Media with non-equal sector sizes are not considered in this book, though. For subfunction CX=4860h bit 1 in flag's byte must be clear.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.04-3-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.04-3-3-ref|'''^''']] For subfunction CX=0840h the BPB table at offset 07h must have standard BPB structure (A.03-4). Final 6 bytes of BPB block are accepted by subfunction CX=0840h if flag's byte at offset 00h has its bit 0 set, otherwise bytes after offset 1Eh are ignored. For subfunction CX=4840h the BPB table at offset 07h must be 53 bytes long according to extended BPB structure (A.03-4).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.04-4 Structure of data block for read/write functions ===
A pointer to this data block is accepted by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4861h reading function and by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4841h writing function (8.02-46). These functions can't be executed inside &quot;DOS box&quot; under WINDOWS OS unless the addressed logical disk is locked in advance (8.01-58).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 00h
|-
| 01h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Requested number of drive's head
|-
| 03h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Requested number of drive's cylinder
|-
| 05h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of the sector to start reading or writing
|-
| 07h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of sectors to be read or written
|-
| 09h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to a buffer with data or for data
|}

=== A.04-5 Structure of data block for format/verify functions ===
A pointer to this data block is accepted by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4842h function for formatting and by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4862h verifying function (8.02-46). These functions can't be executed inside &quot;DOS box&quot; under Windows OS unless the addressed logical disk is locked in advance (8.01-58).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 0 : query for status code, don't actually format
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; |bit 1 : format multiple tracks (for HDDs only)
|-
| 01h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Drive's head to be activated
|-
| 03h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | The cylinder where the heads should be driven
|-
| 05h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of tracks to be formatted or verified
|}

Note 1: for format function a word at 05h is ignored, if byte at offset 00h has its bit 1 clear: only one track would be formatted in this case.

Note 2: for verification function a number of tracks in word 05h should correspond to no more than 255 sectors, bit 0 set in byte at offset 00h specifies verification of multiple tracks, bit 1 must be zero.

Note 3: on return the byte at offset 00h is replaced with status code :
::00h – this function is supported by BIOS,
::01h – this function is not supported by BIOS,
::02h – given specifications don't suit for this logical disk,
::03h – there is no media in the drive.
Returned status code 00h doesn't confirm successful outcome : success should be confirmed by returned clear state of CF flag.

== A.05 Driver's data structures ==
=== A.05-1 Driver's header structure ===
The table below shows data offsets for 3 types of DOS driver's headers :
::column &quot;B&quot; – for &quot;block&quot; devices, i.e. disk and tape storage drives ;
::column &quot;C&quot; – for 'character&quot; devices, i.e. communication channels ;
::column &quot;D&quot; – for CD-ROM drivers, cooperating with MSCDEX.EXE.
A pointer to disk driver header is given in a double word at offset 13h in Drive Parameter Block for the corresponding disk (A.03-1). &quot;Character&quot; device drivers may be identified by a signature at offset 0Ah in their header while tracing a chain of header's addresses. Tracing start address may be got at offset 22h in DOS's List-of-Lists (A.01-2), or else may be obtained by means of INT 2F\AX=122Ch function (8.03-12).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! B !! C !! D !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 00h || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Next driver's address field&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-1-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 04h || 04h || 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Driver's attributes (A.05-2)
|-
| 06h || 06h || 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Offset of strategy routine entry point
|-
| 08h || 08h || 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Offset of interrupt routine entry point
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Ah || 0Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8 || Driver's signature field
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 14h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || First disk, controlled by the driver&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Ah || &amp;nbsp; || 15h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Number of disks, controlled by driver
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-1-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-1-1-ref|'''^''']] The next driver's address field must be initialized as FFFF:FFFFh; later DOS will fill this field with address of the next driver. If no next driver would be loaded, then remaining FFFFh value at start of current driver's header will signify the end of driver's addresses reference chain.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-1-2-ref|'''^''']] Byte at offset 14h must be initialized with 00h value. Later MSCDEX.EXE program (5.08-03) or SHSUCDX.EXE program (5.08-04) will replace initial zero value with number (note 1 to 8.02-17) of the first disk, controlled by this driver.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.05-2 Driver's attributes ===
Driver's attribute word is at offset 04h in driver's header (A.05-1). But meaning of most bits in attribute word is different for &quot;character&quot; device drivers (in second column of the table below) and for &quot;block&quot; devices drivers (in the third column). CD/DVD-ROM device drivers, cooperating with programs MSCDEX.EXE (5.08-03) or SHSUCDX.EXE (5.08-04), and also drivers of virtual disks, created by SUBST.EXE program (6.23), formally belong to &quot;character&quot; device drivers, as far as bit 15 in their attribute word is set.

Character device driver's attribute word is used as a basis of channel handle's information word, which is stored at offset 05h in corresponding SFT entry (A.01-4) and is returned by INT 21\AX=4400h function (8.02-40) in response to channel handle requests (about file's handle requests in A.04-2). Differences between &quot;character&quot; device driver's attribute word and channel's handle information word evince themselves in bits 4–7 in the second column of the table below: these bits in &quot;character&quot; device driver's attribute word normally are clear. In channel handle's information words bit 7 is set: it is their main distinctive feature from file handle's information words.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Bit !! &quot;Character&quot; devices (channels) !! &quot;Block&quot; devices (disks, tapes)
|-
| 0 || STDIN channel &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; || = 0 (reserved)
|-
| 1 || STDOUT channel &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; || 32-bit addresses support
|-
| 2 || NUL channel &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; || = 0 (reserved)
|-
| 3 || CLOCK channel &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; || = 0 (reserved)
|-
| 4 || Output via INT 29 supported || = 0 (reserved)
|-
| 5 || Raw output &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; || = 0 (reserved)
|-
| 6 || Channel adds EOF on input || IOCTL support &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 7 || = 1 (as a non-file handle) || IOCTL support &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 9 || = 0 (reserved) || No direct I/O &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 11 || Lock support &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; || Lock support &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 12 || = 0 (reserved) || CD-ROM or remote device
|-
| 13 || Output until busy supported || Non-IBM's format
|-
| 14 || IOCTL support &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-7-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; || IOCTL support &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 15 || = 1 – &quot;character&quot; device symptom || = 0 – &quot;block&quot; device symptom
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Among attribute bits 0–3 for character device drivers one bit only may be set (or none).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Raw (binary) output means that neither of output characters is interpreted by driver as a command (as it is shown in A.02-8).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 6 signifies support for functions INT 21\AX=440Ch, 440Dh, 440Eh, 440Fh.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-4-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 7 signifies support for functions INT 21\AX=4410h, 4411h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-5-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 9 means that disks, controlled by this driver, are inaccessible to functions of BIOS's INT 13 handler. Set state of bit 9 is typical for drivers, providing access to remote disks, to IFS disks and to disks with parameters, substituted by DRIVPARM command (4.09).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-6-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 11 means that driver is able to transfer slot lid lock signals for removable disk drives.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-7&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-7-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.05-2-7-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt;Set state of bit 14 means that driver is able to cope with control parameters, sent via INT 21\AX=4403h and INT 21\AX=4405h functions (8.02-41).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-2-8&quot;&gt;Driver's attribute bits, not mentioned in this table, are considered reserved and normally must be clear.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.05-3 Selected requests to device drivers ===
Interaction between DOS and any device driver is performed by sending an address of request data block in ES:BX registers with a CALL FAR command to driver's strategy routine. The driver receives code of operation and initiates its execution. After some time DOS sends another call for driver's interrupt routine, which fills the same request data block with requested results of performed operation. DOS accepts the result, if successful termination of operation is confirmed by status byte in returned data block (A.05-4).

The same forms of request data blocks are accepted by INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03), which implicitly sends requests to block device drivers, integrated into DOS's core. These drivers control logical disks, having parameters registered in corresponding DDT tables (A.03-2). Only these logical disks can be addressed by INT 2F\AX=0802h function.

The first column of the table below specifies size of request data block, the second column – code of the requested operation, the fourth column shows which driver type this operation can be applied to. The fifth column shows whether the operation can be requested via INT 2F\AX=0802h function.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Size !! Code !! Operation !! Device type !! 802 !! Comments
|-
| 19h || 00h || Initialization || both types
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-5
|-
| 0Fh || 01h || Media change check || &quot;block&quot; type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Y || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-3-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 14h || 03h || Store IOCTL string || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-3-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-7
|-
| 1Eh || 04h || Read data || both types
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Y || A.05-6
|-
| 0Eh || 05h || Nondestructive read || character type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-3-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-3-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Dh || 06h || Input status request || character type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-4
|-
| 0Dh || 07h || Flush input buffer || character type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-4
|-
| 1Eh || 08h || Write (send) data || both types
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Y || A.05-6
|-
| 1Eh || 09h || Write to disk &amp; verify || &quot;block&quot; type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Y || A.05-6
|-
| 0Dh || 0Ah || Output status request || character type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-4
|-
| 0Dh || 0Bh || Flush output buffer || character type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-4
|-
| 14h || 0Ch || Receive IOCTL string || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-7
|-
| 0Dh || 0Dh || Device open || both types
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-4
|-
| 0Dh || 0Eh || Device close || both types
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-4
|-
| 0Dh || 0Fh || Detect removable disk || &quot;block&quot; type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Y || A.05-4
|-
| 14h || 10h || Send data until busy || character type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | N || A.05-7
|-
| 0Dh || 17h || Get disk's number || &quot;block&quot; type
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Y || A.05-4
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-3-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-3-1-ref|'''^''']] Requests for sending or receiving IOCTL string can be addressed to those drives only (of either type), which have bit 14 set in their attribute word (A.05-2).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-3-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Command 01h (media check) accepts media identifier at offset 0Dh in request data block and returns in the same data block a status byte at offset 0Eh. Value of status byte should be interpreted as follows :
::FFh – media has not been changed;
::01h – media has been changed;
::00h – media change state can't be determined.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-3-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-3-3-ref|'''^''']] Command 05h (nondestructive read) returns one data byte at offset 0Dh in request data block, if BUSY bit in status byte at offset 04h (A.05-4) isn't set on return.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.05-4 Format of a request header ===
Presented header format is used in request data blocks, sent to drivers either with CALL FAR command (A.05-3) or via a call for INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03). In both cases a pointer to request data block must be in ES:BX registers. The header occupies bytes at offsets 00h–0Ch in request data block. For a number of operations (06h, 07h, 0Ah, 0Bh, 0Dh, 0Eh, 0Fh, 17h) the request data block is nothing else but a header. Structure of a header, common for all requests to drivers, is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Length of request block (table A.05-3, column 1)
|-
| 01h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Addressed logical disk's number &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-4-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 02h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Code of operation (table A.05-3, column 2)
|-
| 03h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Error code &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-4-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-4-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 04h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Returned status byte:
:01h – operation is done successfully
:02h – addressed device is busy
:80h – error, operation has failed
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-4-1&quot;&gt;If operation 0Fh (detect removable drive) returns status 02h (busy), this means the addressed drive is a fixed drive.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Here a logical disk is defined by its number in a list of disks, controlled by the addressed driver. When a request is sent via INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03), then these logical disk numbers are identical to absolute logical disk numbers: 00h = A:, 02h = C:, and so on, but for those logical disks only, which have their parameters specified in DDT tables (A.03-2).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-4-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-4-3-ref|'''^''']] Error code is returned only when status byte at offset 04h has the 80h value, i.e. confirms erroneous outcome. Then error code should be interpreted according to records for INT 2F in table A.06-1.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-4-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-4-4-ref|'''^''']] In case of success the 17h operation (Get disk number) returns absolute number of the requested logical disk at offset 03h. If requested number is beyond the list of logical disks, controlled by the addressed driver, then the 00h value is returned. In any case disk's type and media presence are not checked.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.05-5 Initialization request data block ===
Only once, just when driver is installed by IO.SYS loader, DOS sends to this driver a request for initialization procedure. Request is sent by CALL FAR command with a pointer to request data block in registers ES:BX. Code 00h of initialization procedure is specified in a header of request data block (A.05-03). Having accepted initialization request, the driver explores the available hardware it is responsible for. Some initial data as well as data, returned by the driver, are transferred in the rest part of request data block, beyond its header. Data disposition in this part of request data block (offsets 0Dh–18h) is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 | Description
|-
| 0Dh || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On return:
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | number of logical disks controlled by this driver.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 0Eh || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On call :
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | pointer to byte past the end of that memory space which may be occupied by this driver.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On return:
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | pointer to the first free byte past the memory space actually occupied by TSR part of this driver.
|-
| 12h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On call :
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | pointer to command line parameters.
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On return for &quot;block' device drivers only : pointer to BPB data array (A.03-4).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 16h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On call :
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | zero based number of the first logical disk controlled by this driver (i.e. A: = 00h, C: = 02h and so on).
|-
| 17h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On return:
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | error message flag &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-5-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-5-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-5-1&quot;&gt;&quot;character&quot; device drivers must return zero in a double word at offset 12h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-5-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-5-2-ref|'''^''']] Error message flag value 0000h at offset 17h doesn't cause error message display. But if driver returns error message flag value 0001h, then DOS displays message: &quot;There is an error in your CONFIG.SYS file in line...&quot;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.05-6 Structure of I/O request data block ===
I/O request data block is used for driver's data transfer operations called either directly with CALL FAR command (A.05-3) or via INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03). Address of request data block is presented in ES:BX registers, and header of this request data block specifies code of the requested operation: 04h, 08h or 09h. Data reading operation (code 04h) transfers data from a media into a prepared buffer in memory. Data writing operations (codes 08h and 09h) send data from buffer to disk or to output channel. All mentioned data transfer operations use request data block of the same structure, including a header (A.05-4) and the rest part with access parameters. Disposition of these parameters beyond the header is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! Description
|-
| 0Dh || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Media identifier (for block devices only)
|-
| 0Eh || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Address of buffer with data or for data
|-
| 12h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Length of data packet &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-6-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 14h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Starting sector number &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-6-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 16h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to volume identifier &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-6-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-6-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 1Ah || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | 32-bit starting sector number &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.05-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-6-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Length of data packet for channel drivers is counted in bytes. Length of data packet for disks (&quot;block&quot; device) drivers is expressed in number of sectors.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-6-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-6-2-ref|'''^''']] Some other DOS versions use another data format with a 4-byte starting sector number at offset 14h; a distinctive feature of this data format is length 18h of request data block, specified in the first byte of header (A.05-4). MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 sends a 4-byte starting sector number to those drivers only, which declare their support for 32-bit addressing by setting bit 1 in driver's attribute word (A.05-2). Starting sector number for these drivers is specified at offset 1Ah, and then a cell at offset 14h is filled with FFFFh.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.05-6-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-6-3-ref|'''^''']] A pointer to volume identifier is returned by driver when error 0Fh occurs (improper change of media).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.05-7 Request data block for string operations ===
This data block is used for driver's byte string transfer operations called by CALL FAR command (A.05-3). Address of data block is specified in ES:BX registers, and header (A.05-4) of that data block specifies code of the requested operation: 03h, 0Ch or 10h. Operation with code 10h sends data string to a channel. Requests with operation codes 03h, 0Ch can be addressed to those drivers only, which declare IOCTL support by having bit 14 set in their attribute word.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.05-2-7-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.05-2-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.05-2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; Request with operation code 03h suggests to take into account new values of control parameters, sent via INT 21\AX=4403h or INT 21\AX=4405h function (8.02-41). Operation 0Ch is an offer to the driver to report its actual control parameters, requested either via INT 21\AX=4402h or via INT 21\AX=4404h function (8.02-41).

Request data block for the mentioned operations must have the same structure, including a header (A.05-4) and the rest part; data disposition in this rest part of request data block is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 | Description
|-
| 0Dh || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Media identifier (for &quot;block&quot; device drivers only)
|-
| 0Eh || 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Address of buffer area (with data or for data)
|-
| 12h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On call : || number of bytes to read or to write
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On return : || actual number of bytes read or written
|}

== A.06 Error codes ==
=== A.06-1 Summary table of error codes ===
After any fault both BIOS and DOS functions return error code. Functions of MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 usually leave error code in AL. After BIOS's operations error code may be returned in AH. Interpretation of many error codes depends on which handler has left this error code. For convenience reasons the presented summary table comprises almost all error code interpretations, which may be encountered under MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7. Being given the whole variety of alternatives, you'll easily choose the appropriate one according to the handler, which has returned the error code.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Code !! Handler !! Description
|-
| 00h || INT 24-2F || write-protection violation attempt
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || no error, successful completion of operation
|-
| 01h || INT 13 || invalid parameter or requested disk doesn't exist
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 15 || parity error
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 16 || keyboard buffer is full yet
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || disk number unknown to the driver
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid function number or operation number
|-
| 02h || INT 13 || address mark not found
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 15 || interrupt error
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || drive is not ready
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || file not found
|-
| 03h || INT 13 || disk is write-protected
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 15 || address line A20 gating failed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || command is unknown to the driver
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || path error or path not found
|-
| 04h || INT 13 || sector not found or read error
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || data error (bad CRC)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || too many opened files (no place for more handles)
|-
| 05h || INT 13 || reset failed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || bad length of request data block
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || access denied
|-
| 06h || INT 13 || no media in the drive or media has been changed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || seek error
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid handle
|-
| 07h || INT 13 || drive parameter activity failed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || unknown media type
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || memory control block (MCB) destroyed
|-
| 08h || INT 13 || DMA overrun
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || sector not found
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || insufficient memory
|-
| 09h || INT 13 || DMA attempt across 64K or more than 80h sectors
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 15 || invalid identifier of APM device
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24, 2F || printer is out of paper
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid memory block address
|-
| 0Ah || INT 13 || bad sector flag detected
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || write attempt failure
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid environment
|-
| 0Bh || INT 13 || bad track detected
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 15 || specified device is not under APM control
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || read fault
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid format
|-
| 0Ch || INT 13 || unsupported track format or invalid media
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || general failure
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid access mode
|-
| 0Dh || INT 13 || invalid number of sectors on format
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-26 || sharing violation
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid data
|-
| 0Eh || INT 13 || control data address mark detected
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || lock violation or media unavailable
|-
| 0Fh || INT 13 || DMA arbitration level out of range
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-2F || invalid disk change
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid drive
|-
| 10h || INT 13 || uncorrectable CRC or ECC error on read
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24 || FCB is unavailable
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || attempt to remove the current directory
|-
| 11h || INT 13 || data have been ECC-corrected
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 24-26 || sharing buffer overflow
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || it is not the same device
|-
| 12h || INT 24 || code page mismatch
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || no more files, file index is out of range
|-
| 13h || INT 24-26 || out of input
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || disk is write-protected
|-
| 14h || INT 24, 26 || insufficient disk space
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || unknown unit
|-
| 15h || &amp;nbsp; || drive not ready
|-
| 16h || &amp;nbsp; || unknown command
|-
| 17h || &amp;nbsp; || data CRC error
|-
| 18h || &amp;nbsp; || bad length of request data block
|-
| 19h || &amp;nbsp; || seek error
|-
| 1Ah || &amp;nbsp; || unknown media type (non-DOS disk)
|-
| 1Bh || &amp;nbsp; || sector not found
|-
| 1Ch || &amp;nbsp; || printer is out of paper
|-
| 1Dh || &amp;nbsp; || write fault
|-
| 1Eh || &amp;nbsp; || read fault
|-
| 1Fh || &amp;nbsp; || general failure
|-
| 20h || INT 13 || controller failure
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || sharing violation
|-
| 21h || &amp;nbsp; || lock violation
|-
| 22h || &amp;nbsp; || disk change invalid &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.06-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.06-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 23h || &amp;nbsp; || FCB (File Control Block) unavailable
|-
| 24h || &amp;nbsp; || sharing buffer overflow
|-
| 25h || &amp;nbsp; || code page mismatch
|-
| 26h || &amp;nbsp; || cannot complete file operation (out of input)
|-
| 27h || &amp;nbsp; || insufficient disk space
|-
| 30h || INT 13 || drive has no media sensor
|-
| 31h || INT 13 || no media in the drive
|-
| 32h || INT 13 || non-default media
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || network request not supported
|-
| 33h || &amp;nbsp; || remote computer not listening
|-
| 34h || &amp;nbsp; || duplicate name on network
|-
| 35h || &amp;nbsp; || network name not found
|-
| 36h || &amp;nbsp; || network is busy
|-
| 37h || &amp;nbsp; || network device no longer exists
|-
| 38h || &amp;nbsp; || network BIOS command limit exceeded
|-
| 39h || &amp;nbsp; || network adapter hardware error
|-
| 3Ah || &amp;nbsp; || incorrect response from network
|-
| 3Bh || &amp;nbsp; || unexpected network error
|-
| 3Ch || &amp;nbsp; || incompatible remote adapter
|-
| 3Dh || &amp;nbsp; || print queue full
|-
| 3Eh || &amp;nbsp; || queue not full
|-
| 3Fh || &amp;nbsp; || not enough space to print file
|-
| 40h || INT 13 || seek failed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || network name was deleted
|-
| 41h || &amp;nbsp; || access to network is denied
|-
| 42h || &amp;nbsp; || network device type incorrect
|-
| 43h || &amp;nbsp; || network name not found
|-
| 44h || &amp;nbsp; || network name limit exceeded
|-
| 45h || &amp;nbsp; || network BIOS session limit exceeded
|-
| 46h || &amp;nbsp; || temporarily pause
|-
| 47h || &amp;nbsp; || network request not accepted
|-
| 48h || &amp;nbsp; || network print/disk redirection paused
|-
| 50h || &amp;nbsp; || file exists
|-
| 52h || &amp;nbsp; || cannot make directory
|-
| 53h || &amp;nbsp; || fail on INT 24h
|-
| 54h || &amp;nbsp; || too many redirections
|-
| 55h || &amp;nbsp; || duplicate redirection
|-
| 56h || &amp;nbsp; || invalid password
|-
| 57h || &amp;nbsp; || invalid parameter
|-
| 58h || &amp;nbsp; || network write fault
|-
| 59h || &amp;nbsp; || this function is not supported on network
|-
| 5Ah || &amp;nbsp; || required system component not installed
|-
| 60h || INT 15 || requested APM mode is unavailable (blocked)
|-
| 64h || Mscdex.exe || unknown error
|-
| 65h || Mscdex.exe || not ready
|-
| 66h || Mscdex.exe || EMS memory no longer valid
|-
| 67h || Mscdex.exe || not High Sierra or ISO-9660 format
|-
| 68h || Mscdex.exe || slot door is opened
|-
| 80h || INT 13 || timeout, no response (drive may be not present)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 67 || internal error
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || invalid command or function not implemented
|-
| 81h || INT 67 || hardware malfunction
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || VDISK driver was detected
|-
| 82h || Himem.sys || an A20 line error has occurred
|-
| 83h || INT 67 || invalid handle
|-
| 84h || INT 67 || undefined function requested by application
|-
| 85h || INT 67 || no more handles available
|-
| 86h || INT 67 || error in save or restore of mapping context
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || requested function is not supported
|-
| 87h || INT 67 || insufficient number of memory pages is present
|-
| 88h || INT 67 || insufficient number of memory pages is available
|-
| 89h || INT 67 || zero number of pages requested
|-
| 8Ah || INT 67 || invalid logical page number encountered
|-
| 8Bh || INT 67 || invalid physical page number encountered
|-
| 8Ch || INT 67 || page-mapping hardware state save area is full
|-
| 8Dh || INT 67 || save of mapping context failed
|-
| 8Eh || INT 67 || restore of mapping context failed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || a general XMS driver error
|-
| 8Fh || INT 67 || undefined subfunction
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || an unrecoverable XMS driver error
|-
| 90h || INT 67 || undefined attribute type
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || HMA does not exist or is not managed by XMS provider
|-
| 91h || INT 67 || this feature is not supported
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || HMA is already in use
|-
| 92h || INT 67 || success, but a portion of source region is overwritten
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || DX is less than the /HMAMIN parameter (5.04-01)
|-
| 93h || INT 67 || length of data exceeds space allocated to the handle
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || HMA is not allocated
|-
| 94h || INT 67 || conventional and expanded memory regions overlap
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || A20 line is still enabled
|-
| 95h || INT 67 || offset within logical page exceeds size of logical page
|-
| 96h || INT 67 || region length exceeds 1 Mb
|-
| 97h || INT 67 || source and destination have same handle and overlap
|-
| 98h || INT 67 || memory source or destination type undefined
|-
| 9Ah || INT 67 || specified map register or DMA register set not supported
|-
| 9Bh || INT 67 || all map register or DMA register sets are allocated
|-
| 9Ch || INT 67 || map register or DMA register sets not supported
|-
| 9Dh || INT 67 || undefined or unallocated map or DMA register sets
|-
| 9Eh || INT 67 || dedicated DMA channels not supported
|-
| 9Fh || INT 67 || specified dedicated DMA channel not supported
|-
| A0h || INT 67 || no such handle name
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || all extended memory is allocated
|-
| A1h || INT 67 || a handle found had no name, or duplicate handle name
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || all available extended memory handles are allocated
|-
| A2h || INT 67 || attempt to wrap around 1 M conventional address space
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || invalid handle
|-
| A3h || INT 67 || source array corrupted
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || source handle is invalid
|-
| A4h || INT 67 || operating system denied access
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || source offset is invalid
|-
| A5h || Himem.sys || destination handle is invalid
|-
| A6h || Himem.sys || destination offset is invalid
|-
| A7h || Himem.sys || length is invalid
|-
| A8h || Himem.sys || copy operation has an invalid overlap
|-
| A9h || Himem.sys || parity error occurred
|-
| AAh || INT 13 || drive not ready
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || Himem.sys || block is not locked
|-
| ABh || Himem.sys || block is locked
|-
| ACh || Himem.sys || block lock count overflowed
|-
| ADh || Himem.sys || lock failed
|-
| B0h || Himem.sys || only a smaller UMB is available
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 13 || volume is not locked in drive
|-
| B1h || Himem.sys || no UMBs are available
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 13 || volume is locked in drive
|-
| B2h || Himem.sys || UMB segment number is invalid
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 13 || volume is not removable
|-
| B3h || INT 13 || volume is in use, write cache isn't empty
|-
| B4h || INT 13 || lock count has been exceeded
|-
| B5h || INT 13 || a valid eject request failed
|-
| B6h || &amp;nbsp; || media is write-protected
|-
| BBh || INT 13 || undefined hard disk error
|-
| CCh || INT 13 || write fault on hard disk
|-
| E0h || INT 13 || status register error on hard disk
|-
| FFh || INT 13 || sense operation failed on hard disk
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || INT 15 || error enabling address line A20
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || other || matching file not found, or no more files, or bad FCB.
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.06-1-1&quot;&gt;If error code is returned in AX register, its most significant byte (in AH register) is zero.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.06-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.06-1-2-ref|'''^''']] Together with error code 22h, a pointer to media identifier is returned in ES:DI registers. This media identifier includes :
::at offset 00h – 12 bytes : disk's volume label, ending with 00h ;
::at offset 0Ch – 1 double word : disk's serial number (in binary form).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.06-1-3&quot;&gt;The HIMEM.SYS driver (5.04-01) returns error codes in BL register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.06-1-4&quot;&gt;Error code, returned by the latest executed DOS's function, is stored in DOS's swappable data area SDA (A.01-3) at offset 04h. BIOS' functions write their error code into BIOS data area (A.01-1), most probably in cell 0040:0074h.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.06-2 Error class codes ===
Error class code, returned in BH register by INT 21\AH=59h function (8.02-65), is stored at offset 07h in DOS's swappable area SDA (A.01-3). Interpretation of error class codes is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 01h || out of resource (storage space or I/O channels)
|-
| 02h || temporary situation (file or record lock)
|-
| 03h || authorization (denied access)
|-
| 04h || internal (system software bug)
|-
| 05h || hardware failure
|-
| 06h || system failure (configuration file missing or incorrect)
|-
| 07h || application program error
|-
| 08h || object not found
|-
| 09h || bad format
|-
| 0Ah || object is locked
|-
| 0Bh || media error
|-
| 0Ch || object already exists
|-
| 0Dh || unknown error class
|}

=== A.06-3 Codes of suggested action ===
Code of suggested action is returned in BL register by INT 21\AH=59h function (8.02-5) and is stored at offset 06h in DOS's swappable area SDA (A.01-3).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Recommended action
|-
| 01h || retry
|-
| 02h || retry after some time
|-
| 03h || prompt user to reenter input
|-
| 04h || close opened files, delete temporary files and abort
|-
| 05h || immediate abort
|-
| 06h || ignore this error
|-
| 07h || retry after user intervention
|}

=== A.06-4 Error locus codes ===
Error locus code is returned in CH register by INT 21\AH=59h function (8.02-65) and is stored at offset 03h in DOS's swappable area SDA (A.01-3).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Probable locus of the error
|-
| 01h || unknown or not appropriate
|-
| 02h || block device (disk error)
|-
| 03h || network related
|-
| 04h || device connected to serial port (channel timeout)
|-
| 05h || memory related
|}

=== A.06-5 I/O error status codes ===
Error status code is returned in AH register by INT 25 and INT 26 handlers (8.02-85).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 01h || invalid command
|-
| 02h || invalid address mark
|-
| 03h || disk is write-protected (for INT 26 only)
|-
| 04h || requested sector not found
|-
| 08h || DMA failure
|-
| 10h || data error (bad CRC)
|-
| 20h || controller failure
|-
| 40h || seek operation failure
|-
| 80h || device failed to respond (timeout)
|}

== A.07 Execution service structures ==
=== A.07-1 Program Segment Prefix ===
When a program is loaded for execution into an allotted memory segment, executable code of the program is placed at offset 100h and on. Preceding part of the segment (offsets 00h–FFh) is known as PSP, i.e. Program Segment Prefix. It is filled with important service data, which are used by DOS functions and may be used by the program itself.

By means of DEBUG.EXE that PSP can be peeped most easily, which is formed by COMMAND.COM interpreter for DEBUG.EXE itself. A procedure of displaying a part of that PSP is shown in fig.11. The rest part of that PSP is filled with zeros.
[[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot11.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 11]]

The program under test in fig.11 is file CJPEG.EXE. Parameters &quot;-baseline&quot; and &quot;VC01.BMP&quot; are transferred to program under test in order to present an example of filling the first and the second FCB blocks, starting at offsets 5Ch and 6Ch correspondingly. Contents of these and some other PSP data fields are explained in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || INT 20 command (for CP/M compatibility)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || First segment beyond memory allotted to the program
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Size of executable code (for *.COM files)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Stored INT 22 termination address
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Stored INT 23 Control-Break handler address
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 12h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Stored INT 24 critical error handler address
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 16h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Segment of parent's PSP &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 18h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 20 || Job File Table (JFT)&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-3-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Segment of environment for the current process
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Caller's SS:SP on entry to last INT 21 call
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 32h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Number of entries in JFT (default is 20)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 34h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to JFT (default is PSP:0018h)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || = 00h (= 01h for hieroglyphical keyboards)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 40h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || DOS version to be reported by INT 21/AH=30h
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 50h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || A call for the INT 21 functions dispatcher
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 16 || First FCB area &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-4-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 6Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 16 || Second FCB area &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 80h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Length of command line tail &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-5-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 81h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 127 || Command line tail or DTA area &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-1-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-1-ref|'''^''']] If segment address of the parent's PSP at offset 16h points at current PSP, then program is regarded as having no parent or, in other terms, as being its own parent. This is a distinctive feature of permanently loaded program, for example, of command interpreter. Permanently loaded programs can't be terminated by a call for INT 20 or for INT 21\AH=4Ch function.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-2-ref|'''^''']] In protected mode some PSP fields, including the &quot;parent&quot; segment field at offset 16h, may be overwritten. Therefore tracing a chain of PSP references may get confused, unless each candidate &quot;parent&quot; PSP segment confirms presence of typical signatures, for example, code CD20h (INT 20) at offset 00h or code CD21h at offset 50h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-1-3&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-3-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.07-1-3-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[../The command line#note-2.04-02-1|'''''c''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; When current program starts, its JFT (Job File Table, offset 18h) contains SFT (A.01-4) entry numbers — one byte each — for &quot;opened&quot; objects, which are inherited from the parent process. Free spaces in JFT are filled with FFh byte. Values 80h–FEh in JFT correspond to remote files, opened by network redirectors. Default size of JFT — 20 bytes — imposes a restriction on number of opened objects. The INT 21\AH=67h function (8.02-76) enables to overcome this restriction: it arranges a larger JFT outside PSP, replaces a pointer to JFT in PSP at offset 34h and a count of JFT entries at offset 32h. However, child processes in any case can't inherit from their parent process more than 20 &quot;opened&quot; objects.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-1-4&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-4-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.07-1-4-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Areas at offsets 5Ch and 6Ch are filled as unopened FCBs (A.09-5) with parsed data from first and second command line parameters. Parameters are parsed with INT 21\AX=2901h function (8.02-19). Count of parameters includes those that can't be parsed.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-1-5&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-5-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.07-1-5-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; The &quot;command tail&quot; area 81h–FFh is filled with a copy of command line with all parameters, which follow command name. The filled part of command tail area is terminated by byte 0Dh. Length of the filled part is written at offset 80h. If the length is set to 7Fh, and byte at offset FFh is 0Dh, hence real length of command tail exceeds 126 bytes, and its non-truncated version should be found in value of CMDLINE environmental variable.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-1-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-6-ref|'''^''']] &quot;command tail&quot; area 80h–FFh is used as default DTA (data transfer area) by &quot;find file&quot; functions INT 21\AH=11h,12h,4Eh,4Fh. You may prevent overwriting of &quot;command tail&quot; by changing DTA address with INT 21\AH=1Ah function (8.02-16).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.07-2 Data block for loading a program ===
The table below shows structure of a data block, used by INT 21\AX=4B00h and INT 21\AX=4B01h functions (8.02-53) in order to load a program into memory for its further execution.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Environment segment for child process &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-2-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 02h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to command line &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-2-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 06h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to data for FCB at offset 5Ch &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-2-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Ah || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to data for FCB at offset 6Ch &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Eh || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On return: stack top SS:SP for loaded program &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-2-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 12h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | On return: loaded program entrance point CS:IP &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-2-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Whole environment of the parent process will be copied into this segment. If child process should be given access not to a copy, but to parent's environment itself, then the 0000h value should be assigned to a word at offset 00h in this data block.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-2-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Command line must include all what is to be written into PSP of the child process starting at offset 80h.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-5-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.07-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; Command line string must begin with a byte, specifying its length, and must end with byte 0Dh.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-2-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-3-ref|'''^''']] This data string will be copied into corresponding FCB block&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-4-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.07-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; inside PSP for the child process. Required structure of this data string is shown in the &quot;N&quot; column of table A.09-5. First 12 bytes should be filled, then 4 bytes 00h must follow. If FCB should be left empty, then its first byte must be 00h, and then 11 bytes 20h must follow.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-2-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-2-4-ref|'''^''']] Double words at offsets 0Eh and 12h are returned by INT 21\AX=4B01h function only. This function loads a program, but doesn't initiate its execution. Returned stack top and entrance point enable to start execution of the loaded program later.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.07-3 Execution state descriptor ===
The table below shows data structure in execution state descriptor, used by INT 21\AX=4B05h function (8.02-54).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 0000h (reserved)
|-
| 02h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Flags :
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 0 set : program is of *.EXE format
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 1 set : loaded code is an overlay
|-
| 04h || 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to program's name, ending with 00h byte
|-
| 08h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | PSP segment address of the loaded program
|-
| 0Ah || 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Entrance point CS:IP of the loaded program
|-
| 0Eh || 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Size of the loaded program (including PSP)
|}

=== A.07-4 Data block for server function ===
As far as server function INT 21\AX=5D00h (8.02-68) enables to execute any INT 21 function as a separate process, this data block defines the states of all registers as required for execution of the selected function. Before this selected function is called for, all specified states will be copied from data block into registers automatically.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of AX register
|-
| 02h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of BX register
|-
| 04h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of CX register
|-
| 06h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of DX register
|-
| 08h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of SI register
|-
| 0Ah || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of DI register
|-
| 0Ch || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of DS register
|-
| 0Eh || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Required contents of ES register
|-
| 10h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 0000h (reserved)
|-
| 12h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Virtual machine identifier &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 14h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Process identifier (i.e. PSP segment address)
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-4-1-ref|'''^''']] If selected function is to be executed under current MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7, then the 0000h value should be specified as virtual machine identifier.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-4-2-ref|'''^''']] When this data block is used in order to close a process by means of INT 21\AX=5D01h function (8.02-69), then words at offsets 12h and 14h only are taken into account, all other words are ignored.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.07-5 Interrupt sharing protocol ===
Many drivers and TSR programs load their interrupt handlers and have to write address of this handler into a certain cell of interrupt table. However, this certain cell may be occupied yet by an address of another handler, which has been loaded beforehand. If new handler has to replace the former one, then a problem arises how to release memory, occupied by the former handler. If new handler complements functions of the former one, then a problem arises how to arrange their interaction. In both cases a solution is that each resident module must provide data, necessary for other resident modules, which may be loaded later.

The first step in arranging resident modules interaction was IBM's Interrupt Sharing Protocol (ISP), stipulating presence of 16-byte data block with fixed placement relative to call address for corresponding resident module. The ISP protocol enables to form a traceable chain of references to all the modules, sharing a common interrupt number. ISP protocol gives an opportunity to alter the order of references in the chain and to remove certain references from the chain. The latter is a necessary condition for unloading resident modules.

According to ISP protocol the call address, written into interrupt table, must point at a command of a short jump 16 bytes ahead, where executable code of resident module starts. The jumped over 16 bytes is just a place for data block. Structure of this data block is shown in the table below. All offsets in the table are counted from resident module's call address.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Short jump command (EBh 10h) to executable code
|-
| 02h || 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Address of previous handler in handler's chain
|-
| 06h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Signature 4Bh 42h (= &quot;KB&quot;)
|-
| 08h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 00h – this handler is not the first
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 80h – this handler is the first in the chain
|-
| 09h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to module unloading subroutine with RETF command at the end
|-
| 0Bh || 7
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Reserved (must be zeros)
|}

Note 1: many resident modules don't conform to ISP protocol. It may be intentionally ignored in order to prevent references chain tracing or resident module unloading.

=== A.07-6 Alternative Multiplex Interrupt Specification (AMIS) ===
Multiplex interrupt INT 2F, described in part 8.03, has a serious drawback: coincident identifiers sometimes are appointed to different TSR modules due to inconsistent decisions of their developers. In order to avoid such conflicts an idea has been suggested to assign identifiers not beforehand by the will of module's developers, but automatically just in course of module's loading. Authorship of this idea is known to belong to Ralf Brown. Idea has been institutionalized by Alternative Multiplex Interrupt Specification (AMIS) and has been implemented by multiplex interrupt INT 2D. Contents of this article are based on version 3.6 of AMIS specification. Besides that, each resident module using multiplex interrupt INT 2D must conform to IBM's Interrupt sharing protocol ISP (A.07-5).

According to AMIS specification an identifier for resident module should be searched in a cycle of calls for multiplex interrupt INT 2D with operation code AL = 00h and with successive incrementation of candidate identifiers in AH register, starting from AH = 00h. If anyone of loaded resident modules considers a particular candidate identifier in AH register as its own, it must set AL = FFh, must return in CH:CL registers its version number and must return in DX:DI registers a pointer to a signature up to 80 bytes long, ending with byte 00h. Search cycle should terminate on condition of returned zero value in AL register: it means that neither loaded resident module has appropriated the last specified candidate identifier. Hence, the latter is free, and current resident module can assign this identifier to itself.

A similar cycle, but with other termination condition, should be arranged in order to find out whether a particular resident module is loaded or not. For this purpose the main role belongs to signature, pointed at by address returned in DX:DI registers. 16 bytes of this signature must be sufficient for identification of resident module. First 8 bytes must specify company or developer's name, the following 8 bytes — a name of program or a driver, which has loaded the responding resident module. Abridged names are allowed. If a name is shorter than 8 bytes, it should be appended with spaces (bytes 20h). The rest part of signature beyond 16 bytes is optional, but it may specify version and other useful data. Signature check enables to prevent repetitive loading of the same resident modules. Search cycle for a signature check also reveals identifier, assigned to the requested resident module. When the identifier is known, then other functions of this resident module can be called for.

As far as calls for multiplex interrupt imply a search through a chain of references and are performed slowly, hence repetitive calls for module's specific functions via INT 2D are not expedient (though are allowed with operation codes above 10h). Direct addressing to module's functions with a CALL FAR command (7.03-08) is preferable. In order to obtain direct address, the INT 2D interrupt should be called once with operation code AL = 01h and with particular module's identifier in AH register. Address for direct calls, returned in DX:BX registers, should be saved, and then later more calls for multiplex interrupt wouldn't be needed.

Beside the mentioned operations with operation codes AL = 00h and AL = 01h, AMIS specification stipulates several other operations, listed in the table below. Unified codes of these operations, shown in the first column of the table, enable to apply identical services for all resident modules. Some operations are optional. If addressed resident module returns in AL register the status code value 00h, hence it doesn't support the requested operation. On the contrary, returned status code value FFh confirms that the requested operation is supported and is done successfully. Several operations may return other status code values, informing about specific features of resident module. These and some other peculiarities of AMIS operation execution are explained in notes after the following table.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Code !! Description !! Comments
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h || Installation check
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h || Request for direct address || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-6-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h || Uninstall resident module || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-6-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03h || Request for TSR program activation || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-6-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h || Report about chained interrupts || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-6-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h || Request for a list of &quot;hot&quot; keys || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-6-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h || Request for device driver information || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-6-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-6-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Returned status value AL = 00h means that requested resident module can't be addressed with CALL FAR command. Validity of the address returned in DX:BX registers must be confirmed by returned status code value AL = FFh.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-6-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-2-ref|'''^''']] A request to uninstall resident module must supply in DX:BX registers an address for return after completion of uninstall operation, though resident module may ignore this address. Returned in AL register status code values (except 00h and FFh) have the following meaning :
::01 – uninstall attempt failure ;
::02 – uninstall operation will be completed later ;
::03 – module has no uninstaller and stays active ;
::04 – the same, as 03, but module is deactivated ;
::05 – uninstall attempt should be repeated later ;
::06 – module is deactivated, but can't be uninstalled ;
::07 – the same, as 03, plus driver unloading required.
Return of status code values 03, 04 or 07 means a necessity to launch a special uninstaller program. For this program the addressed resident module must return in BX register that segment address, where its executable code is loaded.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-6-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-3-ref|'''^''']] Returned in AL register status code values (except 00h and FFh) have the following meaning :
::01 – activation attempt should be repeated later ;
::02 – program will be activated later ;
::03 – program is active yet ;
::04 – activation attempt has failed.
After successful activation, confirmed by status code FFh, some programs may report extra information in BX register. After a failure, confirmed by status code 04h, extra information may be returned in BX and CX registers. If the cause of failure remains unknown, BX and CX registers should return zeros.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-6-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-4-ref|'''^''']] Requests for operation 04h must specify in BL register a number of that interrupt (except INT 2D), which is to be checked. Returned in AL register status code values (except 00h) have the following meaning :
::01 – check result can't be determined ;
::02 – specified interrupt has been intercepted ;
::03 – the same as 02 plus handler's address – in DX:BX ;
::04 – in DX:BX – pointer to a list of interceptions ;
::FF – specified interrupt is not intercepted.
Status code value 04 means that interrupt number, specified in BL register, is ignored. Returned list is composed of 3-byte groups per each interrupt: the first byte, the interrupt number ; the following 2 bytes, the offset (inside DX segment) of that interrupt handler's entrance address. End of list is marked with code 2Dh in a place for interrupt number.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-6-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-5-ref|'''^''']] After successful outcome, confirmed by status code FFh, in DX:BX registers a pointer to a list of &quot;hot&quot; keys is returned. Structure of this list is described in appendix A.02-7.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.07-6-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-6-6-ref|'''^''']] Operation 06h returns in AL register number of drivers, installed by addressed resident module, and in DX:BX registers – a pointer to header of the first of these installed drivers (A.05-1). In AH register a byte of flags is returned; bits 3–7 in this byte are reserved and must be clear. Set state of the rest flags should be interpreted as follows:
::bit 0 – drivers can't be unloaded from memory;
::bit 1 – drivers are not included in DOS's drivers chain;
::bit 2 – installed drivers are not reenterable.
If addressed TSR program didn't install drivers, it has to return AL = 00h value. On return the contents of AH, BX and DX registers may be arbitrary altered.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== A.08 Floppy drive's data structures ==
=== A.08-1 Floppy drive's data in BIOS data area ===
The table presents that information in BIOS data area, which relates to floppy drive(s). All offsets are counted from segment address 0040h, i.e. from the start of BIOS data area.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=4 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Flags : || bit || 0 || : floppy is able to boot the PC
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bits || 6–7 || : number of floppy drives minus one
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Bit 7 set by IRQ6 handler marks completion of FDD's job
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Motor's status in floppy drive(s)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 40h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Floppy motor OFF timeout count
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 41h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Status : || bits || 0–4 || : last operation error &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.08-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.08-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 5 || : general controller failure
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 6 || : seek error
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 7 || : drive isn't ready
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 42h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3
| colspan=4 | Registers of floppy drive controller
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Floppy drive data rate control
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Floppy drive registration :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 0 || : drive 0 supports 80 tracks
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 2 || : presence of drive 0 is confirmed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 4 || : drive 1 supports 80 tracks
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 6 || : presence of drive 1 is confirmed
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 90h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Floppy drive 0 media status :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bits || 0–2 || =111b for 3.5&quot; disks
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 3 || : diskette 2.88 Mb
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 4 || : media type has been determined
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bits || 6–7 || : current data transfer rate
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 91h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Floppy drive 1 media status (just as for drive 0)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 94h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Floppy drive 0 current track number
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 95h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Floppy drive 1 current track number
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.08-1-1&quot;&gt;Data placement in BIOS data area may depend on BIOS version (A.01-1).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.08-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.08-1-2-ref|'''^''']] Particular values of last error byte at offset 41h should be interpreted as it is shown in table A.06-1 for INT 13.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.08-2 Access and formatting parameters ===
Computer's BIOS system stores access and formatting parameters for each floppy disk drive in separate 11-byte tables. A pointer to such table for any particular floppy drive can be obtained with INT 13\AH=00h function (8.01-49). Besides that, one more similar 11-byte table is created for the default (&quot;current&quot;) floppy drive; a pointer to the latter table is stored in a cell 0000:0078h (also known as INT 1E) inside interrupt table.

Access and formatting parameters can be changed by INT 13\AH=18h function (8.01-54), but the changes wouldn't come into effect until floppy controller is reset by a call for INT 13\AH=00h (8.01-44).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=4 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Parameters, first byte :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;width: 3em;&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bits || 7–4 || : step rate of head shift
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bits || 3–0 || : head unload time (0Fh = 0.24 s)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Parameters, second byte :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bits || 7–1 || : head load time (01h = 0.004 s)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit || 0 || : set state means data transfer via DMA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Delay until motor turned off (in clock ticks 1/18 s)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Bytes per sector :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || 128 bytes,
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =01h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || 256 bytes,
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =02h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || 512 bytes,
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =03h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || 1024 bytes.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Number of sectors per track
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Gap length between sectors :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =2Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || for diskettes 5.25&quot;,
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =1Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || for diskettes 3.5&quot;.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Gap length between sectors for formatting :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =50h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || for diskettes 5.25&quot;,
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || =6Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || for diskettes 3.5&quot;.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Format filler byte (default is F6h)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 09h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Head settle time in milliseconds
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=4 | Motor start time in ticks (1 tick = 1/18 second)
|}

=== A.08-3 Floppy drive types registered by BIOS ===
BIOS Setup program stores data about registered floppy drives in a cell 10h of CMOS memory. In order to read these data the cell address 10h has to be sent with OUT command (7.03-66) into port 70h, and after that the required data byte can be read by IN command (7.03-26) from port 71h (more about that in &lt;span id=&quot;note-A.14-1-1-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-1|note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.14-1]]&lt;/span&gt;). The required data byte occurs in AL register; bits 4–7 in that byte specify features of the first floppy drive, bits 0–3 specify features of the second floppy drive, if it exists. Hexadecimal values, expressed by each of these 4-bit groups, should be interpreted independently according to the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Value
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Type of floppy disk drive
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0 || Floppy disk drive isn't present
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Drive for 360 kb 5.25&quot; diskettes
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Drive for 1.2 Mb 5.25&quot; diskettes
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || Drive for 720 kb 3.5&quot; diskettes
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Drive for 1.44 Mb 3.5&quot; diskettes
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5 || Drive for 2.88 Mb 3.5&quot; diskettes
|}

== A.09 Directories and file's data tables ==
=== A.09-1 Directory records and file's data ===
Data concerning files, volume labels and subdirectories are stored in corresponding directory records. Data structure in ordinary 32-byte directory record for an object with a &quot;short&quot; name is shown in the first column &quot;D&quot; of the table below. DOS's &quot;find file&quot; functions INT 21\AH=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) read directory records and return the found data in DTA area (8.02-16); format of data, returned by these functions, is shown in second column &quot;F4E&quot; of the table below. Other &quot;find file&quot; functions INT 21\AH=11h (8.02-11) and INT 21\AH=12h (8.02-12) also return found data in DTA area, but in other formats. Third column &quot;F1N&quot; of the table below shows format of data, returned after a search request with normal FCB block (column &quot;N&quot; in appendix A.09-5). But when search request is presented in a form of extended FCB block (column &quot;E&quot; in appendix A.09-5), then the same functions return other data structure, which is shown in the fourth column &quot;F1E&quot; of the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! D !! F4E !! F1N !! F1E !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || = FFh – signature of extended FCB
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Attributes for a search (A.09-2)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 00h || 00h || 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Disk : 01h = A:, 03h = C:, &amp;hellip;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-1-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 00h || 01h || 01h || 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8 || Name, appended with spaces to 8 bytes
|-
| 08h || 09h || 09h || 10h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 3 || Suffix, appended with spaces to 3 bytes
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Ch || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Attributes for a search (A.09-2)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Dh || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Ordinal number of directory record
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Fh || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Number of the first directory cluster
|-
| 0Bh || 15h || 0Ch || 13h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Actual attributes (A.09-2) of the object
|-
| 0Ch || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Auxiliary attribute byte &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-1-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Dh || &amp;nbsp; || 0Eh || 15h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Time in 0.01-second units &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Eh || &amp;nbsp; || 0Fh || 16h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Object creation time &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 10h || &amp;nbsp; || 11h || 18h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Object creation date &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 12h || &amp;nbsp; || 13h || 1Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Date of the last access
|-
| 14h || &amp;nbsp; || 15h || 1Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Starting cluster number &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-1-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 16h || 16h || 17h || 1Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Time of the last update
|-
| 18h || 18h || 19h || 20h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Date of the last update
|-
| 1Ah || &amp;nbsp; || 1Bh || 22h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Starting cluster number &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 1Ch || 1Ah || 1Dh || 24h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Object's size in bytes (binary form)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 1Eh || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 13 || Object's name and suffix &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-1-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-1-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-1-ref|'''^''']] Search functions INT 21\AX=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) return this byte with its 7th bit set, if disk is accessed via a network.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-2-ref|'''^''']] If object is created under DOS, then this data field is not filled. Copying procedures under DOS don't copy those data, which may be present in this field.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-1-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-3-ref|'''^''']] This data field is used by operating systems Windows-2000/XP, but the author has no information about role of these data.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-1-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-4-ref|'''^''']] Object's starting cluster number in FAT-16 volumes is a word at offset 1Ah; field at offset 14h is not used. But cluster number in FAT-32 volumes is a double word. The most significant two bytes of this double word are stored at offset 14h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-1-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-1-5-ref|'''^''']] Search functions INT 21\AX=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) don't overwrite name search template at offset 01h; actual name of the found object, ending with 00h byte, is returned at offset 1Eh.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.09-2 Structure of attribute byte ===
Attribute byte at offset 0Bh in a directory record (A.09-1) defines class of the object, associated with this record. Bitfields of attribute byte are explained in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Bit !! Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0 || Read-only file
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Hidden file
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || System file
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || Volume label (must be zero for files and directories)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Directory (must be zero for files and volume labels)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5 || File, which is to be stored in archive
|-
| 6,7 || Not used under MS-DOS, must be zero
|}

Note 1: the 0Fh value of attribute byte is regarded as a signature of LFN directory records, associated with files having &quot;long&quot; names (A.09-3). Such records are formed by Windows-95/98/ME operating systems.

Note 2: states of bits 3 and 4 in attribute byte can't be changed by INT 21\AX=4301h function (8.02-39) or by ATTRIB.EXE utility (6.01).

Note 3: file search functions INT 21\AX=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) ignore states of bits 0 and 5 in attribute byte.

Note 4: extended &quot;file open&quot; function INT 21\AX=6C00h (8.02-78) accepts in CX register an attribute word with clear bits 4 and 6-15. Role of other bits corresponds to that shown in table A.09-2.

=== A.09-3 Format of LFN directory records ===
Each &quot;long&quot; filename, accepted by Windows-95/98/ME operating systems, occupies at least several directory records of standard 32-byte size. Truncated version of &quot;long&quot; filename is stored in the last of these records; its structure corresponds to that shown in table A.09-1. But the rest records, associated with the same file, store unicode characters of &quot;long&quot; filename. These rest LFN records have other structure, shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Ordinal number of LFN record &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-3-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 10 || First portion of &quot;long&quot; filename's characters
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || = 0Fh – signature of LFN record
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || = 00h (reserved)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Checksum for short filename &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-3-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 12 || Second portion of &quot;long&quot; filename's characters
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || = 0000h for all LFN records
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || Third portion of &quot;long&quot; filename's characters
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-3-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-3-1-ref|'''^''']] The last LFN record, associated with the same &quot;long&quot; filename, is marked by set state of bit 6 in the first byte.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-3-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-3-2-ref|'''^''']] The short filename checksum byte is calculated by adding up the eleven bytes of the short filename, with rotating the intermediate sum right one bit before adding each next character byte.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.09-4 Bitfields of access and sharing byte ===
While preparing an object for access, the INT 21\AH=3Dh (8.02-33) and INT 21\AX=6C00h (8.02-78) functions accept a byte of access conditions. This byte is written into a cell at offset 02h in corresponding SFT entry (A.01-4). Role of bitfields in access and sharing conditions byte is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Bits !! Description
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 1-0 || Access conditions:
::00b – for reading only
::01b – for writing only
::10b – for reading and writing
::11b – for execution and transfer
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || If set, prohibits updating file's last-access time
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || = 0b (reserved)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 6-4 || Sharing conditions:
::000b – compatibility mode
::001b – prohibit access for others
::010b – prohibit write access for others
::011b – prohibit read access for others
::100b – allow full access for others
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7 || If set, file's handle will not be inherited by child processes.
|}

Note 1: sharing conditions are ignored unless SHARE.EXE utility is loaded.

Note 2: previous versions of MS-DOS require clear state of bit 2.

=== A.09-5 Unopened file control blocks ===
File control block (FCB) is an obsolete form of object's properties specification. It gives no access to objects beyond current directory and to disks with FAT-32 file system. Nevertheless some functions employ partially filled (unopened) FCBs just as a template of specification for object's search, renaming and deletion. Unlike operations with completely filled (opened) FCB blocks, operations with unopened FCBs (INT 21\AH=11h, 12h, 13h, 17h) are still used and can be applied to objects in the current directory on disks with FAT-32 file system. Unopened FCB's data structure is shown in the table below.

In MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 two forms of FCB blocks are allowed: normal FCB blocks up to 36 bytes long and extended FCBs up to 43 bytes long. A distinctive feature of extended FCB is FFh value of its first byte. Normal FCB blocks define files only, except those having &quot;Hidden&quot; and &quot;System&quot; attributes. Extended FSBs include search attributes specification and therefore may be applied to different objects: files, volume labels and subdirectories. Both normal and extended FCBs may be completely filled (opened) and partially filled (unopened). Column &quot;N&quot; of the table below shows data structure in unopened normal FCB blocks, column &quot;E&quot; shows the same for unopened extended FCB blocks. Those FCB bytes, which are not shown in the table below, must have the 00h value.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! N !! E !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || = FFh – signature of extended FCB
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Attributes specification for search (A.09-2)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 00h || 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Logical disk number: 00h = &quot;current&quot; disk, 01h = A:, 03h = C:, and so on (except the FFh value).
|-
| 01h || 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8 || Object's name or its search mask &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.09-5-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 09h || 10h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || Object's suffix or its search mask &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.09-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Ch || 13h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || On return: search attributes (from offset 06h)
|-
| 0Dh || 14h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || On return: object's record number in directory
|-
| 0Fh || 16h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || On return: current directory's cluster number
|-
| 11h || 18h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8 || On call for INT 21\AH=17h: new name for file
|-
| 15h || 1Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || On return: disk number (01h=A:, 03h=C:, and so on)
|-
| 19h || 20h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || On call for INT 21\AH=17h: new suffix for file
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-5-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.09-5-1-ref|'''^''']] In FCBs all characters of name and suffix must be in upper case. Name is appended with spaces (20h) to its nominal length 8 bytes, suffix is appended with spaces to its nominal length 3 bytes. If empty, both name and suffix fields must be filled with spaces. The mentioned and some other requirements to filling FCB fields can be met by means of INT 21\AH=29h function (8.02-19).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-5-2&quot;&gt;Being called for the first time, functions INT 21\AH=11h (8.02-11) and INT 21\AH=13h (8.02-13) require 00h values in all fields after offset 0Ch in normal FCB and after offset 13h in extended FCB. On return these fields contain data, which must be preserved intact from each previous search call to each next search call. In the same FCB fields the INT 21\AH=17h function (8.02-14) accepts new name for the renamed file, requiring buffer 28 bytes long for normal FCB and 35 bytes long for extended FCB.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.09-5-3&quot;&gt;Unopened FCB blocks are not subjected to restriction, imposed by FCBS command specification (4.10) in CONFIG.SYS file.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.09-6 Canonical structure of a CD directory record ===
High Sierra and ISO 9660 file systems implement slightly different data structures in CD directory records. Both these data structures can be translated by INT 2F\AX=150Fh function (8.03-19) to a common canonical form, which is shown below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 1 || Length of attribute record in logical blocks
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 4 || File's first logical block number
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 2 || Size of file in logical blocks
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 4 || File's length in bytes
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 7 || Date and time
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 12h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 1 || Bit flags
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 13h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 1 || Interleave size (for AVI files only)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 14h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 1 || Interleave skip factor (for AVI files only)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 15h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 2 || Volume set sequence number
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 17h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 1 || Length of file name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 18h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 38 || Name of file, ending with 00h byte
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 2 || File version number
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 40h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 1 || Number of bytes in system data block
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 41h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;&quot; | 220 || System data block
|}

== A.10 Video data tables ==
=== A.10-1 Selected videomodes ===
Videomodes define screen appearance. Both BIOS and DOS use textual videomodes : color videomode 03h or monochrome videomode 07h. Each program is allowed to set the most appropriate video mode, either textual or graphic.

Available videomodes depend on PC's hardware. During hardware evolution some videomodes have become common for the sake of compatibility. Later a subset of videomodes has acquired the status of a standard. The table below lists only those videomodes, which are almost certainly supported by any modern video card. Video cards with insufficient internal memory probably will not be able to support graphic videomodes with high resolution. Obsolete PC's produced before 1991 don't support SVGA videomodes at all.

EGA and VGA videomodes are defined by one-byte code, specified in the first column of the table below. These videomodes may be set by INT 10\AH=00h function (8.01-10).

SVGA video modes are defined by 2-byte hexadecimal code, which should be specified in BX register for INT 10\AX=4F02h function (8.01-37). The table below doesn't specify the most significant half-byte of SVGA videomode code, because this half-byte (bits 15–12) is charged with another mission. Its 12th and 13th bits must be cleared, the 14th bit enables linear frame buffer access, and the 15th bit forces to retain video memory contents. For example, you may specify BX=0102h, when you want video memory to be cleared, or BX=8102h if you want video memory contents to be preserved: in both cases you'll get the same videomode, which is specified as 102h in the first column of the table below. Codes of other SVGA videomodes are shown in the same way — without specification of the most significant half-byte. Codes of non-SVGA video modes may be specified for INT 10\AX=4F02h function in the least significant byte of BX register while its bits 15 and 14 are charged with the described missions, and bits 13–8 are made clear.

Monochrome videomodes, both textual and graphic, are marked in the second column of the table as &quot;b/w&quot; (instead of colors number).

Textual video modes are characterized in column 3 of the table below by number of characters in a row and by number of rows per screen height. For example, definition 80x25 means that you may address rows 0–24 and character cells 0–79 in each row. All listed textual modes accept 8x16 fonts.

Graphic modes are characterized by their resolution in pixels, shown in the 4th column. For example, resolution 640x480 means that you are allowed to address screen lines 0–479 and pixels 0–639 in each line.

The 5th column in the table shows video buffer starting address for those videomodes, which use fixed video buffer in UMB address space.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Videomode !! Colors !! Text !! Graphics !! Buffer !! Class
|-
| 01h || 16 || 40x25 || &amp;nbsp; || B800 || VGA
|-
| 03h || 16 || 80x25 || &amp;nbsp; || B800 || VGA
|-
| 06h || b/w || &amp;nbsp; || 640x200 || B800 || EGA,VGA
|-
| 07h || b/w || 80x25 || &amp;nbsp; || B000 || VGA
|-
| 0Eh || 16 || &amp;nbsp; || 640x200 || A000 || EGA,VGA
|-
| 0Fh || b/w || &amp;nbsp; || 640x350 || A000 || EGA,VGA
|-
| 10h || 16 || &amp;nbsp; || 640x350 || A000 || VGA
|-
| 11h || b/w || &amp;nbsp; || 640x480 || A000 || VGA
|-
| 12h || 16 || &amp;nbsp; || 640x480 || A000 || VGA
|-
| 13h || 256 || &amp;nbsp; || 320x200 || A000 || VGA
|-
| 100h || 256 || &amp;nbsp; || 640x400 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 101h || 256 || &amp;nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 102h || 16 || &amp;nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 103h || 256 || &amp;nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 104h || 16 || &amp;nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 105h || 256 || &amp;nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 108h || 16 || 80x60 || &amp;nbsp; || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 109h || 16 || 132x25 || &amp;nbsp; || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 10Ah || 16 || 132x43 || &amp;nbsp; || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 10Bh || 16 || 132x50 || &amp;nbsp; || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 10Ch || 16 || 132x60 || &amp;nbsp; || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 110h || 32k || &amp;nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 111h || 64k || &amp;nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 112h || 16M || &amp;nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 113h || 32k || &amp;nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 114h || 64k || &amp;nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 115h || 16M || &amp;nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 116h || 32k || &amp;nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 117h || 64k || &amp;nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 118h || 16M || &amp;nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 119h || 32k || &amp;nbsp; || 1280x1024 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 11Ah || 64k || &amp;nbsp; || 1280x1024 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 11Bh || 16M || &amp;nbsp; || 1280x1024 || *1 || SVGA
|-
| 120h || 256 || &amp;nbsp; || 1600x1200 || *1 || SVGA
|}

Note 1: position and size of video memory access &quot;windows&quot; in address space for SVGA videomodes may depend on PC's hardware. Video memory access parameters should be determined by call for INT 10\AX=4F01h function (8.01-36, A.10-7).

Note 2: when SVGA standard hasn't been adopted yet, then equivalent to SVGA's 102h videomode was 6Ah videomode (800x600x16). The 6Ah videomode still can be set by INT 10\AH=00h function (8.01-10).

Note 3: SVGA standard reserves BX=81FFh code for special video mode, enabling unlimited direct access to video memory.

=== A.10-2 Information about video adapter status ===
The table below shows structure of 64-byte data block, returned by INT 10\AH=1Bh function (8.01-34). This block presents information about current status of video adapter.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Address of static functionality table (A.10-3)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Current video mode
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Number of columns or of pixels along a line
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Size of regeneration buffer in bytes
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 09h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Starting address of regeneration buffer
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 16 || Cursor positions (2 bytes each) for pages 0–7
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Cursor's start and stop scan lines
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Active screen page
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || CRT controller's port address
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 20h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Last values sent to ports 03x8h and 03x9h
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 22h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Number of rows (or screen lines) minus one
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 23h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Number of bytes per font's character
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 25h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Active video adapter code
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 26h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Code of alternate video adapter (if it exists)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 27h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Number of videomode's colors (0000h = monochrome)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 29h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Number of screen pages supported by videomode
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Active scan lines &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.10-2-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.10-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Character generator's primary font block
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Character generator's secondary font block
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2Dh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Current status flags &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.10-2-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.10-2-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 31h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Video memory, 00h–03h correspond to 64,128,192,256k
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 32h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Flags, just as at offset 0Eh in table A.10-3.
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.10-2-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.10-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Number of active scan lines is defined by set state of one bit in a byte at offset 2Ah. Set state of bit 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 corresponds to numbers of lines 200, 350, 400, 480, 512, 600, 768.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.10-2-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.10-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Bits in flag's byte at offset 2Dh have the following meaning :
::bit 0 – no restrictions on videomode choice
::bit 1 – gray scale summing is on
::bit 2 – monochrome display attached
::bit 3 – default palette loading disabled
::bit 4 – cursor emulation enabled
::bit 5 – role of 7th bit in color byte (A.10-5)
::bit 6 – 9-dot wide fonts are not supported
If 5th bit in flag's byte is cleared, then 7th bit in color byte defines brightness of background, otherwise it defines blinking.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.10-3 Format of static functionality table ===
Static functionality table informs about variety of capabilities, potentially supported by PC's video adapter. A pointer to static functionality table is returned by INT 10\AH=1Bh function (8.01-34) in current video adapter status table (A.10-2) at offset 00h.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7 || Bits 0–13h correspond to video modes 00h–13h ; if a bit is set, the corresponding video mode is supported. The rest bits are reserved for OEM videomodes.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Bits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 signify support to scan lines numbers 200, 350, 400, 480, 512, 600, 768.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Maximum number of fonts in textual videomodes
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 09h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Maximum number of active fonts in textual videomodes
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Supported operations:
:bit 0 – all modes on all displays supported
:bit 1 – gray summing function supported
:bit 2 – character font loading function supported
:bit 3 – default palette loading enable/disable supported
:bit 4 – cursor emulation function supported
:bit 5 – internal EGA palette present
:bit 6 – color palette present
:bit 7 – color-register paging function supported
:bit 8 – light pen supported (INT 10\AH=04h)
:bit 9 – save/restore state function 1Ch supported
:bit 10 – intensity/blinking switching supported (A.10-5)
:bit 11 – more than one video adapter supported
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Fonts and palettes support:
:bit 0 – 512-character sets supported
:bit 1 – dynamic determination of save area supported
:bit 2 – textual font override supported
:bit 3 – graphics font override supported
:bit 4 – palette override supported
:bit 5 – video adapter code extensions supported
|}

=== A.10-4 BIOS information about SVGA extensions ===
The table below shows selected data from a data block 512 bytes long returned by INT 10\AX=4F00 function (8.01-35). These data characterize software supplied in fixed storage chip(s) of video adapter.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Signature &quot;VESA&quot; or &quot;VBE2&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Version number of SVGA BIOS extensions
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to manufacturer's (OEM) name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to list of supported videomodes (end mark FFFFh)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 12h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Amount of video memory in 64 kb blocks
|}

=== A.10-5 16-color codes ===
Though AT-compatible computer's hardware suggests a large variety of videomodes, the default videomode for both BIOS and MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 is a 16-color 80x25 textual videomode 03h. For this videomode and for all other 16-color videomodes (A.10-1) colors are defined by a 4-bit code, shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
| 0000 || 0 || black || 1000 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 8 || gray
|-
| 0001 || 1 || blue || 1001 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 9 || bright blue
|-
| 0010 || 2 || green || 1010 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 10 || bright green
|-
| 0011 || 3 || cyan || 1011 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 11 || bright cyan
|-
| 0100 || 4 || red || 1100 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 12 || bright red
|-
| 0101 || 5 || magenta || 1101 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 13 || bright magenta
|-
| 0110 || 6 || brown || 1110 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 14 || yellow
|-
| 0111 || 7 || white || 1111 || style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 15 || bright white
|}

Color codes are used to compose color bytes, also known as display attribute bytes. Video memory in textual videomodes is filled with alternating color bytes and character bytes. In each color byte bits 3–0 define foreground (character's) color, and bits 6–4 define background color. By default the 7th bit defines character's blinking instead of background's brightness, but role of the 7th bit may be reprogrammed by INT 10\AX=1003h function (8.01-23), and then the most significant bits in both 4-bit groups will have the same mission. By default the 3rd bit defines foreground brightness, but this role also may be reprogrammed by INT 10\AX=1103h function (8.01-28), and then bit 3 will redirect character generator to another font block, thus enabling to display characters from two fonts at the same time.

=== A.10-6 Video data fields in BIOS data area ===
The table below shows those selected items in BIOS data area, which have relation to computer's video subsystem. All offsets in the table are counted from the start of BIOS data area (A.01-1) at segment address 0040h.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Bits 5–4 define initial video mode:
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00b
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || according to video adapter settings
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01b
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || 40x25 textual CGA color mode
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10b
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || 80x25 textual CGA color mode
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 11b
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || 80x25 monochrome textual mode
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 49h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Current video mode (A.10-1)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Number of columns (or pixels) per screen width
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Video buffer's screen page size (in bytes)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Current page start address in video buffer
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 50h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 16 || Cursor XY positions on each of 8 video pages
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 60h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Cursor start and end scan lines (INT 10/AH=01h)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 62h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Active screen page number
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 63h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || CRT controller base I/O port address (usually 03D4h)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 65h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Last control byte value sent to port 03B8h/03D8h:
:bit 5 – blinking control (INT 10\AX=1003h)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 66h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Last control byte value sent to I/O port 03D9h:
:bit 4 – background brightness
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 84h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Number of rows (or lines) on screen minus one
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 85h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Font height in scan lines
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 87h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5 || Video adapter control flags:
:bit 0: – cursor emulation disabled
:bit 1: – monochrome display attached
:bit 2: – wait for CRT display enable
:bit 7: – don't clear RAM on videomode set
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | A8h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to VGA video pointers table
|}

Note 1: presented data placement may depend on BIOS version (A.01-1).

=== A.10-7 Features of requested SVGA videomode ===
This table presents selected data from a 256-byte data block, returned by INT 10\AX=4F01 function (8.01-36) in response to a request about any SVGA videomode, supported by computer's hardware.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| style=&quot;width: 3em; text-align: left;&quot; | Flags :
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 0 – requested videomode is supported
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 2 – functions 8.01-21, 8.01-33 are supported
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 3 – set for color videomode
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 4 – set for graphic videomode
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 5 – videomode differs from VGA standard
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 6 – memory banks switching isn't supported
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 7 – linear frame buffer is supported
|-
| 02h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Window &quot;A&quot; :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 0 – sliding window &quot;A&quot; is active
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 1 – window &quot;A&quot; is readable
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 2 – window &quot;A&quot; is writable
|-
| 03h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Window &quot;B&quot;: the same, as at offset 02h for window &quot;A&quot;
|-
| 04h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Shift step (in kb) of windows &quot;A&quot;, &quot;B&quot; in video memory
|-
| 06h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Size of sliding windows &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; (in kb)
|-
| 08h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Segment address of window &quot;A&quot; in CPU's address space
|-
| 0Ah || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Segment address of window &quot;B&quot; in CPU's address space
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 0Ch || 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Direct call address for sliding windows positioning program, similar to INT 10\AX=4F05h (8.01-39)
|-
| 10h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of video memory bytes per one screen line
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 12h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Screen line length in pixels for graphic videomodes or in character cells for textual videomodes
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 14h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Screen height in pixels for graphic videomodes or in character cells for textual videomodes
|-
| 16h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Character cell width (in pixels)
|-
| 17h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Character cell height (in pixels)
|-
| 18h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of video memory planes
|-
| 19h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of video memory bits per one pixel
|-
| 1Ah || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of video adapter's memory banks
|-
| 1Bh || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Video memory filling model:
|-
| 00h || –
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | textual, alternate character and color bytes
|-
| 03h || –
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | 16-color graphic EGA model
|-
| 04h || –
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | graphic model with &quot;packed&quot; pixels
|-
| 06h || –
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | 3 color bytes per pixel (HiColor)
|-
| 07h || –
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | luminance-chrominance model (YUV/YIQ)
|-
| 1Ch || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Video memory bank size (in kilobytes)
|-
| 1Dh || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of screen pages
|-
| 28h || 4
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Physical address of linear video buffer (VBE v2.0)
|}

== A.11 PC's hardware specifications ==
=== A.11-1 Hardware configuration word ===
Hardware configuration word is returned by INT 11 handler (8.01-42); it reads this word in BIOS data area (A.01-1) at address 0040:0010h (exact address may depend on BIOS version). Bifields in hardware configuration word should be interpreted according to the following table.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Bits
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 0 || PC can be booted from existing floppy drive
|-
| 1 || Math coprocessor is present
|-
| 2 || BIOS controlled pointing device (mouse) is attached
|-
| 4-5 || Code of initial video mode (A.10-1)
|-
| 6-7 || Number of floppy drives minus one (if bit 0 is set)
|-
| 9-11 || Number of available serial ports (COM-ports)
|-
| 12 || Game port is present (for joystick)
|-
| 13 || Internal modem is present
|-
| 14-15 || Number of available parallel ports (LPT-ports)
|}

=== A.11-2 PC model identifiers for HIMEM.SYS driver ===
In order to enable access to computer's extended memory, HIMEM.SYS driver (5.04-01) has to determine CPU model. However, in some computers HIMEM.SYS can't determine CPU model properly, and then computer's identifier or its numeric code should be specified explicitly in driver's command line.

The table below presents identifiers and corresponding numeric codes for computers, which don't ensure CPU determination for at least some versions of HIMEM.SYS driver. The first place in this table (code 1) is an exception: IBM AT is a determinable model, it represents the default choice. Latest versions of HIMEM.SYS driver are able to detect properly most part of PC types, specified in this table, except Acer 1100, Wyse, and IBM 7552.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Identifier !! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | PC model
|-
| at || 1 || IBM PC AT and compatible models
|-
| ps2 || 2 || IBM PS/2
|-
| ptlcascade || 3 || Phoenix Cascade BIOS
|-
| hpvectra || 4 || HP Vectra (A &amp; A+)
|-
| att6300plus || 5 || AT&amp;T 6300 Plus
|-
| acer1100 || 6 || Acer 1100
|-
| toshiba || 7 || Toshiba 1600 &amp; 1200XE
|-
| wyse || 8 || Wyse 12.5 Mhz 286
|-
| tulip || 9 || Tulip SX
|-
| zenith || 10 || Zenith ZBIOS
|-
| at1 || 11 || reserved by IBM
|-
| at2 || 12 || reserved by IBM
|-
| css || 12 || CSS Labs
|-
| at3 || 13 || reserved by IBM
|-
| philips || 13 || Philips
|-
| fasthp || 14 || HP Vectra
|-
| ibm7552 || 15 || IBM 7552 Industrial Computer
|-
| bullmicral || 16 || Bull Micral 60
|-
| dell || 17 || Dell XBIOS
|}

=== A.11-3 Keyboard controller ===
Keyboard controller is a chip on computer's motherboard. Though types of keyboard controllers may be different, their mission and their interface in all AT-compatible computers are unified. Main interaction between CPU and keyboard controller occurs via ports 60h and 64h.

Port 64h is always opened for reading keyboard controller's current status by IN command (7.03-26). Set state of bits in status byte, read from port 64h, should be interpreted as follows:
::bit 7 – an error has occurred in data sent from keyboard
::bit 6 – keyboard doesn't respond to controller
::bit 4 – keyboard is blocked with ADh command
::bit 2 – keyboard's self-test has been successful
::bit 1 – previous operation isn't completed yet
::bit 0 – a key code is prepared for reading in port 60h

At each keystroke and at each key release keyboard controller exhibits transformed key code in port 60h and just after that announces its readiness for reading via bit 0 in port 64h and via bit 4 of controller's output line.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-3-1-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; The latter signal invokes INT 09 handler (8.01-09), which reads the prepared byte from port 60h. Each reading access to port 60h clears bit 0 in port 64h.

Besides that, port 64h receives operation codes, sent to keyboard controller with OUT command (7.03-66). As far as keyboard controller is much slower, than CPU, before sending an operation code the CPU must wait until bit 1 will be cleared in status byte, read from the same port 64h: it will signify that the keyboard controller has finished its previous operation and is ready to receive the next operation code for execution. Codes of some important operations, which may be sent to keyboard controller's port 64h, are shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Operation
|-
| ADh || Block the keyboard (switch it OFF)
|-
| AEh || Activate the keyboard (switch it ON)
|-
| D1h || Open port 60h for data reception &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-3-1-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| EDh || Open port 60h for data reception &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-3-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FEh || Send reset signal to CPU &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-3-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-3-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-3-1&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-3-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.11-3-1-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Having received operation code D1h via port 64h, keyboard controller begins to wait for reception of data byte via port 60h and then transfers the received data byte to its output bus. Bits of data byte are distributed among output bus lines in the following way:
::bit 7 – command output to keyboard via data line;
::bit 6 – clock output to keyboard via clock line;
::bit 4 – a call for INT 09 (8.01-09) via line IRQ 1;
::bit 1 – to gate of CPU's address line A20;
::bit 0 – to CPU's reset pin.
Active state of controller's output lines corresponds to cleared states of bits in data byte; hence, sending a data byte with clear bit 0 is not allowed – CPU will get blocked. Because of the same reason for opening A20 line gate a data byte FFh should be sent to port 60h, and for closing access to HMA – data byte FDh.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-3-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Having received operation code EDh via port 64h, keyboard controller begins to wait for reception of data byte via port 60h and then transfers bit states of the received data byte to control lines of keyboard's LED indicators, in particular :
::bit 2 – to Caps Lock indicator;
::bit 1 – to Num Lock indicator;
::bit 0 – to Scroll Lock indicator.
Indicator will be lit, if corresponding bit in data byte is set. Not mentioned bits in this data byte must be cleared.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-3-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-3-3-ref|'''^''']] Having received operation codes F0h–FFh via port 64h, keyboard controller sends four least significant bits of this operation code to lines 3–0 of its output bus. Unlike to response on reception of operation code D1h, after reception of operation codes F0h–FFh the imposed states of output lines are not fixed for ever, but are kept for about 6 milliseconds as a solitary pulse. In particular, operation code FEh causes a pulse sent to CPU's reset pin, just as after a press on RESET button on a face panel of computer's system block. Some ways to affect further events after CPU's reset are described in &lt;span id=&quot;note-A.12-1-4-ref4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.12-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.11-4. CPU's flags register ===
Former 16-bit flags register in modern processors, starting from model 80386, has been expanded to 32 bits; besides that, control registers CR0, CR2 and CR3 have been introduced. Later, starting from Pentium CPU, one more control register CR4 has been added. Flags are present in all of the mentioned control registers, except CR2: it stores linear address of that last command, which requested access to a forbidden memory page. Missions of flags in flags register, and also of some flags in control registers are shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Register !! Bit !! Description !! Comments
|-
| FLAGS || 00h || CF – carry flag || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 02h || PF – bit's parity in the least significant byte || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 04h || AF – intermediate carry flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 06h || ZF – zero (or equality) flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 07h || SF – sign flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 08h || TF – trace (step-by-step) flag
|-
| FLAGS || 09h || IF – interrupt enable flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 0Ah || DF – index count direction flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 0Bh || OF – overflow flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 0Ch || I/O privilege level 2-bit field || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 0Eh || Nested task flag || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FLAGS || 0Fh || Distinctive feature of CPU 8086 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| EFLAGS || 10h || Ignore debugging flag (A.11-5) || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| EFLAGS || 11h || VM – V86 mode flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| EFLAGS || 12h || AC – alignment check enable flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| EFLAGS || 13h || VIF – virtual interrupt flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| EFLAGS || 14h || VIP – virtual interrupt pending || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| EFLAGS || 15h || ID – CPU identification flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 00h || PE – protection enable flag || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-7-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 01h || Coprocessor synchronization (7.02-05) || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 02h || Coprocessor emulation via INT 07 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 03h || TS – task switched flag || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 04h || Coprocessor's commands support || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 05h || Exception enable on coprocessor's errors || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 10h || WP – write protection || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-8-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 12h || AM – alignment mask || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 1Dh || NW – not write-through cache || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 1Eh || CD – cache disable || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR0 || 1Fh || PG – paging enabled || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR3 || 03h || Cache write-through || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-4-9-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-9|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;9&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR3 || 04h || Page caching disabled || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-9|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;9&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR4 || 00h || VME – V86 mode extensions enabled || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR4 || 01h || PVI – virtual interrupts enabled || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR4 || 02h || TSD – time stamp disabled || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| CR4 || 03h || Debugging: allow INT 01 on port calls || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-1-ref|'''^''']] Mission and states of this flag are described in article 6.05-15.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Bits 0Ch and 0Dh in flags register express required privilege level for performing I/O operations. By default under DOS both bits 0Ch and 0Dh are set: hence, direct I/O operations are allowed for all processes. But only processes with the highest (zero) privilege level are allowed to alter states of 0Ch and 0Dh bits with POPF command (7.03-68). The latter feature enables to determine whether the current process indeed is performed at the highest privilege level.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-3-ref|'''^''']] Flags register enables to perform a coarse identification of CPU type. Inability to clear the 0Fh flag is a distinctive feature of obsolete 8086 CPU. Inability to set the 0Eh flag is specific for 16-bit processors. If CPU is able to set the 0Eh flag, hence it is a 32-bit CPU and is equipped with extended EFLAGS register. In the latter case bit 15 in EFLAGS register will show, whether this CPU is able to respond properly to CPU identification command (CPUID, machine code 0Fh A2h)&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-4&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-4-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#POPF-3|'''''b''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#PUSHF-1|'''''c''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; EFLAGS is a 32-bit extension of 16-bit flags register. In real mode access to EFLAGS's bits 31–16 can be provided by PUSHF and POPF commands, preceded by prefix 66h, as it is described in article 7.02-06.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-5-ref|'''^''']] An opportunity to set V86 mode with POPF command is blocked by hardware. Nevertheless V86 mode can be set from stack with IRET command, if CPU is in protected mode and if at the same time the 06 bit in segment descriptor allows 32-bit addressing (A.12-2).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-6-ref|'''^''']] Here alignment implies that address of each operand in memory must be a multiple of this operand's size (in bytes). Alignment check can be performed at the lowest (the third) privilege level only, when CPU is in protected mode (note 1 to 8.01-42). Alignment mask bit in CR0 enables alignment exceptions even if these are not enabled by AC flag in EFLAGS register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-7&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-7-ref|'''^''']] Control registers can be accessed with MOV command (note 1 to 7.03-58). Besides that, contents of CR0 register can be read by INT 67\AX=DE07h function (8.03-72).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-8&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-8-ref|'''^''']] Bit 10h is used in order to protect application programs segments from being accessed for writing to operating system or to other processes, which may have higher privilege level.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-4-9&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-4-9-ref|'''^''']] 20 most significant bits of CR3 register store base address of page directory. This base address must be a multiple of page size (normally 4 kb). Each writing operation to CR3 register causes updating of TLB buffer contents; this should be done after every change in page address translation table(s).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.11-5 CPU's debugging registers ===
Debugging registers enable to call for INT 01 handler (8.01-02) each time a particular target is addressed: a port or a prescribed memory region, including non-writable regions of address space, where breakpoints can't be stored. All modern processors of x86 platform, starting from model 80386, are equipped with debugging registers DR0–DR7. Access to debugging registers is provided by INT 67\AX=DE08h-DE09h functions (8.03-73), and also by MOV command (note 1 to 7.03-58).

Registers DR0–DR3 store four 32-bit absolute linear addresses of prescribed target points. The DR7 register defines conditions of access event enrolment. The DR6 register stores some circumstances of happened access event (programmable and external interrupts don't affect DR6 contents). Missions of selected bitfields in DR6 and DR7 registers are shown in the following table.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Register !! Bit !! Description !! Comments
|-
| DR6 || 00h || Event has occurred at DR0 address || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-5-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR6 || 01h || Event has occurred at DR1 address || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR6 || 02h || Event has occurred at DR2 address || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR6 || 03h || Event has occurred at DR3 address || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR6 || 0Dh || Breakpoint debug access detected || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR6 || 0Eh || BS – single step state detected || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR6 || 0Fh || TS – task switch state detected || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 00h || 2-bit permission field for DR0 || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-5-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 02h || 2-bit permission field for DR1 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 04h || 2-bit permission field for DR2 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 06h || 2-bit permission field for DR3 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 0Dh || GD – general detect enabled || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-5-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 10h || 4-bit control field for DR0 || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.11-5-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 14h || 4-bit control field for DR1 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 18h || 4-bit control field for DR2 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| DR7 || 1Ch || 4-bit control field for DR3 || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-5-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-1-ref|'''^''']] Access event is fixed in bits 01h–03h of DR6 register even when exception generation is not permitted by bit 0Dh in DR7 register or by bit 10h in EFLAGS register (A.11-4). Bit 0Eh in DR6 register fixes state of TF flag at the moment of access event ; bit 0Fh, the state of task switch. Set state of bit 0Dh in DR6 register reminds that exception hasn't been generated yet, though access event has happened (bit 0Dh is cleared by exception).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-5-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-2-ref|'''^''']] Permission field defines either local or global permission to enroll access events. The first of bits in permission field acts locally within current task only and is turned off at each task change. The second bit in permission field is imparted with global property and enables to enroll access events beyond the current task.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-5-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-3-ref|'''^''']] Bit 0Dh in DR7 register doesn't affect access event enrolment, but rather allows exception generation, caused by access event. State of 0Dh bit in DR7 can't be changed unless the process either has the highest privilege level or is executed in real mode.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.11-5-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.11-5-4-ref|'''^''']] The first pair of bits in each control field defines purpose of those access events, which should be intercepted :
::00 – attempt to execute machine code
::01 – attempt of writing into memory
::10 – I/O address to a port (for CPUs Pentium+)
::11 – both reading and writing attempts.
The second pair of bits in each control field defines size of the monitored address space: a byte, a word or a double word. Attempt of access to either byte within monitored address space is equally enrolled as access event.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== A.12 Memory allocation and management ==
=== A.12-1 General memory map ===
This table shows general allocation of memory space below 1 Mb, typical for AT-compatible computers, controlled by DOS operating system. However, memory allocation depends on BIOS version, on BIOS Setup settings, on particular computer's configuration. Therefore some features of memory allocation in your computer may differ from those shown below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Address !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 0000:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 400h || Interrupt table for real mode
|-
| 0000:0074
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to video register's default settings
|-
| 0000:0078
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to default floppy data table (A.08-2)
|-
| 0000:007C
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to 8x8 graphic font characters 80–FFh
|-
| 0000:0104
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to 1st HDD parameters table (A.13-1)
|-
| 0000:010C
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to current graphic font (8.01-30)
|-
| 0000:0118
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Pointer to 2nd HDD parameters table (A.13-1)
|-
| 0040:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 100h || BIOS data area (A.01-1)
|-
| 0050:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Printer's status for INT 05 (8.01-06)
|-
| 0050:0004
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Floppy drive choice (A: or B:)
|-
| 0050:0040
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | BCh || Selected pointers to original interrupt handlers &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0000:7C00
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 200h || Default area to load and execute boot record
|-
| 9000:FFFF
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || Upper boundary of &quot;conventional&quot; memory &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| A000:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10000h || Video memory access &quot;window&quot; &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| B000:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10000h || Video memory access &quot;window&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| B800:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8000h || Video buffer for textual videomodes EGA+
|-
| C000:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8000h || Video adapter's BIOS area &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| C000:0070
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7 || &quot;EXTMODE&quot; signature: SVGA videomodes support
|-
| C800:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4000h || Hard disk's BIOS area
|-
| D000:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10000h || Default area for UMBs, arranged by EMM386.EXE
|-
| E000:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10000h || Default area for expanded memory pages
|-
| F000:0000
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | FFFFh || Relocated copy of PC's ROM BIOS &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| F000:FFF0
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | – || Reboot program's entrance point &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-4-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| F000:FFF5
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8 || BIOS date
|-
| F000:FFFD
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || BIOS code checksum
|-
| F000:FFFE
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Computer's model code
|-
| FFFF:0010
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | FFEFh || High memory area &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-1-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-1-ref|'''^''']] The 640 kb boundary of conventional memory is hardware defined by dynamic memory controller chip in motherboard's chipset. Above this boundary the next 384 kb of address space are reserved for video memory and for BIOS ROM chips. Free space in this area normally is made accessible in protected mode due to address translation mechanism in CPU.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-1-2&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-2-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected drivers#MemMgrs|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Address space area A000:0000–B000:FFFF provides access to video memory. Particular usage of this area depends on videomode (A.10-1). SVGA BIOS of modern video adapters arranges in this area one or two &quot;sliding&quot; windows, providing &quot;sliding&quot; access to selected part(s) of large video memory (details in section 8.01-39).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-1-3&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-3-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected drivers#MemMgrs|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Access via the same areas of address space may be arranged either directly to BIOS and video BIOS codes in ROM chips or to copies of these codes in a more fast RAM. A choice of a particular alternative depends on &quot;shadowing&quot; parameters settings for corresponding memory areas, set by BIOS Setup program.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-1-4&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-4-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref4|'''''d''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref5|'''''e''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Reset program's entrance point address F000:FFF0h is hardware defined by CPU : at power-on the initial state of its address bus is just FFFF0h. Further booting process depends on value written in byte 0Fh in BIOS's CMOS RAM&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-1-1-ref3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.14-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;:
::00h – ordinary booting with POST test
::04h – reboot with a call for INT 19 (8.01-90)
::05h – reset and jump to address in 0040:0067 cell (A.01-1)
::0Ah – jump to address prepared in 0040:0067 cell (A.01-1)
Unlike booting after power-on, POST test after reboot depends on a word at address 0040:0072h.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.01-1-1-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.01-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.01-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; Alternatives 05h and 0Ah are used after reboot only and differ in that whether interrupt controller will be reset or not.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-1-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-5-ref|'''^''']] High memory area is accessed, when segment address summation with offset produces a carry bit, directed into A20 line of address bus. High memory area is accessible in real mode, but needs HIMEM.SYS driver (5.04-01) to be installed, which provides control over A20 line gate.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-1-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-6-ref|'''^''']] The 0050:0040–0050:00FB area stores copies of selected interrupt handler's addresses (INT 00 – INT 1F, INT 40 – INT 43, INT 46, INT 70 – INT 77), prepared by BIOS for subsequent loading of operating system. In main interrupt table these addresses may be overwritten by addresses of other handlers, installed later either by MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 itself, or by TSR programs, or by drivers.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.12-2 Segment descriptors ===
Segment boundaries and access rights in protected mode are defined by segment descriptors. A number of most important segment descriptors constitute global descriptor table (GDT). CPU transition to protected mode implies presence of a GDT, at least partially prepared beforehand, while CPU is in real mode. Order and selection of descriptors in the prepared GDT depend on requirements of that procedure, which should control CPU transition to protected mode.

Examples of GDT tables for different procedures are shown in articles 8.01-76, 8.01-78 and 9.10-01. In all GDT tables the first descriptor must be filled with zeros: it is a template for non-requested segments and memory pages. All descriptors have the same internal structure, shown in the following table. Least
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || colspan=2 | Less significant 2 bytes of segment size, the least first
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || colspan=2 | Less significant 3 bytes of base address, the least first
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || colspan=2 | Access rights byte &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-2-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;:
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 0: || = 0 – segment hasn't been accessed yet
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 1 – segment has been accessed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 1: || = 0 – data reading or code execution only
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 1 – data writing and code reading allowed
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || colspan=2 style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 2 : – direction of expansion &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-2-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 3 : || = 0 – segment contains data
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 1 – segment contains executable code
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 4 : || = 0 – system descriptor's marker
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 1 – application descriptor's marker
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || colspan=2 style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bits 5–6 : – privilege level :
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 00 – highest
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 11 – lowest
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 7 : || = 0 – segment must be read from disk
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 1 – segment is present in RAM
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 06h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || colspan=2 | bits 0–3 : – most significant 4 bits of segment size
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || colspan=2 style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 4: – free bit &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-2-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;:
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 5: || = 0 (reserved)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || colspan=2 style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 6: – address and operand's size &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-2-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;:
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 0 – 16-bit addressing and operands
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 1 – 32-bit addressing and operands
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || colspan=2 style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | bit 7: – granularity bit:
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 0 – segment size count in bytes
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 1 – segment size count in 4 kb units
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 07h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || colspan=2 | Most significant byte of base address
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-2-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Bytes 06h and 07h of segment descriptor are taken into account by CPU models 80386 and higher. If program is expected to be executed by CPU 80286, then bytes 06h and 07h must be cleared. Zero values of bytes 06h and 07h are a distinctive feature of protected mode 16-bit programs, enabling their proper execution by 32-bit CPU models.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-2-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Interpretation of bits 0–3 in access rights byte depends on bit 4. The shown interpretation of bits 0–3 relates to application programs, including their data segments and executable code segments. In system descriptors bits 0–3 define 16 types of different descriptor's subtypes.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-2-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Interpretation of bit 2 in access rights byte depends on bit 3. In code segments cleared state of bit 2 means that code can be executed by programs of the same privilege level (otherwise code also can be executed by programs having higher privilege level). For data segments cleared state of bit 2 means normal expansion direction upwards, whereas set state of bit 2 means reverse expansion direction — downwards, as used in stack segments.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-2-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-4-ref|'''^''']] Bit 4 in byte 06h is available to programmer's regulation. In memory page descriptors this bit is used as a redefinition ban mark, for example, for mapping I/O address space into memory.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-2-5&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-2-5-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected utilities#CSDOSB|'''''b''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#note-7.02-06-5|'''''c''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#note-7.02-07-3|'''''d''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Size bit 6 in byte 06h of code segment descriptors defines sizes of both addresses and operands. In system segments, bits 4–6 of byte 06h must be cleared.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.12-3 Selected subfunctions of XMS-driver ===
XMS subfunctions are performed by extended memory driver HIMEM.SYS (5.04-01). Before these subfunctions can be used, two preliminary operations have to be done. First is to check with INT 2F\AX=4300h function (8.03-22) whether HIMEM.SYS driver is installed. The second operation is to find out with INT 2F\AX=4310h function (8.03-23) an address of XMS driver's entrance point. Returned double-word address should be specified for a CALL FAR command (7.03-08). On call the subfunction to be executed is defined by value in AX register, shown in the first column of the table below. DX register's mission is shown in second column, returned AX contents – in the fourth column. If AX returns status, AX=0001h means success, AX=0000h means failure. In case of failure, almost all subfunctions (except AH=00h) return error code (A.06-1) in BL register. Query subfunctions AH=08h and AH=88h return error code in BL register in any case.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! style=&quot;width: 2.5em; text-align: left;&quot; | AH
! style=&quot;width: 5em; text-align: left;&quot; | DX
! style=&quot;width: 15em; text-align: left;&quot; | Subfunction
! style=&quot;width: 7em; text-align: left;&quot; | AX on return
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Comments
|-
| 00h || &amp;nbsp; || Report XMS version || XMS version || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 05h || &amp;nbsp; || Turn ON the A20 line gate || status
|-
| 06h || &amp;nbsp; || Turn OFF the A20 line gate || status
|-
| 08h || &amp;nbsp; || Report free XMS-memory || largest block || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 09h || size || Allot XMS-memory block || status || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Ah || handle || Release XMS-memory block || status
|-
| 0Bh || &amp;nbsp; || Copying in XMS-memory || status || A.12-4
|-
| 0Ch || handle || Lock XMS-memory block || status || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Dh || handle || Unlock XMS-memory block || status
|-
| 0Eh || handle || Get XMS handle information || status || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Fh || handle || Resize XMS-memory block || status || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 10h || size || Allot UMB memory block || status || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-7-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-8-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 11h || segment || Release UMB memory block || status || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 12h || segment || Resize UMB memory block || status || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 88h || &amp;nbsp; || Report free XMS memory || largest block || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-3-9-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-9|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;9&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 89h || size || Allot XMS-memory block || status || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-9|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;9&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 8Eh || handle || Get XMS handle information || status || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-9|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;9&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 8Fh || handle || Resize XMS-memory block || status || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-9|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;9&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-1-ref|'''^''']] This subfunction returns status of HMA area in DX register: DX=0001h signifies that HMA area is in use, DX=0000h – that HMA area is not used.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-2-ref|'''^''']] On call subfunction 08h needs BL=00h. On return size of free XMS memory (in kilobytes) is reported in DX register, and size of the largest available XMSmemory block is reported in AX register. The 88h subfunction does the same, but returns similar results in 32-bit registers EDX and EAX. Besides that, subfunction 88h in ECX register returns maximum physical address, corresponding to furthermost available byte of XMS-memory.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-3-ref|'''^''']] Both 09h and 89h subfunctions accept requested size of XMS-memory block in kilobytes, but 09h subfunction accepts requested size from DX register, whereas 89h subfunction accepts requested size from 32-bit EDX register. Both 09h and 89h subfunctions return a handle for allotted XMS-memory block in DX register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-4-ref|'''^''']] In case of success registers DX:BX return 32-bit physical address of that memory block, which has been locked.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-5-ref|'''^''']] The 0Eh subfunction returns in BH register a number of lock counts for the requested XMS block, in BL register – number of free handles, in DX register – size in kilobytes of XMS block, opened for access by the specified handle. The 8Eh subfunction does the same, but returns number of free handles in CX register, and size of XMS block – in EDX register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-6&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-6-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected drivers#UMBPCI.SYS-no-EMS|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Resizing subfunction 0Fh accepts new size (in kilobytes) for the requested memory block from BX register. The 8Fh subfunction does the same, but accepts new size from EBX register. Requested memory block must not be locked.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-7&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-7-ref|'''^''']] For CPU models 80386 and higher the 10h–12h subfunctions usually are implemented by means of address translation in CPU's TLB buffer. Therefore execution of these subfunctions is relegated to EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02), which arranges address translation and intercepts address of direct calls for HIMEM.SYS driver. However, subfunctions 10h–12h don't necessarily require switching CPU to protected mode and can be implemented in real mode by UMBPCI.SYS driver (5.04-04).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-8&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-8-ref|'''^''']] Both 10h and 12h subfunctions operate with UMB block size specifications in 16-byte units (paragraphs). Resizing subfunction 12h accepts requested new size from BX register. Allocation subfunction 10h in case of successful termination returns segment address of UMB block in BX register, and actual size of UMB block &amp;mdash; in DX register. In case of a failure, marked by AX=0000h value, both 10h and 12h subfunctions return size of the largest available UMB block in DX register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-3-9&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-3-9-ref|'''^''']] Unlike 0xh subfunctions, the 8xh subfunctions can't be implemented by obsolete 16-bit processors and require HIMEM.SYS driver's version not less than 3.07.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.12-4 Format of XMS copy request ===
A pointer to this request data block is accepted from DS:SI registers by subfunction AH = 0Bh (A.12-3) of XMS driver HIMEM.SYS (5.04-01). Subfunction AH = 0Bh copies a group of bytes from one XMS block, addressed via source handle, to another XMS block, addressed via destination handle.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 4 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of bytes to copy (must be even)
|-
| 04h || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Source handle
|-
| 06h || 4 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Offset in source block
|-
| 0Ah || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Destination handle
|-
| 0Ch || 4 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Offset in destination block
|}

Note 1: if source and destination overlap, only forward copying (source base less than destination base) is guaranteed to work properly.

Note 2: if either handle in the request is 0000h, then the corresponding offset double-word is interpreted as ordinary address (segment: offset) inside directly addressable conventional memory.

=== A.12-5 Format of EMS copy descriptor ===
EMS copy descriptor specifies source and destination for copying and exchange functions INT 67\AX=5700h-5701h (8.03-69), performed by EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02). Both source and destination may belong either to EMS memory page(s) or to conventional memory. In the latter case 0000h value should be written instead of corresponding handle number, and location should be specified by segment address in place of EMS logical page number.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 4 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Length in bytes of the data block to be copied/exchanged
|-
| 04h || 1 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 00h: source block is in conventional memory
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 01h: source block is in EMS-memory page
|-
| 05h || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Source handle (0000h if source in conventional memory)
|-
| 07h || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Source offset in page or in conventional memory segment
|-
| 09h || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Source logical page or segment in conventional memory
|-
| 0Bh || 1 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 00h: destination block is in conventional memory
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | = 01h: destination block is in EMS-memory page
|-
| 0Ch || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Destination handle (0000h if destination in conventional memory)
|-
| 0Eh || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Destination offset in page or in conventional memory segment
|-
| 10h || 2 || style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Destination logical page or segment in conventional memory
|}

Note 1: for move operation the source and destination may overlap, but then only one direction of copying provides proper result.

=== A.12-6 Data block for jumps inside EMS memory ===
The shown data block specifies parameters of a call for subroutine inside EMS memory, performed by INT 67\AH=56h function (8.03-68) of EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02). A far jump operation inside EMS memory, performed by INT 67\AH=55h function (8.03-68), uses a part of the shown data block up to offset 09h.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 4 || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Target address (segment: offset)
|-
| 04h || 1 || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Length of new page mapping list
|-
| 05h || 4 || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Pointer to new page mapping list
|-
| 09h || 1 || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Length of current page mapping list
|-
| 0Ah || 4 || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Pointer to current page mapping list
|-
| 0Eh || 8 || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | (reserved for EMM386.EXE driver's data)
|}

Note 1: internal structure of page mapping lists is described in note 3 to article 8.03-66. Data about current page mapping list, which is to be replaced, are needed for return to current program execution when subroutine's execution terminates.

=== A.12-7 Memory control descriptors ===
Computer's memory allocation is a prerogative of operating system. Each memory block, allotted by DOS, is preceded by a 16 bytes long memory control descriptor. These descriptors are also known as MCB (Memory Control Blocks). MCBs are easy to find: segment address of MCB descriptor is always a unity less, than segment address of allotted memory block, associated with this MCB descriptor.

DOS traces the whole available memory via a chain of MCB descriptors.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-7-3-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; Free memory space beyond the allocated memory areas is considered by DOS as a separate memory block: it also must be preceded by MCB descriptor. A distinctive feature of MCB descriptor(s), associated with free memory space(s), is code 0000h instead of segment address of the owner program. All data about available free memory and about disposition of particular free memory areas DOS acquires from a traceable chain of MCB descriptors.

Data structure inside a MCB descriptor is shown in the following table.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size !! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description !! Comments
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || = 4Dh (= M) – not-the-last MCB || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-7-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || = 5Ah (= Z) – the last MCB in a chain
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Segment address of owner program || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-7-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Size of associated memory block || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-7-3-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 05h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || Not used
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 08h || style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 8 || Program filename || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-7-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-7-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-1-ref|'''^''']] Memory block with main DOS's system data is divided into subblocks, each having its own MCB descriptor, but with other identifiers in a byte at offset 00h :
::42h (= B) – subblock with buffers (4.03)
::44h (= D) – subblock for DOS's drivers
::45h (= E) – data subblock for DOS's drivers
::46h (= F) – subbblock with SFT table (4.12)
::49h (= I) – subblock for IFS data
::4Ch (= L) – subblock with CDS table (4.17)
::53h (= S) – subblock for DOS's stacks (4.27)
::54h (= T) – subblock for transition code(s)
::58h (= X) – subblock for FCBS (4.10)&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-7-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-2-ref|'''^''']] If associated memory space is free, then in MCB descriptor a word at offset 01h is filled with zeros. If associated memory block is allocated by DOS to itself, then code 0008h is written in a word at offset 01h instead of segment address of the owner program.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-7-3&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-3-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.12-7-3-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Size of associated memory block is specified in 16-byte units (paragraphs). Segment address of each next MCB descriptor is a unity greater than a sum of a number, specified at offset 03h in current MCB descriptor, with segment address of current MCB descriptor. On basis of this formula DOS traces a chain of MCB descriptors. Tracing starts from the first MCB descriptor; segment address of this first MCB descriptor is stored in a word just preceding DOS's List-of-Lists. This word is marked in table A.01-2 as having offset &amp;minus;02h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-7-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-4-ref|'''^''']] Name of program's file is specified in those MCB descriptors, which are associated with PSP memory blocks, with driver's subblocks and with IFS subblocks. At offset 08h in several other MCB descriptors there are signatures with the following meaning :
::SC – associated block contains DOS's executable code;
::SD – associated block contains DOS's data;
::SM – associated block is the last in UMB area;
::UMB – associated block is the first in UMB area.
Bytes 08h–0Fh in MCB descriptors, associated with other memory blocks, are not used and may contain &quot;garbage&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.12-7-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-7-5-ref|'''^''']] Program files with *.COM suffix have no headers, which specify the required memory space for other types of executable files. This is why for programs with *.COM suffix DOS allocates the whole free memory space, following previously allocated memory areas. When DOS has no more free memory space, then computer may get hanged at each next request for memory space, which may come from unexpectedly activated resident program of from a handler, invoked by external interrupt. In order to avoid a threat of hanging the programs with *.COM suffix must call for INT 21\AH=4Ah function (8.02-52), forming a separate MCB descriptor for unused part of memory and thus announcing it free. Examples of such calls are shown in the first 6 lines of assembler texts in articles 9.06, 9.10-01 and 9.10-02.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== A.13 Hard disk data structures ==
=== A.13-1 BIOS tables of physical HDD parameters ===
BIOS systems in obsolete computers, produced before 1996, addressed HDDs with parameters CHS (Cylinder-Head-Sector). HDD's storage space, available for CHS addressing, is limited to 528 Mb. BIOS system stored CHS parameters of first and second physical HDDs in data tables; addresses of these tables were written in memory cells 0000:0104h and 0000:0118h correspondingly. Both these cells are inside interrupt table (A.12-1) and sometimes are referred to as INT 41 and INT 46. If computer was equipped with more than two HDDs, then the only way to obtain CHS parameters of the rest HDDs was a call for INT 13\AH=08h function (8.01-49).

In 1995 capacities of HDDs have reached 1 Gb. The 528 Mb limit, inherent to CHS addressing, had to be overcame. For newer BIOS systems LBA addressing&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-4-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.13-6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; and extended INT 13 functions (8.01-55 – 8.01-60) have been developed. But compatibility with former programs had to be preserved. Therefore in newer BIOS systems the INT 13\AH=08h function (8.01-49) has been &quot;taught&quot; to yield not the real, but transformed CHS parameters. When programs call for &quot;old&quot; INT 13 functions (8.01-46 – 8.01-54) and specify transformed CHS parameters, then BIOS system automatically performs reverse transformation so that HDD's storage space, available for CHS addressing, is expanded to 8.4 Gb (some detail in &lt;span id=&quot;note-A.13-6-2-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-2|note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.13-6]]&lt;/span&gt;).

Data blocks, addressed by pointers stored in cells 0000:0104h and 0000:0118h, may have different data structures: it depends on whether there are real or transformed CHS parameters. Both kinds of data structures are shown in the table below. Real data offsets are shown in the first column (Std). Offsets in the second column (Trs) correspond to transformed CHS data, conforming to Phoenix-1995 specification for HDDs with more than 1024 cylinders. Though described data blocks are supported by modern BIOS systems, nevertheless for programs being developed now usage of parameters from these data blocks is not recommended.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! Std !! Trs !! Size !! colspan=2 | Description
|-
| 00h || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Number of HDD's cylinders &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-1-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 02h || 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Number of HDD's heads &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &amp;nbsp; || 03h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Signature A0h — distinctive feature of blocks, conforming to Phoenix-1995 specification.
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Number of sectors per track &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 05h || 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Cylinder number, where write precompensation should start &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-1-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 08h || 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;width: 3em;&quot; | Flags : || bit 2 – no recalibration;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 3 – more than 8 heads;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 5 – defect map is present&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-1-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 6 – disable ECC reading retries;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 7 – disable access retries.
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 09h
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Number of tracks (up to 65536)&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Number of heads (up to 16)&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Ch || 0Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Cylinder number of landing zone&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Eh || 0Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Number of sectors per track &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || 0Fh
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Data checksum
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-1-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-1-ref|'''^''']] CHS parameters in these positions are for &quot;old&quot; functions of INT 13 handler (8.01-46 – 8.01-54). Nevertheless there are some BIOS versions, which specify in these positions a number of cylinders exceeding 1024, inadmissible for &quot;old&quot; functions.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-2-ref|'''^''']] These positions are filled with real HDD's parameters for programs, appealing not to INT 13 handler, but directly to HDD controller's port. These positions are not filled in those data blocks, which supply real parameters for &quot;old&quot; functions of INT 13 handler.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-1-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-3-ref|'''^''']] Modern disk drives perform landing and write precompensation independently. Attempts to affect these operations are ignored.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-1-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-1-4-ref|'''^''']] The track number, where surface defect map is written, is usually a unit greater than the number of cylinders, specified at offset 00h in BIOS tables of physical HDD's parameters.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.13-2 Extended table of HDD's parameters ===
Extended table of HDD's parameters is written into a prepared buffer by INT 13\AH=48h function (8.01-60).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | On call: length of prepared buffer (8.01-60)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=2 | On return: actual length of returned data
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Flags : || bit 0 : DMA boundary errors handled transparently
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 1 : CHS data (A.13-1) are valid
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 2 : this is a removable drive, bits 4–6 are valid
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 3 : writing with verification is supported
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 4 : drive provides change-line support
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 5 : drive provides locking and unlocking
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || bit 6 : media isn't present, default CHS data reported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 | Number of physical cylinders on the drive &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-2-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 | Number of physical heads on the drive &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 | Number of physical sectors per track (counted from 1)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 10h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8
| colspan=2 | Total number of sectors (number of the last sector plus 1)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 18h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | Bytes per sector
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 | Pointer to auxiliary DPTE table &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-2-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| colspan=2 | = BEDDh: signature confirming path data presence
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 20h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | = 2Ch: size of path data, including the signature
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 24h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| colspan=2 | Bus type (ISA or PCI) appended with a space (20h)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 28h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8
| colspan=2 | Interface type &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-2-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 30h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8
| colspan=2 | Interface path field &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-2-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 38h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 16
| colspan=2 | Device path field &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-2-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 49h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1
| colspan=2 | Complement checksum for bytes at offsets 1Eh–48h
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-2-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Valid numbers of tracks, cylinders and heads are counted from zero, therefore the last valid number is a unity less than the value specified in this field. A value in this field is a real value. Therefore this value shouldn't be specified in calls for &quot;old&quot; INT 13 functions: these functions require transformed parameters, returned by INT 13\AH=08h function (8.01-49).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-2-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-2-ref|'''^''']] BIOS INT 13 extensions below version 2.x don't return DPTE table, and fill DPTE pointer field with FFFFh:FFFFh value. Structure of DPTE table is shown in appendix A.13-3. DPTE table is presented in a temporary buffer; its contents are not preserved after next calls for BIOS functions.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-2-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Interface type field may be filled with the following words: 1394, ATA, ATAPI, SCSI, USB. Words are appended with spaces up to nominal field length 8 bytes.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-2-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-4-ref|'''^''']] For ISA bus the path field contains a 2-byte base I/O port address, bytes at offsets 32h–37h are zeros. For PCI bus a byte at offset 30h presents bus number ; byte at offset 31h, slot number ; byte at offset 32h, function number ; byte at offset 33h, controller number ; bytes at offsets 34h–37h are zeros.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-2-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-2-5-ref|'''^''']] For 1394 (Firewire) interface a 8-byte extended unique identifier (EUI-64) is specified at offset 38h. For ATA (IDE) interface the 00h value at offset 38h signifies master device, the 01h value at offset 38h signifies slave device. Byte at offset 38h has the same meaning for ATAPI interface, but byte at offset 39h represents logical unit number (LUN). For SCSI interface a 2-byte device identifier (SCSI ID) is specified starting at offset 38h, and a 8-byte logical unit number (LUN) is specified starting at offset 3Ah. For USB interface a 8-byte serial number is written starting at offset 38h. Not mentioned bytes at offsets 3Ah–48h are reserved and must be cleared.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.13-3 Auxiliary device parameters table DPTE ===
BIOS INT 13 version 2.0 and higher supplement extended HDD's parameters table (A.13-2) with auxiliary device parameters table DPTE. A pointer to DPTE table is returned by INT 13\AH=48h function (8.01-60) at offset 1Ah inside extended HDD's parameters table (A.13-2). DPTE address points at a temporary buffer, which doesn't preserve its contents after following BIOS functions calls. Data in DPTE table are consigned for those programs, which intend to appeal directly to ports of HDD controller. DPTE data structure is shown in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Physical I/O port base address for the device
|-
| 02h || 2
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Disk drive control registers port address
|-
| 04h || 1
| style=&quot;width: 3em; text-align: left;&quot; | Flags :
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bits 0–3 are cleared, bits 5 and 7 are set
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 4 : cleared if master device, set if slave
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 6 : set if LBA addressing is enabled
|-
| 06h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bits 0–3 : IRQ number, bits 4–7 are cleared
|-
| 07h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Blocks (sectors) count for multi-block transfers
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| 08h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bits 0–3 : DMA channel number, bits 4–7: DMA type according to ATA-2 specification.
|-
| 09h || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bits 0–3 : PIO type, if in a word at offset 0Ah bit 0 is set.
|-
| 0Ah || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Flags :
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 0 : fast PIO enabled, byte 09h is valid
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 1 : fast DMA access enabled
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 2 : multi-sector transfers enabled
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 3 : CHS parameters translation enabled
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 4 : LBA translation enabled
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 5 : drive uses removable media
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 6 : ATAPI interface device (probably CD-ROM)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 7 : 32-bit transfer mode enabled
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 8 : ATAPI signal readiness for packet transfers
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bits 9–10 : CHS parameters translation type:
:= 00 – bit-shifting translation
:= 01 – LBA-assisted translation
:= 10, 11 – proprietary translation
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | bit 11 : ultra DMA access enabled.
|-
| 0Eh || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | INT 13 extension version number
|-
| 0Fh || 1
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Complement checksum of bytes 00h–0Eh
|}

=== A.13-4 Disk address packet ===
This form of data packet is used by extended reading function INT 13\AH=42h (8.01-56) and by extended writing function INT 13\AH=43h (8.01-57). Before applying these functions a check for their BIOS support should be made with a call for INT 13\AH=41h (8.01-55).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Size of address packet &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 02h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number (up to 7Fh) of data blocks to transfer &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-4-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp21&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 04h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pointer to data transfer buffer &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-4-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 08h || 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | LBA absolute number of the first data block &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-4-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 10h || 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | 64-bit pointer to data transfer buffer &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 18h || 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of data blocks to transfer &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp21&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-1-ref|'''^''']] If extended disk address packet is supported, then size is 20h, otherwise size is 10h. Set state of bit 3 in CX register, returned by INT 13\AH=41h function (8.01-55), signifies that extended disk address packet is supported.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-2-ref|'''^''']] If extended disk address packet is supported, and if the FFh value is written into a byte at offset 02h, then number of blocks to transfer will be read from a quad word at offset 18h. On return this number at offset 18h is replaced with number of blocks, which actually have been transferred.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-4-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-3-ref|'''^''']] If extended disk address packet is supported, and if FFFF:FFFFh value is written into a double word at offset 04h, then pointer to data buffer will be read from a quad word at offset 10h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-4-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-4-4-ref|'''^''']] For disk drives, not supporting LBA addressing,&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-4-ref3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.13-6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; absolute number of starting block is calculated according to formula
::(C&amp;times;N + H)&amp;times;T + S &amp;minus; 1
where: C – number of the selected cylinder, N – number of heads (by 1 greater than maximum head number), H – number of the selected head, T – number of sectors per track, S – number of the selected sector on a track.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.13-5 HDD's partition descriptors ===
In sector 01h of bootable physical HDD's head 00 cylinder 00 is the master boot record (MBR), containing up to 446 bytes of executable code, 4-byte identifier (at offsets 1B8h–1BBh) and partition table. Identifier is written by operating systems Windows-NT/2000/XP only and may be absent. In order to view MBR sector it should be copied into a file, as it is explained in article 9.02-02. Non-textual file can be opened by a viewer of Volkov Commander file manager (6.25) or else by debugger DEBUG.EXE (6.05). Fig.12 shows fragments of MBR sector, copied from a real physical disk.
[[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot12.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 12]]

The first fragment presents starting part of executable code (proprietary OnTrack's MBR version). The second fragment presents final part of that executable code with a prepared error message. The third fragment presents partition table, defining division of HDD's writable surface into partitions in a particular computer.

Partition table consists of 4 partition descriptors, each 16 bytes long. If offsets are counted from start of MBR sector, then partition descriptor's offsets are 1BEh, 1CEh, 1DEh, 1EEh correspondingly. However, MBR sector's copy, shown in fig.12, is loaded from offset 100h and on; therefore in fig.12 partition descriptor's offsets are 2BEh, 2CEh, 2DEh, 2EEh. The last word in MBR sector is a signature AA55h, marking the end of bootable disk's MBR.

Four partition descriptors enable to create up to four primary partitions in any physical HDD drive. If there is less than 4 partitions, the rest descriptors are filled with zeros. In fig.12 the first descriptor in partition table is filled with zeros. Hence, this particular HDD is divided into three valid primary partitions.

On a bootable HDD one primary partition must be marked as active (potentially bootable) with a 80h mark in the first descriptor's byte. In fig.12 the 80h mark is present at offset 02CEh, which is the first byte of the second partition descriptor. Hence, active partition in this particular HDD is the second partition.

Missions of the mentioned and of other bytes in partition descriptors are shown in the table below. Offsets in the first column of the table are counted from the start of each partition descriptor.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Status indicator (80h – active partition)
|-
| 01h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Partition's start HDD's head
|-
| 02h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Partition's first sector &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-5-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 03h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Partition's first track &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-5-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 04h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Partition's file system identifier (A.13-6)
|-
| 05h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Partition's final HDD's head
|-
| 06h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Partition's last sector &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-5-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-5-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 07h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Partition's last track &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-5-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 08h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of sectors preceding the partition
|-
| 0Ch || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Length of the partition (in sectors)
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-5-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-5-1-ref|'''^''']] In a byte at offset 02h bits 5–0 express number of partition's first sector on a track, but bits 6 and 7 represent most significant bits of partition's 10-bit first track number. 8 least significant bits of partition's 10-bit first track number are stored in a byte at offset 03h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-5-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-5-2-ref|'''^''']] In a byte at offset 06h bits 5–0 express number of partition's last sector on a track, but bits 6 and 7 represent most significant bits of partition's 10-bit last track number. 8 least significant bits of partition's 10-bit last track number are stored in a byte at offset 07h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-5-3&quot;&gt;Descriptors to partitions with LBA addressing&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-4-ref4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.13-6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; may contain invalid CHS parameters (numbers of tracks, heads and sectors). Nevertheless data in bytes at offsets 08h–0Fh must be valid.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.13-6 Selected file system identifiers ===
In each partition descriptor (A.13-5) a byte at offset 04h is file system identifier. Operating system reads file system identifier and &quot;decides&quot; whether it can ensure access to this partition. If file system identifier is not &quot;known&quot; to operating system, then access to this partition will not be attempted. Most probably such partition even wouldn't be shown to user. Some file system identifiers denote hidden partitions, which can be accessed for system purposes, but stay hidden for the user. The table below presents interpretation of selected file system identifiers.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! ID !! Description
|-
| 00h || Free disk's space
|-
| 01h || File system FAT-12 for volumes 16 Mb and less
|-
| 04h || Obsolete FAT-16 up to 32 Mb without cluster structure
|-
| 05h || Extended partition with CHS addressing &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 06h || FAT-16 up to 2 Gb with CHS addressing &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 07h || NTFS file system &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Bh || FAT-32 with CHS addressing &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Ch || FAT-32 with LBA addressing &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-4-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Eh || FAT-16 up to 2 Gb with LBA addressing &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Fh || extended partition with LBA addressing &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 11h || Hidden FAT-12 partition (for OS/2 boot manager)
|-
| 14h || Hidden FAT-16 partition (for OS/2 boot manager)
|-
| 1Bh || Hidden FAT-32 with CHS addressing &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 1Ch || Hidden FAT-32 with LBA addressing &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 3Ch || PowerQuest's Partition Magic recovery partition
|-
| 42h || Dynamic partition of Windows Vista OS
|-
| 43h || PTS DOS boot manager's (BootWizard's) partition
|-
| 4Dh-4Fh || QNX OS partitions
|-
| 54h || OnTrack Disk Manager's DDO (Dynamic Drive Overlay)
|-
| 64h-65h || Novell Netware OS partitions
|-
| 82h || Linux OS swap partition
|-
| 83h || Ext2fs file system of Linux OS
|-
| 84h || Partition for power supply state recovery
|-
| 85h || Linux OS extended partition &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| A0h || Partition for portable PC's state recovery
|-
| A5h || FreeBSD OS partition
|-
| A6h || OpenBSD OS partition
|-
| A8h || UFS file system of MacOS
|-
| A9h || Net BSD OS partition
|-
| ABh || Bootable partition of MacOS
|-
| BEh || Bootable partition of Solaris OS
|-
| D8h, DBh || CP/M OS partitions
|-
| EBh || BFS1 file system of BeOS
|-
| EEh || GPT partition of 64-bit Windows OS versions &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| FDh || RAID partition of Linux OS
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-6-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Extended partition is a formal specification of disk's space for placement of several non-primary partitions (logical disks). Descriptors of non-primary partitions are written not in MBR, but in separate dedicated sectors, traced via a chain of references. MS-DOS doesn't allow this chain to be closed in a loop, otherwise MS-DOS hangs in infinite cycle of finding the end of this loop.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-6-2&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-2-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-2-ref2|'''''b''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; As far as parameters CHS (Cylinder-Head-Sector) occupy 3 bytes in partition descriptors (A.13-5), hence CHS parameters enable to address not more than 2^24 sectors 512 bytes each, equivalent to 2^23 kilobytes, or else 8 Gb. Therefore partitions with CHS addressing can't be arranged beyond first 8 Gb, counted from the start of disk's space (LBA addressing should be applied further). In table A.13-6 those only identifiers are marked with CHS, which are used as distinctive features of CHS addressing.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-6-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-3-ref|'''^''']] The 07h file system identifier is interpreted by Microsoft as belonging to installable file systems (IFS), file systems with transformed presentation to the user. But in fact, besides NTFS, only one rarely used IBM's HPFS file system is marked with 07h identifier.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-6-4&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref4|'''''d''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref5|'''''e''''']] [[../Configuration commands#4.30 SWITCHES – supplementary options|'''''f''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Linear Block Addressing (LBA) is based on sectors count from start of disk's space according to data in bytes 08h–0Fh in partition descriptors (A.13-5). LBA enables to overcome the 8 Gb boundary, inherent to CHS addressing. LBA requires support for extended functions of INT 13 handler (8.01-55) from both disk drive and BIOS system. All modern computers provide such support.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-6-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-5-ref|'''^''']] Data about partitions GPT (= GUID Partition Table) constitute extended MBR, occupying not a single sector, but a considerable part of disk's first track. Only 64-bit versions of operating systems Windows&amp;nbsp;server&amp;nbsp;2003, Windows&amp;nbsp;XP and Windows&amp;nbsp;Vista provide support for GPT partitions.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.13-6-6&quot;&gt;As far as it is known, partition identifiers 21, 23, 26, 31, 33, 34, 36, 71, 73, 74, 76, 86, A1, A3, A4, A6, B1, B3, B4, B6, E5, E6, F3, F6 are reserved and are not used yet.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.13-7 Disk's free space table ===
This table with data about logical disk's free space is returned by INT 21\AX=7303h function (8.02-80), which may be applied to logical disks, formatted with FAT-12, FAT-16 and FAT-32 file systems.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Size of this table (in bytes)
|-
| 02h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Must be = 0000h on call
|-
| 08h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of bytes per sector
|-
| 0Ch || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of free clusters
|-
| 10h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Total number of clusters in logical disk
|-
| 14h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of free physical sectors in logical disk
|-
| 18h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Total number of physical sectors in logical disk
|-
| 1Ch || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of available allocation units
|-
| 20h || 4
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Total number of allocation units in logical disk
|}

== A.14 I/O Ports ==
=== A.14-1 Selected port addresses ===
Ports represent computer's hardware and therefore should be addressed either via BIOS functions, which are adapted to a particular computer's motherboard, or via device drivers for expansion boards. Direct access to ports can't be recommended for application programs, though there are some exceptions. But knowledge of port addresses is beneficial, at least in order to avoid address conflicts with expansion boards.

The table below shows relatively steady features of general port addresses allocation in AT-compatible computers. Of course, port addresses allocation in your particular computer may somewhat differ from the one shown below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Address ranges
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Target devices
|-
| 0000h–001Fh || 1st direct memory access controller (DMA1)
|-
| 0020h–0021h || 1st interrupt controller (IRQ 1 – IRQ 7, 8.01-09)
|-
| 0022h–0023h || Dynamic RAM controller
|-
| 0060h–0064h || Keyboard controller (A.11-3)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0070h || CMOS RAM requests reception port &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-1-1-ref1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0071h || CMOS RAM data I/O port &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0080h || Manufacturing diagnostics port
|-
| 00A0h–00A1h || 2nd interrupt controller (IRQ 8 – IRQ 15, 8.03-75)
|-
| 00B2h–00B3h || Advanced power management ports
|-
| 00C0h–00DFh || 2nd direct memory access controller (DMA2)
|-
| 00F0h–00FFh || Arithmetic coprocessor
|-
| 0168h–016Fh || IFS devices or expansion boards
|-
| 0170h–0177h || 2nd IDE HDD controller (default IRQ 15)
|-
| 01E8h–01Efh || PS/2 mouse or other devices (IRQ 12)
|-
| 01F0h–01F7h || 1st IDE HDD controller (default IRQ 14)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01F8h || A20 line gate control
|-
| 0200h–020Fh || Game port (joystick)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0279h || Plug-and-play configuration register port
|-
| 02E8h–02EFh || Serial port COM4
|-
| 02F8h–02FFh || Serial port COM2 (default IRQ 3)
|-
| 0300h–031Fh || NE2000-compatible Ethernet adapters
|-
| 0330h–0331h || Musical instrument's MIDI interface
|-
| 0378h–037Ah || Parallel port LPT1 (default IRQ 7)
|-
| 03C0h–03CFh || Ports of EGA-compatible video adapters &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-1-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03C4h || EGA sequencer's selector port &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-1-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03C5h || EGA sequencer's data port &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03CEh || Graphic register's selector port &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-1-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03CFh || Graphic register's data port &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 03DAh || CGA/EGA/VGA video adapter's status port &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-1-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 03E0h–03E7h || PCMCIA i82365 controller's ports
|-
| 03E8h–03EFh || Serial port COM3
|-
| 03F0h–03F7h || Floppy disk controller (default IRQ 6)
|-
| 03F8h–03FFh || Serial port COM1 (default IRQ 4)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0A79h || Plug-and-play system data port
|-
| 0CF8h–0CFFh || PCI bus configuration ports
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-1-1&quot;&gt;'''^''' &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.14-1-1-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.14-1-1-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[../Selected interrupt handlers#INT02-1|'''''d''''']]&lt;/sup&gt; Some data in CMOS RAM are accessible via BIOS Setup program (1.01). Besides that, some hardware data and memory data are read by INT 11 (8.01-42) and by INT 12 (8.01-43) handlers. Direct appeals to CMOS RAM may be necessary for masking NMI (note 1 to 8.01-03), for obtaining data about floppy drives (offset 10h in A.08-03) and for defining CPU's actions after reset, dependent on a byte at offset 0Fh in CMOS RAM.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.12-1-4-ref5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.12-1-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.12-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt; For access to data in CMOS RAM the requested byte's offset (up to 7Fh) should be sent by OUT command (7.03-66) to port 70h; then via port 71h the requested byte's value can be read by IN command (7.03-26) or altered with OUT command.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-1-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-2-ref|'''^''']] As far as drawing graphics with INT 10\AH=0Ch function (8.01-19) is slow, operating systems appeal directly to video memory and to ports of EGAcompatible video adapters. Therefore EGA port addresses are preserved as a standard, though EGA adapter itself has come out of use long ago.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-1-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-3-ref|'''^''']] Port 03C5h transfers a byte, sent by OUT command (7.03-66), to that internal register in video adapter, which is defined beforehand via port 03C4h. If a byte AL = 02h is sent in advance to port 03C4h, then the next byte, sent to port 03C5h, will be accepted as color mask (its normal value is 0Fh).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-1-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-4-ref|'''^''']] Port 03CFh transfers a byte, sent by OUT command (7.03-66), to that internal register in video adapter, which is defined beforehand via port 03CEh. If a byte AL = 08h is sent in advance to port 03CEh, then the next byte, sent to port 03CFh, will be accepted as a bit-mask for 8 consecutive pixels. If a byte AL = 05h is sent in advance to port 03CEh, then the next byte, sent to port 03CFh, will specify mode (00h–02h) of writing into video memory (note 3 to 8.01-39).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-1-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-1-5-ref|'''^''']] Port 03DAh is intended for data reading only. Bit 3 in a byte, read from port 03DAh, is kept set during field retrace intervals and is kept cleared outside these intervals. Therefore field retrace intervals can be registered by IN command (7.03-26) in order to avoid image disruptions, which are noticeable, if changes of the displayed image occur outside retrace intervals.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.14-2 Status of serial port ===
This table presents interpretation of bitfields in status byte, returned in AH register by INT 14\AH=00h – INT 14\AH=03h functions (8.01-65 – 8.01-68).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Bit
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0 || Received data are ready
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Overrun error
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Parity error
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || Framing error
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Break detected
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5 || Transmit holding register is empty
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 6 || Transmit shift register is empty
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7 || Timeout. no reply
|}

=== A.14-3 Status of printer, connected to parallel port ===
This table presents interpretation of bitfields in status byte, returned in AH register by INT 17\AH=00h – INT 17\AH=02h functions (8.01-86 – 8.01-88).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Bit
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0 || Timeout, no reply
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || EPP BIOS only: requested port is not supported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Unused
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || I/O error
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || Port is busy
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5 || Printer is out of paper
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 6 || Acknowledge
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7 || Printer is ready (not busy)
|}

Note 1: returned set state of CF flag with status byte AH = 03h means that EPP BIOS is present, but it doesn't support the requested port.

Note 2: status byte AH = 00h means that EPP data are returned in registers (A.14-4).

=== A.14-4 Selected functions of EPP BIOS ===
EPP is a BIOS supplement, enabling enhanced modes of data transfer through LPT ports according to IEEE 1284 specification. Presence of EPP BIOS in your computer should be proved by INT 17\AX=0200h function (8.01-88), which also reports LPT port base address, EPP BIOS version, and address of its entrance point. The latter is used as a target address for CALL FAR command (7.03-08); being called in this way, EPP BIOS performs the operation, specified by a value in AH register at that moment. For the latest revision 7 of EPP BIOS the choice of a particular LPT port is defined by its base address in DX register; earlier EPP BIOS versions define LPT port by its number 00h–03h in DL register. Besides this, some EPP BIOS functions need other data, shown in the second column of the table below or in notes, marked by note number in fifth column. Unless specified otherwise, almost all EPP BIOS functions return status byte (A.14-7) in AH register, mark failure with set state of CF flag and don't preserve contents of BX register.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
! AH !! On call !! EPP BIOS function !! On return !! Comments
|-
| 00h || &amp;nbsp; || Report configuration || AL = IRQ || A.14-5
|-
| 01h || A.14-6 || Set transfer mode || AX altered
|-
| 02h || &amp;nbsp; || Report transfer mode || AH altered || A.14-6
|-
| 03h || AL=00h || Enable LPT interrupts
|-
| 03h || AL=01h || Disable LPT interrupts
|-
| 04h || &amp;nbsp; || Reset EPP || AL altered
|-
| 05h || AL=address || Address-write I/O cycle || AL altered
|-
| 06h || &amp;nbsp; || Address-read I/O cycle || AL=address
|-
| 07h || AL=byte || Send a byte
|-
| 08h || &amp;nbsp; || Send a block of data || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 09h || &amp;nbsp; || Receive a byte || AL=byte
|-
| 0Ah || &amp;nbsp; || Receive a block of data || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Bh || AL=address || Addressed byte reading || AL=byte
|-
| 0Ch || AL=address || Addressed byte sending || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Dh || AL=address || Addressed block reading || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Eh || AL=address || Addressed block sending || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 0Fh || AL=port || Lock LPT port || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 10h || AL=port || Unlock LPT port || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 11h || CH=00h || Disable device interrupts || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 11h || CH=01h || Enable device interrupts || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 12h || AL=00h || Real-time device present? || AL=01h if yes
|-
| 12h || AL=01h || Add real-time device
|-
| 12h || AL=02h || Remove real-time device
|-
| 40h || &amp;nbsp; || Query multiplexer || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-7-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 41h || AL=port || Query multiplexer port || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-8-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-8|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;8&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 50h || AL=port || Query daisy chain || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-4-9-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-9|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;9&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 51h || AL=port || Reassign chain numbers || &amp;nbsp; || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-1-ref|'''^''']] On call a pointer to data block must be specified in DS:SI registers, length of data block (in bytes) — in CX register. Earlier versions of EPP BIOS, preceding the 7th revision, accept a pointer to data block from ES:DI registers. Function returns in CX register a number of bytes not sent yet.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-2-ref|'''^''']] On call a pointer to buffer for data must be specified in ES:DI registers, length of this buffer — in CX register. After successful termination function returns buffer filled, and in CX register — a number of bytes left not filled in the buffer.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-3-ref|'''^''']] On call the data byte to be sent must be specified in CL register. Earlier versions of EPP BIOS, preceding the 7th revision, accept data byte from DH register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-4-ref|'''^''']] If external devices are connected via multiplexer, then multiplexer port number (01h–08h) should be specified in bits 3–0 of a byte in AL register. If external devices are connected as a daisy chain, then daisy chain port number (10h–80h) should be specified in bits 7–4 of a byte in AL register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-5-ref|'''^''']] Multiplexer port number (01h–08h) should be specified in AL register. If multiplexer is not used, then AL register must be cleared. For interrupt enable function (CH = 01h) a pointer to interrupt event handler should be specified in ES:DI registers.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-6-ref|'''^''']] This function is not implemented in earlier versions, preceding EPP BIOS revision 7. This function shouldn't be applied, if external devices are not connected to a certain LPT port via multiplexer or as a daisy chain. The requested LPT port will be identified not by its number, but by its I/O base address, which should be specified in DX register.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-7&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-7-ref|'''^''']] The number of currently active multiplexer port is returned by this function in AL register, and a flags byte is returned in CH register. Set state of bit 0 in flags byte signifies locked state of multiplexer port, set state of bit 1 in flags byte signifies that there is an interrupt pending from this multiplexer port.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-8&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-8-ref|'''^''']] This function returns in CH register a byte of flags. Set state of bits in this flags byte have the following meaning :
::bit 0 – this port is selected (active)
::bit 1 – port is locked
::bit 2 – interrupts from this port are enabled
::bit 3 – interrupt is pending from this port.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-4-9&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-4-9-ref|'''^''']] This function returns in BH register the EPP BIOS version, in BL register — number of currently active daisy chain device, in CH register — a flags byte (as described in [[#note-A.14-4-7|note&amp;nbsp;7]]), in CL register — number of devices constituting the daisy chain (or 00h, if there is no daisy chain), in ES:DI registers — a pointer to driver's vendor identification string.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.14-5 EPP BIOS configuration byte ===
The &quot;Report configuration&quot; function, defined on call by 00h value in AH register (A.14-4), returns in AL register a LPT port's IRQ line number, in BH register — the EPP BIOS version, in ES:DI registers — a pointer to driver's information, in CX register — LPT port's I/O base address (for versions 1.0 – 3.0 of EPP BIOS only), and in BL register returns EPP BIOS configuration byte. Interpretation of configuration byte's bitfields is given in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Bit
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0 || Multiplexer is present
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Bi-directional data transfer is supported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Daisy chain is present
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || ECP specification is supported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || EPP software emulation is supported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5 || EPP BIOS functions are supported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 6 || &quot;Fast Centronics&quot; data transfer is supported
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7 || Standard EPP I/O map
|}

=== A.14-6 Code of EPP BIOS data transfer mode ===
The &quot;Report transfer mode&quot; function, defined on call by 02h value in AH register (A.14-4), returns code of current transfer mode in AL register. The &quot;Set transfer mode&quot; function, defined on call by 01h value in AH register (A.14-4), enables to change LPT data transfer mode according to mode's code, specified in AL register. Interpretation of bitfields in this mode's code is given in the table below.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Bit
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 0 || Compatibility mode enabled
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1 || Bi-directional data transfer enabled
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 2 || Data transfer according to EPP specification
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 3 || Data transfer according to ECP specification &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-6-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 4 || EPP software emulation enabled &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 5 || &quot;Fast Centronics&quot; data transfer enabled &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.14-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 6 || = 0b (reserved)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 7 || EPP port interrupts enabled &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.14-6-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-6-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Modes defined by set state of bits 3–5 in mode's code cannot be implemented by earlier versions of EPP BIOS, preceding its latest 7th revision.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.14-6-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.14-6-2-ref|'''^''']] As far as device interrupts are enabled by AH = 11h function (A.11-4), set state of bit 7 is not accepted by &quot;Set transfer mode&quot; function (AH = 01h), but nevertheless may be reported by &quot;Report transfer mode&quot; EPP BIOS function (AH = 02h).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.14-7 Status code of EPP BIOS functions ===
Almost all EPP BIOS functions, except 01h and 02h (A.14-4), return in AH register a status byte. Interpretation of EPP BIOS status byte codes is given in the following table.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || Successful termination
|-
| 02h || Requested command or feature is not supported
|-
| 03h || Requested parallel port is not supported
|-
| 05h || Request is not supported in current mode
|-
| 06h || Invalid subfunction requested
|-
| 07h || Request is already done or set
|-
| 20h || LPT multiplexer isn't present (AMI BIOS versions only)
|-
| 40h || LPT multiplexer isn't present (other EPP BIOS versions)
|-
| 41h || Currently multiplexer is locked
|-
| 80h || I/O timeout, no response
|-
| FFh || Requested function either is invalid or isn't supported
|}

== A.15 CD/DVD service tables ==
=== A.15-1 Bootable CD/DVD specification packet ===
BIOS functions INT 13\AH=4A00h and INT 13\AX=4C00h (8.01-61) emulate a logical disk on basis of its copy, read from an optical CD/DVD disc. Emulation control parameters must be prepared in a form of bootable CD/DVD specification packet. Internal data structure of this packet is shown in the following table.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Size of this packet in bytes (=13h normally)
|-
| 01h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Disk copy type (same as at offset 21h in A.15-3)
|-
| 02h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Drive number to emulate (note 1 to 8.01-44)
|-
| 03h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Drive controller number to emulate
|-
| 04h || 4
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | CD Logical Block Address where disk copy begins (the same as at offset 28h in table A.15-3)
|-
| 08h || 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bit || 0
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | : emulate a slave IDE drive
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bits
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 7–0
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | : LUN and SCSI ID number (for SCSI)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bits
| 15–8
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | : bus number (for SCSI)
|-
| 0Ah || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Segment address of prepared 3 kb read buffer (or 0000h value if no caching)
|-
| 0Ch || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Segment address to load boot sector of disk's copy (the same as at offset 22h in table A.15-3)
|-
| 0Eh || 2
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of 512-byte virtual sectors in disk's copy (the same as at offset 26h in table A.15-3)
|-
| 10h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Least significant 8 bits in number of disk's copy cylinders (as is returned by INT 13\AH=08h in CH)
|-
| 11h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bits
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 5–0
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | : number of last sector on a track
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Bits
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 7–6
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | : most significant bits of copy cylinders number (as is returned by INT 13\AH=08h in CL)
|-
| 12h || 1
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Number of heads in emulated disk drive
|}

=== A.15-2 Format of command packet ===
This command packet specifies parameters for INT 13\AH=4Dh function (8.01-63), which reads sectors from optical CD/DVD discs. During boot procedure this command packet specifies reading of boot catalog from CD/DVD disc.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1 || Size of packet in bytes (= 08h normally)
|-
| 01h || 1 || Number of sectors to be read
|-
| 02h || 4 || Pointer to buffer for read data
|-
| 06h || 2 || Number of the first sector to be read
|}

=== A.15-3 Boot catalog of optical CD/DVD discs ===
Optical discs potentially are able to implement several computer booting scenarios. Initial data, defining each booting scenario, must be present on bootable optical disc(s) in form of a hidden directory, also known as boot catalog. This directory can be read by INT 13\AH=4Dh function (8.01-63). As in ordinary directory, records in boot catalog have standard length 20h bytes. Minimal contents of boot catalog are composed of two required records: the first record is known as validation entry, the second record is a descriptor of default bootable disk's copy. The table below presents structures of both mentioned required records. Offsets 00h–1Fh correspond to validation entry record ; offsets 20h–3Fh, to descriptor of default bootable disk's copy.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || = 01h: signature of validation entry start
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 01h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Platform type:
::= 00h – AT-compatible
::= 01h – Power PC
::= 02h – Apple Macintosh
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 24 || CD/DVD drive manufacturer (ASCII string)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Ch
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Complement checksum of bytes 00h–1Fh
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 1Eh
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || = AA55h: validation entry termination signature
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 20h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || = 88h: signature of bootable disk's descriptor &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-3-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-3-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 21h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Bits 3-0 :
::= 0000b – invalid descriptor
::= 0001b – copy of 1.2 Mb diskette
::= 0010b – copy of 1.44 Mb diskette
::= 0011b – copy of 2.88 Mb diskette
::= 0100b – copy of a hard disk
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || Bit 6: – copy of a disk with ATAPI interface
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || Bit 7: – copy of a disk with SCSI interface
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 22h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Segment address for loading boot sector (if = 0000h, then segment address is 07C0h by default)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 24h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 1 || Disk's copy file system identifier (A.13-6)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 26h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2 || Number of 512-byte virtual sectors in disk's copy
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | 28h
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4 || CD/DVD Logical Block Address where disk's copy starts
|}

;Notes
&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-3-1&quot;&gt;Besides two required records, presented in table A.15-3, CD boot catalog may contain other 32-byte records, grouped in several sections. Each section represents a separate booting option and consists of not less than two records: a header record and a bootable disk's copy descriptor for that booting option. Header record begins with signature byte 90h, except header record in the last section, which begins with signature byte 91h. In every header record a word at offset 02h announces number of 32-byte records in this section. In each section descriptor of booting option may be followed by auxiliary records. Data structure in each descriptor of booting option is the same as that of default bootable disk's descriptor, shown in table A.13-3 at offsets 20h–3Fh.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-3-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Descriptors of non-bootable disks are allowed too, their distinctive feature is starting signature 00h.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.15-4 Commands, performed by CD/DVD drivers ===
In order to send a command to a driver, you have to obtain a handle, associated with this driver. The first step is to find a pointer to CD/DVD driver header by means of INT 2F\AX=1501h function (8.03-14), performed by TSR program either MSCDEX.EXE (5.08-03) or SHSUCDX.COM (5.08-04). Second step is to read a 8-byte name (signature) of driver's access channel inside driver's header at offset 0Ah. Driver access channel usually is named after the identifier, which follows the /D: parameter in command line, loading the driver (for example, the /D:MSCD001 identifier for CD/DVD drivers, shown in articles 5.10-01 – 5.10-03). The next third step is to use the name for obtaining a handle with INT 21\AH=3Dh function (8.02-33). The name must be uppercased and appended to 8 bytes with spaces (20h), if it is shorter. Returned handle should be placed in BX register before the desired command will be sent to the driver by INT 21\AX=4403h or by INT 21\AX=4402h function (8.02-41). Besides that, these functions need a request data block to be prepared. A pointer to request data block must be specified in DS:DX registers, and length of request data block — in CX register. Length of request data block for different commands is shown in the second column of the table below. The third column shows codes of CD/DVD driver's commands, which are to be specified at offset 00h in request data block. If command implies return of some data, driver will write these data into cells of the same request data block.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! AX !! CX !! Code
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Operation
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Comments
|-
| 4402h || 05h || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Report driver's header address || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-4-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4402h || 06h || 01h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Report drive's head location || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-4-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4402h || 09h || 04h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Report audio control status || A.15-5
|-
| 4402h || 05h || 06h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Report CD/DVD drive status || A.15-6
|-
| 4402h || 04h || 07h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Read mode, sector size || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-4-4-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4402h || 05h || 08h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Get number of sectors || &lt;sup&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4402h || 02h || 09h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Report disc change status || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-4-5-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-5|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;5&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4402h || 07h || 0Ah
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Get number of tracks || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-4-6-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-6|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4402h || 08h || 0Bh
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Get start of track || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-4-7-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-7|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;7&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4403h || 01h || 00h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Eject the tray
|-
| 4403h || 02h || 0100h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Unlock the door
|-
| 4403h || 02h || 0101h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Lock the door
|-
| 4403h || 01h || 02h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Reset the drive || &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-4-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 4403h || 09h || 03h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Audio control || A.15-5
|-
| 4403h || 01h || 05h
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pull the track in
|}

&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-4-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-1-ref|'''^''']] After any request to CD/DVD driver sent by INT 21\AX=4402h function and before the driver is activated for any other purpose it must be reset by sending command 02h via INT 21\AX=4403h function.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-4-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-2-ref|'''^''']] After execution of operations 00h and 08h the requested result is written into request data block starting at offset 01h. This result is either a 4-byte number or a 4-byte address according to the requested operation.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-4-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-3-ref|'''^''']] After a request for drive's head location a returned byte at offset 01h in request data block represents CD/DVD addressing format :
::00h – HSG format
::01h – Red Book format (frames/seconds/minutes).
Besides that, a double word at offset 02h in request data block is drive's head location in units according to addressing format.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-4-4&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-4-ref|'''^''']] After a request for read mode it is returned in request data block at offset 01h :
::00h – reading with error correction (cooked)
::01h – reading with ECC code, but without error correction (raw).
Besides that, returned word at offset 02h presents sector's size.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-4-5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-5-ref|'''^''']] After a request for disc change status driver returns status byte at offset 01h in request data block :
::00h – change status isn't determined,
::01h – disc has not been changed,
::FFh – disc has been changed.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-4-6&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-6-ref|'''^''']] After a request for number of tracks driver returns number of the first track in a byte at offset 01h, number of the last track — in a byte at offset 02h, and start address of the first track (in Red Book format) is returned as a double word at offset 04h.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-4-7&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-4-7-ref|'''^''']] On call for start of a track the number of requested track must be specified in byte at offset 01h in request data block. In response to this call driver writes into request data block at offset 02h a double word address of requested track's starting point (in Red Book format). Besides that, in a word at offset 06h driver returns flags, where set state of bits means the following :
::bit 12 – audio track, written with preemphasis,
::bit 13 – digital copying is permitted,
::bit 14 – this track contains data (not audio),
::bit 15 – this is a 4-channel audio track.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

=== A.15-5 CD/DVD audio control ===
If in CD/DVD drive status word (A.15-6) bit 8 is set, then this CD/DVD drive doesn't need audio card in order to control audio playback: this CD/DVD drive itself is able to control audio playback.

For sending a request to CD/DVD drive via INT 21\AX=4403h function (A.15-4), a pointer to data block with requested parameters must be specified in DS:DX registers. The table below presents structure of a data block with audio control parameters, which should be prepared for audio control operation 03h in order to alter audio playback. Data block of the same structure is written into a prepared buffer by INT 21\AX=4402h function in response to a request for audio control status operation (A.15-4). On call for INT 21\AX=4402h function a byte at offset 00h in prepared buffer must be filled yet : it must specify code 04h of audio control status operation.
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;&quot;
! Offset !! Size
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 00h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Function: 03h for AX=4403h or 04h for AX=4402h
|-
| 01h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 0
|-
| 02h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Volume for output channel 0
|-
| 03h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 1
|-
| 04h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Volume for output channel 1
|-
| 05h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 2
|-
| 06h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Volume for output channel 2
|-
| 07h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 3
|-
| 08h || 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Volume for output channel 3
|}

Note 1: output channels 0 and 1 correspond to left and right; output channels 2 and 3 correspond to rear left and rear right. Each channel may be switched off by sending its volume value 00h.

Note 2: by default each input channel is connected to output channel with the same number, and volume is set to maximum value FFh.

=== A.15-6 Bitfields in optical disc drive status word ===
This table shows meaning of bitfields in status word, returned by INT 21\AX=4402h function inside data block at offset 01h in response to CD/DVD drive status request 06h (A.15-4).
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
! Bit
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Description
|-
| 0 || Drive's tray is ejected
|-
| 1 || Tray lid is unlocked
|-
| 2 || &quot;Raw&quot; reading mode is supported &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-6-1-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-6-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 3 || Drive enables writing onto CD/DVD discs
|-
| 4 || CD/DVD drive is able to play audio/video tracks
|-
| 5 || CD/DVD drive supports interleaving &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-6-2-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 7 || CD/DVD drive supports prefetch requests &lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.15-6-3-ref&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-6-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| 8 || CD/DVD drive supports audio channel control
|-
| 9 || Red Book addressing is supported (in addition to HSG)
|-
| 10 || CD/DVD drive drive is busy with playing audio
|-
| 11 || There is no disc in CD/DVD drive
|-
| 12 || CD/DVD drive has separate read and write channels
|}

&lt;ol&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-6-1&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-6-1-ref|'''^''']] &quot;raw&quot; reading mode implies that ECC code together with data is read and sent to output, but error correction is not performed. Normal &quot;cooked&quot; reading mode implies that ECC code is used for error correction, but is not sent to output together with corrected data.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-6-2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-6-2-ref|'''^''']] Interleaving here is related to video files, composed of alternating groups of image frames and audio frames.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;li id=&quot;note-A.15-6-3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.15-6-3-ref|'''^''']] Prefetch requests cause reading into drive's memory buffer, so that later the requested data can be obtained without waiting for access to the requested track.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== A.16 Some relevant abbreviations ==
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 5em;&quot; | ACPI
| – || Advanced Configuration and Power Interface specification stipulates presentation of motherboard's parameters to operating system in a form of data tables in dedicated memory areas.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AGP || – || Accelerated Graphic Port : a slot for inserting video adapters, and also specification of video adapter's interaction with motherboard.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit AX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit AX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AMIS || – || Alternate Multiplex Interrupt Specification (A.07-6)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ANSI || – || American National Standards Institute (USA)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| API || – || Application Program Interface, i.e. OS services for programs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| APM || – || Advanced Power Management : extension of computer's BIOS system, providing control over power supply (8.01-70 – 8.01-72)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ASCII || – || American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ASCIIZ || – || a string in ASCII code terminated with at least one 00h byte.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ASPI || – || Advanced SCSI Programming Interface : enhanced set of commands for SCSI interface (5.07-03). Nowadays many ASPI commands are implemented in ATAPI (5.07-01) and USB (5.07-05) controllers.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AT || – || Advanced Technology : a name of IBM's PC model produced in 1984. Most modern computers inherit some features of AT model.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ATA || – || AT Attachment : disk storage device's interface, implemented for the first time in IBM's PC AT model.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ATAPI || – || ATA Packet Interface: packet enhancement of ATA (5.07-01).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ATX || – || AT extension : enhanced specification of PC blocks construction features, implemented since 1998.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AUX || – || reserved word, used to address serial port COM1.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AVI || – || suffix of video files, composed of interleaved audio and video frames.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| AX || – || 16-bit general purpose register, associated with CPU's arithmetic unit. In 32-bit CPUs AX represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit register EAX.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| b || – || binary : distinctive mark of binary numbers.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BAT || – || suffix of batch files, interpreted by COMMAND.COM (6.04). Unlike ordinary command files, batch files are accepted by COMMAND.COM interpreter from command line without input redirection.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit BX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BIOS || – || Basic Input-Output System, the one supplied with PC's motherboard.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit BX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BP || – || Base Pointer : 16-bit register, used as a base for addressing data arrays. In 32-bit CPUs BP represents bits 15–0 of 32-bit register EBP.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BPB || – || BIOS Parameters Block (A.03-4).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BSD || – || Berkley Software Distribution, known for a freeware OS.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| BX || – || 16-bit general purpose register, also used as a base for addressing data. In 32-bit CPUs BX represents bits 15–0 of 32-bit register EBX.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CD || – || Compact Disc : a one-sided 650–800 Mb optical disc.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CD-ROM || – || a read-only compact disc or a drive for such discs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CDS || – || Current Directory Structure (A.03-3).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CF – (1) || : || CPU's Carry Flag, used to indicate carry and errors.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CF – (2) || : || Compact Flash — a type of removable storage cards.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CGA || – || Color Graphic Adapter : the first IBM's model of color video adapter.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit register CX.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CHS || – || Cylinder-Head-Sector : mode of HDDs addressing.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-2-ref3&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-2|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.13-6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit register CX.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CMOS || – || Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor : BIOS' memory block on CMOS chips, which doesn't lose stored data when PC is switched off.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| COM – (1) || : || suffix of executable files, which have no header.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| COM – (2) || : || reserved word for access to serial ports.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| COM – (3) || : || Common Object Model — a programming technique.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CON || – || console, i.e. keyboard for input and display for output.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CP || – || Codepage (more about CP in articles 1.06 and A.02-2).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CP/M || – || Control Program for Microcomputers : a prototype of DR-DOS.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CPU || – || Central Processing Unit — the main processor chip in a PC.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CR || – || Control Registers : 32-bit registers CR0, CR2, CR3 (A.11-4), introduced in 80386 CPU model. CR4 has been introduced later in Pentium CPU.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CRC || – || Cyclic Redundancy Check : code for error detection only (no correction)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CRT || – || Cathode Ray Tube.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CS || – || Code Segment : 16-bit segment register, defining segment address of the code, executed by CPU.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CSM || – || Compatibility Support Module supplements UEFI BIOS with features of ordinary BIOS systems, thus enabling to use DOS' software, to launch Windows-XP and many other OSes, which can't start under UEFI.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CWR || – || Control Word Register in arithmetical coprocessor.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| CX || – || 16-bit general purpose register, often used as a counter. In 32-bit CPUs CX represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit ECX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DAC || – || Digital-to-Analog Converter.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| dd || – || two-digit decimal day number in a month.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DDO || – || Dynamic Drive Overlay : OnTrack's BIOS extension for access to HDDs over 512 Mb in obsolete PCs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit register DX.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DI || – || Destination Index : 16-bit register normally used to store target offset. In 32-bit CPUs DI represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit register EDI.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit register DX.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DMA || – || Direct Memory Access.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DOS || – || Disk-based Operating System.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DPB || – || Drive Parameters Block (A.03-1).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DPMI || – || DOS Protected Mode Interface : API functions for programs, designed to be executed in CPU's V86 mode. DPMI is implemented, in particular, by &quot;DOS box&quot; of Windows OS (more about that in 8.03-21).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DPR || – || Data Pointer Register in arithmetical coprocessor.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DPTE || – || Drive Parameter Table Extension (A.13-3).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DR – (1) || : || Digital Research — company developer of CP/M and DR-DOS.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DR – (2) || : || Debug Registers — CPU's registers DR0–DR7 (A.11-5).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DS || – || Data Segment : 16-bit segment register, defining segment address of current program's data block.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DTA || – || Data Transfer Area (8.02-16, A.09-1)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DVD || – || Digital Versatile Disk — optical disc with 4.7 Gb of data per side.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| DX || – || 16-bit general purpose register. In 32-bit CPUs DX represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit register EDX.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EAX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EAX register (bits 15–0) constitute AX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EBIOS || – || BIOS extension providing LBA mode of disk access in obsolete PCs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EBP || – || 32-bit base address register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EBP register(bits 15–0) constitute BP register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EBX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EBX register (bits 15–0) constitute BX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ECC || – || Error Correcting Code.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ECP || – || Extended Capabilities Port : data transfer specification for LPT ports.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ECX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of ECX register (bits 15–0) constitute CX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EDI || – || 32-bit destination offset register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EDI register (bits 15–0) constitute DI register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EDX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EDX register (bits 15–0) constitute DX register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EFI || – || Extensible Firmware Interface : Intel's specification of 32-bit BIOSes, originally intended for Itanium 64-bit single-core CPU (2002). Revision of EFI for newer 32-bit multi-core CPUs is known as UEFI (2007).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EGA || – || Enhanced Graphics Adapter : obsolete IBM's color video adapter. Modern video adapters inherit many important features from EGA.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EHCI || – || Enhanced Host Controller Interface : controller specification for USB bus versions 2.x (more about that in 5.07-05).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EMM || – || Expanded Memory Manager : EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EMS || – || Expanded Memory Specification, implemented by EMM (5.04-02).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EOF || – || End Of File : EOF mark in ASCII code is byte 1Ah.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EPP || – || Enhanced Parallel Port : BIOS extension of LPT functions (A.14-4)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ES || – || 16-bit segment register in CPU, defining target segment address.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ESI || – || 32-bit source offset register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of ESI (bits 15–0) constitute SI register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ESP || – || 32-bit stack pointer register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of ESP (bits 15–0) constitute SP register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| EXE || – || Executable : suffix for executable files having a header.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| FASM || – || Flat ASseMbler : modern freeware assembler for DOS, Windows, Linux and Unix. Can be downloaded from http://www.flatassembler.net/ .
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| FAT || – || File Allocation Table.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| FCB || – || File Control Block (A.09-5).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| FCBS || – || command (4.10), reserving memory for FCBs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| FDD || – || Floppy Disk Drive.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| FS || – || auxiliary 16-bit segment register, introduced since CPU 80386.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| GDT || – || Global Descriptor Table — a table of 8-byte segment descriptors, defining main system segments in protected mode. (A.12-2).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| GDTR || – || CPU's system register. Stores GDT's linear address and size.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| GS || – || auxiliary 16-bit segment register, introduced since CPU 80386.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| GUI || – || Graphical User Interface — alternative to textual command line.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| GUID || – || Globally Unique IDentifier — 32-bytes long universal identifier.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| h || – || hexadecimal : distinctive mark of hexadecimal numbers.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| HDD || – || Hard Disk Drive.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| HMA || – || High Memory Area : memory area 1024–1088 kb.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| HRS || – || Hidden, Read-only, System : a set of attributes for system files.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| HSG || – || High Sierra Group specification — prototype of ISO 9660 standard.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IBM || – || International Business Machines company.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ID || – || identifier.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IDE || – || Integrated Drive Electronics : HDD interface, equivalent to ATA.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IDT || – || Interrupt Descriptor Table : table of interrupts for protected mode. Its segment descriptor is sometimes also denoted as IDT.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IDTR || – || CPU's system register. Stores IDT's linear address and size.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IEEE || – || Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IFS || – || Installable File System : file system (5.08-01), accessed by means of installable driver.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IML || – || Initial Machine Load system.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| INT || – || Interrupt : event or command (7.03-28), invoking interrupt handler.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| I/O || – || Input-Output, i.e. data transfer operations.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IOCTL || – || Input-Output Control system (8.02-41).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IP || – || Instruction Pointer : 16-bit register, defining offset of the next command. In 32-bit CPUs IP represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit EIP register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IPR || – || Instruction Pointer Register in arithmetical coprocessor.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| IRQ || – || Interrupt ReQuest line(s).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ISA || – || Industrial Standard Architecture : (obsolete) bus for expansion cards.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ISO || – || International Standards Organization.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ISP || – || Interrupt Sharing Protocol (A.07-5).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| JFT || – || Job File Table : table of opened handles.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.07-1-3-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.07-1-3|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.07-1&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| LAN || – || Local Area Network.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| LBA || – || Linear Block Addressing — HDDs addressing mode.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.13-6-4-ref5&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.13-6-4|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.13-6&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| LCD || – || Liquid Crystal Display.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| LFN || – || Long File Name (A.09-3).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| LIM || – || Lotus-Intel-Microsoft : the founders of EMS specification.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| LPT || – || Line PrinTer : port, also known as parallel port.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| LUN || – || Logical Unit Number : identifier for devices, sharing one bus address.&lt;sup id=&quot;note-A.03-2-1-ref2&quot;&gt;[[#note-A.03-2-1|&amp;#91;Note&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;A.03-2&amp;#93;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| MASM || – || Macro ASseMbler : Microsoft's low-level code assembler.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| MBR || – || Master Boot Record (A.13-5).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| MCB || – || Memory Control Block : 16 bytes long descriptor (A.12-7).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| MDA || – || Monochrome Display Adapter, used in IBM's obsolete PCs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| mm || – || two-digit decimal month number in a year.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| MO || – || Magneto-Optical disks or disk drives.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| MS || – || mark for objects, owned or developed by Microsoft.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| MSWR || – || Machine Status Word Register : control register in CPU 80286. In modern CPUs MSWR is a part of control register CR0.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| NTFS || – || New Technology File System for HDDs under Windows NT/2000/XP.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| NUL – (1) || : || channel &quot;to nowhere&quot;, as alternative to real channels.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| NUL – (2) || : || the 00h byte value.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| OEM || – || Original Equipment Manufacturer : direct delivery of components (as antonym of retail sale).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| OHCI || – || Open Host Controller Interface : controller specification for USB bus versions 1.x (5.07-05).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| OS || – || Operating System.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PC || – || Personal Computer.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PCI || – || Peripheral Components Interconnect : type of bus for expansion cards.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PCMCIA || – || PC Memory Card International Association : interface standard, originally designed for memory expansion cards (5.07-02).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PD || – || Powerful Disk : a 650 Mb rewritable optical discs of CD-RAM type, prototype of DVD-RAM discs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PIO || – || Programmed I/O control for devices with ATAPI interface.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PM || – || Protected Mode of CPU operation.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| POST || – || Power-On Self Test : performed by BIOS when PC is switched on.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PRN || – || reserved word used to address printer port LPT1.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PSP || – || Program Segment Prefix (A.07-1).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PS/2 || – || Personal System/2 : IBM's PC model developed in 1987.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PS2 || – || mouse port and connector type, first introduced in PS/2 PCs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| PTS || – || PhysTechSoft — russian software vendor, known for its PTS-DOS
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| RAID || – || Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks : distributed storage technique, enhancing transfer speed. Under permanent qualified maintenance, some RAID versions also may reduce risk of data loss.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| RAM || – || Random Access Memory — ordinary writable memory, as alternative to sequential access to tape and disk media.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ROM || – || Read-Only Memory, i.e. non-rewritable storage media.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SCSI || – || Small Computer System Interface (5.07-03).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SFT || – || System File Table of associations for active handles (A.01-4)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SFX || – || SelF eXtracting packed archive or module.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SI || – || Source Index : 16-bit register, used to store source address offset. In 32-bit CPUs SI represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit ESI register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SIMD || – || Single Instruction Multiple Data : class of commands, performing the same operation over a group of data items.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SP || – || Stack Pointer : 16-bit register, defining offset of stack's top. In 32-bit CPUs SP register represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit ESP register.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SS || – || Stack Segment : 16-bit register, defining stack's segment address.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SSE || – || Streaming SIMD Extensions : extensions of SIMD command set, implemented in modern CPUs.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| STDIN || – || input channel, corresponding to handle 0000h and having default association with keyboard as data source.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| STDOUT || – || output channel, corresponding to handle 0001h and having default association with display as target device.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| STDERR || – || channel to display error messages, associated with handle 0002h.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SVGA || – || SuperVGA videomodes (A.10-1), suggested by VESA.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| SWR || – || Status Word Register in arithmetical coprocessor (7.04-08, 7.04-64).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| TASM || – || TurboASseMbler : a low-level code assembler from Borland Co.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| TLB || – || Translation Lookaside Buffer : cache buffer in CPU, performing translation of linear addresses into physical addresses.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| TSR || – || Terminate and Stay Resident : resident modules or programs (8.02-23)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| TWR || – || Tags Word Register in arithmetical coprocessor.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| UEFI || – || Unified EFI — revision of EFI, adopted in 2007 for modern 32-bit multicore CPUs. UEFI stipulates for graphic shell, for network support and for retention of compatibility with OSes by means of CSM module.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| UHCI || – || Universal Host Controller Interface : controller specification for USB bus versions 1.x (5.07-05).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| UMB || – || Upper Memory Blocks : address space pieces, allotted for loading drivers inside 640–1024 kb area.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| USB || – || Universal Serial Bus (5.07-05).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| V86 || – || virtual 8086 mode : emulation of obsolete CPU 8086 by modern CPUs, operating in protected mode. V86 mode enables to execute DOS programs at the lowest (third) privilege level.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| VBE || – || Video BIOS Extensions, developed by VESA (8.01-35) in order to enable implementation of SVGA videomodes.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| VC || – || Volkov Commander shell (6.25).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| VCPI || – || Virtual Control Program Interface : protocol of interaction enabling control transfer from one control program to another (5.04-02).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| VESA || – || Video Electronics Standards Association.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| VGA || – || Video Graphics Array : video adapter for IBMs PS/2 computers.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| XMS || – || Extended Memory Specification implemented by Himem.sys (5.04-01)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| YIQ || – || model of pixel representation in luminance and two chrominance axes, corresponding to highest and lowest visual color resolution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| YUV || – || model of pixel representation in luminance and two chrominance axes, conforming to specifications of CIE (Comite Internationale d'Eclairage).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| yy || – || year (in MS-DOS&amp;nbsp;7 year is represented by a four-digit number).
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ZIP – (1) || : || suffix of archive files, compressed by PKZIP utility.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ZIP – (2) || : || trade mark of removable disk drives, produced by Iomega Co.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| ZF || – || CPU's zero flag, used to indicate equality or zero result.
|}

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>qvrtz6vgtghxvz6vu94go95ujq5idaz</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:26:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>3614620</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="7253" sha1="celhrx2cdmkwm0dr1hap2p2z0854z6s" xml:space="preserve">__NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config
|archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d
|algo = old(75d)
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== SHE-LOVES-BRIAN ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|SHE-LOVES-BRIAN]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: Page not specified
;Description
: 
;Date and time
: 14:35, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;
: {{EFFP|note}} You are autoconfirmed, which means the filter shouldn't trigger on you anymore, but not all of them to be exact. – [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:58, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-32360-90 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-32360-90|~2026-32360-90]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-32360-90|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-32360-90|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-32360-90|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-32360-90}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-32360-90}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-32360-90}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4/2...Bc5/3. Qh5/3...Qe7]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...e5%2F2.+Bc4%2F2...Bc5%2F3.+Qh5%2F3...Qe7}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...e5%2F2.+Bc4%2F2...Bc5%2F3.+Qh5%2F3...Qe7&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-32360-90}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Trying to add a language ([[:fi:Shakki/rnb1k1nr;ppppqppp;8;2b1p2Q;2B1P3;8;PPPP1PPP;RNB1K1NR w KQkq]]) was being flagged as unconstructive by the edit filter.
;Date and time
: 15:57, 15 June 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

:{{EFFP|rf}} [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-35089-83 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-35089-83|~2026-35089-83]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-35089-83|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-35089-83|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-35089-83|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-35089-83}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-35089-83}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-35089-83}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[[[Japanese/Kana]]]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=%5B%5BJapanese%2FKana%5D%5D}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=%5B%5BJapanese%2FKana%5D%5D&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-35089-83}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Tried replacing a dead link with a working version I found when I plugged the link into webarchive, since that's what I presumed I was meant to do when I found a dead link.
;Date and time
: 01:27, 15 June 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== SeaDragon1 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:SeaDragon1|SeaDragon1]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:SeaDragon1|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/SeaDragon1|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/SeaDragon1|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:SeaDragon1}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:SeaDragon1}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=SeaDragon1}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[User:SeaDragon1/UTM highlighting test]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3ASeaDragon1%2FUTM+highlighting+test}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3ASeaDragon1%2FUTM+highlighting+test&amp;wpSearchUser=SeaDragon1}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Attempted creation of page to test [[User:SeaDragon1/common.js]] (both attempted page creation content and &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: monospace&quot;&gt;common.js&lt;/span&gt; were copied from [[w:Main Page|the English Wikipedia]]).
;Date and time
: 23:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== Earthinators ==

== Earthinators page rewrite ==

I was trying to replace the main page of [[Earthinators]] with a neutral, instructional textbook version ([[Talk:Earthinators|the new text is on the talk page]]). The edit filter blocked me, saying the edit was &quot;potentially unconstructive&quot;. The new version follows Wikibooks guidelines – it’s a textbook, not a promotional page. Please allow the edit or make the change for me. [[User:Earthinators|Earthinators]] ([[User talk:Earthinators|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Earthinators|contribs]]) 06:56, 11 July 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-40102-72 ==


;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-40102-72|~2026-40102-72]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-40102-72|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-40102-72|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-40102-72|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-40102-72}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: Page not specified
;Description
: 
;Date and time
: 20:26, 15 July 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>celhrx2cdmkwm0dr1hap2p2z0854z6s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654595</id>
      <parentid>4654593</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:27:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-40102-72</username>
        <id>3614620</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* {{subst:currentuser}}{{subst:^|DO NOT EDIT THIS LINE}} */ new section</comment>
      <origin>4654595</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8134" sha1="nsfcvpkxkrw0jdyltb9vv4hrods7v7a" xml:space="preserve">__NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config
|archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d
|algo = old(75d)
|counter = 4
|maxarchivesize = 150K
|minthreadstoarchive = 1
|minthreadsleft = 3
}}

== SHE-LOVES-BRIAN ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|SHE-LOVES-BRIAN]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: Page not specified
;Description
: 
;Date and time
: 14:35, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;
: {{EFFP|note}} You are autoconfirmed, which means the filter shouldn't trigger on you anymore, but not all of them to be exact. – [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:58, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-32360-90 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-32360-90|~2026-32360-90]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-32360-90|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-32360-90|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-32360-90|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-32360-90}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-32360-90}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-32360-90}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4/2...Bc5/3. Qh5/3...Qe7]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...e5%2F2.+Bc4%2F2...Bc5%2F3.+Qh5%2F3...Qe7}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...e5%2F2.+Bc4%2F2...Bc5%2F3.+Qh5%2F3...Qe7&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-32360-90}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Trying to add a language ([[:fi:Shakki/rnb1k1nr;ppppqppp;8;2b1p2Q;2B1P3;8;PPPP1PPP;RNB1K1NR w KQkq]]) was being flagged as unconstructive by the edit filter.
;Date and time
: 15:57, 15 June 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

:{{EFFP|rf}} [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-35089-83 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-35089-83|~2026-35089-83]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-35089-83|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-35089-83|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-35089-83|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-35089-83}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-35089-83}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-35089-83}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[[[Japanese/Kana]]]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=%5B%5BJapanese%2FKana%5D%5D}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=%5B%5BJapanese%2FKana%5D%5D&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-35089-83}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Tried replacing a dead link with a working version I found when I plugged the link into webarchive, since that's what I presumed I was meant to do when I found a dead link.
;Date and time
: 01:27, 15 June 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== SeaDragon1 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:SeaDragon1|SeaDragon1]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:SeaDragon1|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/SeaDragon1|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/SeaDragon1|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:SeaDragon1}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:SeaDragon1}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=SeaDragon1}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[User:SeaDragon1/UTM highlighting test]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3ASeaDragon1%2FUTM+highlighting+test}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3ASeaDragon1%2FUTM+highlighting+test&amp;wpSearchUser=SeaDragon1}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Attempted creation of page to test [[User:SeaDragon1/common.js]] (both attempted page creation content and &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: monospace&quot;&gt;common.js&lt;/span&gt; were copied from [[w:Main Page|the English Wikipedia]]).
;Date and time
: 23:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== Earthinators ==

== Earthinators page rewrite ==

I was trying to replace the main page of [[Earthinators]] with a neutral, instructional textbook version ([[Talk:Earthinators|the new text is on the talk page]]). The edit filter blocked me, saying the edit was &quot;potentially unconstructive&quot;. The new version follows Wikibooks guidelines – it’s a textbook, not a promotional page. Please allow the edit or make the change for me. [[User:Earthinators|Earthinators]] ([[User talk:Earthinators|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Earthinators|contribs]]) 06:56, 11 July 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-40102-72 ==


;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-40102-72|~2026-40102-72]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-40102-72|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-40102-72|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-40102-72|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-40102-72}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: Page not specified
;Description
: 
;Date and time
: 20:26, 15 July 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== ~2026-40102-72 ==


;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-40102-72|~2026-40102-72]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-40102-72|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-40102-72|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-40102-72|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-40102-72}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: Page not specified
;Description
: 
;Date and time
: 20:27, 15 July 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>nsfcvpkxkrw0jdyltb9vv4hrods7v7a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654613</id>
      <parentid>4654595</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T21:53:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earthinators */ Duplicate section header.</comment>
      <origin>4654613</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8114" sha1="iel5fuynd7ea3lzfztv1ucnq57yd9ea" xml:space="preserve">__NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config
|archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d
|algo = old(75d)
|counter = 4
|maxarchivesize = 150K
|minthreadstoarchive = 1
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}}

== SHE-LOVES-BRIAN ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|SHE-LOVES-BRIAN]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/SHE-LOVES-BRIAN|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=SHE-LOVES-BRIAN}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: Page not specified
;Description
: 
;Date and time
: 14:35, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;
: {{EFFP|note}} You are autoconfirmed, which means the filter shouldn't trigger on you anymore, but not all of them to be exact. – [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:58, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-32360-90 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-32360-90|~2026-32360-90]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-32360-90|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-32360-90|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-32360-90|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-32360-90}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-32360-90}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-32360-90}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4/2...Bc5/3. Qh5/3...Qe7]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...e5%2F2.+Bc4%2F2...Bc5%2F3.+Qh5%2F3...Qe7}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...e5%2F2.+Bc4%2F2...Bc5%2F3.+Qh5%2F3...Qe7&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-32360-90}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Trying to add a language ([[:fi:Shakki/rnb1k1nr;ppppqppp;8;2b1p2Q;2B1P3;8;PPPP1PPP;RNB1K1NR w KQkq]]) was being flagged as unconstructive by the edit filter.
;Date and time
: 15:57, 15 June 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

:{{EFFP|rf}} [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-35089-83 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-35089-83|~2026-35089-83]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-35089-83|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-35089-83|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-35089-83|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-35089-83}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-35089-83}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-35089-83}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[[[Japanese/Kana]]]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=%5B%5BJapanese%2FKana%5D%5D}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=%5B%5BJapanese%2FKana%5D%5D&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-35089-83}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Tried replacing a dead link with a working version I found when I plugged the link into webarchive, since that's what I presumed I was meant to do when I found a dead link.
;Date and time
: 01:27, 15 June 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== SeaDragon1 ==

;Username
: [[:b:User:SeaDragon1|SeaDragon1]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:SeaDragon1|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/SeaDragon1|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/SeaDragon1|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:SeaDragon1}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:SeaDragon1}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=SeaDragon1}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: [[User:SeaDragon1/UTM highlighting test]] &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3ASeaDragon1%2FUTM+highlighting+test}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3ASeaDragon1%2FUTM+highlighting+test&amp;wpSearchUser=SeaDragon1}} user filter log])&lt;/span&gt;
;Description
: Attempted creation of page to test [[User:SeaDragon1/common.js]] (both attempted page creation content and &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: monospace&quot;&gt;common.js&lt;/span&gt; were copied from [[w:Main Page|the English Wikipedia]]).
;Date and time
: 23:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== Earthinators page rewrite ==

I was trying to replace the main page of [[Earthinators]] with a neutral, instructional textbook version ([[Talk:Earthinators|the new text is on the talk page]]). The edit filter blocked me, saying the edit was &quot;potentially unconstructive&quot;. The new version follows Wikibooks guidelines – it’s a textbook, not a promotional page. Please allow the edit or make the change for me. [[User:Earthinators|Earthinators]] ([[User talk:Earthinators|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Earthinators|contribs]]) 06:56, 11 July 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-40102-72 ==


;Username
: [[:b:User:~2026-40102-72|~2026-40102-72]]&lt;span class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; {{toolbar|separator=dot
|[[:b:User talk:~2026-40102-72|discuss]]
|[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-40102-72|email]]
|[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-40102-72|contribs]]
|[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}}}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;logs&lt;/span&gt;]
|[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&amp;wiki{{=}}wikibooks&amp;name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-40102-72}} &lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:#002bb8&quot;&gt;count&lt;/span&gt;]
}}&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-40102-72}} filter log]&lt;/span&gt;)
;Page you were editing
: Page not specified
;Description
: 
;Date and time
: 20:26, 15 July 2026 (UTC)
;Comments
&lt;!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --&gt;

== ~2026-40102-72 ==


;Username
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      <sha1>iel5fuynd7ea3lzfztv1ucnq57yd9ea</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>4654615</id>
      <parentid>4654613</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T21:54:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ~2026-35089-83 */ Done; no change to filter ([[:b:en:User:Codename Noreste/EFFPH.js|EFFPH.js]])</comment>
      <origin>4654615</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8334" sha1="ks3rn56zsh7jfmqnaxts0iww716nv9y" xml:space="preserve">__NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config
|archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d
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== SHE-LOVES-BRIAN ==

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: {{EFFP|note}} You are autoconfirmed, which means the filter shouldn't trigger on you anymore, but not all of them to be exact. – [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:58, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-32360-90 ==

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: Trying to add a language ([[:fi:Shakki/rnb1k1nr;ppppqppp;8;2b1p2Q;2B1P3;8;PPPP1PPP;RNB1K1NR w KQkq]]) was being flagged as unconstructive by the edit filter.
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:{{EFFP|rf}} [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-35089-83 ==

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== SeaDragon1 ==

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== Earthinators page rewrite ==

I was trying to replace the main page of [[Earthinators]] with a neutral, instructional textbook version ([[Talk:Earthinators|the new text is on the talk page]]). The edit filter blocked me, saying the edit was &quot;potentially unconstructive&quot;. The new version follows Wikibooks guidelines – it’s a textbook, not a promotional page. Please allow the edit or make the change for me. [[User:Earthinators|Earthinators]] ([[User talk:Earthinators|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Earthinators|contribs]]) 06:56, 11 July 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-40102-72 ==


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== ~2026-40102-72 ==


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      <sha1>ks3rn56zsh7jfmqnaxts0iww716nv9y</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>OpenSCAD Tutorial/Chapter 8</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>411554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654563</id>
      <parentid>4374652</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T17:18:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-39956-61</username>
        <id>3614580</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>EU. nao sei o que dizer</comment>
      <origin>4654563</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25086" sha1="rpd5dsl5a2cii19ystgtg75ez94l0no" xml:space="preserve">// --- MODELO PARAMÉTRICO DE BASE PARA CARIMBO ---

// Meça sua peça com o paquímetro e ajuste os valores abaixo (em mm)

$fn = 50;

// Medidas da Base Plana (onde cola a borracha)

largura_base = 69.0;      // Largura total

comprimento_base = 41.0;  // Altura/Comprimento total

espessura_base = 7.0;     // Espessura da chapa fina

// Medidas do Trilho de Encaixe (parte ressaltada)

largura_trilho = 72.0 ;    // Largura do encaixe menor

comprimento_trilho = 42.0;// Comprimento do encaixe

altura_trilho = 2.0;      // Altura total do ressalto

chanfro = 2.0 ;            // Recorte lateral (rabo de andorinha)

module base_carimbo() {

    // Base principal onde vai a borracha

    cube([largura_base, comprimento_base, espessura_base], center=true);

    
    // Trilho de encaixe com chanfro lateral

    translate([0, 0, (espessura_base/2) + (altura_trilho/2)])

    difference() {

        cube([largura_trilho, comprimento_trilho, altura_trilho], center=true);

        
        // Cortes laterais para fazer o efeito de encaixe (ângulo)

        translate([-(largura_trilho/2), 0, 0])

            rotate([0, 45, 0])

            cube([chanfro * 2, comprimento_trilho + 2, altura_trilho * 2], center=true);

            
        translate([(largura_trilho/2), 0, 0])

            rotate([0, -45, 0])

            cube([chanfro * 2, comprimento_trilho + 2, altura_trilho * 2], center=true);

    }

}

base_carimbo();{{Nav}}

== Rotationally extruding 3D objects from 2D objects ==

So far you have been creating a lot of models and customizing your car designs while developing solid parametric modelling skills and exploring different features of OpenSCAD. It’s quite impressive when you consider that every model you have created so far makes use of just three primitives: the sphere, the cube and the cylinder. By combining these primitives with the transformation commands you can create a plethora of models, but there are still models that can’t be created by using these primitives alone. One such example is the following wheel design.

[[File:Rounded wheel.jpg|680px]]

The above wheel design requires the creation of an object that looks like a donut.

[[File:Donut shaped object.jpg|680px]]

This donut shaped object can’t be created with the use of the sphere, cube and cylinder primitives. Instead it requires the use of 2D primitives and a new command which can create 3D shapes from 2D profiles. Specifically, the donut can be created by first defining a circular 2D profile using the circle primitive and then rotationally extruding this profile using the rotate_extrude command.

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid Gold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: Gold;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''circular_profile.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
$fa = 1;
$fs = 0.4;
wheel_radius = 12;
tyre_diameter = 6;
translate([wheel_radius - tyre_diameter/2, 0])
    circle(d=tyre_diameter);&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Circular profile.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid Gold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: Gold;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''extruded_donut.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
$fa = 1;
$fs = 0.4;
wheel_radius = 12;
tyre_diameter = 6;
rotate_extrude(angle=360) {
    translate([wheel_radius - tyre_diameter/2, 0])
        circle(d=tyre_diameter);
}&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Extruded donut.jpg|680px]]

There are a few things you should notice about the 2D profile that you have created. In this case, the 2D profile is created using the circle command, and the diameter is set equal to the tyre_diameter variable. This was done because the donut-shaped object will correspond to the tyre of the wheel. Later on, you may discover other 2D primitives like the square command.

Any 2D profiles you plan to extrude should be created on the X-Y plane, and typically in the region where X is positive. Defined mathematically, 2D profiles usually reside where X ≥ 0, and Z = 0. Also, 2D profiles always have zero thickness. This means that 2D profiles are never used directly as a part of the model, but are instead used in conjunction with the rotate_extrude and linear_extrude commands to define 3D objects.

You should notice a few things about the use of the rotate_extrude command as well. The rotate extrude command is used to create 3D objects, and always requires a 2D profile as an input. The commands that create the desired 2D profile need to be placed inside the pair of curly brackets that follows the rotate_extrude command. The 3D object that is created by the rotate_extrude command is the result of rotating the 2D profile around the Y axis. The resulting 3D object is then placed so that its axis of rotation lies along the Z-axis. This quirk can take some getting used to at first, so it may help to review the process one step at a time.

First, the rotate_extrude command takes a 2D profile as an input.

[[File:Circular profile.jpg|680px]]

Then it creates a 3D object which is the result of rotating the supplied 2D profile around the Y axis.

[[File:Intermediate extrusion.jpg|680px]]

Finally, it places the 3D model as if it were rotated by 90 degrees around the X axis. The result is that the Y axis which the model was revolved around has been rotated up to align with the Z axis. 

[[File:Extruded donut.jpg|680px]]

The rotate_extrude command has one input parameter named angle. The angle parameter is used to define how many degrees the 2D profile will be rotated around the Y axis. In this case the angle parameter is set equal to 360 degrees which corresponds to a full circle.

Setting the angle parameter equal to 60 degrees would create the following model.

[[File:Extruded donut 60 degrees.jpg|680px]]

While setting it equal to 270 degrees would create the following one. And so forth.

[[File:Extruded donut 270 degrees.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Complete the new wheel design by defining the missing cylinder object. The height of the cylinder should be equal to the value of a wheel_width variable, while the radius of the cylinder should be equal to wheel_radius - tyre_diameter/2. The cylinder should be centred on the origin.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''rounded_wheel_horizontal.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
$fa = 1;
$fs = 0.4;
wheel_radius = 12;
wheel_width = 4;
tyre_diameter = 6;
rotate_extrude(angle=360) {
    translate([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,0])
        circle(d=tyre_diameter);
}
cylinder(h=wheel_width, r=wheel_radius - tyre_diameter/2, center=true);&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Rounded wheel horizontal.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;To make this wheel compatible with the models from the previous chapters rotate it by 90 degrees around the X axis. Turn this wheel design into a module named rounded_simple_wheel and add it on your vehicle_parts.scad script for later use.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
module rounded_simple_wheel(wheel_radius=12, wheel_width=4, tyre_diameter=6) {
    rotate([90,0,0]) {
        rotate_extrude(angle=360) {
            translate([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,0])
                circle(d=tyre_diameter);
        }
        cylinder(h=wheel_width, r=wheel_radius - tyre_diameter/2, center=true);
    }
}
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Rounded wheel.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;The above wheel is an axisymmetric object, which means it exhibits symmetry around an axis. Specifically, the axis of symmetry is the axis around which the 2D profile was rotated to form the 3D object. When an object is axisymmetric it can be created with just one rotate_extrude command as long as the appropriate 2D profile is supplied. This is not the case with the above wheel design as the center part was added with a cylinder command separate from the rotational extrusion. Remove the cylinder command from the above module and make appropriate additions on the supplied 2D profile so that the whole wheel is created by the rotate_extrude command.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Complete profile.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
translate([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,0])
    circle(d=tyre_diameter);
translate([0,-wheel_width/2])
    square([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,wheel_width]);
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Rounded wheel.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
module rounded_simple_wheel(wheel_radius=12, wheel_width=4, tyre_diameter=6) {
    rotate([90,0,0]) {
        rotate_extrude(angle=360) {
            translate([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,0])
                circle(d=tyre_diameter);
            translate([0,-wheel_width/2])
                square([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,wheel_width]);
        }
    }
}
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

You should remember that axisymmetric objects can be completely created out of a rotate_extrude command. The previous wheel design is a concrete example of this. Whether you decide to create an axisymmetric object by supplying the 2D profile of the whole object and by using a single rotate_extrude or by using a rotate_extrude command only for its parts that can’t be created in any other way, depends on each case and is up to you. If you wanted for example to further modularize your wheel designs and separate them into combinable tire and rim modules, you would inevitably need to create the donut-shaped tire using a rotate_extrude command. Since in this case the rim of the wheel would be a separate module without a rotate_extrude command already present in it, the simplest and most straight forward way to create it would be by using a cylinder command.

==Challenge==

It’s time to put your new knowledge into practice to create a rim for a mini robot car project.

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Extend the rounded_simple_wheel module, so that the wheel design has a hole on its hub that can be used for mounting it on an axle. To do so you would need to subtract a cylinder from the existing model using a difference command. The diameter of the hole should be equal to a new module input parameter named axle_diameter. The default value of this parameter should be 3 units. By the way in which you define the height of the cylinder you should guarantee that the cylinder is always a bit longer than the width of the wheel to avoid any errors when using the difference command. After saving the modified module you should use it to create a version a wheel with wheel_radius, wheel_width, tire_diameter and axle_diameter of 20, 6, 4 and 5 units respectively.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Robot wheel.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''robot_wheel.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
module rounded_simple_wheel(wheel_radius=12, wheel_width=4, tyre_diameter=6, axle_diameter=3) {
    difference() {
        
        // wheel
        rotate([90,0,0]) {
            rotate_extrude(angle=360) {
                translate([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,0])
                    circle(d=tyre_diameter);
                translate([0,-wheel_width/2])
                    square([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,wheel_width]);
            }
        }
        
        // axle hole
        rotate([90,0,0])
            cylinder(h=wheel_width+1,r=axle_diameter/2,center=true);
    }
}
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
rounded_simple_wheel(wheel_radius=20, wheel_width=6, tyre_diameter=4, axle_diameter=5);
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

This wheel design looks about right for a mini robot car application, but you could do something to give more traction to your robot. Instead of 3D printing the whole wheel, you could just 3D print the rim and then add an O-ring or rubber band as the tire for more traction. The resulting wheel would look like the following image, where the O-ring or rubber band is represented by the blue color.

[[File:Robot wheel with blue tyre.jpg|680px]]

The corresponding rim that you would have to 3D print in this case is the following.

[[File:Robot rim.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Using the rounded_simple_wheel module as a guide, create a new module named robot_rim. The robot_rim module should have the same input parameters as the rounded_simple_wheel module. Add all necessary commands to the robot_rim module so that it creates the above rim design. There are two ways in which you can do this. 
*The first way is to subtract the circle that corresponds to the tire from the square that corresponds to the rim in the definition of the design’s 2D profile inside the rotate_extrude command and then to additionally subtract the axle’s cylinder from the resulting 3D object to get the final rim design. 
*The second way is to subtract a donut-shaped object that corresponds to the tire and the cylinder that corresponds to the axle hole from the larger cylinder that corresponds to the rim.
Remember, while there is some conventional wisdom surrounding good design practices, there is no objectively right or wrong choice. In practice you would most likely go with the option that first came to mind or that made the most sense to you. For the sake of this exercise, consider trying it both ways to see which approach you like the most.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

*First approach

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''robot_rim_from_profile_difference.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
module rounded_simple_wheel(wheel_radius=12, wheel_width=4, tyre_diameter=6, axle_diameter=3) {
    rotate([90,0,0])difference() {
        
        // resulting rim
        rotate_extrude(angle=360) {
            difference() {
                
                // cylindrical rim profile
                translate([0,-wheel_width/2])
                    square([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,wheel_width]);
                
                // tire profile
                translate([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,0])
                    circle(d=tyre_diameter);
            }
        }
        
        // axle hole
        cylinder(h=wheel_width+1,r=axle_diameter/2,center=true);
    }
}
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Robot rim from profile difference.jpg|680px]]

*Second approach

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''robot_rim_from_3d_object_difference.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
module rounded_simple_wheel(wheel_radius=12, wheel_width=4, tyre_diameter=6, axle_diameter=3) {
    rotate([90,0,0])
        difference() {
        
            // cylindrical rim
            cylinder(h=wheel_width,r=wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,center=true);
        
            // tire
            rotate_extrude(angle=360) {
                translate([wheel_radius-tyre_diameter/2,0])
                    circle(d=tyre_diameter);
            }

            // axle hole
            cylinder(h=wheel_width+1,r=axle_diameter/2,center=true);
        }
}
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Robot rim from 3d object difference.jpg|680px]]

Often, it's helpful to consider the manufacturing process that will be used in an object's creation when designing a new part. Usually, this consideration promotes designs that accommodate the manufacturing method at hand, but it can guide your modeling process as well.

For example, consider a scenario where instead of using additive manufacturing like 3D printing to manufacture this robot wheel, you used subtractive manufacturing like lathe or a mill. In this case you might opt to use the second approach, since it would more closely replicate the manufacturing process at hand, and could give you a better estimate of how many steps the final manufacturing process might take.

==Linearly extruding 3D objects from 2D objects==

As briefly mentioned, there is another OpenSCAD command that can be used to create 3D objects from supplied 2D profiles. This is the linear_extrude command. In contrast to the rotate_extrude command, linear_extrude creates a 3D object by extending along the Z axis a 2D profile that lies on the XY plane. Similar to the rotate_extrude command, linear_extrude can be used when the 3D object you want to create can’t be directly created by combining available 3D primitives. One such example is the following.

[[File:Extruded ellipse.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid Gold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: Gold;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''extruded_ellipse.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
$fa = 1;
$fs = 0.4;
linear_extrude(height=50)
    scale([2,1,1])
    circle(d=10);&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The above object is a tube that has the following profile.

[[File:Ellipse profile.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid Gold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: Gold;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''ellipse_profile.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
$fa = 1;
$fs = 0.4;
scale([2,1,1])
    circle(d=10);&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

There are a few points you should notice regarding the use of linear_extrude. The syntax of linear_extrude is similar to the syntax of the rotate_extrude command. The commands that create the 2D profile that will be extruded along the Z axis need to be placed inside a pair of curly brackets that follows the linear_extrude command. The parameter height is used to define how many units along the Z axis the 2D profile is going to be extruded. By default, the 2D profile is extruded along the positive direction of the Z axis by an amount of units equal to the value assigned to the height parameter.

By passing an additional parameter named center and setting it equal to true, the 2D profile is extruded along both directions of the Z axis. The total length of the resulting object will still be equal to the height parameter.

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid Gold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: Gold;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''centered_extrusion.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
linear_extrude(height=50,center=true)
    scale([2,1,1])
    circle(d=10);
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Centered extrusion.jpg|680px]]

An additional parameter named twist can also be used to twist the resulting 3D object around the Z axis by the specified angle.

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid Gold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: Gold;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''extrusion_with_twist.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
linear_extrude(height=50,center=true,twist=120)
    scale([2,1,1])
    circle(d=10);
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Extrusion with twist.jpg|680px]]

Finally, another parameter named scale can be used to scale one end of the resulting 3D by the specified scaling factor.

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid Gold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: Gold;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''extrusion_with_twist_and_scale.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
linear_extrude(height=50,center=true,twist=120,scale=1.5)
    scale([2,1,1])
    circle(d=10);
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Extrusion with twist and scale.jpg|680px]]

It should be pretty clear by now how the rotate_extrude and linear_extrude commands give you the ability to create objects that wouldn’t be possible by directly combining the available 3D primitives. You can use these commands to create more abstract and artistic designs but let’s see how you could use the linear_extrude command to create a new car body.

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Use the linear_extrude command similar to the above examples in order to create the following car body. You should create a new module named extruded_car_body. The module should have a length, rear_height, rear_width and scaling_factor input parameter. The default values of the parameters should be 80, 20, 25 and 0.5 units respectively. The length and scaling factor parameters of the module will be used in the call to linear_extrude command to set the values of its height and scale parameters. The supplied 2D profile should be a circle that has been resized according to the rear_height and rear_width parameters.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Extruded car body.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''extruded_car_body.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
module rounded_car_body(length=80, rear_height=20, rear_width=25, scaling_factor=0.5) {
rotate([0,-90,0])
    linear_extrude(height=length,center=true,scale=scaling_factor)
    resize([rear_height,rear_width])
    circle(d=rear_height);    
}&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Extend the previous module by adding a boolean input parameter named rounded. The default value of the parameter should be false. If the rounded parameter is set to true, then two additional objects should be created at the front and rear of the body in order to make in rounded as in the following image. These two objects are spheres that have been resized and scaled. Try figuring out an appropriate way to resize and scale the sphere to achieve a result similar to the image below.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Rounded extruded car body.jpg|680px]]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: MediumSeaGreen;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;
''rounded_extruded_car_body.scad''
    &lt;pre&gt;
…
module rounded_car_body(length=80, rear_height=20, rear_width=25, scaling_factor=0.5, rounded=false) {
    
    // center part
    rotate([0,-90,0])
        linear_extrude(height=length,center=true,scale=scaling_factor)
        resize([rear_height,rear_width])
        circle(d=rear_height);
    
    if (rounded) {
        // rear part
        translate([length/2,0,0])
            resize([rear_height,rear_width,rear_height])
            sphere(d=rear_height);
        
        // front part
        translate([-length/2,0,0])
            scale(scaling_factor)
            resize([rear_height,rear_width,rear_height])
            sphere(d=rear_height);
    }    
}
…&lt;/pre&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption style=&quot;text-align: left; color: DodgerBlue;&quot;&gt;Exercise&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Use the new rounded body in any car design that you like.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[File:Car with rounded extruded body.jpg|680px]]

As mentioned, the rotate_extrude and linear_extrude commands can also be used to create more abstract objects. When the supplied 2D profile is created using the available circle and square 2D primitives and when the twist and scale parameters of the linear_extrude command are not utilized, then the resulting 3D object could also be directly created using the available 3D primitives. What really makes the use of these commands much more powerful is the ability to create any 2D profile that is not a combination of circles and squares but rather an arbitrary shape. This ability is available through the use of the polygon 2D primitive which you are going to learn about in the next chapter.

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::::: Box C types

:::::: ['''I'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS MAIL ®&quot; [‘’ note hyphen’’]
:::::: ['''II'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS MAIL TM&quot;
:::::: ['''III'''] {{space|4}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PKG TM&quot;
:::::: ['''IV'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY TM&quot;
:::::: ['''V'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY TM&quot;
:::::: ['''VI'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE TM&quot;
:::::: ['''VII'''] {{space|4}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 3-DAY TM&quot;
:::::: ['''VIII'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS MEDIA MAIL&quot;
:::::: ['''IX'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PKG&quot;
:::::: ['''X'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS PARCEL SELECT&quot;
:::::: ['''XI'''] {{space|5}} &quot;FIRST-CLASS PKG SVC&quot;
:::::: ['''XII'''] {{space|4}} = '''IX'''
:::::: ['''XIII'''] {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XIV'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS TM  PKG&quot;
:::::: ['''XV'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]  [‘’note hyphen-less’’]
:::::: ['''XVI'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST CLASS”
:::::: ['''XVII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL 2-Day ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XVIII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS RETAIL GROUND ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XIX'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS RETAIL GROUND ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XX'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL ®2-Day&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXI'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-Day ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL ®2-Day&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXIII'''] {{space|5}} &quot;FIRST-CLASS PKG SVC – RTL TM&quot;
:::::: ['''XXIV'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS MEDIA MAIL®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXV'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS STANDARD POST®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXVI'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-Day ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXVII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 1-Day ®&quot; 
:::::: ['''XXVIII'''] {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXIX'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot;
:::::: ['''XXX'''] {{space|4}} &quot; PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXXI'''] {{space|4}} &quot; USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
:::::: ['''XXXII'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS MEDIA MAIL®&quot; [ “Small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXXIII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY &quot;
:::::: ['''XXXIV'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]  [‘’note hyphen-less’’]
:::::: ['''XXXV'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL EXPRESS 1-DAY &quot;


::: &quot;'''NOTE:'''&quot; Many of the listings that follow will reference the lines below &quot;'''US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID'''&quot; in &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot;
::: &quot;'''Key:'''&quot; 
:::::: [A1] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS PARCEL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A2] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS PKG RATE&quot;
:::::: [A3] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB PRIORITY MAIL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A4] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS MAIL FLATS RATE&quot;
:::::: [A5] {{space|5}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
:::::: [A6] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS MAIL PARCEL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A7] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB MEDIA MAIL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A8] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB PARCEL SELECT GND RATE&quot;
:::::: [A9] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ GROUND ADVANTAGE RATE&quot;
:::::: [A10} {{space|5}} &quot;# oz First-Class Pkg Svc Zone #&quot;
:::::: [A11} {{space|5}} &quot;# lbs Priority Mail Zone #”
:::::: [A12} {{space|5}} “# oz First-Class Pkg Svc”
:::::: [A13} {{space|5}} “# oz First Class Rate Zone #”
:::::: [A14} {{space|5}} “GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot;
:::::: [A15} {{space|5}} “# oz First Class Mail”
:::::: [A16} {{space|5}} “# lb  Media Mail Rate” 
:::::: [A17} {{space|5}} “PM Flat Rate Env” 
:::::: [A17} {{space|5}} “PM Regional Rate Box A” 
:::::: [A18} {{space|5}} “# oz First Class PKG Rate”
:::::: [A19] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB PRIORITY MAIL EXPRESS RATE&quot;
:::::: [A20] {{space|5}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY&quot;
:::::: [A21] {{space|5}} &quot;First-Class Package Rate&quot;


:::::: [B0] {{space|5}} [LINE IS BLANK/EMPTY]
:::::: [B1] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE # NO SURCHARGE&quot;
:::::: [B2] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE #&quot;
:::::: [B3] {{space|5}} &quot;NO SURCHARGE&quot;
:::::: [B4] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE # FLAT RATE PADDED ENVELOPE&quot;
:::::: [B5] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE # FLAT RATE ENVELOPE&quot;
:::::: [B6] {{space|5}} &quot;Cubic #&quot;
:::::: [B7] {{space|5}} &quot;FLAT RATE ENVELOPE&quot;

:::::: [C1] {{space|5}} &quot;COMMERCIAL BASE PRICING&quot;
:::::: [C2] {{space|5}} &quot;COMMERCIAL PLUS PRICING&quot;
:::::: [C3] {{space|5}} &quot;ComBasPrice&quot;
:::::: [C4] {{space|5}} &quot;ComPlsPrice&quot;
:::::: [C5] {{space|5}} &quot;RETAIL&quot;
:::::: [C6] {{space|5}} &quot;CommercialBasePrice&quot;
:::::: [C7] {{space|5}} &quot;Commercial&quot;
:::::: [C8] {{space|5}} &quot;CommPrice&quot;
{{font/end}}

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      <text bytes="4610" sha1="tkcatejso51lyyf2cf85w5wvd0mopdg" xml:space="preserve">{{font/top|size=2}}
::::: Box C types

:::::: ['''I'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS MAIL ®&quot; [‘’ note hyphen’’]
:::::: ['''II'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS MAIL TM&quot;
:::::: ['''III'''] {{space|4}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PKG TM&quot;
:::::: ['''IV'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY TM&quot;
:::::: ['''V'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY TM&quot;
:::::: ['''VI'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE TM&quot;
:::::: ['''VII'''] {{space|4}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 3-DAY TM&quot;
:::::: ['''VIII'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS MEDIA MAIL&quot;
:::::: ['''IX'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PKG&quot;
:::::: ['''X'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS PARCEL SELECT&quot;
:::::: ['''XI'''] {{space|5}} &quot;FIRST-CLASS PKG SVC&quot;
:::::: ['''XII'''] {{space|4}} = '''IX'''
:::::: ['''XIII'''] {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XIV'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS TM  PKG&quot;
:::::: ['''XV'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]  [‘’note hyphen-less’’]
:::::: ['''XVI'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST CLASS”
:::::: ['''XVII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL 2-Day ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XVIII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS RETAIL GROUND ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XIX'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS RETAIL GROUND ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XX'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL ®2-Day&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXI'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-Day ®&quot; [ “small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL ®2-Day&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXIII'''] {{space|5}} &quot;FIRST-CLASS PKG SVC – RTL TM&quot;
:::::: ['''XXIV'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS MEDIA MAIL®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXV'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS STANDARD POST®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXVI'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-Day ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXVII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 1-Day ®&quot; 
:::::: ['''XXVIII'''] {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXIX'''] {{space|5}} &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot;
:::::: ['''XXX'''] {{space|4}} &quot; PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXXI'''] {{space|4}} &quot; USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
:::::: ['''XXXII'''] {{space|3}} &quot;USPS MEDIA MAIL®&quot; [ “Small ‘R-circle’”]
:::::: ['''XXXIII'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY &quot;
:::::: ['''XXXIV'''] {{space|6}} &quot;USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”]  [‘’note hyphen-less’’]
:::::: ['''XXXV'''] {{space|6}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL EXPRESS 1-DAY &quot;


::: &quot;'''NOTE:'''&quot; Many of the listings that follow will reference the lines below &quot;'''US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID'''&quot; in &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot;
::: &quot;'''Key:'''&quot; 
:::::: [A1] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS PARCEL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A2] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS PKG RATE&quot;
:::::: [A3] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB PRIORITY MAIL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A4] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS MAIL FLATS RATE&quot;
:::::: [A5] {{space|5}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
:::::: [A6] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ FIRST-CLASS MAIL PARCEL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A7] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB MEDIA MAIL RATE&quot;
:::::: [A8] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB PARCEL SELECT GND RATE&quot;
:::::: [A9] {{space|5}} &quot;# OZ GROUND ADVANTAGE RATE&quot;
:::::: [A10} {{space|5}} &quot;# oz First-Class Pkg Svc Zone #&quot;
:::::: [A11} {{space|5}} &quot;# lbs Priority Mail Zone #”
:::::: [A12} {{space|5}} “# oz First-Class Pkg Svc”
:::::: [A13} {{space|5}} “# oz First Class Rate Zone #”
:::::: [A14} {{space|5}} “GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot;
:::::: [A15} {{space|5}} “# oz First Class Mail”
:::::: [A16} {{space|5}} “# lb  Media Mail Rate” 
:::::: [A17} {{space|5}} “PM Flat Rate Env” 
:::::: [A17} {{space|5}} “PM Regional Rate Box A” 
:::::: [A18} {{space|5}} “# oz First Class PKG Rate”
:::::: [A19] {{space|5}} &quot;# LB PRIORITY MAIL EXPRESS RATE&quot;
:::::: [A20] {{space|5}} &quot;PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY&quot;
:::::: [A21] {{space|5}} &quot;First-Class Package Rate&quot;


:::::: [B0] {{space|5}} [LINE IS BLANK/EMPTY]
:::::: [B1] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE # NO SURCHARGE&quot;
:::::: [B2] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE #&quot;
:::::: [B3] {{space|5}} &quot;NO SURCHARGE&quot;
:::::: [B4] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE # FLAT RATE PADDED ENVELOPE&quot;
:::::: [B5] {{space|5}} &quot;ZONE # FLAT RATE ENVELOPE&quot;
:::::: [B6] {{space|5}} &quot;Cubic #&quot;
:::::: [B7] {{space|5}} &quot;FLAT RATE ENVELOPE&quot;

:::::: [C1] {{space|5}} &quot;COMMERCIAL BASE PRICING&quot;
:::::: [C2] {{space|5}} &quot;COMMERCIAL PLUS PRICING&quot;
:::::: [C3] {{space|5}} &quot;ComBasPrice&quot;
:::::: [C4] {{space|5}} &quot;ComPlsPrice&quot;
:::::: [C5] {{space|5}} &quot;RETAIL&quot;
:::::: [C6] {{space|5}} &quot;CommercialBasePrice&quot;
:::::: [C7] {{space|5}} &quot;Commercial&quot;
:::::: [C8] {{space|5}} &quot;CommPrice&quot;
:::::: [C9] {{space|5}} &quot;Commercial Base Price&quot;
{{font/end}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Short introduction to the use of sewing machines/Sewing labs/USB Carrier</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>474866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654574</id>
      <parentid>4636795</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T19:17:51Z</timestamp>
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        <id>3614607</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Laser cutting the fabric */</comment>
      <origin>4654574</origin>
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      <text bytes="7530" sha1="5ggtz4rpve8xa61v7sc3jv69m9nau57" xml:space="preserve">In this laboratory we will make a USB carrier, the use of this carriers is to prevent the loss of USB memory drives and to have them in a defined place, they can be added to other tools such as bags, backpacks or just carry them in your pocket.

Carriers can hold one or more usb drive, in this case we are going to make a carrier that can hold 4 usb memory drives.

== Materials and tools needed ==

0.5 Yards Cotton fabric (18 inches long): The fabric to buy will have at least 4 inches long and 12 inches wide. Since the holder will have 2 sides, that requires a fabric of 8x12 inches wide. We will add 2 inches more for the cover (4 + 2 inches = 6 inches long), the fabric that will use 10 inches long, 12 inches wide, this measures may change according the size of your usb drive or according your own design. 0.5 yards fabric will be more than enough (18 inches by 12 inches).

Measuring tape or ruler.

Scissors.

Sewing machine.

Chalk to draw the lines in the fabric for cutting and sewing guide.

== Measuring one USB memory stick ==

When measuring your drive you will need a measuring tape or ruler, and will get the following measures:

Length of the USB drive: Example: 3 inches

Wide of your USB drive: Example: 1 inch

== USB carrier template or pattern  ==

[[File:USB Holder.svg|thumb|Real size measures of a a USB holder for 4 usb drives.]]

Open and print the upper image or sheet it include real size measures as reference to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers as is explained below, then sew both fabrics or sides of the squares together.

== Drawing the Cutting the 2 fabric parts ==

We are going to use 2 squares, they will be the back of the carrier and one the frontal part of the carrier, for this we will calculate their measures.

=== Dimensions for the rear fabric section ===

The back of the carrier will be bigger since it will have the cover section that will prevent the flash drive to go out of the carrier, since the length of the carrier is 3 inches we are going to add one more inch to the length of this fabric section.

Length: 5 inches.

The wide of the carrier will be 1 inch for each USB drive space, since these spaces are going to be sew, we are going to add one more inch to prevent having a narrow carrier space.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut the rear square.

=== Dimensions for the frontal fabric section ===

The frontal part of the carrier will have the same dimensions than the previous one, but it will be only 3 inches long, this is the height of the usb drives.

Length: 3 inches.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut this frontal fabric square.

== Laser cutting the fabric (optiona) ==

{{Main|Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Laboratory/Laser cutting fabric parts for a USB holder}}

Note: If in your setting do not have a laser cutter, please skip this step, cut will scissors or with rotary cutter instead.

The measuring and hand cutting step can be bypassed when using laser cutting machines, such ULS or Glowforge.For this, download the image (it is an svg file), and follow the steps of the guide to cut ULS or Glowforge. 

To prevent waste of materials, do a initial testing on paper, to ensure a proper cutting (laser cutting) and proper line making (engraving. once a proper cut and marking is made in paper, proceed to cut over a piece of fabric.

Once the fabric is cut and marked correctly, proced to laser cutting all the 16 pieces (or more) for 8 USB holders (or more)... The advantage is the saving of time and effort in measuring, cutting and marking, this will be done automatically by the laser cuter using, in around 3 minutes.

The time in which the laser cutter cuts the material, could be used to have all the sewing machine ready, getting the proper thread, proper foot, the proper needle, selecting the stitch (according to the presser foot used), threading the machine, etc.

== Sew both pieces of fabric ==

1.- Trace the usb drive dividing lines with chalk, use upper image or sheet as reference to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers. 

2.- Sew the lateral and bottom sides of the rear and frontal squares, this can be done in a single sew:

a.- Start sewing from one of the upper corners, when in the inferior corner, lift the foot, rotate, and put down the foot.

b.- Continue sewing toward the opposite corner, lift the foot, rotate in direction to the upper corner, put the foot down,

c.- Complete the sewing towards the upper corner, end with a reverse sew of 4 stitches.

Since the carrier will carry 4 usb drives, and since thread is used to separate the spaces, the wide for the usb drive sewing  it will have 4 inches long and 5 inches wide. The 3 lines in the middle to separate the spaces and create a 4 usb drive the holder.

A bottom or velcro can be used to close the holder or can be left just as it is.

== Additional information ==

Even when this information is  not necessary for the laboratory, the following sections explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software.

The process I use to develop a project are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

fist dot (bottom, left) will be located in x 0.5 y 5)

Second dot (Upper, left) will be located in x 0.5 and y 1 (four inches long)

Third dot (Upper, right) will be located in x 8 (2 inches wide) y 1

Fourth dot (bottom, left) will be located in x 8 and y 5.

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

Left bottom: X 0.5 y 10

Left upper: x 0.5 y 7.5 (2.5 long)

right bottom x 8 y 7.5

right upper  x 0.5 y 10

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

The final file o  was added to wikimedia as svg file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== See also ==

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_(sewing)

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        <username>~2026-39746-71</username>
        <id>3614607</id>
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      <comment>/* Sew both pieces of fabric */</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="8991" sha1="t14unq37wa30raarhgh80kql5qdsw54" xml:space="preserve">In this laboratory we will make a USB carrier, the use of this carriers is to prevent the loss of USB memory drives and to have them in a defined place, they can be added to other tools such as bags, backpacks or just carry them in your pocket.

Carriers can hold one or more usb drive, in this case we are going to make a carrier that can hold 4 usb memory drives.

== Materials and tools needed ==

0.5 Yards Cotton fabric (18 inches long): The fabric to buy will have at least 4 inches long and 12 inches wide. Since the holder will have 2 sides, that requires a fabric of 8x12 inches wide. We will add 2 inches more for the cover (4 + 2 inches = 6 inches long), the fabric that will use 10 inches long, 12 inches wide, this measures may change according the size of your usb drive or according your own design. 0.5 yards fabric will be more than enough (18 inches by 12 inches).

Measuring tape or ruler.

Scissors.

Sewing machine.

Chalk to draw the lines in the fabric for cutting and sewing guide.

== Measuring one USB memory stick ==

When measuring your drive you will need a measuring tape or ruler, and will get the following measures:

Length of the USB drive: Example: 3 inches

Wide of your USB drive: Example: 1 inch

== USB carrier template or pattern  ==

[[File:USB Holder.svg|thumb|Real size measures of a a USB holder for 4 usb drives.]]

Open and print the upper image or sheet it include real size measures as reference to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers as is explained below, then sew both fabrics or sides of the squares together.

== Drawing the Cutting the 2 fabric parts ==

We are going to use 2 squares, they will be the back of the carrier and one the frontal part of the carrier, for this we will calculate their measures.

=== Dimensions for the rear fabric section ===

The back of the carrier will be bigger since it will have the cover section that will prevent the flash drive to go out of the carrier, since the length of the carrier is 3 inches we are going to add one more inch to the length of this fabric section.

Length: 5 inches.

The wide of the carrier will be 1 inch for each USB drive space, since these spaces are going to be sew, we are going to add one more inch to prevent having a narrow carrier space.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut the rear square.

=== Dimensions for the frontal fabric section ===

The frontal part of the carrier will have the same dimensions than the previous one, but it will be only 3 inches long, this is the height of the usb drives.

Length: 3 inches.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut this frontal fabric square.

== Laser cutting the fabric (optiona) ==

{{Main|Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Laboratory/Laser cutting fabric parts for a USB holder}}

Note: If in your setting do not have a laser cutter, please skip this step, cut will scissors or with rotary cutter instead.

The measuring and hand cutting step can be bypassed when using laser cutting machines, such ULS or Glowforge.For this, download the image (it is an svg file), and follow the steps of the guide to cut ULS or Glowforge. 

To prevent waste of materials, do a initial testing on paper, to ensure a proper cutting (laser cutting) and proper line making (engraving. once a proper cut and marking is made in paper, proceed to cut over a piece of fabric.

Once the fabric is cut and marked correctly, proced to laser cutting all the 16 pieces (or more) for 8 USB holders (or more)... The advantage is the saving of time and effort in measuring, cutting and marking, this will be done automatically by the laser cuter using, in around 3 minutes.

The time in which the laser cutter cuts the material, could be used to have all the sewing machine ready, getting the proper thread, proper foot, the proper needle, selecting the stitch (according to the presser foot used), threading the machine, etc.

== Preparation of both pieces of fabric ==

Trace the USB drive dividing lines with chalk. The image above can be printed as reference sheet, it can serve as a guide to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers. 

Place both fabrics one over the other. 

In case of using bright colors, these colors should be outside, and the darker colors (if any inside, touching each other.

Use sewing pins to hold them together. 

Cut frontal fabric (where the usb are going to be inserted) before sewing, this will give enough space to insert and cover the height of the flash drives, but not so tall that it becomes difficult to take the flash drives out. 

The rear fabric will be taller since the upper area will be folded to cover the upper part of the frontal panel.

== Sew both pieces of fabric ==

1.- Sew the lateral and bottom sides of the rear and frontal squares, this can be done in a single sew:

a.- Start sewing from one of the upper corners, when in the inferior corner, lift the foot, rotate, and put down the foot.

b.- Continue sewing toward the opposite corner, lift the foot.

This will be a L shape. It is done in this way to ensure each pocket will be wide enough to hold usb flash drives, and no space is narrower than necessary.

2.- Start sewing along the first dividing line.

Since all the lines are marked with chalk, start sewing over the line side closer to the L. But give enough space, more than the necessary.

This is done to ensure the usb flash drive will fit in its space, and if the pocket is to wide, can be fixed adding a second divisor line to reduce this space.

3.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a second usb flash drive.

4.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a third usb flash drive.

Note: Repeat if you want to make a 5 usb flash drive holder.

5.- Complete the sewing frome the other corner from bottome to top, until the end of where both fabrics are located. End with a reverse sew of 4 stitches. 

Since the carrier will carry 4 usb drives, and since thread is used to separate the spaces, the wide for the usb drive sewing  it will have 4 inches long and 5 inches wide. The 3 lines in the middle to separate the spaces and create a 4 usb drive the holder.

A bottom or velcro can be used to close the holder or can be left just as it is.

== Additional information ==

Even when this information is  not necessary for the laboratory, the following sections explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software.

The process I use to develop a project are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

fist dot (bottom, left) will be located in x 0.5 y 5)

Second dot (Upper, left) will be located in x 0.5 and y 1 (four inches long)

Third dot (Upper, right) will be located in x 8 (2 inches wide) y 1

Fourth dot (bottom, left) will be located in x 8 and y 5.

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

Left bottom: X 0.5 y 10

Left upper: x 0.5 y 7.5 (2.5 long)

right bottom x 8 y 7.5

right upper  x 0.5 y 10

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

The final file o  was added to wikimedia as svg file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== See also ==

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_(sewing)

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      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-39746-71</username>
        <id>3614607</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Laser cutting the fabric (optiona) */</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8992" sha1="b9hobduwmnw086idx65pkcfblxl0jtz" xml:space="preserve">In this laboratory we will make a USB carrier, the use of this carriers is to prevent the loss of USB memory drives and to have them in a defined place, they can be added to other tools such as bags, backpacks or just carry them in your pocket.

Carriers can hold one or more usb drive, in this case we are going to make a carrier that can hold 4 usb memory drives.

== Materials and tools needed ==

0.5 Yards Cotton fabric (18 inches long): The fabric to buy will have at least 4 inches long and 12 inches wide. Since the holder will have 2 sides, that requires a fabric of 8x12 inches wide. We will add 2 inches more for the cover (4 + 2 inches = 6 inches long), the fabric that will use 10 inches long, 12 inches wide, this measures may change according the size of your usb drive or according your own design. 0.5 yards fabric will be more than enough (18 inches by 12 inches).

Measuring tape or ruler.

Scissors.

Sewing machine.

Chalk to draw the lines in the fabric for cutting and sewing guide.

== Measuring one USB memory stick ==

When measuring your drive you will need a measuring tape or ruler, and will get the following measures:

Length of the USB drive: Example: 3 inches

Wide of your USB drive: Example: 1 inch

== USB carrier template or pattern  ==

[[File:USB Holder.svg|thumb|Real size measures of a a USB holder for 4 usb drives.]]

Open and print the upper image or sheet it include real size measures as reference to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers as is explained below, then sew both fabrics or sides of the squares together.

== Drawing the Cutting the 2 fabric parts ==

We are going to use 2 squares, they will be the back of the carrier and one the frontal part of the carrier, for this we will calculate their measures.

=== Dimensions for the rear fabric section ===

The back of the carrier will be bigger since it will have the cover section that will prevent the flash drive to go out of the carrier, since the length of the carrier is 3 inches we are going to add one more inch to the length of this fabric section.

Length: 5 inches.

The wide of the carrier will be 1 inch for each USB drive space, since these spaces are going to be sew, we are going to add one more inch to prevent having a narrow carrier space.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut the rear square.

=== Dimensions for the frontal fabric section ===

The frontal part of the carrier will have the same dimensions than the previous one, but it will be only 3 inches long, this is the height of the usb drives.

Length: 3 inches.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut this frontal fabric square.

== Laser cutting the fabric (optional) ==

{{Main|Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Laboratory/Laser cutting fabric parts for a USB holder}}

Note: If in your setting do not have a laser cutter, please skip this step, cut will scissors or with rotary cutter instead.

The measuring and hand cutting step can be bypassed when using laser cutting machines, such ULS or Glowforge.For this, download the image (it is an svg file), and follow the steps of the guide to cut ULS or Glowforge. 

To prevent waste of materials, do a initial testing on paper, to ensure a proper cutting (laser cutting) and proper line making (engraving. once a proper cut and marking is made in paper, proceed to cut over a piece of fabric.

Once the fabric is cut and marked correctly, proced to laser cutting all the 16 pieces (or more) for 8 USB holders (or more)... The advantage is the saving of time and effort in measuring, cutting and marking, this will be done automatically by the laser cuter using, in around 3 minutes.

The time in which the laser cutter cuts the material, could be used to have all the sewing machine ready, getting the proper thread, proper foot, the proper needle, selecting the stitch (according to the presser foot used), threading the machine, etc.

== Preparation of both pieces of fabric ==

Trace the USB drive dividing lines with chalk. The image above can be printed as reference sheet, it can serve as a guide to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers. 

Place both fabrics one over the other. 

In case of using bright colors, these colors should be outside, and the darker colors (if any inside, touching each other.

Use sewing pins to hold them together. 

Cut frontal fabric (where the usb are going to be inserted) before sewing, this will give enough space to insert and cover the height of the flash drives, but not so tall that it becomes difficult to take the flash drives out. 

The rear fabric will be taller since the upper area will be folded to cover the upper part of the frontal panel.

== Sew both pieces of fabric ==

1.- Sew the lateral and bottom sides of the rear and frontal squares, this can be done in a single sew:

a.- Start sewing from one of the upper corners, when in the inferior corner, lift the foot, rotate, and put down the foot.

b.- Continue sewing toward the opposite corner, lift the foot.

This will be a L shape. It is done in this way to ensure each pocket will be wide enough to hold usb flash drives, and no space is narrower than necessary.

2.- Start sewing along the first dividing line.

Since all the lines are marked with chalk, start sewing over the line side closer to the L. But give enough space, more than the necessary.

This is done to ensure the usb flash drive will fit in its space, and if the pocket is to wide, can be fixed adding a second divisor line to reduce this space.

3.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a second usb flash drive.

4.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a third usb flash drive.

Note: Repeat if you want to make a 5 usb flash drive holder.

5.- Complete the sewing frome the other corner from bottome to top, until the end of where both fabrics are located. End with a reverse sew of 4 stitches. 

Since the carrier will carry 4 usb drives, and since thread is used to separate the spaces, the wide for the usb drive sewing  it will have 4 inches long and 5 inches wide. The 3 lines in the middle to separate the spaces and create a 4 usb drive the holder.

A bottom or velcro can be used to close the holder or can be left just as it is.

== Additional information ==

Even when this information is  not necessary for the laboratory, the following sections explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software.

The process I use to develop a project are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

fist dot (bottom, left) will be located in x 0.5 y 5)

Second dot (Upper, left) will be located in x 0.5 and y 1 (four inches long)

Third dot (Upper, right) will be located in x 8 (2 inches wide) y 1

Fourth dot (bottom, left) will be located in x 8 and y 5.

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

Left bottom: X 0.5 y 10

Left upper: x 0.5 y 7.5 (2.5 long)

right bottom x 8 y 7.5

right upper  x 0.5 y 10

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

The final file o  was added to wikimedia as svg file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== See also ==

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_(sewing)

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      <text bytes="10018" sha1="0yc1bve6sdl9pkylcqg2imhudaody5r" xml:space="preserve">In this laboratory we will make a USB carrier, the use of this carriers is to prevent the loss of USB memory drives and to have them in a defined place, they can be added to other tools such as bags, backpacks or just carry them in your pocket.

Carriers can hold one or more usb drive, in this case we are going to make a carrier that can hold 4 usb memory drives.

== Materials and tools needed ==

0.5 Yards Cotton fabric (18 inches long): The fabric to buy will have at least 4 inches long and 12 inches wide. Since the holder will have 2 sides, that requires a fabric of 8x12 inches wide. We will add 2 inches more for the cover (4 + 2 inches = 6 inches long), the fabric that will use 10 inches long, 12 inches wide, this measures may change according the size of your usb drive or according your own design. 0.5 yards fabric will be more than enough (18 inches by 12 inches).

Measuring tape or ruler.

Scissors.

Sewing machine.

Chalk to draw the lines in the fabric for cutting and sewing guide.

== Measuring one USB memory stick ==

When measuring your drive you will need a measuring tape or ruler, and will get the following measures:

Length of the USB drive: Example: 3 inches

Wide of your USB drive: Example: 1 inch

== USB carrier template or pattern  ==

[[File:USB Holder.svg|thumb|Real size measures of a a USB holder for 4 usb drives.]]

Open and print the upper image or sheet it include real size measures as reference to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers as is explained below, then sew both fabrics or sides of the squares together.

== Drawing the Cutting the 2 fabric parts ==

We are going to use 2 squares, they will be the back of the carrier and one the frontal part of the carrier, for this we will calculate their measures.

=== Dimensions for the rear fabric section ===

The back of the carrier will be bigger since it will have the cover section that will prevent the flash drive to go out of the carrier, since the length of the carrier is 3 inches we are going to add one more inch to the length of this fabric section.

Length: 5 inches.

The wide of the carrier will be 1 inch for each USB drive space, since these spaces are going to be sew, we are going to add one more inch to prevent having a narrow carrier space.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut the rear square.

=== Dimensions for the frontal fabric section ===

The frontal part of the carrier will have the same dimensions than the previous one, but it will be only 3 inches long, this is the height of the usb drives.

Length: 3 inches.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut this frontal fabric square.

== Laser cutting the fabric (optional) ==

{{Main|Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Laboratory/Laser cutting fabric parts for a USB holder}}

Note: If in your setting do not have a laser cutter, please skip this step, cut will scissors or with rotary cutter instead.

The measuring and hand cutting step can be bypassed when using laser cutting machines, such ULS or Glowforge.For this, download the image (it is an svg file), and follow the steps of the guide to cut ULS or Glowforge. 

To prevent waste of materials, do a initial testing on paper, to ensure a proper cutting (laser cutting) and proper line making (engraving. once a proper cut and marking is made in paper, proceed to cut over a piece of fabric.

Once the fabric is cut and marked correctly, proced to laser cutting all the 16 pieces (or more) for 8 USB holders (or more)... The advantage is the saving of time and effort in measuring, cutting and marking, this will be done automatically by the laser cuter using, in around 3 minutes.

The time in which the laser cutter cuts the material, could be used to have all the sewing machine ready, getting the proper thread, proper foot, the proper needle, selecting the stitch (according to the presser foot used), threading the machine, etc.

== Preparation of both pieces of fabric ==

Trace the USB drive dividing lines with chalk. The image above can be printed as reference sheet, it can serve as a guide to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers. 

Place both fabrics one over the other. 

In case of using bright colors, these colors should be outside, and the darker colors (if any inside, touching each other.

Use sewing pins to hold them together. 

Cut frontal fabric (where the usb are going to be inserted) before sewing, this will give enough space to insert and cover the height of the flash drives, but not so tall that it becomes difficult to take the flash drives out. 

The rear fabric will be taller since the upper area will be folded to cover the upper part of the frontal panel.

== Sew both pieces of fabric ==

1.- Sew the lateral and bottom sides of the rear and frontal squares, this can be done in a single sew:

a.- Start sewing from one of the upper corners, when in the inferior corner, lift the foot, rotate, and put down the foot.

b.- Continue sewing toward the opposite corner, lift the foot.

This will be a L shape. It is done in this way to ensure each pocket will be wide enough to hold usb flash drives, and no space is narrower than necessary.

2.- Start sewing along the first dividing line.

Since all the lines are marked with chalk, start sewing over the line side closer to the L. But give enough space, more than the necessary.

This is done to ensure the usb flash drive will fit in its space, and if the pocket is to wide, can be fixed adding a second divisor line to reduce this space.

3.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a second usb flash drive.

4.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a third usb flash drive.

Note: Repeat if you want to make a 5 usb flash drive holder.

5.- Complete the sewing frome the other corner from bottome to top, until the end of where both fabrics are located. End with a reverse sew of 4 stitches. 

Since the carrier will carry 4 usb drives, and since thread is used to separate the spaces, the wide for the usb drive sewing  it will have 4 inches long and 5 inches wide. The 3 lines in the middle to separate the spaces and create a 4 usb drive the holder.

A bottom or velcro can be used to close the holder or can be left just as it is.

== Additional information ==

Even when this information is  not necessary for the laboratory, the following sections explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software.

The process I use to develop a project are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper left
| 4 inches above the first dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper right
| 7.5 inches from the left side
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom right
| Completes the rectangle
|}

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper left
| 3 inches above the lower left dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper right
| 3 inches above the lower right dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom right
| Reference point for the upper right dot
|}

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

Note: The front fabric height was increased from 2.5 to 3 inches to accommodate standard USB flash drive sizes.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

The final file o  was added to wikimedia as svg file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== See also ==

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_(sewing)

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      <text bytes="10018" sha1="3koq8y7v49k81il19l1gelq34iu0mok" xml:space="preserve">In this laboratory we will make a USB carrier, the use of this carriers is to prevent the loss of USB memory drives and to have them in a defined place, they can be added to other tools such as bags, backpacks or just carry them in your pocket.

Carriers can hold one or more usb drive, in this case we are going to make a carrier that can hold 4 usb memory drives.

== Materials and tools needed ==

0.5 Yards Cotton fabric (18 inches long): The fabric to buy will have at least 4 inches long and 12 inches wide. Since the holder will have 2 sides, that requires a fabric of 8x12 inches wide. We will add 2 inches more for the cover (4 + 2 inches = 6 inches long), the fabric that will use 10 inches long, 12 inches wide, this measures may change according the size of your usb drive or according your own design. 0.5 yards fabric will be more than enough (18 inches by 12 inches).

Measuring tape or ruler.

Scissors.

Sewing machine.

Chalk to draw the lines in the fabric for cutting and sewing guide.

== Measuring one USB memory stick ==

When measuring your drive you will need a measuring tape or ruler, and will get the following measures:

Length of the USB drive: Example: 3 inches

Wide of your USB drive: Example: 1 inch

== USB carrier template or pattern  ==

[[File:USB Holder.svg|thumb|Real size measures of a a USB holder for 4 usb drives.]]

Open and print the upper image or sheet it include real size measures as reference to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers as is explained below, then sew both fabrics or sides of the squares together.

== Drawing the Cutting the 2 fabric parts ==

We are going to use 2 squares, they will be the back of the carrier and one the frontal part of the carrier, for this we will calculate their measures.

=== Dimensions for the rear fabric section ===

The back of the carrier will be bigger since it will have the cover section that will prevent the flash drive to go out of the carrier, since the length of the carrier is 3 inches we are going to add one more inch to the length of this fabric section.

Length: 5 inches.

The wide of the carrier will be 1 inch for each USB drive space, since these spaces are going to be sew, we are going to add one more inch to prevent having a narrow carrier space.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut the rear square.

=== Dimensions for the frontal fabric section ===

The frontal part of the carrier will have the same dimensions than the previous one, but it will be only 3 inches long, this is the height of the usb drives.

Length: 3 inches.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut this frontal fabric square.

== Laser cutting the fabric (optional) ==

{{Main|Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Laboratory/Laser cutting fabric parts for a USB holder}}

Note: If in your setting do not have a laser cutter, please skip this step, cut will scissors or with rotary cutter instead.

The measuring and hand cutting step can be bypassed when using laser cutting machines, such ULS or Glowforge.For this, download the image (it is an svg file), and follow the steps of the guide to cut ULS or Glowforge. 

To prevent waste of materials, do a initial testing on paper, to ensure a proper cutting (laser cutting) and proper line making (engraving. once a proper cut and marking is made in paper, proceed to cut over a piece of fabric.

Once the fabric is cut and marked correctly, proced to laser cutting all the 16 pieces (or more) for 8 USB holders (or more)... The advantage is the saving of time and effort in measuring, cutting and marking, this will be done automatically by the laser cuter using, in around 3 minutes.

The time in which the laser cutter cuts the material, could be used to have all the sewing machine ready, getting the proper thread, proper foot, the proper needle, selecting the stitch (according to the presser foot used), threading the machine, etc.

== Preparation of both pieces of fabric ==

Trace the USB drive dividing lines with chalk. The image above can be printed as reference sheet, it can serve as a guide to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers. 

Place both fabrics one over the other. 

In case of using bright colors, these colors should be outside, and the darker colors (if any inside, touching each other.

Use sewing pins to hold them together. 

Cut frontal fabric (where the usb are going to be inserted) before sewing, this will give enough space to insert and cover the height of the flash drives, but not so tall that it becomes difficult to take the flash drives out. 

The rear fabric will be taller since the upper area will be folded to cover the upper part of the frontal panel.

== Sew both pieces of fabric ==

1.- Sew the lateral and bottom sides of the rear and frontal squares, this can be done in a single sew:

a.- Start sewing from one of the upper corners, when in the inferior corner, lift the foot, rotate, and put down the foot.

b.- Continue sewing toward the opposite corner, lift the foot.

This will be a L shape. It is done in this way to ensure each pocket will be wide enough to hold usb flash drives, and no space is narrower than necessary.

2.- Start sewing along the first dividing line.

Since all the lines are marked with chalk, start sewing over the line side closer to the L. But give enough space, more than the necessary.

This is done to ensure the usb flash drive will fit in its space, and if the pocket is to wide, can be fixed adding a second divisor line to reduce this space.

3.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a second usb flash drive.

4.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a third usb flash drive.

Note: Repeat if you want to make a 5 usb flash drive holder.

5.- Complete the sewing frome the other corner from bottome to top, until the end of where both fabrics are located. End with a reverse sew of 4 stitches. 

Since the carrier will carry 4 usb drives, and since thread is used to separate the spaces, the wide for the usb drive sewing  it will have 4 inches long and 5 inches wide. The 3 lines in the middle to separate the spaces and create a 4 usb drive the holder.

A bottom or velcro can be used to close the holder or can be left just as it is.

== Additional information ==

Even when this information is  not necessary for the laboratory, the following sections explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software.

The process I use to develop a project are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper left
| 4 inches above the first dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper right
| 4 inches above the fourth dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom right
| Completes the rectangle
|}

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper left
| 3 inches above the lower left dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper right
| 3 inches above the lower right dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom right
| Reference point for the upper right dot
|}

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

Note: The front fabric height was increased from 2.5 to 3 inches to accommodate standard USB flash drive sizes.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

The final file o  was added to wikimedia as svg file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== See also ==

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_(sewing)

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      <text bytes="7001" sha1="1emmr880yilzz1bjoigj9s0bs6xj3l0" xml:space="preserve">In this laboratory we will make a USB carrier, the use of this carriers is to prevent the loss of USB memory drives and to have them in a defined place, they can be added to other tools such as bags, backpacks or just carry them in your pocket.

Carriers can hold one or more usb drive, in this case we are going to make a carrier that can hold 4 usb memory drives.

== Materials and tools needed ==

0.5 Yards Cotton fabric (18 inches long): The fabric to buy will have at least 4 inches long and 12 inches wide. Since the holder will have 2 sides, that requires a fabric of 8x12 inches wide. We will add 2 inches more for the cover (4 + 2 inches = 6 inches long), the fabric that will use 10 inches long, 12 inches wide, this measures may change according the size of your usb drive or according your own design. 0.5 yards fabric will be more than enough (18 inches by 12 inches).

Measuring tape or ruler.

Scissors.

Sewing machine.

Chalk to draw the lines in the fabric for cutting and sewing guide.

== Measuring one USB memory stick ==

When measuring your drive you will need a measuring tape or ruler, and will get the following measures:

Length of the USB drive: Example: 3 inches

Wide of your USB drive: Example: 1 inch

== USB carrier template or pattern  ==

[[File:USB Holder.svg|thumb|Real size measures of a a USB holder for 4 usb drives.]]

Open and print the upper image or sheet it include real size measures as reference to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers as is explained below, then sew both fabrics or sides of the squares together.

== Drawing the Cutting the 2 fabric parts ==

We are going to use 2 squares, they will be the back of the carrier and one the frontal part of the carrier, for this we will calculate their measures.

=== Dimensions for the rear fabric section ===

The back of the carrier will be bigger since it will have the cover section that will prevent the flash drive to go out of the carrier, since the length of the carrier is 3 inches we are going to add one more inch to the length of this fabric section.

Length: 5 inches.

The wide of the carrier will be 1 inch for each USB drive space, since these spaces are going to be sew, we are going to add one more inch to prevent having a narrow carrier space.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut the rear square.

=== Dimensions for the frontal fabric section ===

The frontal part of the carrier will have the same dimensions than the previous one, but it will be only 3 inches long, this is the height of the usb drives.

Length: 3 inches.

Wide: 5 inches.

Draw with chalk this measures over the fabric and cut this frontal fabric square.

== Laser cutting the fabric (optional) ==

{{Main|Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Laboratory/Laser cutting fabric parts for a USB holder}}

Note: If in your setting do not have a laser cutter, please skip this step, cut will scissors or with rotary cutter instead.

The measuring and hand cutting step can be bypassed when using laser cutting machines, such ULS or Glowforge.For this, download the image (it is an svg file), and follow the steps of the guide to cut ULS or Glowforge. 

To prevent waste of materials, do a initial testing on paper, to ensure a proper cutting (laser cutting) and proper line making (engraving. once a proper cut and marking is made in paper, proceed to cut over a piece of fabric.

Once the fabric is cut and marked correctly, proced to laser cutting all the 16 pieces (or more) for 8 USB holders (or more)... The advantage is the saving of time and effort in measuring, cutting and marking, this will be done automatically by the laser cuter using, in around 3 minutes.

The time in which the laser cutter cuts the material, could be used to have all the sewing machine ready, getting the proper thread, proper foot, the proper needle, selecting the stitch (according to the presser foot used), threading the machine, etc.

== Preparation of both pieces of fabric ==

Trace the USB drive dividing lines with chalk. The image above can be printed as reference sheet, it can serve as a guide to draw with chalk for the lines for the dividers. 

Place both fabrics one over the other. 

In case of using bright colors, these colors should be outside, and the darker colors (if any inside, touching each other.

Use sewing pins to hold them together. 

Cut frontal fabric (where the usb are going to be inserted) before sewing, this will give enough space to insert and cover the height of the flash drives, but not so tall that it becomes difficult to take the flash drives out. 

The rear fabric will be taller since the upper area will be folded to cover the upper part of the frontal panel.

== Sew both pieces of fabric ==

1.- Sew the lateral and bottom sides of the rear and frontal squares, this can be done in a single sew:

a.- Start sewing from one of the upper corners, when in the inferior corner, lift the foot, rotate, and put down the foot.

b.- Continue sewing toward the opposite corner, lift the foot.

This will be a L shape. It is done in this way to ensure each pocket will be wide enough to hold usb flash drives, and no space is narrower than necessary.

2.- Start sewing along the first dividing line.

Since all the lines are marked with chalk, start sewing over the line side closer to the L. But give enough space, more than the necessary.

This is done to ensure the usb flash drive will fit in its space, and if the pocket is to wide, can be fixed adding a second divisor line to reduce this space.

3.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a second usb flash drive.

4.- Start sewing along the second dividing line, also give extra space. This will form the pocket for a third usb flash drive.

Note: Repeat if you want to make a 5 usb flash drive holder.

5.- Complete the sewing frome the other corner from bottome to top, until the end of where both fabrics are located. End with a reverse sew of 4 stitches. 

Since the carrier will carry 4 usb drives, and since thread is used to separate the spaces, the wide for the usb drive sewing  it will have 4 inches long and 5 inches wide. The 3 lines in the middle to separate the spaces and create a 4 usb drive the holder.

A bottom or velcro can be used to close the holder or can be left just as it is.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

The final file o  was added to wikimedia as svg file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== See also ==

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_(sewing)

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Porsche/VIN Codes</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:43:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JustTheFacts33</username>
        <id>3434282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Position 5, Engine: */</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="28193" sha1="jeyfmynfxc99mdbyei37c5h0rqf6n53" xml:space="preserve">{{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}}

===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:===  
* WP0 - Porsche passenger car
* WP1 - Porsche SUV

===Position 4, Body Style:===
'''924:'''
* A = Coupe
'''944:'''
* A = Coupe
* B = Cabriolet (1989 only)
* C = Cabriolet (1990-1991)
'''968/Boxster/Cayman/718:'''
* A = Coupe
* C = Cabriolet
'''928:'''
* J = Coupe (1981-1990)
* A = Coupe (1991-1995)
'''911:'''
* A = Coupe (Except Type 930 Turbo coupe)
* B = Targa (911 - Type 964/996/997/991/992)
* C = Cabriolet (911 - Type 964/993/996/997/991/992) or Speedster (Type 964/997/991) or Roadster (Type 964)
* D = Targa (911 - Type 993)
* E = Targa or Cabriolet (911 [1981-1989] or 911 Turbo - Type 930 [1987-1989]) or Speedster (911 - 1989)
* J = Turbo Coupe (911 - Type 930 [US: 1986-1989, Canada: 1981-1989])
'''Carrera GT / 918 Spyder:'''
* C = Cabriolet
'''Panamera / Taycan:'''
* A = sedan (SWB)
* B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan)
* C = Sport Turismo
'''Macan / Cayenne:'''
* A = SUV (wagon)
* B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe or Cayenne Electric Coupe)

===Position 5, Engine:===
'''924:'''

Type 924:
*A = 2.0L SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 110 hp (924 '81-'82)

Type 931:
*A = 2.0L turbo SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 154 hp (924 Turbo '81-'82)

Type 924:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (924S '87)
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (924S '88)

'''944:'''

Type 944:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 143 hp (944 [base model] '83-'86)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (944 [base model] '87)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (944 [base model] '88)
*A = 2.5L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 188 hp (944S '87-'88)
*A = 2.7L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 163 hp (944 [base model] '89)
*B = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [coupe only], '90-'91 [coupe &amp; cabriolet])
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [cabriolet only])

Type 951:
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.51 I4, 217 hp (944 Turbo '86-'88)
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo S '88, Turbo '89)
*C = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo '90 [Canada only])

'''968:'''
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 236 hp ('92-'95)

'''928:'''
*A = 4.5L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 220 hp (928 '81-'82)
*B = 4.7L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 234 hp (928 S '83-'84)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 288 hp (928 S '85-'86)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '87-'90)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '89-'90)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '91)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '91)
*A = 5.4L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 345 hp (928 GTS '93-'95)

'''Boxster/Cayman:'''

Type 986:
*A = 2.5L flat-6, 201 hp (Boxster '97-'99)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 217 hp (Boxster '00-'02)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 225 hp (Boxster '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 250 hp (Boxster S '00-'02)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 258 hp (Boxster S '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 264 hp (Boxster S 50 Years of the 550 Spyder Anniversary Edition '04)

Type 987:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 240 hp (Boxster '05-'06)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 245 hp (Boxster '07-'08, Limited Edition '08), 245 hp (Cayman '07-'08)
*A = 2.9L flat-6, 255 hp (Boxster '09-'12), 265 hp (Cayman '09-'12)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 280 hp (Boxster S '05-'06)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 295 hp (Boxster S '07-'08, S Limited Edition '08), 295 hp (Cayman S '06-'08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 310 hp (Boxster S '09-'12), 320 hp (Cayman S '09-'12)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 303 hp (Boxster S Porsche Design Edition 2 '08, RS 60 Spyder '08), 303 hp (Cayman S Sport '08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 320 hp (Boxster S Black Edition '12, Spyder '11-'12), 330 hp (Cayman S Black Edition '12, Cayman R '12)

Type 981:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 265 hp (Boxster '13-'16, Boxster Black Edition '16), 275 hp (Cayman '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 315 hp (Boxster S '13-'16), 325 hp (Cayman S '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 330 hp (Boxster GTS '15-'16), 340 hp (Cayman GTS '15-'16)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 375 hp (Boxster Spyder '16), 385 hp (Cayman GT4 '16)

'''718 Boxster/Cayman:''' 

Type 982:
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 300 hp &lt;br&gt; (718 Boxster '17-'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S '17-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS '18-'19)
*D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23)
*E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25)

'''911:'''

Type 911: (G-Series body)
*B = 3.0L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/16), 172 hp (911 SC Coupe/Targa '81-'83, Cabriolet '83)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/21), 200 hp (911 Carrera '84-'86)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/25), 214 hp (911 Carrera '87-'89, Club Sport '88-'89, Speedster '89)

Type 930: (G-Series body)
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/60 ['81-'82], 930/66 ['83-'87]), 296 hp (911 Turbo Canada: '81-'87)&lt;br&gt; (Coupe: '81-'87, Targa/Cabriolet: '87) regular or slant-nose ('87 coupe &amp; cabriolet)
*B = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/68), 282 hp (911 Turbo US: '86-'89, Canada '88-'89) (Coupe: '86-'89, Targa/Cabriolet: '87-'89) regular or slant-nose

Type 964:
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 247 hp (911 Carrera 2 '90-'94, Targa '90-'94, 911 America Roadster '92-'93, RS America '93-'94, Speedster '94,&lt;br&gt; Carrera 4 '89-'94, Carrera 4 Widebody Coupe '94, Carrera 4 Targa '90-'93)
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 256 hp (911 Carrera Cup USA Edition '92) coupe
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M30 flat-6, 315 hp (911 Turbo '91-'92) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 355 hp (911 Turbo 3.6 '94) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 380 hp (911 Turbo S 3.6 '94) coupe, flat-nose (slant-nose) coupe

Type 993:
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 270 hp (911 Carrera '95, Carrera 4 '95)
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 282 hp (911 Carrera '96-'98, Targa '96-'98, Carrera S '97-'98, Carrera 4 '96-'98, Carrera 4S '96-'98)
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 400 hp (911 Turbo '96-'97) coupe
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 424 hp (911 Turbo S '97) coupe

Type 996:
*A = 3.4L DOHC 24-valve water-cooled flat-6, 296 hp (911 Carrera '99, Carrera 4 '99)
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 300 hp (911 Carrera '00-'01, Carrera 4 '00-'01)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 320 hp (911 Carrera '02-'04, Carrera Cabriolet '05, Targa '02-'05, Carrera 4 '02-'04, Carrera 4S '03-'05)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera 40th Anniversary Edition '04) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 415 hp (911 Turbo '01-'05) (Coupe: '01-'05, Cabriolet: '04-'05)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 444 hp (911 Turbo S '05) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 381 hp (911 GT3 '04-'05) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 456 hp (911 GT2 '02-'03) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 477 hp (911 GT2 '04) coupe

Type 997:
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 325 hp (911 Carrera '05-'08, Carrera 4 '06-'08, Targa 4 '07-'08)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera '09-'12, Carrera Black Edition coupe/cabriolet '12, Carrera 4 '09-'12, Targa 4 '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 355 hp (911 Carrera S '05-'08, Carrera 4S '06-'08, Targa 4S '07-'08)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 385 hp (911 Carrera S '09-'12, Carrera 4S '09-'12, Targa 4S '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 381 hp (911 Carrera S Club Coupe '06)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 408 hp (911 Carrera GTS '11-'12, Carrera 4 GTS '12, Speedster '11)
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 480 hp (911 Turbo '07-'09) (Coupe: '07-'09, Cabriolet: '08-'09)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 500 hp (911 Turbo '10-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 Turbo S '11-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo S Cabriolet Edition 918 Spyder '12)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 435 hp (911 GT3 '10-'11) coupe
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 RS '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 450 hp (911 GT3 RS '10-'11) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS 4.0 '11) coupe
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 GT2 '08-'09) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 620 hp (911 GT2 RS '11) coupe

Type 991.1:
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 350 hp (911 Carrera '12-'16, Carrera 4 '13-'16, Targa 4 '14-'16)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 400 hp (911 Carrera S '12-'16, Carrera 4S '13-'16, Targa 4S '14-'16, 911 50th Anniversary Edition coupe '14)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 430 hp (911 Carrera GTS '15-'16, Carrera 4 GTS '15-'16, Targa 4 GTS '16)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 520 hp (911 Turbo '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 560 hp (911 Turbo S '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 475 hp (911 GT3 '14-'15) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS '16, 911 R '16) coupe

Type 991.2:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '17-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '17-'19, Targa 4 '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '17-'19, Carrera 4S '17-'19, Targa 4S '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '17-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '17-'19, Targa 4 GTS '17-'19)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series - Coupe '18, Cabriolet '19) 
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '18-'19) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '19) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '18-'19) coupe

Type 992:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24)
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-, Carrera T Club Coupe '26)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24)
*H = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar coupe '23-'24)
*B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 cabriolet '26)
*G = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) coupe
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo 50 Years coupe '25)
*D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) coupe

'''Carrera GT:'''

*A = 5.7L Porsche M80.01 68° V10, 605 hp (Carrera GT '04-'05)

'''918 Spyder:'''

*A = PHEV: 4.6L Porsche M18 flat-plane crank V8 + 2 electric motors (1 front, 1 rear), Lithium-ion battery, 887 total system hp (918 Spyder '15)

'''Panamera:'''

Type 970:
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 300 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '11-'13)
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 310 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '14-'16)
*D = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Panamera S Hybrid '12-'13)
*D = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Panamera S E-Hybrid '14-'16)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Panamera S, 4S '10-'13)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.60 90° V6, 420 hp (Panamera S, 4S '14-'16)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 430 hp (Panamera GTS '13)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 440 hp (Panamera GTS '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Panamera Turbo '10-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Panamera Turbo '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo S '12-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Panamera Turbo S '15-'16)

Type 971 &amp; 976:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '17-'20)
*J = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23)
*A = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '18-'23)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '17-'20)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23)
*K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo '17-'20)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23)
*F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '18-'20)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-)

'''Taycan:'''
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 321 hp (402 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 375 hp (469 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24)
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 429 hp (522 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 482 hp (562 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 455 hp (536 hp on overboost) (82.3 Kwh battery) or 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 596 hp (690 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (670 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (750 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 697 hp (871 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 764 hp (938 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 777 hp (1019 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-)

'''Macan:'''
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 248 hp (Macan '17-'21)
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 340 hp (Macan S '15-'18)
*B = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-)
*G = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS '17-'18)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo '15-'18)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package '17-'18)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21)

'''Macan Electric:'''
*D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 335 hp (355 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 382 hp (402 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 442 hp (509 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (563 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 576 hp (630 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-)

'''Cayenne:'''

955/957 or 9PA:
*A = 3.2L (3189cc) VW EA390 15° VR6, 247 hp (Cayenne '04-'06)
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° FSI VR6, 290 hp (Cayenne '08-'10)
*B = 4.5L Porsche M48 V8, 340 hp (Cayenne S '03-'06, S Titanium Edition '06)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 385 hp (Cayenne S '08-'10)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 405 hp (Cayenne GTS '08-'10, S Transsyberia '10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 450 hp (Cayenne Turbo '03-'06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '08-'10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '09-'10)

958 or 92A:
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° VR6, 300 hp (Cayenne '11-'14, '16-'18)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Cayenne S '11-'14)
*B = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 420 hp (Cayenne S '15-'18)
*E = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Cayenne S Hybrid '11-'14)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '15-'18)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 420 hp (Cayenne GTS '13-'14)
*D = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Cayenne GTS '16-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '11-'14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo '15-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '16-'18)
*F = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA897 90° Diesel V6, 240 hp (Cayenne Diesel '13-'16)

9YA/9YB:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe '20-'23)
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-, Cayenne Coupe '24-)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '24-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23, Cayenne S Coupe '20-'23)
*L = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-, Cayenne S Coupe '24-)
*N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe S E-Hybrid '24-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23, Cayenne Coupe GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-, Cayenne Coupe GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo '20-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 729 hp (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe Turbo E-Hybrid '24-)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-)

'''Cayenne Electric:'''
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (435 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe '26-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (657 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric S '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe S '26-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 844 hp (1139 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe Turbo '26-)

===Position 6, Restraint Systems:===
*1 = Seat Belts only
*2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags)

===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 7
!VIN Pos. 7-8
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|92
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|93
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|92
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|94
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|95
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|96
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|92
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|98
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|98
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|A8
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|A8
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|A8
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|91
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|93
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|96
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|99
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|99
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|99
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|A9
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|A9
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|A9
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|98
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|A1
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|A7
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|A7
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|YA
|
|Panamera (2024-)
|976
|-
|Y1
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|A5
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|XA
|
|Macan Electric (2024-)
|XAB
|-
|9P
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|AP
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A2
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|AY
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|-
|X1
|
|Cayenne Electric (2026-)
|E4
|}

===Position 9, Check Digit===
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]]

===Position 10, Model Year: ===                      
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]]

===Position 11, Production Plant:===
* S:    Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany (All 911, 968, 928, 918 Spyder, and Taycan. Boxster '97-'06, '09-'16, 718 Boxster '17-'24, Cayman '12, 718 Cayman '17-'24)&lt;br&gt; (Also: Type 937 - 924 Carrera GTS/GTR [N/A in US/Canada], a few late '91 944 S2 coupe &amp; cabriolet [RoW-spec]), 959 [N/A in US/Canada]
* L:    Leipzig, Germany (Cayenne '03-'18, Carrera GT '04-'05, Panamera '10-, Macan '15-'26, Macan Electric '24-)
* D:    Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-, Cayenne Electric '26-)
* K:    Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25)
* N:    Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) (includes Type 937 - 924 Carrera GT [N/A in US/Canada])
* U:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12)

Note: RoW=Rest of World (non-US/Canada markets)

===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code===
Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 12
!VIN Pos. 12
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|4
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|1
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|4
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|4
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|1
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|8
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|8
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|6
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|7
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|7
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|1
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|2
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|1
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|0
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|4
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|3
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|6
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|7
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|7
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|1
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|2
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|0
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|8
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|0
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|1
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|A
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|B
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|A
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|A
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|A
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|}

'''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number'''

'''Select Porsche equipment codes:'''

*C02 - Made for USA market (49 states thru 1990, all of USA from 1991)
*C03 - Made for California market
*C04 - Made for Puerto Rico market
*C36 - Made for Canada market

*M505 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])
*M506 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])

*X85 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X83 - Japan market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X84 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])

*498 - Delete Model Designation-Rear

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>jeyfmynfxc99mdbyei37c5h0rqf6n53</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654601</id>
      <parentid>4654600</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:45:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JustTheFacts33</username>
        <id>3434282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Position 5, Engine: */</comment>
      <origin>4654601</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="28203" sha1="fi6omtokwvpvaiywhdf755fpmzqa022" xml:space="preserve">{{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}}

===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:===  
* WP0 - Porsche passenger car
* WP1 - Porsche SUV

===Position 4, Body Style:===
'''924:'''
* A = Coupe
'''944:'''
* A = Coupe
* B = Cabriolet (1989 only)
* C = Cabriolet (1990-1991)
'''968/Boxster/Cayman/718:'''
* A = Coupe
* C = Cabriolet
'''928:'''
* J = Coupe (1981-1990)
* A = Coupe (1991-1995)
'''911:'''
* A = Coupe (Except Type 930 Turbo coupe)
* B = Targa (911 - Type 964/996/997/991/992)
* C = Cabriolet (911 - Type 964/993/996/997/991/992) or Speedster (Type 964/997/991) or Roadster (Type 964)
* D = Targa (911 - Type 993)
* E = Targa or Cabriolet (911 [1981-1989] or 911 Turbo - Type 930 [1987-1989]) or Speedster (911 - 1989)
* J = Turbo Coupe (911 - Type 930 [US: 1986-1989, Canada: 1981-1989])
'''Carrera GT / 918 Spyder:'''
* C = Cabriolet
'''Panamera / Taycan:'''
* A = sedan (SWB)
* B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan)
* C = Sport Turismo
'''Macan / Cayenne:'''
* A = SUV (wagon)
* B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe or Cayenne Electric Coupe)

===Position 5, Engine:===
'''924:'''

Type 924:
*A = 2.0L SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 110 hp (924 '81-'82)

Type 931:
*A = 2.0L turbo SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 154 hp (924 Turbo '81-'82)

Type 924:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (924S '87)
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (924S '88)

'''944:'''

Type 944:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 143 hp (944 [base model] '83-'86)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (944 [base model] '87)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (944 [base model] '88)
*A = 2.5L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 188 hp (944S '87-'88)
*A = 2.7L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 163 hp (944 [base model] '89)
*B = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [coupe only], '90-'91 [coupe &amp; cabriolet])
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [cabriolet only])

Type 951:
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.51 I4, 217 hp (944 Turbo '86-'88)
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo S '88, Turbo '89)
*C = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo '90 [Canada only])

'''968:'''
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 236 hp ('92-'95)

'''928:'''
*A = 4.5L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 220 hp (928 '81-'82)
*B = 4.7L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 234 hp (928 S '83-'84)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 288 hp (928 S '85-'86)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '87-'90)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '89-'90)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '91)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '91)
*A = 5.4L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 345 hp (928 GTS '93-'95)

'''Boxster/Cayman:'''

Type 986:
*A = 2.5L flat-6, 201 hp (Boxster '97-'99)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 217 hp (Boxster '00-'02)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 225 hp (Boxster '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 250 hp (Boxster S '00-'02)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 258 hp (Boxster S '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 264 hp (Boxster S 50 Years of the 550 Spyder Anniversary Edition '04)

Type 987:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 240 hp (Boxster '05-'06)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 245 hp (Boxster '07-'08, Limited Edition '08), 245 hp (Cayman '07-'08)
*A = 2.9L flat-6, 255 hp (Boxster '09-'12), 265 hp (Cayman '09-'12)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 280 hp (Boxster S '05-'06)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 295 hp (Boxster S '07-'08, S Limited Edition '08), 295 hp (Cayman S '06-'08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 310 hp (Boxster S '09-'12), 320 hp (Cayman S '09-'12)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 303 hp (Boxster S Porsche Design Edition 2 '08, RS 60 Spyder '08), 303 hp (Cayman S Sport '08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 320 hp (Boxster S Black Edition '12, Spyder '11-'12), 330 hp (Cayman S Black Edition '12, Cayman R '12)

Type 981:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 265 hp (Boxster '13-'16, Boxster Black Edition '16), 275 hp (Cayman '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 315 hp (Boxster S '13-'16), 325 hp (Cayman S '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 330 hp (Boxster GTS '15-'16), 340 hp (Cayman GTS '15-'16)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 375 hp (Boxster Spyder '16), 385 hp (Cayman GT4 '16)

'''718 Boxster/Cayman:''' 

Type 982:
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 300 hp &lt;br&gt; (718 Boxster '17-'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S '17-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS '18-'19)
*D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23)
*E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25)

'''911:'''

Type 911: (G-Series body)
*B = 3.0L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/16), 172 hp (911 SC Coupe/Targa '81-'83, Cabriolet '83)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/21), 200 hp (911 Carrera '84-'86)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/25), 214 hp (911 Carrera '87-'89, Club Sport '88-'89, Speedster '89)

Type 930: (G-Series body)
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/60 ['81-'82], 930/66 ['83-'87]), 296 hp (911 Turbo Canada: '81-'87)&lt;br&gt; (Coupe: '81-'87, Targa/Cabriolet: '87) regular or slant-nose ('87 coupe &amp; cabriolet)
*B = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/68), 282 hp (911 Turbo US: '86-'89, Canada '88-'89) (Coupe: '86-'89, Targa/Cabriolet: '87-'89) regular or slant-nose

Type 964:
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 247 hp (911 Carrera 2 '90-'94, Targa '90-'94, 911 America Roadster '92-'93, RS America '93-'94, Speedster '94,&lt;br&gt; Carrera 4 '89-'94, Carrera 4 Widebody Coupe '94, Carrera 4 Targa '90-'93)
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 256 hp (911 Carrera Cup USA Edition '92) coupe
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M30 flat-6, 315 hp (911 Turbo '91-'92) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 355 hp (911 Turbo 3.6 '94) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 380 hp (911 Turbo S 3.6 '94) coupe, flat-nose (slant-nose) coupe

Type 993:
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 270 hp (911 Carrera '95, Carrera 4 '95)
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 282 hp (911 Carrera '96-'98, Targa '96-'98, Carrera S '97-'98, Carrera 4 '96-'98, Carrera 4S '96-'98)
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 400 hp (911 Turbo '96-'97) coupe
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 424 hp (911 Turbo S '97) coupe

Type 996:
*A = 3.4L DOHC 24-valve water-cooled flat-6, 296 hp (911 Carrera '99, Carrera 4 '99)
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 300 hp (911 Carrera '00-'01, Carrera 4 '00-'01)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 320 hp (911 Carrera '02-'04, Carrera Cabriolet '05, Targa '02-'05, Carrera 4 '02-'04, Carrera 4S '03-'05)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera 40th Anniversary Edition '04) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 415 hp (911 Turbo '01-'05) (Coupe: '01-'05, Cabriolet: '04-'05)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 444 hp (911 Turbo S '05) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 381 hp (911 GT3 '04-'05) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 456 hp (911 GT2 '02-'03) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 477 hp (911 GT2 '04) coupe

Type 997:
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 325 hp (911 Carrera '05-'08, Carrera 4 '06-'08, Targa 4 '07-'08)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera '09-'12, Carrera Black Edition coupe/cabriolet '12, Carrera 4 '09-'12, Targa 4 '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 355 hp (911 Carrera S '05-'08, Carrera 4S '06-'08, Targa 4S '07-'08)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 385 hp (911 Carrera S '09-'12, Carrera 4S '09-'12, Targa 4S '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 381 hp (911 Carrera S Club Coupe '06)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 408 hp (911 Carrera GTS '11-'12, Carrera 4 GTS '12, Speedster '11)
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 480 hp (911 Turbo '07-'09) (Coupe: '07-'09, Cabriolet: '08-'09)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 500 hp (911 Turbo '10-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 Turbo S '11-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo S Cabriolet Edition 918 Spyder '12)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 435 hp (911 GT3 '10-'11) coupe
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 RS '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 450 hp (911 GT3 RS '10-'11) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS 4.0 '11) coupe
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 GT2 '08-'09) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 620 hp (911 GT2 RS '11) coupe

Type 991.1:
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 350 hp (911 Carrera '12-'16, Carrera 4 '13-'16, Targa 4 '14-'16)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 400 hp (911 Carrera S '12-'16, Carrera 4S '13-'16, Targa 4S '14-'16, 911 50th Anniversary Edition coupe '14)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 430 hp (911 Carrera GTS '15-'16, Carrera 4 GTS '15-'16, Targa 4 GTS '16)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 520 hp (911 Turbo '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 560 hp (911 Turbo S '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 475 hp (911 GT3 '14-'15) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS '16, 911 R '16) coupe

Type 991.2:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '17-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '17-'19, Targa 4 '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '17-'19, Carrera 4S '17-'19, Targa 4S '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '17-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '17-'19, Targa 4 GTS '17-'19)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series - Coupe '18, Cabriolet '19) 
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '18-'19) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '19) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '18-'19) coupe

Type 992:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24)
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-, Carrera T Club Coupe '26)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24)
*H = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar coupe '23-'24)
*B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 cabriolet '26)
*G = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) coupe
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo 50 Years coupe '25)
*D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) coupe

'''Carrera GT:'''

*A = 5.7L Porsche M80.01 68° V10, 605 hp (Carrera GT '04-'05)

'''918 Spyder:'''

*A = PHEV: 4.6L Porsche M18 flat-plane crank V8 + 2 electric motors (1 front, 1 rear), Lithium-ion battery, 887 total system hp (918 Spyder '15)

'''Panamera:'''

Type 970:
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 300 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '11-'13)
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 310 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '14-'16)
*D = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Panamera S Hybrid '12-'13)
*D = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Panamera S E-Hybrid '14-'16)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Panamera S, 4S '10-'13)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.60 90° V6, 420 hp (Panamera S, 4S '14-'16)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 430 hp (Panamera GTS '13)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 440 hp (Panamera GTS '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Panamera Turbo '10-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Panamera Turbo '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo S '12-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Panamera Turbo S '15-'16)

Type 971 &amp; 976:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '17-'20)
*J = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23)
*A = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '18-'23)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '17-'20)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23)
*K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo '17-'20)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23)
*F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '18-'20)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-)

'''Taycan:'''
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 321 hp (402 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 375 hp (469 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24)
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 429 hp (522 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 482 hp (562 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 455 hp (536 hp on overboost) (82.3 Kwh battery) or 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 596 hp (690 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (670 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (750 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 697 hp (871 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 764 hp (938 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 777 hp (1019 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-)

'''Macan:'''
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 248 hp (Macan '17-'21)
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 340 hp (Macan S '15-'18)
*B = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-)
*G = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS '17-'18)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo '15-'18)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package '17-'18)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21)

'''Macan Electric:'''
*D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 335 hp (355 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 382 hp (402 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 442 hp (509 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (563 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 576 hp (630 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-)

'''Cayenne:'''

955/957 or 9PA:
*A = 3.2L (3189cc) VW EA390 15° VR6, 247 hp (Cayenne '04-'06)
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° FSI VR6, 290 hp (Cayenne '08-'10)
*B = 4.5L Porsche M48 V8, 340 hp (Cayenne S '03-'06, S Titanium Edition '06)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 385 hp (Cayenne S '08-'10)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 405 hp (Cayenne GTS '08-'10, S Transsyberia '10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 450 hp (Cayenne Turbo '03-'06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '08-'10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '09-'10)

958 or 92A:
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° VR6, 300 hp (Cayenne '11-'14, '16-'18)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Cayenne S '11-'14)
*B = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 420 hp (Cayenne S '15-'18)
*E = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Cayenne S Hybrid '11-'14)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '15-'18)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 420 hp (Cayenne GTS '13-'14)
*D = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Cayenne GTS '16-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '11-'14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo '15-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '16-'18)
*F = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA897 90° Diesel V6, 240 hp (Cayenne Diesel '13-'16)

9YA/9YB:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe '20-'23)
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-, Cayenne Coupe '24-)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '24-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23, Cayenne S Coupe '20-'23)
*L = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-, Cayenne S Coupe '24-)
*N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe S E-Hybrid '24-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23, Cayenne Coupe GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-, Cayenne Coupe GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo '20-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp &lt;br&gt; (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 729 hp &lt;br&gt; (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe Turbo E-Hybrid '24-)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-)

'''Cayenne Electric:'''
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (435 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe '26-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (657 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric S '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe S '26-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 844 hp (1139 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe Turbo '26-)

===Position 6, Restraint Systems:===
*1 = Seat Belts only
*2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags)

===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 7
!VIN Pos. 7-8
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|92
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|93
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|92
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|94
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|95
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|96
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|92
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|98
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|98
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|A8
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|A8
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|A8
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|91
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|93
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|96
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|99
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|99
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|99
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|A9
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|A9
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|A9
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|98
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|A1
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|A7
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|A7
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|YA
|
|Panamera (2024-)
|976
|-
|Y1
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|A5
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|XA
|
|Macan Electric (2024-)
|XAB
|-
|9P
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|AP
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A2
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|AY
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|-
|X1
|
|Cayenne Electric (2026-)
|E4
|}

===Position 9, Check Digit===
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]]

===Position 10, Model Year: ===                      
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]]

===Position 11, Production Plant:===
* S:    Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany (All 911, 968, 928, 918 Spyder, and Taycan. Boxster '97-'06, '09-'16, 718 Boxster '17-'24, Cayman '12, 718 Cayman '17-'24)&lt;br&gt; (Also: Type 937 - 924 Carrera GTS/GTR [N/A in US/Canada], a few late '91 944 S2 coupe &amp; cabriolet [RoW-spec]), 959 [N/A in US/Canada]
* L:    Leipzig, Germany (Cayenne '03-'18, Carrera GT '04-'05, Panamera '10-, Macan '15-'26, Macan Electric '24-)
* D:    Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-, Cayenne Electric '26-)
* K:    Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25)
* N:    Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) (includes Type 937 - 924 Carrera GT [N/A in US/Canada])
* U:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12)

Note: RoW=Rest of World (non-US/Canada markets)

===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code===
Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 12
!VIN Pos. 12
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|4
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|1
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|4
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|4
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|1
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|8
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|8
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|6
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|7
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|7
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|1
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|2
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|1
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|0
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|4
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|3
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|6
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|7
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|7
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|1
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|2
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|0
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|8
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|0
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|1
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|A
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|B
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|A
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|A
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|A
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|}

'''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number'''

'''Select Porsche equipment codes:'''

*C02 - Made for USA market (49 states thru 1990, all of USA from 1991)
*C03 - Made for California market
*C04 - Made for Puerto Rico market
*C36 - Made for Canada market

*M505 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])
*M506 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])

*X85 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X83 - Japan market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X84 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])

*498 - Delete Model Designation-Rear

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      <parentid>4654601</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:54:31Z</timestamp>
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        <id>3434282</id>
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      <text bytes="28252" sha1="6tluyogarukg9jfjmm4ngwaxvbuti8n" xml:space="preserve">{{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}}

===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:===  
* WP0 - Porsche passenger car
* WP1 - Porsche SUV

===Position 4, Body Style:===
'''924:'''
* A = Coupe
'''944:'''
* A = Coupe
* B = Cabriolet (1989 only)
* C = Cabriolet (1990-1991)
'''968/Boxster/Cayman/718:'''
* A = Coupe
* C = Cabriolet
'''928:'''
* J = Coupe (1981-1990)
* A = Coupe (1991-1995)
'''911:'''
* A = Coupe (Except Type 930 Turbo coupe)
* B = Targa (911 - Type 964/996/997/991/992)
* C = Cabriolet (911 - Type 964/993/996/997/991/992) or Speedster (Type 964/997/991) or Roadster (Type 964)
* D = Targa (911 - Type 993)
* E = Targa or Cabriolet (911 [1981-1989] or 911 Turbo - Type 930 [1987-1989]) or Speedster (911 - 1989)
* J = Turbo Coupe (911 - Type 930 [US: 1986-1989, Canada: 1981-1989])
'''Carrera GT / 918 Spyder:'''
* C = Cabriolet
'''Panamera / Taycan:'''
* A = sedan (SWB)
* B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan)
* C = Sport Turismo
'''Macan / Cayenne:'''
* A = SUV (wagon)
* B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe or Cayenne Electric Coupe)

===Position 5, Engine:===
'''924:'''

Type 924:
*A = 2.0L SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 110 hp (924 '81-'82)

Type 931:
*A = 2.0L turbo SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 154 hp (924 Turbo '81-'82)

Type 924:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (924S '87)
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (924S '88)

'''944:'''

Type 944:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 143 hp (944 [base model] '83-'86)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (944 [base model] '87)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (944 [base model] '88)
*A = 2.5L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 188 hp (944S '87-'88)
*A = 2.7L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 163 hp (944 [base model] '89)
*B = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [coupe only], '90-'91 [coupe &amp; cabriolet])
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [cabriolet only])

Type 951:
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.51 I4, 217 hp (944 Turbo '86-'88)
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo S '88, Turbo '89)
*C = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo '90 [Canada only])

'''968:'''
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 236 hp ('92-'95)

'''928:'''
*A = 4.5L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 220 hp (928 '81-'82)
*B = 4.7L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 234 hp (928 S '83-'84)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 288 hp (928 S '85-'86)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '87-'90)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '89-'90)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '91)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '91)
*A = 5.4L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 345 hp (928 GTS '93-'95)

'''Boxster/Cayman:'''

Type 986:
*A = 2.5L flat-6, 201 hp (Boxster '97-'99)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 217 hp (Boxster '00-'02)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 225 hp (Boxster '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 250 hp (Boxster S '00-'02)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 258 hp (Boxster S '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 264 hp (Boxster S 50 Years of the 550 Spyder Anniversary Edition '04)

Type 987:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 240 hp (Boxster '05-'06)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 245 hp (Boxster '07-'08, Limited Edition '08), 245 hp (Cayman '07-'08)
*A = 2.9L flat-6, 255 hp (Boxster '09-'12), 265 hp (Cayman '09-'12)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 280 hp (Boxster S '05-'06)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 295 hp (Boxster S '07-'08, S Limited Edition '08), 295 hp (Cayman S '06-'08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 310 hp (Boxster S '09-'12), 320 hp (Cayman S '09-'12)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 303 hp (Boxster S Porsche Design Edition 2 '08, RS 60 Spyder '08), 303 hp (Cayman S Sport '08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 320 hp (Boxster S Black Edition '12, Spyder '11-'12), 330 hp (Cayman S Black Edition '12, Cayman R '12)

Type 981:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 265 hp (Boxster '13-'16, Boxster Black Edition '16), 275 hp (Cayman '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 315 hp (Boxster S '13-'16), 325 hp (Cayman S '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 330 hp (Boxster GTS '15-'16), 340 hp (Cayman GTS '15-'16)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 375 hp (Boxster Spyder '16), 385 hp (Cayman GT4 '16)

'''718 Boxster/Cayman:''' 

Type 982:
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 300 hp &lt;br&gt; (718 Boxster '17-'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S '17-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS '18-'19)
*D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23)
*E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25)

'''911:'''

Type 911: (G-Series body)
*B = 3.0L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/16), 172 hp (911 SC Coupe/Targa '81-'83, Cabriolet '83)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/21), 200 hp (911 Carrera '84-'86)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/25), 214 hp (911 Carrera '87-'89, Club Sport '88-'89, Speedster '89)

Type 930: (G-Series body)
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/60 ['81-'82], 930/66 ['83-'87]), 296 hp (911 Turbo Canada: '81-'87)&lt;br&gt; (Coupe: '81-'87, Targa/Cabriolet: '87) regular or slant-nose ('87 coupe &amp; cabriolet)
*B = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/68), 282 hp (911 Turbo US: '86-'89, Canada '88-'89) (Coupe: '86-'89, Targa/Cabriolet: '87-'89) regular or slant-nose

Type 964:
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 247 hp (911 Carrera 2 '90-'94, Targa '90-'94, 911 America Roadster '92-'93, RS America '93-'94, Speedster '94,&lt;br&gt; Carrera 4 '89-'94, Carrera 4 Widebody Coupe '94, Carrera 4 Targa '90-'93)
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 256 hp (911 Carrera Cup USA Edition '92) coupe
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M30 flat-6, 315 hp (911 Turbo '91-'92) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 355 hp (911 Turbo 3.6 '94) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 380 hp (911 Turbo S 3.6 '94) coupe, flat-nose (slant-nose) coupe

Type 993:
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 270 hp (911 Carrera '95, Carrera 4 '95)
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 282 hp (911 Carrera '96-'98, Targa '96-'98, Carrera S '97-'98, Carrera 4 '96-'98, Carrera 4S '96-'98)
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 400 hp (911 Turbo '96-'97) coupe
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 424 hp (911 Turbo S '97) coupe

Type 996:
*A = 3.4L DOHC 24-valve water-cooled flat-6, 296 hp (911 Carrera '99, Carrera 4 '99)
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 300 hp (911 Carrera '00-'01, Carrera 4 '00-'01)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 320 hp (911 Carrera '02-'04, Carrera Cabriolet '05, Targa '02-'05, Carrera 4 '02-'04, Carrera 4S '03-'05)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera 40th Anniversary Edition '04) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 415 hp (911 Turbo '01-'05) (Coupe: '01-'05, Cabriolet: '04-'05)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 444 hp (911 Turbo S '05) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 381 hp (911 GT3 '04-'05) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 456 hp (911 GT2 '02-'03) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 477 hp (911 GT2 '04) coupe

Type 997:
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 325 hp (911 Carrera '05-'08, Carrera 4 '06-'08, Targa 4 '07-'08)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera '09-'12, Carrera Black Edition coupe/cabriolet '12, Carrera 4 '09-'12, Targa 4 '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 355 hp (911 Carrera S '05-'08, Carrera 4S '06-'08, Targa 4S '07-'08)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 385 hp (911 Carrera S '09-'12, Carrera 4S '09-'12, Targa 4S '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 381 hp (911 Carrera S Club Coupe '06)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 408 hp (911 Carrera GTS '11-'12, Carrera 4 GTS '12, Speedster '11)
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 480 hp (911 Turbo '07-'09) (Coupe: '07-'09, Cabriolet: '08-'09)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 500 hp (911 Turbo '10-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 Turbo S '11-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo S Cabriolet Edition 918 Spyder '12)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 435 hp (911 GT3 '10-'11) coupe
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 RS '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 450 hp (911 GT3 RS '10-'11) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS 4.0 '11) coupe
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 GT2 '08-'09) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 620 hp (911 GT2 RS '11) coupe

Type 991.1:
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 350 hp (911 Carrera '12-'16, Carrera 4 '13-'16, Targa 4 '14-'16)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 400 hp (911 Carrera S '12-'16, Carrera 4S '13-'16, Targa 4S '14-'16, 911 50th Anniversary Edition coupe '14)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 430 hp (911 Carrera GTS '15-'16, Carrera 4 GTS '15-'16, Targa 4 GTS '16)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 520 hp (911 Turbo '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 560 hp (911 Turbo S '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 475 hp (911 GT3 '14-'15) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS '16, 911 R '16) coupe

Type 991.2:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '17-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '17-'19, Targa 4 '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '17-'19, Carrera 4S '17-'19, Targa 4S '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '17-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '17-'19, Targa 4 GTS '17-'19)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series - Coupe '18, Cabriolet '19) 
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '18-'19) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '19) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '18-'19) coupe

Type 992:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24)
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-, Carrera T Club Coupe '26)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24)
*H = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar coupe '23-'24)
*B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 cabriolet '26)
*G = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) coupe
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo 50 Years coupe '25)
*D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) coupe

'''Carrera GT:'''

*A = 5.7L Porsche M80.01 68° V10, 605 hp (Carrera GT '04-'05)

'''918 Spyder:'''

*A = PHEV: 4.6L Porsche M18 flat-plane crank V8 + 2 electric motors (1 front, 1 rear), Lithium-ion battery, 887 total system hp (918 Spyder '15)

'''Panamera:'''

Type 970:
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 300 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '11-'13)
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 310 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '14-'16)
*D = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Panamera S Hybrid '12-'13)
*D = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Panamera S E-Hybrid '14-'16)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Panamera S, 4S '10-'13)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.60 90° V6, 420 hp (Panamera S, 4S '14-'16)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 430 hp (Panamera GTS '13)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 440 hp (Panamera GTS '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Panamera Turbo '10-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Panamera Turbo '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo S '12-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Panamera Turbo S '15-'16)

Type 971 &amp; 976:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '17-'20)
*J = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23)
*A = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '18-'23)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '17-'20)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23)
*K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo '17-'20)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23)
*F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '18-'20)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-)

'''Taycan:'''
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 321 hp (402 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 375 hp (469 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24)
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 429 hp (522 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 482 hp (562 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 455 hp (536 hp on overboost) (82.3 Kwh battery) or 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 596 hp (690 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (670 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (750 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 697 hp (871 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 764 hp (938 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 777 hp (1019 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-)

'''Macan:'''
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 248 hp (Macan '17-'21)
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 340 hp (Macan S '15-'18)
*B = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-)
*G = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS '17-'18)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo '15-'18)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package '17-'18)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21)

'''Macan Electric:'''
*D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 335 hp (355 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 382 hp (402 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 442 hp (509 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (563 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 576 hp (630 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-)

'''Cayenne:'''

955/957 or 9PA:
*A = 3.2L (3189cc) VW EA390 15° VR6, 247 hp (Cayenne '04-'06)
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° FSI VR6, 290 hp (Cayenne '08-'10)
*B = 4.5L Porsche M48 V8, 340 hp (Cayenne S '03-'06, S Titanium Edition '06)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 385 hp (Cayenne S '08-'10)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 405 hp (Cayenne GTS '08-'10, S Transsyberia '10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 450 hp (Cayenne Turbo '03-'06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '08-'10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '09-'10)

958 or 92A:
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° VR6, 300 hp (Cayenne '11-'14, '16-'18)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Cayenne S '11-'14)
*B = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 420 hp (Cayenne S '15-'18)
*E = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Cayenne S Hybrid '11-'14)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '15-'18)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 420 hp (Cayenne GTS '13-'14)
*D = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Cayenne GTS '16-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '11-'14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo '15-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '16-'18)
*F = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA897 90° Diesel V6, 240 hp (Cayenne Diesel '13-'16)

9YA/9YB:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe '20-'23)
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-, Cayenne Coupe '24-)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '24-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23, Cayenne S Coupe '20-'23)
*L = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-, Cayenne S Coupe '24-)
*N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe S E-Hybrid '24-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23, Cayenne Coupe GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-, Cayenne Coupe GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo '20-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp &lt;br&gt; (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 729 hp &lt;br&gt; (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe Turbo E-Hybrid '24-)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-)

'''Cayenne Electric:'''
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (435 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe '26-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (657 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric S '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe S '26-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 844 hp (1139 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe Turbo '26-)

===Position 6, Restraint Systems:===
*1 = Seat Belts only
*2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags)

===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 7
!VIN Pos. 7-8
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|92
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|93
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|92
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|94
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|95
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|96
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|92
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|98
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|98
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|A8
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|A8
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|A8
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|91
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|93
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|96
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|99
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|99
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|99
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|A9
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|A9
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|A9
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|98
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|A1
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|A7
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|A7
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|YA
|
|Panamera (2024-)
|976
|-
|Y1
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|A5
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|XA
|
|Macan Electric (2024-)
|XAB
|-
|9P
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|AP
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A2
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|AY
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|-
|X1
|
|Cayenne Electric (2026-)
|E4
|}

===Position 9, Check Digit===
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]]

===Position 10, Model Year: ===                      
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]]

===Position 11, Production Plant:===
* S:    Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany (All 911, 968, 928, 918 Spyder, and Taycan. Boxster '97-'06, '09-'16, 718 Boxster '17-'24, Cayman '12, 718 Cayman '17-'24)&lt;br&gt; (Also: Type 937 - 924 Carrera GTS/GTR [N/A in US/Canada], a few late '91 944 S2 coupe &amp; cabriolet [RoW-spec]), 959 [N/A in US/Canada]
* L:    Leipzig, Germany (Cayenne '03-'18, Carrera GT '04-'05, Panamera '10-, Macan '15-'26, Macan Electric '24-)
* D:    Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-, Cayenne Coupe '20-, Cayenne Electric '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe '26-)
* K:    Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25)
* N:    Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) (includes Type 937 - 924 Carrera GT [N/A in US/Canada])
* U:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12)

Note: RoW=Rest of World (non-US/Canada markets)

===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code===
Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 12
!VIN Pos. 12
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|4
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|1
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|4
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|4
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|1
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|8
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|8
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|6
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|7
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|7
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|1
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|2
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|1
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|0
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|4
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|3
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|6
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|7
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|7
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|1
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|2
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|0
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|8
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|0
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|1
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|A
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|B
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|A
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|A
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|A
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|}

'''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number'''

'''Select Porsche equipment codes:'''

*C02 - Made for USA market (49 states thru 1990, all of USA from 1991)
*C03 - Made for California market
*C04 - Made for Puerto Rico market
*C36 - Made for Canada market

*M505 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])
*M506 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])

*X85 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X83 - Japan market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X84 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])

*498 - Delete Model Designation-Rear

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>6tluyogarukg9jfjmm4ngwaxvbuti8n</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654604</id>
      <parentid>4654603</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JustTheFacts33</username>
        <id>3434282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code */</comment>
      <origin>4654604</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="28267" sha1="k6x1l4p4sany916m9vqsx83bcw3yfl3" xml:space="preserve">{{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}}

===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:===  
* WP0 - Porsche passenger car
* WP1 - Porsche SUV

===Position 4, Body Style:===
'''924:'''
* A = Coupe
'''944:'''
* A = Coupe
* B = Cabriolet (1989 only)
* C = Cabriolet (1990-1991)
'''968/Boxster/Cayman/718:'''
* A = Coupe
* C = Cabriolet
'''928:'''
* J = Coupe (1981-1990)
* A = Coupe (1991-1995)
'''911:'''
* A = Coupe (Except Type 930 Turbo coupe)
* B = Targa (911 - Type 964/996/997/991/992)
* C = Cabriolet (911 - Type 964/993/996/997/991/992) or Speedster (Type 964/997/991) or Roadster (Type 964)
* D = Targa (911 - Type 993)
* E = Targa or Cabriolet (911 [1981-1989] or 911 Turbo - Type 930 [1987-1989]) or Speedster (911 - 1989)
* J = Turbo Coupe (911 - Type 930 [US: 1986-1989, Canada: 1981-1989])
'''Carrera GT / 918 Spyder:'''
* C = Cabriolet
'''Panamera / Taycan:'''
* A = sedan (SWB)
* B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan)
* C = Sport Turismo
'''Macan / Cayenne:'''
* A = SUV (wagon)
* B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe or Cayenne Electric Coupe)

===Position 5, Engine:===
'''924:'''

Type 924:
*A = 2.0L SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 110 hp (924 '81-'82)

Type 931:
*A = 2.0L turbo SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 154 hp (924 Turbo '81-'82)

Type 924:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (924S '87)
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (924S '88)

'''944:'''

Type 944:
*A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 143 hp (944 [base model] '83-'86)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (944 [base model] '87)
*B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (944 [base model] '88)
*A = 2.5L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 188 hp (944S '87-'88)
*A = 2.7L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 163 hp (944 [base model] '89)
*B = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [coupe only], '90-'91 [coupe &amp; cabriolet])
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [cabriolet only])

Type 951:
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.51 I4, 217 hp (944 Turbo '86-'88)
*A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo S '88, Turbo '89)
*C = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo '90 [Canada only])

'''968:'''
*A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 236 hp ('92-'95)

'''928:'''
*A = 4.5L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 220 hp (928 '81-'82)
*B = 4.7L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 234 hp (928 S '83-'84)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 288 hp (928 S '85-'86)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '87-'90)
*B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '89-'90)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '91)
*A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '91)
*A = 5.4L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 345 hp (928 GTS '93-'95)

'''Boxster/Cayman:'''

Type 986:
*A = 2.5L flat-6, 201 hp (Boxster '97-'99)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 217 hp (Boxster '00-'02)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 225 hp (Boxster '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 250 hp (Boxster S '00-'02)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 258 hp (Boxster S '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 264 hp (Boxster S 50 Years of the 550 Spyder Anniversary Edition '04)

Type 987:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 240 hp (Boxster '05-'06)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 245 hp (Boxster '07-'08, Limited Edition '08), 245 hp (Cayman '07-'08)
*A = 2.9L flat-6, 255 hp (Boxster '09-'12), 265 hp (Cayman '09-'12)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 280 hp (Boxster S '05-'06)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 295 hp (Boxster S '07-'08, S Limited Edition '08), 295 hp (Cayman S '06-'08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 310 hp (Boxster S '09-'12), 320 hp (Cayman S '09-'12)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 303 hp (Boxster S Porsche Design Edition 2 '08, RS 60 Spyder '08), 303 hp (Cayman S Sport '08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 320 hp (Boxster S Black Edition '12, Spyder '11-'12), 330 hp (Cayman S Black Edition '12, Cayman R '12)

Type 981:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 265 hp (Boxster '13-'16, Boxster Black Edition '16), 275 hp (Cayman '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 315 hp (Boxster S '13-'16), 325 hp (Cayman S '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 330 hp (Boxster GTS '15-'16), 340 hp (Cayman GTS '15-'16)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 375 hp (Boxster Spyder '16), 385 hp (Cayman GT4 '16)

'''718 Boxster/Cayman:''' 

Type 982:
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 300 hp &lt;br&gt; (718 Boxster '17-'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S '17-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS '18-'19)
*D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23)
*E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25)

'''911:'''

Type 911: (G-Series body)
*B = 3.0L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/16), 172 hp (911 SC Coupe/Targa '81-'83, Cabriolet '83)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/21), 200 hp (911 Carrera '84-'86)
*B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/25), 214 hp (911 Carrera '87-'89, Club Sport '88-'89, Speedster '89)

Type 930: (G-Series body)
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/60 ['81-'82], 930/66 ['83-'87]), 296 hp (911 Turbo Canada: '81-'87)&lt;br&gt; (Coupe: '81-'87, Targa/Cabriolet: '87) regular or slant-nose ('87 coupe &amp; cabriolet)
*B = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/68), 282 hp (911 Turbo US: '86-'89, Canada '88-'89) (Coupe: '86-'89, Targa/Cabriolet: '87-'89) regular or slant-nose

Type 964:
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 247 hp (911 Carrera 2 '90-'94, Targa '90-'94, 911 America Roadster '92-'93, RS America '93-'94, Speedster '94,&lt;br&gt; Carrera 4 '89-'94, Carrera 4 Widebody Coupe '94, Carrera 4 Targa '90-'93)
*B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 256 hp (911 Carrera Cup USA Edition '92) coupe
*A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M30 flat-6, 315 hp (911 Turbo '91-'92) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 355 hp (911 Turbo 3.6 '94) coupe
*C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 380 hp (911 Turbo S 3.6 '94) coupe, flat-nose (slant-nose) coupe

Type 993:
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 270 hp (911 Carrera '95, Carrera 4 '95)
*A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 282 hp (911 Carrera '96-'98, Targa '96-'98, Carrera S '97-'98, Carrera 4 '96-'98, Carrera 4S '96-'98)
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 400 hp (911 Turbo '96-'97) coupe
*C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 424 hp (911 Turbo S '97) coupe

Type 996:
*A = 3.4L DOHC 24-valve water-cooled flat-6, 296 hp (911 Carrera '99, Carrera 4 '99)
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 300 hp (911 Carrera '00-'01, Carrera 4 '00-'01)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 320 hp (911 Carrera '02-'04, Carrera Cabriolet '05, Targa '02-'05, Carrera 4 '02-'04, Carrera 4S '03-'05)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera 40th Anniversary Edition '04) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 415 hp (911 Turbo '01-'05) (Coupe: '01-'05, Cabriolet: '04-'05)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 444 hp (911 Turbo S '05) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 381 hp (911 GT3 '04-'05) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 456 hp (911 GT2 '02-'03) coupe
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 477 hp (911 GT2 '04) coupe

Type 997:
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 325 hp (911 Carrera '05-'08, Carrera 4 '06-'08, Targa 4 '07-'08)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera '09-'12, Carrera Black Edition coupe/cabriolet '12, Carrera 4 '09-'12, Targa 4 '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 355 hp (911 Carrera S '05-'08, Carrera 4S '06-'08, Targa 4S '07-'08)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 385 hp (911 Carrera S '09-'12, Carrera 4S '09-'12, Targa 4S '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 381 hp (911 Carrera S Club Coupe '06)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 408 hp (911 Carrera GTS '11-'12, Carrera 4 GTS '12, Speedster '11)
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 480 hp (911 Turbo '07-'09) (Coupe: '07-'09, Cabriolet: '08-'09)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 500 hp (911 Turbo '10-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 Turbo S '11-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo S Cabriolet Edition 918 Spyder '12)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 435 hp (911 GT3 '10-'11) coupe
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 RS '07-'08) coupe
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 450 hp (911 GT3 RS '10-'11) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS 4.0 '11) coupe
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 GT2 '08-'09) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 620 hp (911 GT2 RS '11) coupe

Type 991.1:
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 350 hp (911 Carrera '12-'16, Carrera 4 '13-'16, Targa 4 '14-'16)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 400 hp (911 Carrera S '12-'16, Carrera 4S '13-'16, Targa 4S '14-'16, 911 50th Anniversary Edition coupe '14)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 430 hp (911 Carrera GTS '15-'16, Carrera 4 GTS '15-'16, Targa 4 GTS '16)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 520 hp (911 Turbo '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 560 hp (911 Turbo S '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 475 hp (911 GT3 '14-'15) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS '16, 911 R '16) coupe

Type 991.2:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '17-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '17-'19, Targa 4 '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '17-'19, Carrera 4S '17-'19, Targa 4S '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '17-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '17-'19, Targa 4 GTS '17-'19)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series - Coupe '18, Cabriolet '19) 
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '18-'19) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '19) coupe
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '18-'19) coupe

Type 992:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24)
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-, Carrera T Club Coupe '26)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24)
*H = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar coupe '23-'24)
*B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 cabriolet '26)
*G = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) coupe
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo 50 Years coupe '25)
*D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) (Coupe/Cabriolet)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) coupe
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) coupe

'''Carrera GT:'''

*A = 5.7L Porsche M80.01 68° V10, 605 hp (Carrera GT '04-'05)

'''918 Spyder:'''

*A = PHEV: 4.6L Porsche M18 flat-plane crank V8 + 2 electric motors (1 front, 1 rear), Lithium-ion battery, 887 total system hp (918 Spyder '15)

'''Panamera:'''

Type 970:
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 300 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '11-'13)
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 310 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '14-'16)
*D = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Panamera S Hybrid '12-'13)
*D = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Panamera S E-Hybrid '14-'16)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Panamera S, 4S '10-'13)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.60 90° V6, 420 hp (Panamera S, 4S '14-'16)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 430 hp (Panamera GTS '13)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 440 hp (Panamera GTS '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Panamera Turbo '10-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Panamera Turbo '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo S '12-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Panamera Turbo S '15-'16)

Type 971 &amp; 976:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '17-'20)
*J = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23)
*A = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '18-'23)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '17-'20)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23)
*K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo '17-'20)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23)
*F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '18-'20)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-)

'''Taycan:'''
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 321 hp (402 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 375 hp (469 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24)
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 429 hp (522 hp on overboost) (71 Kwh battery) or 482 hp (562 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 455 hp (536 hp on overboost) (82.3 Kwh battery) or 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (590 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 596 hp (690 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (670 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 616 hp (750 hp on overboost) (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 697 hp (871 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 764 hp (938 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 777 hp (1019 hp on overboost) (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-)

'''Macan:'''
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 248 hp (Macan '17-'21)
*A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 340 hp (Macan S '15-'18)
*B = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-)
*G = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS '17-'18)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo '15-'18)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package '17-'18)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21)

'''Macan Electric:'''
*D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 335 hp (355 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 382 hp (402 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 442 hp (509 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (563 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 576 hp (630 hp on overboost) (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-)

'''Cayenne:'''

955/957 or 9PA:
*A = 3.2L (3189cc) VW EA390 15° VR6, 247 hp (Cayenne '04-'06)
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° FSI VR6, 290 hp (Cayenne '08-'10)
*B = 4.5L Porsche M48 V8, 340 hp (Cayenne S '03-'06, S Titanium Edition '06)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 385 hp (Cayenne S '08-'10)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 405 hp (Cayenne GTS '08-'10, S Transsyberia '10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 450 hp (Cayenne Turbo '03-'06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '08-'10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '09-'10)

958 or 92A:
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° VR6, 300 hp (Cayenne '11-'14, '16-'18)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Cayenne S '11-'14)
*B = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 420 hp (Cayenne S '15-'18)
*E = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Cayenne S Hybrid '11-'14)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '15-'18)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 420 hp (Cayenne GTS '13-'14)
*D = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Cayenne GTS '16-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '11-'14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo '15-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '16-'18)
*F = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA897 90° Diesel V6, 240 hp (Cayenne Diesel '13-'16)

9YA/9YB:
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe '20-'23)
*A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-, Cayenne Coupe '24-)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe E-Hybrid '24-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23, Cayenne S Coupe '20-'23)
*L = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-, Cayenne S Coupe '24-)
*N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe S E-Hybrid '24-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23, Cayenne Coupe GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-, Cayenne Coupe GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo '20-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp &lt;br&gt; (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23, Cayenne Coupe Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 729 hp &lt;br&gt; (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-, Cayenne Coupe Turbo E-Hybrid '24-)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-)

'''Cayenne Electric:'''
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (435 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe '26-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (657 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric S '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe S '26-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 844 hp (1139 hp on overboost) (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe Turbo '26-)

===Position 6, Restraint Systems:===
*1 = Seat Belts only
*2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags)

===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 7
!VIN Pos. 7-8
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|92
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|93
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|92
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|94
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|95
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|96
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|92
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|98
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|98
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|A8
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|A8
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|A8
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|91
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|93
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|96
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|99
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|99
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|99
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|A9
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|A9
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|A9
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|98
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|A1
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|A7
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|A7
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|YA
|
|Panamera (2024-)
|976
|-
|Y1
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|A5
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|XA
|
|Macan Electric (2024-)
|XAB
|-
|9P
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|AP
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A2
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|AY
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|-
|X1
|
|Cayenne Electric (wagon &amp; coupe: 2026-)
|E4
|}

===Position 9, Check Digit===
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]]

===Position 10, Model Year: ===                      
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]]

===Position 11, Production Plant:===
* S:    Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany (All 911, 968, 928, 918 Spyder, and Taycan. Boxster '97-'06, '09-'16, 718 Boxster '17-'24, Cayman '12, 718 Cayman '17-'24)&lt;br&gt; (Also: Type 937 - 924 Carrera GTS/GTR [N/A in US/Canada], a few late '91 944 S2 coupe &amp; cabriolet [RoW-spec]), 959 [N/A in US/Canada]
* L:    Leipzig, Germany (Cayenne '03-'18, Carrera GT '04-'05, Panamera '10-, Macan '15-'26, Macan Electric '24-)
* D:    Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-, Cayenne Coupe '20-, Cayenne Electric '26-, Cayenne Electric Coupe '26-)
* K:    Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25)
* N:    Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) (includes Type 937 - 924 Carrera GT [N/A in US/Canada])
* U:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12)

Note: RoW=Rest of World (non-US/Canada markets)

===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code===
Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 12
!VIN Pos. 12
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|4
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|1
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|4
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|4
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|1
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|8
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|8
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|6
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|7
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|7
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|1
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|2
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|1
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|0
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|4
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|3
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|6
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|7
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|7
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|1
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|2
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|0
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|8
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|0
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|1
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|A
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|B
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|A
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|A
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|A
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|}

'''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number'''

'''Select Porsche equipment codes:'''

*C02 - Made for USA market (49 states thru 1990, all of USA from 1991)
*C03 - Made for California market
*C04 - Made for Puerto Rico market
*C36 - Made for Canada market

*M505 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])
*M506 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930])

*X85 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X83 - Japan market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])
*X84 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964])

*498 - Delete Model Designation-Rear

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taking Bearings: Artificial Intelligence in Knowledge Platforms and Open, Social Scholarship/Essential Ideas</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>483348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654611</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-15T21:50:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CorreiaA</username>
        <id>3614427</id>
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      <text bytes="10878" sha1="rzemlvpu8j09gunfkrtdkj9buhea2jf" xml:space="preserve">== Executive Summary: A Snapshot of This Work ==

''Taking Bearings: Artificial Intelligence in Knowledge Platforms and Open, Social Scholarship'' is an environmental scan of how AI is reshaping the infrastructures, practices, and institutions through which knowledge is produced, circulated, evaluated, and preserved. Drawing on more than one hundred and fifty sources and informed by earlier work on the theoretical foundations of open, social scholarship, it examines AI across three linked domains—the open, the social, and scholarship—and identifies four recurring tensions around authority, enclosure, capacity, and process. Together, these tensions show that AI is already affecting research, publishing, pedagogy, governance, and public knowledge exchange in ways that demand careful institutional response. The recommendations that follow highlight six areas where organizations can strengthen governance, protect scholarly integrity, and support more accountable and equitable engagement with AI.

== Summative Overview: A More Detailed Snapshot ==

For organizations and communities engaged in scholarly publishing, research infrastructure, library services, and public knowledge exchange, the rapid integration of artificial intelligence presents both immediate practical challenges and deep structural questions. This volume, ''Taking Bearings: Artificial Intelligence in Knowledge Platforms and Open, Social Scholarship'', synthesizes over one hundred and fifty sources to map this shifting terrain. Grounded in the principles of open, social scholarship, it is intended to clarify what is at stake in the current moment and to support informed, principled institutional responses.

The scan proceeds from a foundational observation: AI emerges from a broad, heterogeneous data ecology where scholarly knowledge holds a distinctive, perhaps disproportionately authoritative place. Generative AI and large language models models have been built from vast mixtures of web text, books, code, media, platform content, cultural materials and other data sources; within that mixture, open scholarship, research data, metadata, citation networks, software, and institutional knowledge infrastructures help supply forms of credibility, structure, and epistemic authority that exceed their share by volume. The relationship between AI and scholarship is therefore fundamentally recursive, not because scholarship alone produced AI, but because AI systems increasingly draw upon, reorganize, and feed back into the same knowledge systems through which scholarship is discovered, evaluated, circulated, and trusted.

To map the practical implications of this shift, the scan unpacks the framework of open, social scholarship into its three constituent elements: openness, social engagement, and scholarly practice. Within each area, it examines how AI is changing existing workflows and raising new questions. Looking first at the open, the scan addresses open access, open data, open source, and open science—tracing how AI both depends on and threatens the principles of openness that have shaped scholarly communication over the past two decades. Turning to the social dimensions of this work, it examines platform governance, algorithmic moderation, critical literacies, and questions of coloniality, diversity, and justice—areas where AI's social consequences are most visible and most contested. Finally, regarding scholarship as a formal practice, it addresses research infrastructure, peer review, pedagogy, metadata, and the governance of knowledge institutions—where AI is most rapidly being integrated into professional life. Across all these three domains, four tensions recur with enough consistency to function as the scan's central analytic frame:

'''Operational assistance vs. epistemic authority''': While AI can reduce friction in many workflows, it raises fundamental concerns about where judgement, accountability, and interpretive responsibility should reside. 

'''Openness vs. enclosure''': The open infrastructure that has supported equitable access to knowledge is being absorbed into commercial AI systems in ways that may foreclose openness rather than extend it.

'''Technical capability vs. organizational capacity''': The pace of AI development consistently outstrips the ability of institutions to evaluate, govern, and respond thoughtfully.

'''Efficiency vs. process''': Although AI accelerates tasks, scholarly knowledge earns its credibility through deliberate, iterative processes of review and community validation that efficiency-oriented tools may erode.

These tensions resist neat resolution. What they mark, instead, are sites of genuine institutional choice—places where the decisions organizations make about adoption, governance, disclosure, and investment will have lasting consequences for how knowledge is produced, who benefits from it, and whether its production remains accountable to the communities it serves.

The following recommendations translate these findings into six areas where institutional attention is most needed. They are offered as points of orientation rather than prescriptions, in recognition that organizations differ in mission, scale, and resources. The analytical introduction that follows the recommendations provides the conceptual frameworks and intersectional analysis that underpin them. The annotated bibliography, organized by domain and sub-domain, provides the evidentiary foundation in the form of a structured guide to the literature for those who wish to engage with specific areas in depth.

== Recommendations: Summarized From the Analytical Overview ==

Building from the Executive Summary and Summative Overview, these recommendations serve as practical points of orientation for organizations and communities working to align AI adoption, refusal, adaptation, and design with the principles of open, social scholarship: 

:'''1. Establish collaborative and iterative AI governance'''.

AI adoption is fundamentally an organizational and ethical issue, not only a technical one. Decisions about these tools directly affect scholarly labour, institutional authority, access, and trust. Partner organizations should build governance models that draw on both technical and scholarly expertise. Because the technology shifts rapidly, policies and review structures must be designed for continuous evaluation rather than single-point approval. Governance should include explicit procedures for revisiting the boundary between operational assistance and epistemic authority as capabilities, risks, and disciplinary practices change.

:'''2. Preserve human responsibility in scholarly judgement'''.

A central tension identified in this volume is the distinction between operational assistance and epistemic authority. That distinction is necessary, but it is not fixed. AI can support routine tasks, and some tasks that once required substantial expert attention may become increasingly operationalized. Yet the critical judgement required to establish scholarly validity and exercise pedagogical care remains a strictly human responsibility, especially wherever decisions carry intellectual, professional, or public consequences. Institutions should clearly define the limits of appropriate AI use in contexts such as peer review, editorial assessment, pedagogical evaluation, and research interpretation, while also creating mechanisms for revising those limits as practices evolve.

:'''3. Require transparency in AI-mediated workflows'''.

Where AI is used in knowledge production and scholarship, its role must be made visible. The credibility of scholarly and public knowledge depends in part on clear provenance and process, and identifiable responsibility. Organizations should support disclosure standards that make AI use legible without reducing complex workflows to simplistic declarations, and should pair disclosure norms with provenance infrastructure such as persistent identifiers, content credentials, verifiable metadata, version histories, and workflow documentation. Maintaining epistemic integrity requires treating transparency as a basic requirement of scholarly communication.

:'''4. Invest in human capacity and critical literacy'''.

The scan repeatedly demonstrates that the primary challenge facing institutions is ensuring their communities are equipped to evaluate and use AI responsibly, regardless of what tools are available. This requires investment in staff development, pedagogical resources, and the kinds of critical literacy that help scholars and students interpret AI outputs, assess their limits, and recognize how these systems shape knowledge practices. Institutions differ widely in size, missions, and resources, and approaches to AI must be responsive to that unevenness. Capacity-building is therefore one of the preconditions for responsible engagement. 

:'''5. Protect and steward open knowledge from extractive enclosure'''.

Contemporary AI systems rely heavily on the scholarly commons and the unpaid labour of knowledge communities, even as the benefits of these systems are often unevenly distributed. Organizations committed to open, social scholarship should actively resist the ways AI may enclose, concentrate power, or extract value from shared resources without meaningful forms of reciprocity. Governance frameworks must therefore prioritize equitable benefit-sharing alongside licensing, consent, attribution, provenance, and machine-readable terms of use. Responsible participation in AI ecosystems requires attention to the conditions under which tools operate and the interests they serve, as much as to their capabilities. 

:'''6. Build inclusive processes for ongoing evaluation and response'''.

The technological landscape is shifting rapidly, and no single framework remains adequate for long. Institutions need mechanisms for periodic reassessment, community consultation, and iterative revision in response to the new domains and effects of changing technologies. Particular attention should be paid to whose perspectives are included in such processes, especially across differences of language, geography, discipline, institutional position, and ability. The issues identified here—including disclosure, hallucination, metadata generation, peer review, ethics, and infrastructure—point toward the need for sustained, focused follow-up work rather than one-time resolution. Promising areas for shorter, targeted interventions included AI-mediated scholarly discovery, provenance and content-credential infrastructure, community-built or purpose-specific models, integrity threats such as paper mills and synthetic citations, AI in hiring, promotion, grants, and fellowships, AI and open licensing, and AI's effects on open scholarly infrastructure.

{{Navigation|next=Introduction}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Laboratory/Laser cutting fabric parts for a USB holder</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>483433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654584</id>
      <parentid>4636797</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T19:59:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>3614607</id>
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      <text bytes="6271" sha1="6v0jfkiaumns9m0jz21n76nnl1dfanx" xml:space="preserve">This laboratory will use the sewing Laboratory for making an USB carrier, will use its design and measures.

[[Short introduction to the use of sewing machines/Sewing labs/USB Carrier]]

== Preparing the file ==

The file for this usb holder can be downloaded form wikimedia as svg file: 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

The instructions to created and modify the file, explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software. The instructions are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper left
| 4 inches above the first dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper right
| 4 inches above the fourth dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom right
| Completes the rectangle
|}

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper left
| 3 inches above the lower left dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper right
| 3 inches above the lower right dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom right
| Reference point for the upper right dot
|}

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

Note: The front fabric height was increased from 2.5 to 3 inches to accommodate standard USB flash drive sizes.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== Using a Universal Laser Cutting machine (ULS) ==

=== Cutting lines ===

Defining the cutting lines and raster lines.

Change the lines for cutting (the borders) to 0.072 pts and red (000000)

=== Vector scoring of sewing lines ===

Vector scoring the lines... mark line over the fabric (or paper if testing), they will be used as a guide for sewing.

Select the lines intended to serve as a guide for cutting and change the color to blue (0000FF).

Change the stroke to 0.01

Cut.

If you are testing just vector scoring to see dark lines as guides for cutting, select settings option, manual control, and do the following modifications:

In the black (rast) option select all the values to 0

In the blue (vect) : Power to 200 (higher could damage the fabric), 

In the red (vect): All values to 0.

and change the values.

=== Testing the cut ===

Print or select cut on the ULS software... use 0.1 as thickness of the material (paper or polyester)... If the material does not cut, increase the thickness to 1.5 or 0.2.

This is a mixed cut, it combines cut lines and the guide liens... for this use the following setting:

Black (Rast), leave at values 0. and press set.

Blue... power 3$, speed 100 %, 200 ppi, and press set.

Red, power 40 %, speed 10 % and 500 PPI, and press set.

If the guide is still cut, reduce the power in blue from 3 to 2.

== Using a Glowforge laser cutter ==

Upload the file, the lines will be pointed, select the material (example acrylic), the lines will be defined.

The workaround with Glowforge is that once a file is uploaded it do only one action over it. 

In this case, the trick is to use the same file, but delete the guide liens... this will be the cut...

Now use the same file, but delete all the cutting lines, and select engrave or raster for this other part.


When doing many USB Holders at once, the following steps can be used:

use the initial file, make a 24x12 canvas, and copy the usb holder many times as needed in the canvas, one beside the other or near the other, save the file and a copy.

Take all the usb drives dividing lines out of the image in one of the copies, and upload in Glowforge as cutting layer.

Take the other copy of the image and take al the cutting parts leaving only the dividing lines, upload the file as a engraving layer, this will be your guide for where to sew the cut fabric.

Note: If desired, a marking line can be added in the lower borders and sides of the upper layer of the usb holder, to serve also as sewing guide when sewing the extremes of the USB Holder.


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      <text bytes="6663" sha1="6p12wqha51leejacnqeo4af0a2iohk9" xml:space="preserve">This laboratory will use the sewing Laboratory for making an USB carrier, will use its design and measures.

[[Short introduction to the use of sewing machines/Sewing labs/USB Carrier]]

== Preparing the file ==

The file for this usb holder can be downloaded form wikimedia as svg file: 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

The instructions to created and modify the file, explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software. The instructions are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper left
| 4 inches above the first dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper right
| 4 inches above the fourth dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom right
| Completes the rectangle
|}

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper left
| 3 inches above the lower left dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper right
| 3 inches above the lower right dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom right
| Reference point for the upper right dot
|}

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

Note: The front fabric height was increased from 2.5 to 3 inches to accommodate standard USB flash drive sizes.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== Using a Universal Laser Cutting machine (ULS) ==

=== Cutting lines ===

Defining the cutting lines and raster lines.

Change the lines for cutting (the borders) to 0.072 pts and red (000000)

=== Vector scoring of sewing lines ===

Vector scoring the lines... mark line over the fabric (or paper if testing), they will be used as a guide for sewing.

Select the lines intended to serve as a guide for cutting and change the color to blue (0000FF).

Change the stroke to 0.01

Cut.

If you are testing just vector scoring to see dark lines as guides for cutting, select settings option, manual control, and do the following modifications:

In the black (rast) option select all the values to 0

In the blue (vect) : Power to 200 (higher could damage the fabric), 

In the red (vect): All values to 0.

and change the values.

=== Testing the cut ===

Print or select cut on the ULS software... use 0.1 as thickness of the material (paper or polyester)... If the material does not cut, increase the thickness to 1.5 or 0.2.

This is a mixed cut, it combines cut lines and the guide liens... for this use the following setting:

Black (Rast), leave at values 0. and press set.

Blue... power 3$, speed 100 %, 200 ppi, and press set.

Red, power 40 %, speed 10 % and 500 PPI, and press set.

If the guide is still cut, reduce the power in blue from 3 to 2.

== Using a Glowforge laser cutter ==

Upload the file, the lines will be pointed, select the material (example acrylic), the lines will be defined.

The workaround with Glowforge is that once a file is uploaded it do only one action over it. 

In this case, the trick is to use the same file, but delete the guide liens... this will be the cut...

Now use the same file, but delete all the cutting lines, and select engrave or raster for this other part.


When doing many USB Holders at once, the following steps can be used:

use the initial file, make a 24x12 canvas, and copy the usb holder many times as needed in the canvas, one beside the other or near the other, save the file and a copy.

Take all the usb drives dividing lines out of the image in one of the copies, and upload in Glowforge as cutting layer.

Take the other copy of the image and take al the cutting parts leaving only the dividing lines, upload the file as a engraving layer, this will be your guide for where to sew the cut fabric.

Note: If desired, a marking line can be added in the lower borders and sides of the upper layer of the usb holder, to serve also as sewing guide when sewing the extremes of the USB Holder.

==See also==

[[Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Use of Inkscape for Laser Cutting]]

[[Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Use of Adobe Illustrator for Laser Cutting]]

[[Short_guide_to_the_use_of_laser_cutting_machines/Laboratory/Cut_of_cursive_letters_for_display]]

[[Short_guide_to_the_use_of_laser_cutting_machines/Tool_making_with_laser_cutting_machines]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>6p12wqha51leejacnqeo4af0a2iohk9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654587</id>
      <parentid>4654585</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T20:03:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-39746-71</username>
        <id>3614607</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using a Glowforge laser cutter */</comment>
      <origin>4654587</origin>
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      <text bytes="6721" sha1="k6a1609n3ee4c8crdp80tjlquvzhu5h" xml:space="preserve">This laboratory will use the sewing Laboratory for making an USB carrier, will use its design and measures.

[[Short introduction to the use of sewing machines/Sewing labs/USB Carrier]]

== Preparing the file ==

The file for this usb holder can be downloaded form wikimedia as svg file: 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_Holder.svg,  and then added to this wikibook.

The instructions to created and modify the file, explains how to design or draw a sewing pattern in real measure size using illustrator and or Inkscape software. The instructions are the following, this design was draw with inkscape (free software)

1.- Open inkscape, create a new file and Change the measure to inches

=== Rear fabric ===

2.- Create a square with one line, the click in three dots and final with clic in initial dot. Or create a square.

3.- Choose the dot editor (node tool): clic in one dot, then the other inferior or superior dot use same x number:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper left
| 4 inches above the first dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1
| Upper right
| 4 inches above the fourth dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| Bottom right
| Completes the rectangle
|}

Creation of 3 lines (To make 3 dividers for the 4 memory sticks).

=== Frontal fabric ===

1.- For the frontal fabric, part just copy the whole square and change four corners

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Point
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | X coordinate
! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Y coordinate
! Location
! Description
|-
| 1st dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom left
| Starting point
|-
| 2nd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 0.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper left
| 3 inches above the lower left dot
|-
| 3rd dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| Upper right
| 3 inches above the lower right dot
|-
| 4th dot
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10
| Bottom right
| Reference point for the upper right dot
|}

Change... the lines will be located over the upper cover not the big piece.

Note: The front fabric height was increased from 2.5 to 3 inches to accommodate standard USB flash drive sizes.

2.- Create a line for the first divider:

First dot x 2.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 2.5 y 8 (will be 2 inches long).

3.- Copy this line and pasted twice:

Second line: 

First dot of second line  (bottom) x 4.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 4.5 y 10 (will be 2 inches long).

4.- Third line: 

First dot of second line x 6.5 y 10

second dot (upper) x 6.5 y 8 (will be 3 inches long).

Initially the Wide of usb is 1 inches and a 2 inches is good wide, 2x4 8 inches, but a 5 inches wide also can be used, this will construct the square.

Add lines of 3 inches each from bottom to the middle of the holder (2.5 inches approximated), this will create 3 divisions, that will allow to place 4 usb drives.

Notes: 

This file was updated with measures that correspond to a real size usb drive 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, the size of your usb drive may be different.

The objects were selected, and resized selecting either a corner or dot and using the ruler on the sides and top as reference.

A 2 usb drives carrier would be 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, instead of 4 inches long 5 inches wide.

== Using a Universal Laser Cutting machine (ULS) ==

=== Cutting lines ===

Defining the cutting lines and raster lines.

Change the lines for cutting (the borders) to 0.072 pts and red (000000)

=== Vector scoring of sewing lines ===

Vector scoring the lines... mark line over the fabric (or paper if testing), they will be used as a guide for sewing.

Select the lines intended to serve as a guide for cutting and change the color to blue (0000FF).

Change the stroke to 0.01

Cut.

If you are testing just vector scoring to see dark lines as guides for cutting, select settings option, manual control, and do the following modifications:

In the black (rast) option select all the values to 0

In the blue (vect) : Power to 200 (higher could damage the fabric), 

In the red (vect): All values to 0.

and change the values.

=== Testing the cut ===

Print or select cut on the ULS software... use 0.1 as thickness of the material (paper or polyester)... If the material does not cut, increase the thickness to 1.5 or 0.2.

This is a mixed cut, it combines cut lines and the guide liens... for this use the following setting:

Black (Rast), leave at values 0. and press set.

Blue... power 3$, speed 100 %, 200 ppi, and press set.

Red, power 40 %, speed 10 % and 500 PPI, and press set.

If the guide is still cut, reduce the power in blue from 3 to 2.

== Using a Glowforge laser cutter ==

Upload the file, the lines will be pointed, select the material (example acrylic), the lines will be defined.

The workaround with Glowforge is that once a file is uploaded it do only one action over it. 

In this case, the trick is to use the same file, but delete the guide liens... this will be the cut...

Now use the same file, but delete all the cutting lines, and select engrave or raster for this other part.

== Mass Production of USB Holders Using a Laser Cutter ==

When doing many USB Holders at once, the following steps can be used:

use the initial file, make a 24x12 canvas, and copy the usb holder many times as needed in the canvas, one beside the other or near the other, save the file and a copy.

Take all the usb drives dividing lines out of the image in one of the copies, and upload in Glowforge as cutting layer.

Take the other copy of the image and take al the cutting parts leaving only the dividing lines, upload the file as a engraving layer, this will be your guide for where to sew the cut fabric.

Note: If desired, a marking line can be added in the lower borders and sides of the upper layer of the usb holder, to serve also as sewing guide when sewing the extremes of the USB Holder.

==See also==

[[Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Use of Inkscape for Laser Cutting]]

[[Short guide to the use of laser cutting machines/Use of Adobe Illustrator for Laser Cutting]]

[[Short_guide_to_the_use_of_laser_cutting_machines/Laboratory/Cut_of_cursive_letters_for_display]]

[[Short_guide_to_the_use_of_laser_cutting_machines/Tool_making_with_laser_cutting_machines]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 13/Stroke Order</title>
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=Traditional characters=
==頭==
[[file:頭-bw.png]]
==臉==
[[file:臉-bw.png]]
==醫==
[[file:醫-bw.png]]
==藥==
[[file:藥-bw.png]]
=Characters that has no difference between the Traditional and Simplified=
==病==
[[file:病-bw.png]]
==痛==
[[file:痛-bw.png]]
==熱==
[[file:熱-bw.png]]
==感==
[[file:感-bw.png]]
==冒==
[[file:冒-bw.png]]
==喝==
[[file:喝-bw.png]]
==睡==
[[file:睡-bw.png]]

=Simplified character=
==头==
[[file:头-bw.png]]

==脸==
[[file:脸-bw.png]]
==醫==
[[file:医-bw.png]]
==藥==
[[file:药-bw.png]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
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=Traditional characters=
==頭==
[[file:頭-bw.png]]
==臉==
[[file:臉-bw.png]]
==醫==
[[file:醫-bw.png]]
==藥==
[[file:藥-bw.png]]
=Characters that has no difference between the Traditional and Simplified=
==病==
[[file:病-bw.png]]
==痛==
[[file:痛-bw.png]]
==熱==
[[file:熱-bw.png]]
==感==
[[file:感-bw.png]]
==冒==
[[file:冒-bw.png]]
==喝==
[[file:喝-bw.png]]
==睡==
[[file:睡-bw.png]]

=Simplified character=
==头==
[[file:头-bw.png]]

==脸==
[[file:脸-bw.png]]
==医==
[[file:医-bw.png]]
==药==
[[file:药-bw.png]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Taiwan history</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>484088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654662</id>
      <parentid>4653982</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T08:58:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>一隻北極熊</username>
        <id>3609960</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contents */</comment>
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      <text bytes="3758" sha1="2s2z6l4mor70mglvy4swpyytbjaswzr" xml:space="preserve">{{New book}}[[File:世界最美總統府.jpg|thumb|The front view of the Office of the President,Taiwan|400px]]
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:2.8em; color:; margin:0.4em&quot;&gt;'''History of Taiwan'''&lt;/div&gt;
Welcome to the '''Taiwan History Textbook!''' This is a free and open textbook about Taiwanese history. Our goal is to write a high quality textbook about Taiwanese history. Feel free to edit this book if you have knowledge on the history of Taiwan and are fluent in English! This book is originally Chinese and now is translated in to English.

==Contents==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;48%&quot; |
'''Introduction'''
* [[/About Taiwan History|About Taiwan History]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 29, 2026}}

'''Early Taiwan (-1683)'''&lt;br&gt;
1. [[/Prehistorical and the indigenous culture|Prehistorical and the indigenous culture&lt;br&gt;(-1624)]]{{stage short|100%|Jun 28, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
2. [[/The Dutch and Spanish rule|The Dutch and Spanish rule&lt;br&gt;(1624-1662)]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 30, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
3. [[/Kingdom of Tungning|Kingdom of Tungning&lt;br&gt;(1662-1683)]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 30, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
4. [[/Han Chinese migration to Taiwan|Han Chinese migration to Taiwan]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 28, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;

'''Qing Rule (1683–1895)'''&lt;br&gt;
5. [[/Period of Passive Rule over Taiwan|Period of Passive Rule over Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1683–mid-19th century)]]{{stage short|100%|Jul 2, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
6. [[/The Period of Transformation and the Opening of the Port|The Period of Transformation and the Opening of the Port&lt;br&gt;(1858-1874)]]{{stage short|100%|Jul 5, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
7. [[/The period of active province-building in Taiwan|The period of active province-building in Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1885-1895)]]{{stage short|75%|Jul 5, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;

'''Japanese Rule (1895-1945)'''&lt;br&gt;
8. [[/Republic of Formosa|Republic of Formosa&lt;br&gt;(1895)]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
9. [[/Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan|Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1895-1945)]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
10. [[/Modernized infrastructure in Taiwan|Modernized infrastructure in Taiwan]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
11. [[/The Political Movements of Chiang Wei-shui and Lin Hsien-tang|The Political Movements of Chiang Wei-shui and Lin Hsien-tang&lt;br&gt;(1921-1927)]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
12. [[/Taiwan in World War II|Taiwan in World War II&lt;br&gt;(1937-1945)]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;

''' ROC Rule (1945-)'''&lt;br&gt;
13. [[/Post-war takeover|Post-war takeover&lt;br&gt;(1945-1949)]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
14. [[/February 28 incident|February 28 incident&lt;br&gt;(1947)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
15. [[/ROC retreats to Taiwan|ROC retreats to Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1949)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 28, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
16. [[/The land reform|The land reform&lt;br&gt;(1950s)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
17. [[/Taiwan Strait Crisis|Taiwan Strait Crisis&lt;br&gt;(1954-)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
18. [[/White Terror|White Terror&lt;br&gt;(1947-1987)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
19. [[/Diplomatic challenges |Diplomatic challenges&lt;br&gt;(1970s)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
20. [[/Economic Miracle|Economic Miracle&lt;br&gt;(1960s-1980s)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
21. [[/Taiwan's democratization|Taiwan's democratization&lt;br&gt;(1987-2000)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
22. [[/Modern Taiwan|Modern Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(2000-)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29，2026}}&lt;br&gt;
|}

== Appendices==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;48%&quot; |
* [[/Historical Maps of Taiwan/]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 29, 2026}}
* [[/Print version/]]
*[[/Contributors/]]
|}

==Related Books==
*[[History of China]]
*[[Chinese History]]
*[[Chinese (Mandarin)]]
*[[Hokkien]]

{{BookCat}}


{{Shelves|History}}
{{Shelves|Asian history}}
{{Status|25%}}
{{bookCat}}</text>
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      <parentid>4654662</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T08:59:54Z</timestamp>
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&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:2.8em; color:; margin:0.4em&quot;&gt;'''History of Taiwan'''&lt;/div&gt;
Welcome to the '''Taiwan History Textbook!''' This is a free and open textbook about Taiwanese history. Our goal is to write a high quality textbook about Taiwanese history. Feel free to edit this book if you have knowledge on the history of Taiwan and are fluent in English! This book is originally Chinese and now is translated in to English.

==Contents==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;48%&quot; |
'''Introduction'''
* [[/About Taiwan History|About Taiwan History]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 29, 2026}}

'''Early Taiwan (-1683)'''&lt;br&gt;
1. [[/Prehistorical and the indigenous culture|Prehistorical and the indigenous culture&lt;br&gt;(-1624)]]{{stage short|100%|Jun 28, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
2. [[/The Dutch and Spanish rule|The Dutch and Spanish rule&lt;br&gt;(1624-1662)]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 30, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
3. [[/Kingdom of Tungning|Kingdom of Tungning&lt;br&gt;(1662-1683)]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 30, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
4. [[/Han Chinese migration to Taiwan|Han Chinese migration to Taiwan]] {{stage short|100%|Jun 28, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;

'''Qing Rule (1683–1895)'''&lt;br&gt;
5. [[/Period of Passive Rule over Taiwan|Period of Passive Rule over Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1683–mid-19th century)]]{{stage short|100%|Jul 2, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
6. [[/The Period of Transformation and the Opening of the Port|The Period of Transformation and the Opening of the Port&lt;br&gt;(1858-1874)]]{{stage short|100%|Jul 5, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
7. [[/The period of active province-building in Taiwan|The period of active province-building in Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1885-1895)]]{{stage short|75%|Jul 5, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;

'''Japanese Rule (1895-1945)'''&lt;br&gt;
8. [[/Republic of Formosa|Republic of Formosa&lt;br&gt;(1895)]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
9. [[/Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan|Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1895-1945)]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
10. [[/Modernized infrastructure in Taiwan|Modernized infrastructure in Taiwan]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
11. [[/The Political Movements of Chiang Wei-shui and Lin Hsien-tang|The Political Movements of Chiang Wei-shui and Lin Hsien-tang&lt;br&gt;(1921-1927)]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
12. [[/Taiwan in World War II|Taiwan in World War II&lt;br&gt;(1937-1945)]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;

''' ROC Rule (1945-)'''&lt;br&gt;
13. [[/Post-war takeover|Post-war takeover&lt;br&gt;(1945-1949)]] {{stage short|50%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
14. [[/February 28 incident|February 28 incident&lt;br&gt;(1947)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
15. [[/ROC retreats to Taiwan|ROC retreats to Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(1949)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 28, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
16. [[/The land reform|The land reform&lt;br&gt;(1950s)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29, 2026}}&lt;br&gt;
17. [[/Taiwan Strait Crisis|Taiwan Strait Crisis&lt;br&gt;(1954-)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
18. [[/White Terror|White Terror&lt;br&gt;(1947-1987)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
19. [[/Diplomatic challenges |Diplomatic challenges&lt;br&gt;(1970s)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
20. [[/Economic Miracle|Economic Miracle&lt;br&gt;(1960s-1980s)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
21. [[/Taiwan's democratization|Taiwan's democratization&lt;br&gt;(1987-2000)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29,2026}}&lt;br&gt;
22. [[/Modern Taiwan|Modern Taiwan&lt;br&gt;(2000-)]] {{stage short|0%|Jun 29，2026}}&lt;br&gt;
|}

== Appendices==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;48%&quot; |
* [[/Historical Maps of Taiwan/]] {{stage short|75%|Jun 29, 2026}}
* [[/Print version/]]
*[[/Contributors/]]
|}

==Related Books==
*[[History of China]]
*[[Chinese History]]
*[[Chinese (Mandarin)]]
*[[Hokkien]]

{{BookCat}}


{{Shelves|History}}
{{Shelves|Asian history}}
{{Status|50%}}
{{bookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>h5ywdzjdeusld6zx4t167tg3xi2u4cf</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fractals/Mandelbrot CLI: Renderer with Perturbation Theory</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>484105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654555</id>
      <parentid>4642125</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T14:52:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aokoroko</username>
        <id>3059689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* C++ Source Code */</comment>
      <origin>4654555</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10198" sha1="cu87qmi32reddsv4pyodqpf53hg6p23" xml:space="preserve">&lt; [[Fractals|Back to Fractals book]]

== Introduction ==
This page contains the original C++ source code used to render high-precision fragments of the Mandelbrot set using perturbation theory and 8x8 Super-Sampling Anti-Aliasing (SSAA). Created by [[User:Aokoroko]].

== Key Features ==
* '''High-Precision Reference:''' The 5000-bit reference trajectory is computed exactly once per zoom layer.
* '''Hardware-Native Performance:''' Blazing-fast math for billions of pixels utilizing hardware-native double registers.
* When using double-precision floating-point numbers (on the order of 10⁻¹⁵), perturbation theory only allows you to zoom down to the '''10⁻³⁰⁸ level—no further.'''
* '''Innovative Algorithm:''' Revolutionary *Reference Reset to Zero* implementation.
* '''True 8x8 SSAA:''' Pristine, anti-aliased image quality with 64 independent samples per pixel.
* '''OpenMP Multi-threading:''' High-speed parallel computing to maximize CPU utilization.

== C++ Source Code ==

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;cpp&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;
#include &lt;fstream&gt;
#include &lt;vector&gt;
#include &lt;cmath&gt;
#include &lt;cstdint&gt;
#include &lt;string&gt;
#include &lt;atomic&gt;
#include &lt;omp.h&gt;
#include &lt;cstdio&gt;
#include &lt;iomanip&gt;
#include &lt;gmp.h&gt;
#include &lt;mpfr.h&gt;

using namespace std;

const double PI = 3.14159265358979323846;
const mpfr_prec_t MPFR_BITS = 5000;

#pragma pack(push, 1)
struct BMPHeader {
    uint16_t type{0x4D42};
    uint32_t size{0};
    uint16_t reserved1{0};
    uint16_t reserved2{0};
    uint32_t offBits{54};
    uint32_t structSize{40};
    int32_t  width{0};
    int32_t  height{0};
    uint16_t planes{1};
    uint16_t bitCount{24};
    uint32_t compression{0};
    uint32_t sizeImage{0};
    int32_t  xpelsPerMeter{2834};
    int32_t  ypelsPerMeter{2834};
    uint32_t clrUsed{0};
    uint32_t clrImportant{0};
};
#pragma pack(pop)

struct ComplexDouble {
    double re;
    double im;
};

int main() {
    string absc_str, ordi_str, size_str;
    absc_str = &quot;-1.99999543561201124623198345433951143502785679245726844745821388800402678499411681518036306219179273434395557574279985918047221291197081186140687781560831995&quot;; 
    ordi_str = &quot;-0.00000000000000000000000026198152173811047783694060060607013913873144250985383083459221663448338433592617272786772587281530484110756597337683912309313885172&quot;; 
    size_str = &quot;1.15e-119&quot;;
    
    const int targetW = 10000;
    const int targetH = 10000;
    const int scale = 8;
    const int rawW = targetW * scale;
    const int rawH = targetH * scale;
    const int frame = 200;
    
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Step 1: Calculating Reference Orbit using Perturbation...&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    mpfr_t rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st;
    mpfr_inits2(MPFR_BITS, rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st, NULL);
    mpfr_set_str(rx, absc_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_str(ry, ordi_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_str(sz, size_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_div_ui(st, sz, rawW, MPFR_RNDN);
    double step_d = mpfr_get_d(st, MPFR_RNDN);
    
    double ref_rec_d = mpfr_get_d(rx, MPFR_RNDN);
    double ref_imc_d = mpfr_get_d(ry, MPFR_RNDN);
    
    vector&lt;ComplexDouble&gt; ref_orbit_double(50005);
    mpfr_set_ui(zr, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_ui(zi, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_ui(zr2, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    mpfr_set_ui(zi2, 0, MPFR_RNDN);
    uint32_t ref_i = 0;
    bool escaped = false;
    
    while (ref_i &lt; 50000) {
        ref_orbit_double[ref_i].re = mpfr_get_d(zr, MPFR_RNDN);
        ref_orbit_double[ref_i].im = mpfr_get_d(zi, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul(tmp, zr, zi, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul_ui(zi, tmp, 2, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_add(zi, zi, ry, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_sub(zr, zr2, zi2, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_add(zr, zr, rx, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul(zr2, zr, zr, MPFR_RNDN);
        mpfr_mul(zi2, zi, zi, MPFR_RNDN);
        if (escaped) {
            ref_i++;
            break;
        }
        mpfr_add(tmp, zr2, zi2, MPFR_RNDN);
        if (mpfr_cmp_d(tmp, 40000.0) &gt;= 0) {
            escaped = true;
        }
        ref_i++;
    }
    ref_orbit_double[ref_i].re = mpfr_get_d(zr, MPFR_RNDN);
    ref_orbit_double[ref_i].im = mpfr_get_d(zi, MPFR_RNDN);
    uint32_t max_valid_ref_iter = ref_i; 
    mpfr_clears(rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st, NULL);
    
    uint8_t pal[256][3];
    for (int a = 0; a &lt; 255; ++a) {
        pal[a][0] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * cos(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0));
        pal[a][1] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * sin(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0));
        pal[a][2] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * sin(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0));
    }
    pal[255][0] = 255; pal[255][1] = 255; pal[255][2] = 255;
    
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Step 2: Stream rendering Mandelbrot Set Image 112.bmp (&quot; &lt;&lt; targetW &lt;&lt; &quot;x&quot; &lt;&lt; targetH &lt;&lt; &quot;)...&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    int rowSize = (targetW * 3 + 3) &amp; ~3;
    BMPHeader header;
    header.width = targetW;
    header.height = targetH;
    header.sizeImage = rowSize * targetH;
    header.size = header.sizeImage + 54;
    ofstream f(&quot;Mandelbrot Set Image 112.bmp&quot;, ios::binary);
    f.write(reinterpret_cast&lt;char*&gt;(&amp;header), 54);
    vector&lt;uint8_t&gt; rowBuffer(rowSize);
    
    for (int y = 0; y &lt; targetH; ++y) {
        #pragma omp parallel for schedule(dynamic)
        for (int x = 0; x &lt; targetW; ++x) {
            uint32_t rSum = 0, gSum = 0, bSum = 0;
            const ComplexDouble* ref_ptr = ref_orbit_double.data();
            
            for (int j = 0; j &lt; scale; ++j) {
                size_t b = (size_t)y * scale + j;
                double delta_imc = (double)((long long)b - (rawH / 2)) * step_d;
                
                for (int i = 0; i &lt; scale; ++i) {
                    size_t a = (size_t)x * scale + i;
                    double delta_rec = (double)((long long)a - (rawW / 2)) * step_d;
                    
                    uint32_t index = 0;    
                    double delta_re = 0.0; 
                    double delta_im = 0.0;
                    double z_re = 0.0;     
                    double z_im = 0.0;
                    uint32_t iter = 0;
                    bool has_re_based = false;
                    
                    while (iter &lt; 50000) {
                        if ((z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) &gt;= 40000.0) {
                            break;
                        }
                        
                        if (index &gt;= max_valid_ref_iter) {
                            if (!has_re_based) {
                                break; 
                            } else {
                                double ld_cx = ref_rec_d + delta_rec;
                                double ld_cy = ref_imc_d + delta_imc; 
                                while (iter &lt; 50000 &amp;&amp; (z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) &lt; 40000.0) {
                                    double old_re = z_re;
                                    double old_im = z_im;
                                    z_re = old_re * old_re - old_im * old_im + ld_cx;
                                    z_im = 2.0 * old_re * old_im + ld_cy;
                                    iter++;
                                }
                                break;
                            }
                        }
                        
                        if ((z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) &lt; (delta_re * delta_re + delta_im * delta_im)) {
                            index = 0; 
                            delta_re = z_re;
                            delta_im = z_im;
                            has_re_based = true;
                        }
                        
                        for (int k = 0; k &lt; 2; ++k) {
                            double Ur = ref_ptr[index].re;
                            double Ui = ref_ptr[index].im;
                            double next_delta_im = 2.0 * Ur * delta_im + 2.0 * Ui * delta_re + 2.0 * delta_re * delta_im + delta_imc;
                            delta_re = 2.0 * Ur * delta_re - 2.0 * Ui * delta_im + delta_re * delta_re - delta_im * delta_im + delta_rec;
                            delta_im = next_delta_im;
                            index++;
                        }
                        z_re = ref_ptr[index].re + delta_re;
                        z_im = ref_ptr[index].im + delta_im;
                        iter += 2; 
                    }
                    
                    int final_t = 50000 - iter;
                    uint8_t t = (final_t == 0) ? 255 : (uint8_t)(final_t % 254);
                    int colorIdx = (t == 255) ? 255 : (t - frame + 255) % 255;
                    bSum += pal[colorIdx][0];
                    gSum += pal[colorIdx][1];
                    rSum += pal[colorIdx][2];
                }
            }                
            int outIdx = x * 3;
            rowBuffer[outIdx + 0] = (uint8_t)(bSum &gt;&gt; 6);
            rowBuffer[outIdx + 1] = (uint8_t)(gSum &gt;&gt; 6);
            rowBuffer[outIdx + 2] = (uint8_t)(rSum &gt;&gt; 6);
        }
        f.write(reinterpret_cast&lt;const char*&gt;(rowBuffer.data()), rowSize);
        if ((y + 1) % 10 == 0 || y == targetH - 1) {
            cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Progress: &quot; &lt;&lt; (y + 1) &lt;&lt; &quot;/&quot; &lt;&lt; targetH &lt;&lt; &quot;\r&quot; &lt;&lt; flush;
        }
    }
    f.close();
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;\nDone! Mandelbrot Set Image 112.bmp successfully saved.&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== Rendered Examples ==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
File:Mandelbrot Set Image 107.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels.
File:Mandelbrot Set Image 108.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels.
File:Mandelbrot Set Image 109.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels.
File:Mandelbrot Set Image 110.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== External Links ==
* [https://github.com/Divetoxx/Mandelbrot Official Mandelbrot CLI Repository on GitHub] — source code, documentation, and pre-compiled releases.
* [https://rosettacode.org/wiki/Mandelbrot_set#Perturbation_Theory C++ Perturbation Theory Optimization] showcased in the global algorithm repository on Rosetta Code.


[[Category:Book:Fractals]]</text>
      <sha1>cu87qmi32reddsv4pyodqpf53hg6p23</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Amz.bizistech</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>484129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654651</id>
      <parentid>4641834</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T04:10:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hamadbizistech01</username>
        <id>3614678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Unlock Knowledge Through Open Learning */ new section</comment>
      <origin>4654651</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1897" sha1="ctvdwpswkroeomio95n7syv9fh6142x" xml:space="preserve">
== I have added a tag to a page you created ==
Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Amz.bizistech]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it &lt;strong&gt;may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].&lt;/strong&gt; This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Spam&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[User talk:Amz.bizistech|the page's talk page]] explaining why. &lt;strong&gt;If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.&lt;/strong&gt; If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! &lt;!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 June 2026 (UTC)

== Unlock Knowledge Through Open Learning ==

Wikibooks is a global platform dedicated to free textbooks, educational resources, and collaborative learning materials that anyone can read, improve, and share. From science and technology to languages and humanities, Wikibooks empowers learners and educators with open access to quality educational content across countless subjects.

As education and technology continue to evolve, digital growth and online visibility become essential for impactful platforms. '''BizisTech''' helps businesses and digital projects grow through SEO, AI-driven strategies, digital marketing, and web development solutions designed for long-term success.

'''Wikibooks — Making Knowledge Accessible to Everyone.'''

'''BizisTech — Transforming Digital Potential into Growth.''' [[User:Hamadbizistech01|Hamadbizistech01]] ([[User talk:Hamadbizistech01|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hamadbizistech01|contribs]]) 04:10, 16 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ctvdwpswkroeomio95n7syv9fh6142x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654652</id>
      <parentid>4654651</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T04:44:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>16549</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Hamadbizistech01|Hamadbizistech01]] ([[User talk:Hamadbizistech01|talk]]) to last version by MathXplore</comment>
      <origin>4641834</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="918" sha1="01e6q2x1ofnm4lz6s8vp7xef4fzmyfx" xml:space="preserve">
== I have added a tag to a page you created ==
Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Amz.bizistech]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it &lt;strong&gt;may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].&lt;/strong&gt; This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Spam&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[User talk:Amz.bizistech|the page's talk page]] explaining why. &lt;strong&gt;If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.&lt;/strong&gt; If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! &lt;!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>01e6q2x1ofnm4lz6s8vp7xef4fzmyfx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taiwan history/Period of Passive Rule over Taiwan</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>484137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654658</id>
      <parentid>4642106</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T08:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>一隻北極熊</username>
        <id>3609960</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Rebellion */</comment>
      <origin>4654658</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1704" sha1="8ypzx3og2ldyb0vk8xtje3973bn69in" xml:space="preserve">==Keep or Abandon?==
Most Qing officials, including Emperor Kangxi initially, viewed Taiwan as a worthless, disease-ridden island. However, general Shi Lang, the commander who conquered Taiwan, strongly opposed abandonment. He presented a memorial to the throne arguing that if the Qing abandoned Taiwan, Dutch colonists or maritime pirates would immediately reoccupy it. This would recreate a permanent naval threat right on China's doorstep. In the end, Qing annexed Taiwan, making it a part of the empire.
==Strict Immigration Bans==
To prevent the Taiwan to become another pirate stronghold, there were strict immigration bans across the Taiwan strait. Despite of the ban, limited land in the mainland drove waves of illegal, cross-strait migration.

==Closing Off the Mountains==
Following a massive Han uprising (the Zhu Yigui Incident in 1721), the Qing government implemented a policy to restrict Han migration to the mountains. The Qing established boundary lines along the western plains. They left the mountainous and eastern regions completely outside state control, viewing indigenous populations as being beyond the reach of Qing governance. However, the Han Chinese migrants continuously crossed the borders to cultivate land.

==Rebellion==
Due to the corruption of the government, there were a lot of rebellion under Qing rule.
===The Three Major Popular Uprisings in Taiwan===
*Zhu Yigui Incident (1721)
*Lin Shuangwen Incident (1786)
*Dai Chaochun Incident (1862)
There is a phrase &quot;三年一小反，五年一大亂 (Three years there's a small rebellion, Five years there's a major uprising)&quot; was used to describe the situation in Taiwan.
==Others==
*[[w:Mudan incident]]
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>8ypzx3og2ldyb0vk8xtje3973bn69in</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>4654661</id>
      <parentid>4654658</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T08:54:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>一隻北極熊</username>
        <id>3609960</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added flag</comment>
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      <text bytes="1764" sha1="l4vidvnl8k3dk6tv0jny8ze7dklhdhr" xml:space="preserve">==Keep or Abandon?==
Most Qing officials, including Emperor Kangxi initially, viewed Taiwan as a worthless, disease-ridden island. However, general Shi Lang, the commander who conquered Taiwan, strongly opposed abandonment. He presented a memorial to the throne arguing that if the Qing abandoned Taiwan, Dutch colonists or maritime pirates would immediately reoccupy it. This would recreate a permanent naval threat right on China's doorstep. In the end, Qing annexed Taiwan, making it a part of the empire.
==Strict Immigration Bans==
[[File:Flag of China (1889–1912).svg|thumb|Flag of Qing]]
To prevent the Taiwan to become another pirate stronghold, there were strict immigration bans across the Taiwan strait. Despite of the ban, limited land in the mainland drove waves of illegal, cross-strait migration.

==Closing Off the Mountains==
Following a massive Han uprising (the Zhu Yigui Incident in 1721), the Qing government implemented a policy to restrict Han migration to the mountains. The Qing established boundary lines along the western plains. They left the mountainous and eastern regions completely outside state control, viewing indigenous populations as being beyond the reach of Qing governance. However, the Han Chinese migrants continuously crossed the borders to cultivate land.

==Rebellion==
Due to the corruption of the government, there were a lot of rebellion under Qing rule.
===The Three Major Popular Uprisings in Taiwan===
*Zhu Yigui Incident (1721)
*Lin Shuangwen Incident (1786)
*Dai Chaochun Incident (1862)
There is a phrase &quot;三年一小反，五年一大亂 (Three years there's a small rebellion, Five years there's a major uprising)&quot; was used to describe the situation in Taiwan.
==Others==
*[[w:Mudan incident]]
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>l4vidvnl8k3dk6tv0jny8ze7dklhdhr</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Taiwan history/Contributors</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>484167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654656</id>
      <parentid>4642145</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T08:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>一隻北極熊</username>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="60" sha1="nuh8nmrz37342o6ag4dne8py25alqk0" xml:space="preserve">==Main contributors==
*{{user|一隻北極熊}}

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>nuh8nmrz37342o6ag4dne8py25alqk0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taiwan history/The period of active province-building in Taiwan</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>484182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654657</id>
      <parentid>4642444</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-16T08:40:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>一隻北極熊</username>
        <id>3609960</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>4654657</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="881" sha1="m6rikjmw6fzqkx4cppmdj2shp95vx6c" xml:space="preserve">After the Mudan Incident and the Sino French war happened in 1874 and 1884, the Qing government realized the importance of Taiwan's coastal defense. This also result the establishment of Taiwan Province happened in 1885.
==Liu Mingchuan's Contributions to Taiwan==
[[File:劉銘傳肖像.jpg|thumb|Liu Mingchuan]]
Liu Mingchuan is Taiwan’s first governor after the establishment of Taiwan province.
===Railway construction===
Liu Mingchuan spearheaded the first self-managed railway, successfully completing the Taipei-Keelung line in 1891 and extending it to Hsinchu by 1893. 
===Military Defense===
During the Sino-French War (1884–1885), Liu successfully organized local militias and heavily fortified the island, famously defending northern Taiwan and Keelung from French naval forces.
===Telecommunications===
Liu installed the island's first telegraph lines.

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>m6rikjmw6fzqkx4cppmdj2shp95vx6c</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5/3. exd5/3...cxd5/4. c4/4...Nf6/5. Nc3/5...Nc6/6. Nf3/6...Bg4</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>484238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654630</id>
      <parentid>4652364</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T23:06:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Theory table */ Update templates</comment>
      <origin>4654630</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1051" sha1="sba9fdjgn8lb5wc4m3hoxwrzmfxkhxv" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Caro-Kann Exchange Variation|
   |rd|  |  |qd|kd|bd||rd|=
   |pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |nd|  |  |nd|  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |pl|pl|  |  |bd|  |=
   |  |  |nl|  |  |nl|  |  |=
   |pl|pl|  |  |  |pl|pl|pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl||rl|=
|parent=[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defence|Caro-Kann]]
}}
= 6... Bg4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack=

White has their eye on the weak points in black's position, b7 and d5, and almost always takes on d5 with the pawn here.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}
{{Chess/theory table
|name1=
|line1=7. cxd5
|eval1=

|name2=
|line2=7. Be3
|eval2=

|name3=
|line3=7. Be2
|eval3=
}}

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikipedia|Caro-Kann}}
* Nunns Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. {{ISBN|1-8574-4221-0}}.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. {{ISBN|0-8129-3084-3}}.
{{BCO2}}
* Play the Caro-Kann. 2007. Jovanka Houska {{ISBN|9781857447965}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>sba9fdjgn8lb5wc4m3hoxwrzmfxkhxv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654631</id>
      <parentid>4654630</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T23:07:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 6... Bg4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack */</comment>
      <origin>4654631</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1107" sha1="7s41zxn074au5pjceg1w0lobiccqvi6" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Caro-Kann Exchange Variation|
   |rd|  |  |qd|kd|bd||rd|=
   |pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |nd|  |  |nd|  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |pl|pl|  |  |bd|  |=
   |  |  |nl|  |  |nl|  |  |=
   |pl|pl|  |  |  |pl|pl|pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl||rl|=
|parent=[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defence|Caro-Kann]]
}}
= 6... Bg4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack=

White has their eye on the weak points in black's position, b7 and d5, and most commonly takes on d5 with the pawn here. However, 7. Be3 and 7. Be2 are also perfectly playable.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}
{{Chess/theory table
|name1=
|line1=7. cxd5
|eval1=

|name2=
|line2=7. Be3
|eval2=

|name3=
|line3=7. Be2
|eval3=
}}

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikipedia|Caro-Kann}}
* Nunns Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. {{ISBN|1-8574-4221-0}}.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. {{ISBN|0-8129-3084-3}}.
{{BCO2}}
* Play the Caro-Kann. 2007. Jovanka Houska {{ISBN|9781857447965}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>7s41zxn074au5pjceg1w0lobiccqvi6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4654632</id>
      <parentid>4654631</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T23:09:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 6... Bg4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack */ Bg5</comment>
      <origin>4654632</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1147" sha1="5b4ftr4yl0i6z7go4e1eflyzee7st6t" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Caro-Kann Exchange Variation|
   |rd|  |  |qd|kd|bd||rd|=
   |pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |nd|  |  |nd|  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |pl|pl|  |  |bd|  |=
   |  |  |nl|  |  |nl|  |  |=
   |pl|pl|  |  |  |pl|pl|pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl||rl|=
|parent=[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defence|Caro-Kann]]
}}
= 6... Bg4 · Caro-Kann Panov-Botvinnik Attack=

White has their eye on the weak points in black's position, b7 and d5, and most commonly takes on d5 with the pawn here. However, 7. Be3, 7. Bg5, and 7. Be2 are also perfectly playable.

==Theory table==
{{ChessTable}}
{{Chess/theory table
|name1=
|line1=7. cxd5
|eval1=

|name2=
|line2=7. Be3
|eval2=

|name3=
|line3=7. Be2
|eval3=

|name4=
|line4=7. Bg5
|eval4=
}}

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikipedia|Caro-Kann}}
* Nunns Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. {{ISBN|1-8574-4221-0}}.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. {{ISBN|0-8129-3084-3}}.
{{BCO2}}
* Play the Caro-Kann. 2007. Jovanka Houska {{ISBN|9781857447965}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>5b4ftr4yl0i6z7go4e1eflyzee7st6t</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Saab/VIN Codes</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>484603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4654606</id>
      <parentid>4654450</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-15T21:06:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JustTheFacts33</username>
        <id>3434282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Position 11, Production Plant: */</comment>
      <origin>4654606</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="12295" sha1="orah4j907mkrhrkj3ea8qi7bq64icv7" xml:space="preserve">{{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}}

For Saab 9-2X, see the Subaru VIN page: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Subaru/VIN Codes]]. 
For Saab 9-4X and 9-7X, see the GM VIN page: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/GM/VIN Codes]].

===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:===  
* YS3 - Saab passenger car
* YK1 - Saab passenger car made by Valmet in Finland ('81-'83)
* JF4 - Saab passenger car made by Subaru in Japan ('05-'06 9-2X)
* 3G0 - Saab MPV made by GM in Mexico ('11 9-4X)
* 5S3 - Saab MPV made by GM in US ('05-'09 9-7X)

===Positions 4, Model Line:===
* A = 900 (1st gen. - '81-'93, '94 convertible)
* C = 9000 ('86-'98)
* D = 900 (2nd gen. - '94-'98 3-d/5-d, '95-'98 convertible)
* D = 9-3 (1st gen. - '99-'02, '03 convertible)
* E = 9-5 (1st gen. - '99-'09)
* F = 9-3 (2nd gen. - '03-'11 4-d, '04-'11 convertible, '06-'11 wagon)
* G = 9-5 (2nd gen. - '10-'11)

===Positions 5, Series 1981-1986:===
* G = Base model ('81-'83 900)
* S = S 3-d ('81-'83 900)
* E = S 4-d ('81-'83 900)
* M = Base model ('84-'85 900)
* H = S ('84-'85 900)
* T = Turbo ('81-'85 900)
* B = Base model ('86 900)
* C = S ('86 900)
* D = Turbo ('86 900, '86 9000)

===Positions 5, Series/Restraint 1987-2011:===
* R = Base model w/Active (Manual) seat belts ('87-'89 900)
* S = S w/Active (Manual) seat belts ('87-'89 900, '87-'89 9000)
* T = Turbo w/Active (Manual) seat belts ('87-'89 900, '87-'89 9000)
* J = Base model w/Motorized seat belts (Passive Restraint) ('89 900)
* K = S w/Motorized seat belts (Passive Restraint) ('87-'89 900)
* L = Turbo w/Motorized seat belts (Passive Restraint) ('88-'89 900)
* J = Base model w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Driver-side airbag ('90 900)
* K = S w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Driver-side airbag ('89-'90 9000, '90 900)
* K = Models w/normally aspirated engine w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Driver-side airbag ('91-'93 9000, '91-'93 900, '94 900 convertible)
* L = Turbo or CD Turbo (9000) or CD Turbo Griffin Edition ('92 9000) w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Driver-side airbag ('89-'92 9000, '90-'92 900)
* L = Models w/turbocharged engine w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Driver-side airbag ('93 9000, '93 900, '94 900 convertible)
* M = Models w/normally aspirated engine w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('94 900 3-d/5-d, '94 9000)
* N = Models w/turbocharged engine w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('94 900 3-d/5-d, '94 9000)

* D = 900 S or 9000 CS w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('95-'98)
* F = 900 SE or 9000 CSE/CDE w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('95-'98)
* H = 9000 Aero w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('95-'97)

* B = 9-3 Linear w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('03-'05)
* B = 9-3 2.0T w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('08-'09)
* B = 9-5 Linear w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('02-'05)
* B = 9-5 Griffin Edition w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('09)
* D = 9-3 Base model or 9-5 Base model or 9-5 Gary Fisher Edition ('00) w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('99-'01)
* D = 9-3 Arc w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('03-'05)
* D = 9-3 2.0T w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('06-'07)
* D = 9-5 Arc w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('02-'05)
* D = 9-5 Standard model 2.3T w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('06-'09)
* F = 9-3 SE w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('99-'02, '03 convertible)
* F = 9-3 Vector w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('03)
* F = 9-5 SE w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('99-'01)
* H = 9-3 Aero w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('04-'09)
* H = 9-5 Aero w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('00-'05)
* H = 9-5 w/Sport Package w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('06)
* H = 9-5 w/Aero Package w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('07)
* H = 9-5 Aero w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('08-'09)
* M = 9-3 Turbo X w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('08)
* P = 9-3 Viggen w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual front airbags ('99-'02)

* A = 9-3 2.0T 4-d/wagon w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front Side Airbags &amp; Side Curtain Airbags ('10-'11)
* A = 9-3 2.0T convertible made in Sweden w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front Side Head/Thorax Airbags ('10-'11)
* C = 9-3 Aero 4-d/wagon w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front Side Airbags &amp; Side Curtain Airbags ('10-'11)
* C = 9-3 Aero convertible made in Sweden w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front Side Head/Thorax Airbags ('10-'11)
* D = 9-3X wagon w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front Side Airbags &amp; Side Curtain Airbags ('10-'11)
* E = 9-3 2.0T convertible made in Austria w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front Side Head/Thorax Airbags ('10)
* G = 9-3 Aero convertible made in Austria w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front Side Head/Thorax Airbags ('10)
* N = 9-5 Turbo4 &amp; Turbo6 w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front and Rear Side Airbags &amp; Side Curtain Airbags ('11)
* R = 9-5 Aero w/Active (Manual) seat belts &amp; Dual Front Airbags &amp; Front and Rear Side Airbags &amp; Side Curtain Airbags ('10-'11)

===Positions 6, Body Style:===
* 2 = 2-dr. sedan ('85-'86 900)
* 3 = 3-dr. hatchback ('81-'98 900, '99-'02 9-3)
* 4 = 4-dr. sedan ('81-'93 900, '03-'11 9-3, '89-'95 9000, '99-'11 9-5)
* 5 = 5-dr. hatchback ('94-'98 900, '99-'02 9-3, '86-'92 9000)
* 5 = 5-dr. wagon ('99-'09 9-5 wagon/SportCombi, '06-'11 9-3 SportCombi)
* 6 = 5-dr. hatchback ('93-'98 9000)
* 7 = 2-dr. convertible ('86-'98 900, '99-'11 9-3)

===Position 7, Engine 1981-1983:===
*3 = 2.0L SOHC 8-valve fuel injected Saab H engine B201I I4 ('81-'83 900 base model, S)
*4 = 2.0L turbo SOHC 8-valve fuel injected Saab H engine B201S I4 ('81-'83 900 Turbo)

===Positions 7, Transmission 1984-2011:===
* 5 = 5-spd. manual ('84-'93 900, '94 900 convertible, '86-'98 9000)
* 6 = 3-spd. automatic ('84-'93 900, '94 900 convertible)
* 6 = 6-spd. manual ('03-'07 9-3)
* 8 = 4-spd. automatic ('94-'98 900, '99-'02 9-3, '03 9-3 convertible, '86-'98 9000, '99-'01 9-5)
* 9 = 5-spd. automatic ('02-'07 9-5)
* 1 = 6-spd. automatic ('06-'07 9-3 Aero 2.8T)

* 1 = 6-spd. automatic, FWD ('08-'09 9-3 Aero 2.8T)
* 2 = 6-spd. automatic, AWD ('08-'09 9-3 Aero 2.8T, '08 9-3 Turbo X, '09 9-3 2.0T XWD) 
* 5 = 5-spd. manual, FWD ('08-'09 9-5)
* 6 = 6-spd. manual, FWD ('08-'09 9-3)
* 7 = 6-spd. manual, AWD ('08-'09 9-3 Aero 2.8T, '08 9-3 Turbo X, '09 9-3 2.0T XWD)
* 9 = 5-spd. automatic, FWD ('08-'09 9-3 2.0T FWD, '08-'09 9-5)

* A = 6-spd. automatic, FWD ('11 9-5)
* B = 6-spd. automatic, AWD ('10-'11 9-3, '10-'11 9-5)
* C = 5-spd. automatic, FWD ('10-'11 9-3)
* M = 6-spd. manual, FWD ('10-'11 9-3, '11 9-5)
* N = 6-spd. manual, AWD ('10-'11 9-3)

===Position 8, Restraint 1981-1983:===
*S = Active (Manual) seat belts

===Position 8, Engine 1984-2011:===
*A = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B235L I4 ('04-'05 9-5 Arc)
*B = 2.3L DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B234I I4 &lt;br&gt; (Mid '90 9000 S, '91-'92 9000 Base/S/CD, '93-'94 9000 CS/CSE, '93 9000 CD/CDE, '94-'98 900 S 5-d, '94-'97 900 S 3-d, '95-'98 900 S convertible)
*D = 2.0L DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B202I I4 ('89-'90 900 base model, '86-'90 900 S, '87-Early '90 9000 S)
*E = 2.1L DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B212I I4 ('91-'92 900 base model, '91-'93 900 S, '94 900 S Convertible)
*E = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B235E Light-pressure turbo I4 &lt;br&gt; ('99 9-5 2.3T, '00-'01 9-5 2.3T Base model, '00 9-5 Gary Fisher Edition wagon, '02-'05 9-5 Linear)
*G = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B235R high output I4 ('99-'02 9-3 Viggen, '00-'05 9-5 Aero, '06-'09 9-5)
*H = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B205L std. output I4 ('00-'01 9-3 base model)
*J = 2.0L SOHC 8-valve Saab H engine B201I I4 ('84-'88 900 base model, '84-'85 900 S)
*J = 2.8L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM High Feature Saab A28NER V6 (RPO code: LAU) ('10-'11 9-5)
*K = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B205R high output I4 ('00-'02 9-3 SE 5-d, '00-'03 9-3 SE convertible)
*L = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B202L I4 &lt;br&gt; ('85-'93 900 Turbo, '85-'91 900 Turbo SPG, '91 900 S.E. Turbo convertible, '94 900 Turbo Convertible, '86-'90 9000 Turbo, '89-'90 9000 CD Turbo)
*M = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B234L std. output I4 &lt;br&gt; ('91-'92 9000 Turbo/CD Turbo, '92 9000 CD Turbo Griffin Edition, '93-'94 9000 CS Turbo, '93-'97 9000 CSE Turbo, '93 9000 CD Turbo, '93-'94 9000 CDE Turbo, &lt;br&gt; '93-'97 9000 Aero w/auto. trans., '98 9000 CSE w/auto. trans.)
*N = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B204L std. output I4 ('98 900 S Turbo 3-d, '94-'98 900 SE Turbo 3-d, '95-'98 900 SE Turbo convertible,&lt;br&gt; '96-'98 900 SE Turbo 5-d, '97 900 SE Turbo Talladega Edition, '99 9-3 base model, SE w/auto. trans., Early '99 9-3 SE w/man. trans.)
*P = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B204R high output I4 (Mid '99 9-3 SE w/man. trans.)
*R = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B234R high output I4 ('93-'97 9000 Aero w/man. trans., '98 9000 CSE w/man. trans.)
*R = 2.8L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM High Feature Saab B284R high output V6 &lt;br&gt; ('08-'09 9-3 Aero XWD 4-d/wagon, '08 9-3 Turbo X XWD 4-d/wagon, '09 9-3 Aero FWD convertible)
*R = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Gas/E85 Flex-Fuel (Biopower) DOHC 16-valve Direct injection GM Ecotec Gen II Saab A20NFT I4 (RPO code: LHU) ('11 9-5)
*S = 2.0L turbo SOHC 8-valve Saab H engine B201S I4 ('84 900 Turbo)
*S = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve GM Ecotec Gen I Saab B207L Light-pressure turbo I4 ('03-'05 9-3 Linear)
*T = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B202R high output I4 [185 hp] &lt;br&gt; ('93 900 Turbo 3-d Commemorative Edition, '94 900 Turbo Convertible Commemorative Edition)
*U = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B234E Light-pressure turbo I4 ('95-'97 9000 CS)
*U = 2.8L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM High Feature Saab B284L V6 ('06-'08 9-3 Aero FWD)
*V = 2.5L DOHC 24-valve GM/Opel 54° V6 Saab B258I ('94-'97 900 SE V6 5-d, '95-'97 900 SE V6 convertible)
*W = 3.0L DOHC 24-valve GM/Opel 54° V6 Saab B308I ('95-'97 9000 CSE V6, '95 9000 CDE V6)
*Y = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve GM Ecotec Gen I Saab B207R high output I4 ('03 9-3 Arc, Vector, '04-'05 9-3 Arc, Aero, '06-'11 9-3 2.0T)
*Z = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM/Opel 54° V6 Saab B308E ('99 9-5 V6, '00-'01 9-5 SE, '02-'03 9-5 Arc)

===Position 9, Check Digit===
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]]

===Position 10, Model Year===                      
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]]

===Position 11, Production Plant:===
* 1:    Trollhattan, Sweden (Line 1: '81-'85 900, Line A: '86-'98 9000, '03-'11 9-3)
* 2:    Trollhattan, Sweden (Line 2: '81-'85 900, Line B: '86-'98 900, '88-'91 9000)
* 2:    Trollhattan, Sweden (Line A: '99-'02 9-3)
* 3:    Arlov, Sweden ('85-'90 900)
* 3:    Trollhattan, Sweden (Line B: '99-'09 9-5)
* 4:    Malmo, Sweden (9000)
* 4:    Trollhattan, Sweden ('10-'11 9-5)
* 5:    Malmo, Sweden ('90-'91 900)
* 6:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - 99, 90) N/A in N. America
* 6:    Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant: '04-'10 9-3 convertible) 
* 7:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - '85-'98 900, '99-'03 9-3)
* 8:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - 9000)
* 9:    Trollhattan, Sweden (Prototype/Pre-production Line)

* G:    Ota, Gunma prefecture, Japan [Subaru plant] ('05-'06 Saab 9-2X w/5-spd. man. trans.)
* H:    Ota, Gunma prefecture, Japan [Subaru plant]  ('05-'06 Saab 9-2X w/4-spd. auto. trans.)

* S:    Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila, Mexico [GM plant] ('11 9-4X)
* 2:    Moraine, Ohio, US [GM plant] ('05-'09 9-7X)

'''Positions 12–17, Serial Number'''

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>English in Use/Agreement</title>
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    <id>484619</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-15T18:35:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-39770-25</username>
        <id>3614596</id>
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      <comment>/* &quot;the number of&quot; vs &quot;a number of&quot; and &quot;the total&quot; vs &quot;a total of&quot; */ Fixing ref</comment>
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      <text bytes="32553" sha1="0vma21si9uke3l6qxbqozszrzv5t0pk" xml:space="preserve">'''Agreement''' (also called '''concord''') is the way a word (marked with an &lt;u&gt;underline&lt;/u&gt; in this article) has the form appropriate to the person, number, or gender of the noun or pronoun (written here in '''bold''').&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Definition of 'agreement' |publisher=Collins Dictionary |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/agreement |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For example, the sentences &quot;''It exists.''&quot; and &quot;''They exist.''&quot; are grammatically correct, while &quot;''It exist.''&quot; or &quot;''They exists.''&quot; are grammatically incorrect. English grammar requires that the verb and its subject agree in person: the pronoun ''it'' and the verb ''exists'' are singular, whereas the pronoun ''they'' and the verb ''exist'' are plural.

== Subject/Complement–Verb agreement ==
=== Subject–Verb agreement ===
In general, a verb's number is matched to its subject (which normally precedes the verb).{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=205}}

A singular subject takes a singular verb.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=36, 42, 49, 51}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Straus |first=Jane |url=https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp |title=Subject–Verb Agreement |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''The zoo's main attraction''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; the elephants.''

A plural subject takes a plural verb.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=36, 42, 49, 51}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;
* '''''Elephants''' &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; the zoo's main attraction.''

==== Subject after the verb ====
The subject follows the verb in a range of constructions, including certain formal, literary, or emphatic structures as well as using ''here'' and ''there'' at the beginning of a sentence.&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:41&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/here-and-there |title=Here and there |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=57-58}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=400-402}}
* ''Look, here &lt;u&gt;comes&lt;/u&gt; '''your boyfriend'''!''
* ''Little &lt;u&gt;does&lt;/u&gt; '''he''' realize how much he means to us.'' 
* ''The new policy is beneficial to the environment, as &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; '''the prior regulations'''.'' 

=== Complement–Verb agreement ===
When the subject is far from the verb, the verb is sometimes matched to the complement.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=205}}
* '''''The main problem with the new policy''', along with several unexpected complications, &lt;u&gt;are/is&lt;/u&gt; '''the unclear rules and guidelines'''.''

This often occurs when the subject is a relative clause introduced by ''what'', especially if the complement is long.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=206}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}
* ''What we need to consider &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; '''the potential consequence''' of this decision.''

If the complement is plural, the verb can be plural (more formal) or singular.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}
* ''What we need to consider &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; '''the potential consequences''' of this decision.'' (more formally)
* ''What we need to consider &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; '''the potential consequences''' of this decision.''

=== Parentheses ===
Parentheses can always be removed, so they don't affect the agreement.&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=How to use parenthesis: brackets, dashes and commas |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zhpt7yc |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Parentheses vs. Brackets: Definitions and Examples |date=16 November 2022 |url=https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/parentheses-and-brackets |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Einsohn|p=348}}{{sfn|Eastwood|1994|p=192}}
* '''''Our laptop computer''' (and its accessories) &lt;u&gt;comes&lt;/u&gt; with a two-year warranty.''

=== Complex nouns ===
When a noun is complex, i.e., it contains a preposition, prepositional phrase, adverb, adverbial phrase (e.g., ''with'', ''in addition to'', ''along with'', ''as well (as)'', ''together with'', ''besides'', or ''not''), or a relative clause, the verb usually agrees with the head noun or pronoun.&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=206}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/grammar/subject_verb_agreement.html |title=Making Subjects and Verbs Agree |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''The engine''' of the car &lt;u&gt;needs&lt;/u&gt; to be repaired.''
* '''''The man''' who lives next door &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; very outgoing.''
* '''''The computer''' as well as the printer &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; malfunctioning.''
* '''''The teachers''' in my school &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; notoriously unprepared for classes.''

==== Quantifying expressions ====
However, with quantifying expressions (phrases expressing parts), percentages, and fractions, the verb agrees with the noun or pronoun following ''of''.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=204}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=fraction |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/fraction |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=84}}
* ''Half of '''the team members''' &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; working remotely today.''
* ''Less than 2% of '''water''' in the world &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; drinkable.''
* ''Only a handful of '''students''' &lt;u&gt;were&lt;/u&gt; on time for the class.''

== Pronoun-Antecedent agreement ==
=== Number agreement ===
A singular pronoun is used for a singular noun.{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=106}}
* '''''The computer''' is on the desk, and &lt;u&gt;it&lt;/u&gt; is not working properly.''

A plural pronoun is used for a plural noun.{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=106}}
* '''''The computers''' are on the desk, and &lt;u&gt;they&lt;/u&gt; are not working properly.''

=== Gender agreement ===
Pronouns are also matched for gender. ''He'' or ''she'' and ''who'' are normally used for people.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=513}}{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=106}}
* '''''My uncle''' is a doctor. &lt;u&gt;He&lt;/u&gt; works in the city hospital.''

When referring back to indefinite pronouns such as ''somebody'', ''someone'', ''anybody'', ''anyone'', ''no one'', ''nobody'', ''everybody'', and ''everyone'', the phrase ''he or she'' is used.&lt;ref name=&quot;MW-they&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=they |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/they |access-date=26 April 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Oxford-they&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=they |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/they |access-date=26 April 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=264}}
* ''If '''someone''' wants to join, &lt;u&gt;he or she&lt;/u&gt; must register online.''

Nowadays, it is also generally considered correct to use the word ''they''.&lt;ref name=&quot;MW-they&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Oxford-they&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=264}}
* ''If '''someone''' wants to join, &lt;u&gt;they&lt;/u&gt; must register online.''

''It'' and ''which'' are normally used for things or animals.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=513}}
* ''I saw '''a cat'''. &lt;u&gt;It&lt;/u&gt; was sleeping on the sofa.''

When animals are thought of as having personality, intelligence, or feelings, ''he'' or ''she'' may sometimes be used; this is common with pets.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=513}}
* ''This is '''Bella''', a friendly golden retriever. &lt;u&gt;She&lt;/u&gt; enjoys playing fetch with her owner.''

In such cases, ''who'' is used instead of ''which''.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=513}}
* ''Meet '''Luna''', a playful cat &lt;u&gt;who&lt;/u&gt; loves to chase toys.''

Sometimes ''she'' is used for cars and motorcycles as well as countries, though ''it'' is more common in modern usage.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=513}}&lt;ref name=&quot;she-cambridge&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=she |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/she}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;she-longman&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=she |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/she}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''I love '''my car'''. &lt;u&gt;It/She&lt;/u&gt; never lets me down.''
* '''''Italy''' is famous for &lt;u&gt;its/her&lt;/u&gt; cuisine.''

Sailors often refer to ships and boats as ''she'', but it's less common than it used to be.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=513}}&lt;ref name=&quot;she-cambridge&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;she-longman&quot; /&gt;
* ''This is '''my ship'''. &lt;u&gt;She&lt;/u&gt;'s got a long history of cruising.''

== Determiner–Noun agreement ==
Some determiners are used only with certain kinds of nouns. For example, ''this'' and ''that'' change to ''these'' and ''those'' when the following noun is plural.{{sfn|Swan|2016}}
* &lt;u&gt;this&lt;/u&gt; '''cat''' — &lt;u&gt;these&lt;/u&gt; '''cats'''
* &lt;u&gt;that&lt;/u&gt; '''cat''' — &lt;u&gt;those&lt;/u&gt; '''cats'''

The table below shows which determiners and determiner phrases combine with which kinds of nouns:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Determiner
!Countable singular nouns (e.g. notebook, week)
!Uncountable nouns (e.g. luggage, music)
!Countable plural nouns (e.g. notebooks, weeks)
|-
|a / an / each{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=239}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:39&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=each |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/each |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=each |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/each |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; / many a/an&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=many |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/many |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=many a/an |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/many%20a%2Fan |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; / one / either{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=242}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=either |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/either |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; / neither{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=243}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=neither |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/neither |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{no}}
|-
|many / quite a few / a good few / a good many / not a few / a number of / few / fewer&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/less |title=less |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/less-or-fewer |title=Less or fewer? |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/less |title=less |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; / fewest / a few / several&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/grammar/online-grammar/quantifiers-both-several-most-and-all |title=both, several, most, all |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; / these / those / zero, two, three, etc. / umpteen
|{{no}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|-
|much / little / a little
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|-
|this / that
|{{yes}}
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|-
|quantity of&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/amount-of-number-of-or-quantity-of |title=Amount of, number of or quantity of? |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Carter|McCarthy|2006|p=361}} / enough / a lot of / lots of
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|{{yes}}
|-
|amount of&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/amount_1 |title=amount |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; / a good deal of&lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/a-great-good-deal |title=a great/good deal |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Carter|McCarthy|2006|p=348}}{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=257}} / a great deal of&lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Carter|McCarthy|2006|p=361}}{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=257}} / less&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/less_1 |title=less |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt; / least
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Questionable
|-
|all&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/all_1 |title=all |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=235}} / some / any
|{{yes}}
|{{yes}}
|{{yes}}
|}

=== Every ===
''Every'' is followed by a singular noun.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=237}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:43&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=every |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/every |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''Every''' &lt;u&gt;episode&lt;/u&gt; of the series &lt;u&gt;presents&lt;/u&gt; a new story.''

''Every'' is used with a plural noun when it refers to intervals.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=238}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:43&quot; /&gt;
* ''A train leaves the station &lt;u&gt;every&lt;/u&gt; '''three hours'''.''

=== No ===
The word ''no'' is followed by a singular noun when referring to the absence of even a single item.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=92}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:47&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv354.shtml |title=no = not / not any |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''He has '''no''' &lt;u&gt;passport&lt;/u&gt;.''
The word ''no'' is followed by a plural noun when referring to the absence of multiple items.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=92}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:47&quot; /&gt;
* ''He has '''no''' &lt;u&gt;socks&lt;/u&gt;.''
Often both are possible though it's more formal to use a singular noun.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=98}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:47&quot; /&gt;
* '''''No''' &lt;u&gt;dog&lt;/u&gt; allowed!'' (more formally)
* '''''No''' &lt;u&gt;dogs&lt;/u&gt; allowed!''

=== Kind(s)/Sort(s)/Type(s) of ===
After ''kind/sort/type of'', a singular noun is usually used.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=kinds / types / sorts / varieties (of music) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv310.shtml |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=684–685}}{{sfn|Uk|2019|p=281,282,485,539}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:36&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=kind |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/kind_1 |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=kind |url=https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=kind |website=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''What &lt;u&gt;sort of&lt;/u&gt; '''book''' do you usually read?''

It's also possible to use ''kind/sort/type of'' with a plural noun.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=684–685}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:36&quot; /&gt;
* ''What &lt;u&gt;sort of&lt;/u&gt; '''books''' do you usually read?''

The phrases ''kinds/sorts/types of'' can also be used with either a singular or a plural noun.{{sfn|Uk|2019|p=281,282,485,539}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:36&quot; /&gt;
* ''We studied &lt;u&gt;many sorts of&lt;/u&gt; '''political system(s)'''.''

Certain structures with ''this'', ''that'', ''these'', and ''those'' occur, but they are considered incorrect.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=684–685}}{{sfn|Uk|2019|p=281,282,485,539}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:36&quot; /&gt;
* ''&lt;u&gt;This kind of&lt;/u&gt; '''problems''' is difficult.'' (this/that + kind/sort/type of + plural noun)
* ''&lt;u&gt;These kind of&lt;/u&gt; '''problems''' is difficult.'' (these/those + kind/sort/type of + plural noun)
* ''&lt;u&gt;These kinds of&lt;/u&gt; '''problem''' are difficult.'' (these/those + kinds/sorts/types of + singular noun)

In formal style, a plural verb followed by ''of this/that kind/sort/type'' is also possible.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=684–685}}{{sfn|Uk|2019|p=281,282,485,539}}
* '''''Problems''' &lt;u&gt;of this kind&lt;/u&gt; are difficult.''

=== Dozen, hundred, thousand, million, and billion ===
The words ''dozen'', ''hundred'', ''thousand'', ''million'', and ''billion'' are used without the -s ending when they follow a number.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=505}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=hundred |title=Definition of 'hundred'; Collins English Dictionary |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/hundred |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=hundred |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/hundred |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=302}}{{sfn|Uk|2019|p=727}}
* ''The population of South Korea grew to almost &lt;u&gt;52&lt;/u&gt; '''million''' and then began to decline.''
* ''I have &lt;u&gt;two&lt;/u&gt; '''hundred''' dollars on me.''

=== Fractions ===
Fractions between 1 and 2 are used with plural nouns.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=207}}
* ''The meeting lasted around &lt;u&gt;1.25&lt;/u&gt; '''hours'''.''

== Notional agreement ==
'''Notional agreement''' (also called '''notional concord''' or '''synesis''') is a type of agreement that stems from the meaning. It is more commonly used in British English than in American English.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=On Notional Agreement, the Majority Speak |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/notional-agreement-subject-verb-principle-proximity}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== And ===
Expressions joined by ''and'' generally take a plural verb.{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=799}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=206}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}
* '''''A cat and a dog''' &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; playing in the garden.''

If the nouns, however, suggest one idea or refer to the same thing or person, the verb is singular.{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=799}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=206}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}
* '''''The new bed and breakfast''' &lt;u&gt;opens&lt;/u&gt; this week.''
* '''''The singer and songwriter''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; performing tonight.''

When expressions joined by ''and'' follow ''each'' or ''every'', the verb is singular.{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=799}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}
* '''''Each teacher and student''' &lt;u&gt;has&lt;/u&gt; completed the survey.''

The verb is also singular when uncountable nouns joined by ''and'' follow ''all''.{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=799}}
* '''''All the information and advice''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; available on our website.''

=== Amounts and quantities ===
Expressions of distance, sums of money, periods of time, etc., regarded as one unit, take singular determiners, verbs, and pronouns.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=204}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=158}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:37&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/course/towards-advanced/unit-21/tab/grammar |title=Subject–Verb Agreement 2 |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=84}}
* '''''Five minutes''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; all I need.''
* '''''Fifty dollars''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; a fair price.''
* '''''Two liters''' of water &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; required for the experiment.''
However, when these expressions are deemed separate individual units, they are plural.&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:37&quot; /&gt;
* '''''A few dollars''' &lt;u&gt;were&lt;/u&gt; missing from the victim's wallet.''

=== Calculations ===
When speaking calculations, both singular and plural verbs are possible depending on the phrasing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:37&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=507}}
* '''''Three and three''' &lt;u&gt;is/are&lt;/u&gt; six.''
* '''''Three plus three''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; six.''

=== Groups ===
==== American English ====
In American English, collective nouns (i.e. nouns expressing groups singular in form such as ''committee'', ''team'', ''Sony'' and ''The United Nations''){{sfn|Swan|2016|p=205}}{{sfn|Carter|McCarthy|2006|p=351}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}} generally take singular verbs{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=301}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=family |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/family |access-date=5 April 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; and either singular or plural pronouns.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=203}}
* '''''The committee''' &lt;u&gt;was&lt;/u&gt; arguing among &lt;u&gt;itself/themselves&lt;/u&gt; during the session.''
* '''''My family''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; all coming over for Thanksgiving.''
* '''''The United Nations''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; holding a conference next month. &lt;u&gt;It/They&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;has/have&lt;/u&gt; invited delegates from all over the world to attend.''

==== British English ====
In British English, collective nouns may take either singular or plural verb and pronouns forms.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=203}}{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=301}}

Singular forms are used when the emphasis is on the group as a whole.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=203}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}
* '''''The committee''' &lt;u&gt;has&lt;/u&gt; postponed &lt;u&gt;its&lt;/u&gt; meeting until next week.''

In these cases ''which'' is also used as the relative pronoun.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=203}}
* '''''The band''', &lt;u&gt;which&lt;/u&gt; was formed in the 1980s, gained international fame.''

Plural forms are used when the emphasis is on the individual members.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=203}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}
* '''''The committee''' &lt;u&gt;were&lt;/u&gt; arguing among &lt;u&gt;themselves&lt;/u&gt; during the session.''

In those cases ''who'' is often used as the relative pronoun.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=203}}
* '''''The band''', &lt;u&gt;who&lt;/u&gt; have been performing together for decades, released a new album.''

=== Indefinite pronouns ===
As subjects, ''another'', ''anybody'', ''anyone'', ''anything'', ''each'', ''either'', ''every'', ''everybody'', ''everyone'', ''everything'', ''less'', ''little'', ''much'', ''neither'', ''no one'', ''nobody'', ''nothing'', ''one'', ''somebody'', ''someone'', and ''something'' take singular verbs.{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=170, 180}}
* '''''Everybody''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; a genius.''

The pronouns ''both'', ''few'', ''fewer'', ''many'', ''others'', and ''several'' take plural verbs.
* '''''Few''' &lt;u&gt;know&lt;/u&gt; the full story.''

The pronouns ''all'', ''any'', ''enough'', ''more'', ''most'', ''none'', ''some'', and ''such'' take a singular verb when they refer to an uncountable noun or a plural verb when they refer to a plural noun.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/no-none-and-none-of |title=No, none and none of |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;
* ''I found '''the equipment''' in the garage, but it turned out that '''none''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; useful.''
* ''I found '''the tools''' in the garage, but it turned out that '''none''' &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; useful.''

=== &quot;the number of&quot; vs &quot;a number of&quot; and &quot;the total&quot; vs &quot;a total of&quot; ===
The literal phrase ''the number of'' takes a singular verb, whereas the fixed phrase ''a number of'' is treated as plural.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/number |title=number |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Straus |first=Jane |url=https://www.grammarbook.com/blog/numbers/the-number-vs-a-number |title=The Number vs. A Number |date=9 December 2010 |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.noslangues-ourlanguages.gc.ca/en/writing-tips-plus/verb-agreement-with-number |title=Verb agreement with &quot;number&quot; |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''The number of''' cars on the roads &lt;u&gt;has&lt;/u&gt; decreased.''
* '''''A number of''' people &lt;u&gt;have&lt;/u&gt; complained about the noise.''

The same is true for ''the total'' and ''a total of''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |editor-last=Iverson |editor-first=Cheryl |title=AMA Manual of Style |edition=10th |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford, Oxfordshire |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-517633-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/amamanualofstyle0000unse |section=7.8.11 Number |url-access=registration }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''The total''' &lt;u&gt;was&lt;/u&gt; growing.''
* '''''A total of''' 28 volunteers &lt;u&gt;have&lt;/u&gt; submitted applications.''

== Special cases ==
=== Titles and names ===
Titles and names plural in form and referring to a single thing  (e.g. countries, movies, restaurants, and quotations) take singular verbs.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}{{sfn|Eastwood|1994|p=192}}{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=205}}
* '''''The Netherlands''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; famous for &lt;u&gt;its&lt;/u&gt; fields of tulips.''
* '' '''''The Avengers''''' &lt;u&gt;has&lt;/u&gt; been a huge box-office success.''
* '''''The New York Times''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; an American newspaper.''
* '''''&quot;Sales figures&quot;''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; the phrase used in the report title.''

==== the United States ====
Usually ''the United States'' is used with a singular verb just like other countries. However, it's possible to use it with a plural noun though it's not common.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=fraction |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/the-united-states-of-america |access-date=10 July 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''The United States''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; (or rarely: &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt;) the country with the largest number of English native speakers.''

=== What/Who questions ===
In questions, ''what'' and ''who'' are followed by a singular verb when they are used as subject.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=207}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=52}}
* '''''Who''' &lt;u&gt;lives&lt;/u&gt; in that house?''

However, when they are used as complements (this happens often after linking verbs), they are followed by either a plural or singular verb.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=207}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=52}}
* '''''Who''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; the person living in that house?''
* '''''Who''' &lt;u&gt;are&lt;/u&gt; the people living in that house?''

Both versions are also possible in echo questions if the subject is plural or consists of at least two nouns with &quot;and&quot;.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=52}}
* '''''John and Mary''' are coming tomorrow. – &lt;u&gt;Who are&lt;/u&gt; coming tomorrow?''
* '''''John and Mary''' are coming tomorrow. – &lt;u&gt;Who's&lt;/u&gt; coming tomorrow?''

=== A pair of ===
After ''a pair of,'' both singular and plural verbs can be used.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=pair |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/pair_1 |access-date=5 April 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''A pair of glasses''' &lt;u&gt;is/are&lt;/u&gt; on the bench.''

=== Clauses ===
Singular verbs are used with clauses used as subjects.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=80}}{{sfn|Eastwood|1994|p=193}}
* '''''What she said''' &lt;u&gt;was&lt;/u&gt; suspicious.''
* '''''For all of us to get enough sleep''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; crucial.''
* '''''To err''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; human.''
* '''''Where they went''' &lt;u&gt;remains&lt;/u&gt; unknown.''

==== Everyone, everybody, and each ====
When pronouns refer back to ''everyone'', ''everybody'', and ''each'' they may be singular (more formal) or plural (less formal).{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=238}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:39&quot; /&gt;
* '''''Everyone''' is responsible for &lt;u&gt;his or her&lt;/u&gt; actions.''
* '''''Everyone''' is responsible for &lt;u&gt;their&lt;/u&gt; actions.''

==== Each ====
When ''each'' refers to the subject and is in mid-position, plural nouns, pronouns, and verbs are used.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=240}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:39&quot; /&gt;
* ''&lt;u&gt;The students&lt;/u&gt; '''each''' &lt;u&gt;have&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;their&lt;/u&gt; own locker.''

=== More than one ===
The expression ''more than one'' uses a singular noun and verb.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=204}}
* '''''More than one''' &lt;u&gt;factor&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;contributes&lt;/u&gt; to climate change.''

=== Here's, there's, and where's ===
In informal style, ''here's, there's, and where's'' are often used with plural nouns (instead of ''here are, there are, where are''); sometimes this is considered incorrect.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=207}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}
* ''&lt;u&gt;Where are&lt;/u&gt; (or questionable: &lt;u&gt;Where's&lt;/u&gt;) '''my keys'''?''

=== Any of, none of, either of, and neither of ===
After ''any of''{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=246}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}, ''none of''{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=249}}{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=172}}{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}, ''either of''{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=242}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/either_1 |title=either |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/either |title=either |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and ''neither of''{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=243}}{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=178}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/neither_1 |title=neither |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/neither |title=neither |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, English uses a plural personal pronoun or a plural determiner and noun and optionally a singular verb in formal style or a plural verb in informal style.
* '''''Any of''' &lt;u&gt;the students&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;is/are&lt;/u&gt; allowed to retake the test.''
* '''''None of''' &lt;u&gt;the students&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;is/are&lt;/u&gt; ready for the exam.''
* '''''Either of''' &lt;u&gt;them&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;is/are&lt;/u&gt; welcome to join us.''
* '''''Neither of''' &lt;u&gt;them&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;is/are&lt;/u&gt; ready yet.''

=== Each of ===
''Each of'' is normally followed by a plural personal pronoun or a plural determiner and noun and a singular verb{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=239-240}}. However in informal style a plural verb is sometimes used.{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/each |title=Each |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''''Each of''' &lt;u&gt;the books&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;has&lt;/u&gt; (or informally: &lt;u&gt;have&lt;/u&gt;) a different cover design.''

=== Expressions with &quot;in&quot; and &quot;out of&quot; ===
After number followed by ''in'' or ''out of'', English uses a number with a plural noun and either a singular or plural verb.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=503}}
* ''Almost '''nine in ten students''' &lt;u&gt;hate(s)&lt;/u&gt; math.''
* ''Over '''six out of ten young men''' &lt;u&gt;feel(s)&lt;/u&gt; lonely regularly.''

=== Every one of ===
''Every one of'' is followed by a plural personal pronoun or a plural determiner and noun and a singular verb.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=237}}
* '''''Every one of''' &lt;u&gt;her arguments&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; wrong.''

=== One of ===
The expression ''one of'' is usually followed by a plural noun.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=204}}
* ''&lt;u&gt;One of&lt;/u&gt; '''the apples''' is rotten.''

Sometimes ''one of'' is used with a singular noun referring to a group.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=661}}
* ''Why don't you invite &lt;u&gt;one of&lt;/u&gt; '''the team''' for lunch?''

The verb after the noun is singular.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=204}}
* '''''One of my co-workers''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; from Seoul.''

After ''one of'' in the relative clauses, both plural and singular verbs are used; the plural form is generally considered correct.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=205}}
* ''He's '''one of the professors''' who &lt;u&gt;teach&lt;/u&gt; quantum physics.''

=== The ===
The phrase consisting of ''the'' and an adjective is plural when referring to well-known groups of people in a particular physical or social condition.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=279}}{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=65}}{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=152}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:40&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Subject-Verb Agreement 1 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/course/towards-advanced/unit-20/tab/grammar |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Do '''the disabled''' &lt;u&gt;have&lt;/u&gt; special facilities?''

In certain fixed, formal expressions, the phrase consisting of ''the'' and an adjective may be singular.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=279}}
* '''''The deceased''' &lt;u&gt;has&lt;/u&gt; not yet been formally identified.''

The phrase consisting of ''the'' and an adjective is singular when it refers to general abstract ideas.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=280}}
* '''''The unknown''' &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; often scarier than the known.''

The phrase consisting of ''the'' and an adjective is plural when referring to people from a specific country.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=279}}{{sfn|Murphy|2019|p=152}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:40&quot; /&gt;
* '''''The Japanese''' &lt;u&gt;value&lt;/u&gt; punctuality highly.''

=== (Either) or, (neither) nor, not only (but) also ===
The verb should agree with the expression in these structures closest to it ('''the rule of proximity'''). Other forms of agreement occur, but they are not considered correct.{{sfn|Swan|2016|p=206}}{{sfn|ELT|COBUILD|2017|p=799}}&lt;ref name=&quot;grammarbook&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/course/towards-advanced/unit-22/tab/grammar |title=Subject–Verb Agreement 3 |access-date=5 April 2026 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Hewings|2023|p=82}}
* ''Either my teacher or '''I''' &lt;u&gt;am&lt;/u&gt; wrong.''
* ''&lt;u&gt;Are&lt;/u&gt; neither '''the employees''' nor the manager aware of the change?''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
=== Books ===
* {{cite book |last=Swan |first=Michael |title=Practical English Usage |edition=4th |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-420243-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Hewings |first=Martin |title=Advanced Grammar in Use: Book with Answers and eBook and Online Test |edition=4th |year=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press &amp; Assessment |location=Oxford |isbn=9781108920216}}
* {{cite book |last=Murphy |first=Raymond |title=English Grammar in Use |edition=5th |year=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Eastwood |first=John |title=Oxford Guide to English Grammar |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carter |first1=Ronald |last2=McCarthy |first2=Michael |title=Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide |year=2006}}
* {{cite book |last1=ELT |first1=Collins |last2=COBUILD |first2=Collins |title=Collins COBUILD Grammar - COBUILD English Grammar |publisher=Collins Cobuild |date=2017-03-23 |isbn=978-0-00-813581-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Uk |first=Collins |title=Collins COBUILD Grammar - English Usage: B1-C2 |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-00-835640-8 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers Limited |edition=Fourth}}
* {{cite book |last=Einsohn |first=Amy  |title=The Copyeditor's Handbook: A Guide for Book Publishing and Corporate Communications |edition=Fourth}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Five Rules for Meaningful Living</title>
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This wikibook, '''Five Rules for Meaningful Living''', is based on the shared wisdom of Frankl, Jung, and Watts on overcoming inner suffering and living life with meaning.

'''First chapter''' introduces how Frankl's logotherapy, Jung's shadow work, and Watts' Zen insights align on how meaning rather than happiness is the foundation for a fulfilled life.

'''Second chapter''' is on practical steps and details the five rules with examples; to pursue responsibility over comfort, face avoided realities, embrace a more flexible identity, release micromanagement of outcomes, and step into discomfort for growth.

'''Third chapter''' is daily application where actionable exercises are provided, as well as strategies for overcoming common barriers like fear and perfectionism in modern routines.

'''Fourth chapter''' is for readers who wish to explore the philosophical and psychological ideas that inspired the Five Rules for Meaningful Living.

==1. Introduction==
Viktor Frankl was a Holocaust survivor. Carl Jung was a famous psychologist. And Alan Watts is a Zenz philosopher. Despite these three men coming from very different backgrounds, their insights converged on the understanding that many of our greatest struggles in life arise not only from life's external hardships, but also from the psychological patterns through which we respond to them. All three argued that we can suffer and fare poorly due to the invisible psychological traps we refuse to confront, and that sustainable growth and meaning depends on confronting the fears, assumptions, and habits that shape our experience.

==2. Core Principles==
The five rules, based on the insights of Frankl, Jung, and Watts, do not promise constant happiness but instead provide practical path for cultivating courage, purpose, responsibility, acceptance, adaptability, and psychological resilience. They are;

'''1. Seek meaning over happiness'''

'''2. Taking action on situations that you avoid or put off and do it even if feeling less than perfect to reduce long-term anxiety'''

'''3. Have responsibility for self instead of waiting for motivation or perfect conditions.'''

'''4.  Develop strong internal locus of control where you accept limits of control  - and let go of micromanaging outcomes by setting intentions then accepting the results.'''

'''5. Cultivate a fluid identity and regularly questioning rigid self-views on what you can and can't do.'''

Together these 5 principles aim to develop qualities that are relatively stable and less dependent on external circumstances,  providing a practical framework for psychological freedom, flexibility, and personal growth.

==3. Application==

==4. Further reading==
This chapter provides references for readers who wish to further study related ideas and the philosophical and psychological works that influenced the ''Five Rules for Meaningful Living''.

It include selected works that introduces key concepts from Viktor Frankl, Carl Jung, and Alan Watts as well as related ideas from other thinkers.

=== Viktor Frankl ===
* [[wikipedia:Man's Search for Meaning|''Man's Search for Meaning'']]

=== Carl Jung ===
* [[wikipedia:Man and His Symbols|''Man and His Symbols'']]

=== Alan Watts ===
* [https://books.google.com.au/books?id=tKy_sIIr4RcC ''The Book: On the Taboo Against Knowing Who You Are'']
=== Marcus Aurelius ===
* [[wikipedia:Meditations|''Meditations'']]

=== M. Scott Peck ===
* [[wikipedia:M. Scott Peck#The Road Less Traveled|''The Road Less Traveled'']]

{{shelves|self improvement}}</text>
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== I have added a tag to a page you created ==
Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:The Sovereign Stack]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it &lt;strong&gt;may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].&lt;/strong&gt; This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Spam&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:The Sovereign Stack|the page's talk page]] explaining why. &lt;strong&gt;If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.&lt;/strong&gt; If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! &lt;!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:09, 15 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
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| category = Breakfast recipes
| Cuisine = Scottish
| Origin = Scotland
| servings = 1
| time = 25 minutes + 7–8 hours soaking
| difficulty = 3
| image = 
}}
__NOTOC__
{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]] | [[Cookbook:Breakfast|Breakfast]]

'''Scottish Porridge''' is a beloved traditional breakfast dish from Scotland. Traditionally, it doesn't use dairy and only consists of three ingredients - oats, salt and water. This recipe follows the golden ratio of one parts oats to three parts water and uses an overnight pre-soaking method for steel-cut oats. The soaking helps reduce cooking time and the oats are later simmered slowly. The end result is a creamy, satisfying porridge with a pleasant chewy texture. A variety of toppings can be added according to personal preferences, including berries, sliced banana, seeds, nuts, cinnamon, and a dollop of Greek yogurt.

==Ingredients==
* ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] (80 [[Cookbook:gram|g]]) steel-cut [[Cookbook:Oats|oats]], also called Irish oats
* 1½ cup (375 [[Cookbook:Milliliter|ml]]) water
* 1 teaspoon lemon juice or apple cider vinegar (for soaking)
* 1 teaspoon of buckwheat flour (for reducing phytates)
* ⅛ teaspoon fine sea salt

==Procedure==
#Mix the steel-cut oats with a teaspoon of buckwheat flour in a bowl.
#Add warm water to soak the oats and add a splash of lemon juice or apple cider vinegar. Cover and allow to soak overnight or at least 7 to 8 hours.
#Place the oats, salt and water into a small pan and gently bring it to a small [[Cookbook:Boiling|boil]], stirring occasionally until the porridge starts to thicken.
#Once the thickening has begun, lower the heat to low to avoid burning the porridge and allow it to simmer for approximately 15 to 20 minutes (or less if the oats are tender and reached your preferred consistency).
#Remove from the heat and let it stand for 1 or 2 minutes before serving.
#Serve and top with your choice of toppings, such as chia seeds, walnuts, tablespoon of peanut butter, berries, cinnamon, or a dollop of Greek yogurt.

==Notes, tips, and variations==
* Traditionalists uses whole-oat groats and mill them to make Scottish porridge. However store bought steel-cut oats are a reliable substitute for those who do not possess a mill. If you possess a mill and desire the authentic Scottish taste, you can swap steel-cut oats and use milled whole-oat groats instead.
* Pre-soaking is essential to achieve a soft, velvety texture as it helps break down starches in oats and soften its hearty outer hull.
* To reduce phytates in oats, you should add both an acidic medium and a phytase-rich ingredient to your soaking liquid, This can be achieved by adding a teaspoon of buckwheat flour and a teaspoon of apple cider vinegar.
* Ideally you should start your soak with warm water (but not boiling as that kills enzymes) and leave it out to soak at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours. However, a shorter 8 to 12 hours can still significantly reduce anti-nutrients and make your breakfast much easier on your stomach.
*After soaking, rinsing reduces starch, apple cider vinegar or lemon juice, and any available pesticide residue. If you are using organic oats and want maximum nutrition and creaminess, you can skip the rinse.
* Always cover the bowl with cling wrap when soaking oats. This is to both to keep out potential contaminants (brought in by outside flies, dusts, bad bacteria, etc), as well as keeping the oats from drying out by preventing the evaporation of the top layer of water. If top oats are exposed to air and are dried out, they will be unable to benefit from buckwheat enzymes.
* Salt is essential to a good Scottish porridge as it brings out the earthy flavor of the oats. There is however a difference in opinion on when it is best to add in the salt. Some argue that it's better to add a pinch halfway through cooking whilst others believe it's best added at the very beginning of the cooking process. Feel free to experiment and choose the one that you prefer though it is just a myth that oats cannot cook properly if you add salt in very early.
* When serving, try to opt for shallow bowls as they help quickly cool down the porridge evenly whereas deeper bowls tend to keep the centre of the porridge dangerously hot.
* Opt to start with cold water for cooking. Avoid cooking with milk as milk sugars tend to both mask the clean grain taste and it scorches easily.

[[Category:Breakfast recipes]]
[[Category:Vegetarian recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes using oat]]
[[Category:Boiled recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes with metric units]]</text>
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      <comment>Add a citation for the &quot;golden ratio&quot;.</comment>
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| category = Breakfast recipes
| Cuisine = Scottish
| Origin = Scotland
| servings = 1
| time = 25 minutes + 7–8 hours soaking
| difficulty = 3
| image = 
}}
__NOTOC__
{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]] | [[Cookbook:Breakfast|Breakfast]]

'''Scottish Porridge''' is a beloved traditional breakfast dish from Scotland. Traditionally, it doesn't use dairy and only consists of three ingredients - oats, salt and water. This recipe follows the golden ratio of one parts oats to three parts water and uses an overnight pre-soaking method for steel-cut oats. The soaking helps reduce cooking time and the oats are later simmered slowly. The end result is a creamy, satisfying porridge with a pleasant chewy texture. A variety of toppings can be added according to personal preferences, including berries, sliced banana, seeds, nuts, cinnamon, and a dollop of Greek yogurt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Lam |first=Yvonne C. |date=2023-06-06 |title=No milk, no rolled oats and always add salt: how to make porridge like a champion |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2023/jun/06/how-to-make-porridge-like-a-champion-toby-wilson-australian-chef-world-porridge-making-championship |access-date=2026-07-15 |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Ingredients==
* ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] (80 [[Cookbook:gram|g]]) steel-cut [[Cookbook:Oats|oats]], also called Irish oats
* 1½ cup (375 [[Cookbook:Milliliter|ml]]) water
* 1 teaspoon lemon juice or apple cider vinegar (for soaking)
* 1 teaspoon of buckwheat flour (for reducing phytates)
* ⅛ teaspoon fine sea salt

==Procedure==
#Mix the steel-cut oats with a teaspoon of buckwheat flour in a bowl.
#Add warm water to soak the oats and add a splash of lemon juice or apple cider vinegar. Cover and allow to soak overnight or at least 7 to 8 hours.
#Place the oats, salt and water into a small pan and gently bring it to a small [[Cookbook:Boiling|boil]], stirring occasionally until the porridge starts to thicken.
#Once the thickening has begun, lower the heat to low to avoid burning the porridge and allow it to simmer for approximately 15 to 20 minutes (or less if the oats are tender and reached your preferred consistency).
#Remove from the heat and let it stand for 1 or 2 minutes before serving.
#Serve and top with your choice of toppings, such as chia seeds, walnuts, tablespoon of peanut butter, berries, cinnamon, or a dollop of Greek yogurt.

==Notes, tips, and variations==
* Traditionalists uses whole-oat groats and mill them to make Scottish porridge. However store bought steel-cut oats are a reliable substitute for those who do not possess a mill. If you possess a mill and desire the authentic Scottish taste, you can swap steel-cut oats and use milled whole-oat groats instead.
* Pre-soaking is essential to achieve a soft, velvety texture as it helps break down starches in oats and soften its hearty outer hull.
* To reduce phytates in oats, you should add both an acidic medium and a phytase-rich ingredient to your soaking liquid, This can be achieved by adding a teaspoon of buckwheat flour and a teaspoon of apple cider vinegar.
* Ideally you should start your soak with warm water (but not boiling as that kills enzymes) and leave it out to soak at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours. However, a shorter 8 to 12 hours can still significantly reduce anti-nutrients and make your breakfast much easier on your stomach.
*After soaking, rinsing reduces starch, apple cider vinegar or lemon juice, and any available pesticide residue. If you are using organic oats and want maximum nutrition and creaminess, you can skip the rinse.
* Always cover the bowl with cling wrap when soaking oats. This is to both to keep out potential contaminants (brought in by outside flies, dusts, bad bacteria, etc), as well as keeping the oats from drying out by preventing the evaporation of the top layer of water. If top oats are exposed to air and are dried out, they will be unable to benefit from buckwheat enzymes.
* Salt is essential to a good Scottish porridge as it brings out the earthy flavor of the oats. There is however a difference in opinion on when it is best to add in the salt. Some argue that it's better to add a pinch halfway through cooking whilst others believe it's best added at the very beginning of the cooking process. Feel free to experiment and choose the one that you prefer though it is just a myth that oats cannot cook properly if you add salt in very early.
* When serving, try to opt for shallow bowls as they help quickly cool down the porridge evenly whereas deeper bowls tend to keep the centre of the porridge dangerously hot.
* Opt to start with cold water for cooking. Avoid cooking with milk as milk sugars tend to both mask the clean grain taste and it scorches easily.

[[Category:Breakfast recipes]]
[[Category:Vegetarian recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes using oat]]
[[Category:Boiled recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes with metric units]]</text>
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      <text bytes="5029" sha1="135eb6mmspw13pfycp89itr46epu0i3" xml:space="preserve">{{recipesummary
| category = Breakfast recipes
| Cuisine = Scottish
| Origin = Scotland
| servings = 1
| time = 25 minutes + 7–8 hours soaking
| difficulty = 3
| image = 
}}
__NOTOC__
{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]] | [[Cookbook:Breakfast|Breakfast]]

'''Scottish Porridge''' is a beloved traditional breakfast dish from Scotland. Traditionally, it doesn't use dairy and only consists of three ingredients - oats, salt and water. This recipe follows the golden ratio of one parts oats to three parts water and uses an overnight pre-soaking method for steel-cut oats. The soaking helps reduce cooking time and the oats are later simmered slowly. The end result is a creamy, satisfying porridge with a pleasant chewy texture. A variety of toppings can be added according to personal preferences, including berries, sliced banana, seeds, nuts, cinnamon, and a dollop of Greek yogurt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Lam |first=Yvonne C. |date=2023-06-06 |title=No milk, no rolled oats and always add salt: how to make porridge like a champion |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2023/jun/06/how-to-make-porridge-like-a-champion-toby-wilson-australian-chef-world-porridge-making-championship |access-date=2026-07-15 |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Ingredients==
* ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] (80 [[Cookbook:gram|g]]) steel-cut [[Cookbook:Oats|oats]], also called Irish oats
* 1½ cup (375 [[Cookbook:Milliliter|ml]]) water
* 1 teaspoon lemon juice or apple cider vinegar (for soaking)
* 1 teaspoon of buckwheat flour (for reducing phytates)
* ⅛ teaspoon fine sea salt

==Procedure==
#Mix the steel-cut oats with a teaspoon of buckwheat flour in a bowl.
#Add warm water to soak the oats and add a splash of lemon juice or apple cider vinegar. Cover and allow to soak overnight or at least 7 to 8 hours.
#Place the oats, salt and water into a small pan and gently bring it to a small [[Cookbook:Boiling|boil]], stirring occasionally until the porridge starts to thicken.
#Once the thickening has begun, lower the heat to low to avoid burning the porridge and allow it to simmer for approximately 15 to 20 minutes (or less if the oats are tender and reached your preferred consistency).
#Remove from the heat and let it stand for 1 or 2 minutes before serving.
#Serve and top with your choice of toppings, such as chia seeds, walnuts, tablespoon of peanut butter, berries, cinnamon, or a dollop of Greek yogurt.

==Notes, tips, and variations==
* Traditionalists uses whole-oat groats and mill them to make Scottish porridge. However store bought steel-cut oats are a reliable substitute for those who do not possess a mill. If you possess a mill and desire the authentic Scottish taste, you can swap steel-cut oats and use milled whole-oat groats instead.
* Pre-soaking is essential to achieve a soft, velvety texture as it helps break down starches in oats and soften its hearty outer hull.
* To reduce phytates in oats, you should add both an acidic medium and a phytase-rich ingredient to your soaking liquid, This can be achieved by adding a teaspoon of buckwheat flour and a teaspoon of apple cider vinegar.
* Ideally you should start your soak with warm water (but not boiling as that kills enzymes) and leave it out to soak at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours. However, a shorter 8 to 12 hours can still significantly reduce anti-nutrients and make your breakfast much easier on your stomach.
*After soaking, rinsing reduces starch, apple cider vinegar or lemon juice, and any available pesticide residue. If you are using organic oats and want maximum nutrition and creaminess, you can skip the rinse.
* Always cover the bowl with cling wrap when soaking oats. This is to both to keep out potential contaminants (brought in by outside flies, dusts, bad bacteria, etc), as well as keeping the oats from drying out by preventing the evaporation of the top layer of water. If top oats are exposed to air and are dried out, they will be unable to benefit from buckwheat enzymes.
* Salt is essential to a good Scottish porridge as it brings out the earthy flavor of the oats. There is however a difference in opinion on when it is best to add in the salt. Some argue that it's better to add a pinch halfway through cooking whilst others believe it's best added at the very beginning of the cooking process. Feel free to experiment and choose the one that you prefer though it is just a myth that oats cannot cook properly if you add salt in very early.
* When serving, try to opt for shallow bowls as they help quickly cool down the porridge evenly whereas deeper bowls tend to keep the centre of the porridge dangerously hot.
* Opt to start with cold water for cooking. Avoid cooking with milk as milk sugars tend to both mask the clean grain taste and it scorches easily.

[[Category:Scottish recipes|Scottish porridge]]
[[Category:Breakfast recipes]]
[[Category:Vegetarian recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes using oat]]
[[Category:Boiled recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes with metric units]]</text>
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      <text bytes="5045" sha1="askfrs80ewzdb955j2nesv6u25h7140" xml:space="preserve">{{recipesummary
| category = Breakfast recipes
| Cuisine = Scottish
| Origin = Scotland
| servings = 1
| time = 25 minutes + 7–8 hours soaking
| difficulty = 3
| image = 
}}
__NOTOC__
{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]] | [[Cookbook:Breakfast|Breakfast]]

'''Scottish Porridge''' is a beloved traditional breakfast dish from Scotland. Traditionally, it doesn't use dairy and only consists of three ingredients - oats, salt and water. This recipe follows the golden ratio of one parts oats to three parts water and uses an overnight pre-soaking method for steel-cut oats. The soaking helps reduce cooking time and the oats are later simmered slowly. The end result is a creamy, satisfying porridge with a pleasant chewy texture. A variety of toppings can be added according to personal preferences, including berries, sliced banana, seeds, nuts, cinnamon, and a dollop of Greek yogurt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Lam |first=Yvonne C. |date=2023-06-06 |title=No milk, no rolled oats and always add salt: how to make porridge like a champion |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2023/jun/06/how-to-make-porridge-like-a-champion-toby-wilson-australian-chef-world-porridge-making-championship |access-date=2026-07-15 |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Ingredients==
* ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] (80 [[Cookbook:gram|g]]) steel-cut [[Cookbook:Oats|oats]], also called Irish oats
* 1½ cup (375 [[Cookbook:Milliliter|ml]]) water
* 1 teaspoon lemon juice or apple cider vinegar (for soaking)
* 1 teaspoon of buckwheat flour (for reducing phytates)
* ⅛ teaspoon fine sea salt

==Procedure==
#Mix the steel-cut oats with a teaspoon of buckwheat flour in a bowl.
#Add warm water to soak the oats and add a splash of lemon juice or apple cider vinegar. Cover and allow to soak overnight or at least 7 to 8 hours.
#Place the oats, salt and water into a small pan and gently bring it to a small [[Cookbook:Boiling|boil]], stirring occasionally until the porridge starts to thicken.
#Once the thickening has begun, lower the heat to low to avoid burning the porridge and allow it to simmer for approximately 15 to 20 minutes (or less if the oats are tender and reached your preferred consistency).
#Remove from the heat and let it stand for 1 or 2 minutes before serving.
#Serve and top with your choice of toppings, such as chia seeds, walnuts, tablespoon of peanut butter, berries, cinnamon, or a dollop of Greek yogurt.

==Notes, tips, and variations==
* Traditionalists uses whole-oat groats and mill them to make Scottish porridge. However store bought steel-cut oats are a reliable substitute for those who do not possess a mill. If you possess a mill and desire the authentic Scottish taste, you can swap steel-cut oats and use milled whole-oat groats instead.
* Pre-soaking is essential to achieve a soft, velvety texture as it helps break down starches in oats and soften its hearty outer hull.
* To reduce phytates in oats, you should add both an acidic medium and a phytase-rich ingredient to your soaking liquid, This can be achieved by adding a teaspoon of buckwheat flour and a teaspoon of apple cider vinegar.
* Ideally you should start your soak with warm water (but not boiling as that kills enzymes) and leave it out to soak at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours. However, a shorter 8 to 12 hours can still significantly reduce anti-nutrients and make your breakfast much easier on your stomach.
*After soaking, rinsing reduces starch, apple cider vinegar or lemon juice, and any available pesticide residue. If you are using organic oats and want maximum nutrition and creaminess, you can skip the rinse.
* Always cover the bowl with cling wrap when soaking oats. This is to both to keep out potential contaminants (brought in by outside flies, dusts, bad bacteria, etc), as well as keeping the oats from drying out by preventing the evaporation of the top layer of water. If top oats are exposed to air and are dried out, they will be unable to benefit from buckwheat enzymes.
* Salt is essential to a good Scottish porridge as it brings out the earthy flavor of the oats. There is however a difference in opinion on when it is best to add in the salt. Some argue that it's better to add a pinch halfway through cooking whilst others believe it's best added at the very beginning of the cooking process. Feel free to experiment and choose the one that you prefer though it is just a myth that oats cannot cook properly if you add salt in very early.
* When serving, try to opt for shallow bowls as they help quickly cool down the porridge evenly whereas deeper bowls tend to keep the centre of the porridge dangerously hot.
* Opt to start with cold water for cooking. Avoid cooking with milk as milk sugars tend to both mask the clean grain taste and it scorches easily.

==References==

[[Category:Scottish recipes|Scottish porridge]]
[[Category:Breakfast recipes]]
[[Category:Vegetarian recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes using oat]]
[[Category:Boiled recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes with metric units]]</text>
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      <text bytes="5332" sha1="nd2swl7ypnl3fz03ql0xmqfne5a8epv" xml:space="preserve">{{recipesummary
| category = Breakfast recipes
| Cuisine = Scottish
| Origin = Scotland
| servings = 1
| time = 25 minutes + 7–8 hours soaking
| difficulty = 3
| image = 
}}
__NOTOC__
{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]] | [[Cookbook:Breakfast|Breakfast]]

'''Scottish Porridge''' is a beloved traditional breakfast dish from Scotland. Traditionally, it doesn't use dairy and only consists of three ingredients - oats, salt and water. This recipe follows the golden ratio of one parts oats to three parts water and uses an overnight pre-soaking method for steel-cut oats. The soaking helps reduce cooking time and the oats are later simmered slowly. The end result is a creamy, satisfying porridge with a pleasant chewy texture. A variety of toppings can be added according to personal preferences, including berries, sliced banana, seeds, nuts, cinnamon, and a dollop of Greek yogurt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Lam |first=Yvonne C. |date=2023-06-06 |title=No milk, no rolled oats and always add salt: how to make porridge like a champion |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2023/jun/06/how-to-make-porridge-like-a-champion-toby-wilson-australian-chef-world-porridge-making-championship |access-date=2026-07-15 |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Conte |first=Christina |date=2025-06-14 |title=Porridge Recipe (by a Porridge World Champion) |url=https://www.christinascucina.com/porridge/ |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Authentic Italian &amp; Scottish Recipes &amp; Travel - Christina's Cucina |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Ingredients==
* ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] (80 [[Cookbook:gram|g]]) steel-cut [[Cookbook:Oats|oats]], also called Irish oats
* 1½ cup (375 [[Cookbook:Milliliter|ml]]) water
* 1 teaspoon lemon juice or apple cider vinegar (for soaking)
* 1 teaspoon of buckwheat flour (for reducing phytates)
* ⅛ teaspoon fine sea salt

==Procedure==
#Mix the steel-cut oats with a teaspoon of buckwheat flour in a bowl.
#Add warm water to soak the oats and add a splash of lemon juice or apple cider vinegar. Cover and allow to soak overnight or at least 7 to 8 hours.
#Place the oats, salt and water into a small pan and gently bring it to a small [[Cookbook:Boiling|boil]], stirring occasionally until the porridge starts to thicken.
#Once the thickening has begun, lower the heat to low to avoid burning the porridge and allow it to simmer for approximately 15 to 20 minutes (or less if the oats are tender and reached your preferred consistency).
#Remove from the heat and let it stand for 1 or 2 minutes before serving.
#Serve and top with your choice of toppings, such as chia seeds, walnuts, tablespoon of peanut butter, berries, cinnamon, or a dollop of Greek yogurt.

==Notes, tips, and variations==
* Traditionalists uses whole-oat groats and mill them to make Scottish porridge. However store bought steel-cut oats are a reliable substitute for those who do not possess a mill. If you possess a mill and desire the authentic Scottish taste, you can swap steel-cut oats and use milled whole-oat groats instead.
* Pre-soaking is essential to achieve a soft, velvety texture as it helps break down starches in oats and soften its hearty outer hull.
* To reduce phytates in oats, you should add both an acidic medium and a phytase-rich ingredient to your soaking liquid, This can be achieved by adding a teaspoon of buckwheat flour and a teaspoon of apple cider vinegar.
* Ideally you should start your soak with warm water (but not boiling as that kills enzymes) and leave it out to soak at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours. However, a shorter 8 to 12 hours can still significantly reduce anti-nutrients and make your breakfast much easier on your stomach.
*After soaking, rinsing reduces starch, apple cider vinegar or lemon juice, and any available pesticide residue. If you are using organic oats and want maximum nutrition and creaminess, you can skip the rinse.
* Always cover the bowl with cling wrap when soaking oats. This is to both to keep out potential contaminants (brought in by outside flies, dusts, bad bacteria, etc), as well as keeping the oats from drying out by preventing the evaporation of the top layer of water. If top oats are exposed to air and are dried out, they will be unable to benefit from buckwheat enzymes.
* Salt is essential to a good Scottish porridge as it brings out the earthy flavor of the oats. There is however a difference in opinion on when it is best to add in the salt. Some argue that it's better to add a pinch halfway through cooking whilst others believe it's best added at the very beginning of the cooking process. Feel free to experiment and choose the one that you prefer though it is just a myth that oats cannot cook properly if you add salt in very early.
* When serving, try to opt for shallow bowls as they help quickly cool down the porridge evenly whereas deeper bowls tend to keep the centre of the porridge dangerously hot.
* Opt to start with cold water for cooking. Avoid cooking with milk as milk sugars tend to both mask the clean grain taste and it scorches easily.

==References==

[[Category:Scottish recipes|Scottish porridge]]
[[Category:Breakfast recipes]]
[[Category:Vegetarian recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes using oat]]
[[Category:Boiled recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes with metric units]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hereditary Multiple Exostoses</title>
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      <text bytes="85" sha1="stpqpntuyg0wuh7ykjfrq74nu9clrn3" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease.</text>
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      <comment>Copied in my work at http  colon slash slash tinyurl dot com slash MHE added list of issues and will put in references</comment>
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      <text bytes="2887" sha1="aclrho34tqamgx6e3qwmg26vgaxsinm" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

*</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>4654599</id>
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      <text bytes="5388" sha1="4jbusbgjfyy4208jctsmmlvlr3ar2tg" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  Limited mobility. Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  Frequent pain and fatigue (Bathen 2019). If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* Writing difficulties. My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  Coordination difficulties. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* Neurological symptoms. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. 
* Incontinence/Vomiting. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan 

In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.</text>
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      <text bytes="11724" sha1="3yqx5e0r0v9842bj6ai3tfhbli6xovs" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues.Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue''' (Bathen 2019). If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''. My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
*
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 
*

In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. 

4. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)</text>
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      <text bytes="22960" sha1="s00f225nugomtg941h62okwz3hmtvdn" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues.Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue''' (Bathen 2019). If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''. My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
*
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 
*

In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. 

4. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== HME and HSPG studies ==
'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1''' ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503; &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8110503&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''''' ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.Heparan sulfate is a highly sulfated polysaccharide abundant on the surface of hepatocytes and surrounding extracellular matrix. Emerging evidence demonstrates that heparan sulfate plays an important role in neutralizing the activities of proinflammatory damage associate molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are released from hepatocytes under pathological conditions. Unlike proteins and nucleic acids, isolation of homogenous heparan sulfate polysaccharides from biological sources is not possible, adding difficulty to study the functional role of heparan sulfate. Recent advancement in the development of a chemoenzymatic approach allows production of a large number of structurally defined oligosaccharides. These oligosaccharides are used to probe the physiological functions of heparan sulfate in liver damage under different pathological conditions. The findings provide a potential new therapeutic agent to treat liver diseases that are associated with excessive inflammation.'' 


'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244 &lt;nowiki&gt;http://jmm.sgmjournals.org/content/38/4/240.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Summary. Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases. Binding was (i) saturable; (ii) reversible by the addition of unlabelled heparan sulphate and heparin; (iii) inhibited by unlabelled heparan sulphate, heparin, and heparin oligosaccharides but not by other glycosaminoglycans of comparable size (chondroitin sulphate and dermatan sulphate) or by highly glycosylated glycoproteins (hog gastric mucin and fetuin); (iv) reduced by heat treatment (80°C, 10 min) and exposure of the bacteria to pronase E, proteinase K, trypsin and chymotrypsin, but unaffected by treatment with pepsin and neuraminidase; and (v) time-, pH-, and ionic strength-dependent. Scatchard plot analysis of the binding data indicated the presence of one class of high-affinity receptor (Kd = 9×10-9M) for heparan sulphate.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.''

''Purpose: Our aims were to investigate prevalence of fatigue and pain in Norwegian children and adults with MO. Furthermore to compare prevalence of fatigue with reported prevalence in other groups and explore some factors that may contribute to fatigue in this population.''

''Methods: Questionnaire data was obtained from 11 children and 21 adults, approximately one third of the estimated MO population in Norway. Fatigue and pain was measured with validated instruments.''

''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

= ''Conclusion: High prevalence of fatigue was found in Norwegian children and adults with MO. Such findings have not been previously reported. Pain was prevalent in both children and adults. This implies that fatigue and pain warrant specific attention in clinical practice and further research regarding persons with MO.'' =

= Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones. Defective endochondral ossification is likely to be involved in the formation of osteochondromas. In order to investigate potential changes in chondrocyte proliferation and/or differentiation during this process, osteochondroma samples from MHE patients were obtained and used for genetic, morphological, immunohistological, and in situ hybridization studies. The expression patterns of IHH (Indian hedgehog) and FGFR3 (Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 3) were similar with transcripts expressed throughout osteochondromas. Expression of PTHR1 (Parathyroid Hormone Receptor 1) transcripts was restricted to a narrow zone of prehypertrophic chondrocytes. Numerous cells forming osteochondromas although resembling prehypertrophic chondrocytes, stained positively with an anti-proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) antibody. In addition, ectopic expression of collagen type I and abnormal presence of osteocalcin (OC), osteopontin (OP), and bone sialoprotein (BSP) were observed in the cartilaginous osteochondromas. These data indicate that most chondrocytes involved in the growth of osteochondromas can proliferate, and that some of them exhibit bone-forming cell characteristics. We conclude that in MHE, defective heparan sulfate biosynthesis caused by EXT mutations maintains the proliferative capacity of chondrocytes and promotes phenotypic modification to bone-forming cells.'' =
'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799. ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome:an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis''' ''An explanatory model of coagulation activation has been demonstrated through use of the ISAC panel of five tests, including, Fibrinogen, Prothrombin Fragment 1+2, Thrombin/ AntiThrombin Complexes, Soluble Fibrin Monomer, and Platelet Activation by flow cytometry. These tests show low level coagulation activation from immunoglobulins (Igs) as demonstrated by Anti-B2GPI antibodies, which allows classification of these diseases as a type of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. This phenotype markedly reduces heparan sulfate proteoglycan synthesis and surface expression by ECs. (Note: basically, the idea is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.)''

= Case studies =
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''</text>
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      <text bytes="22104" sha1="m1tvsx8xl1lnetqj5q8gl9qc38q7aik" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues.Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''. My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
*
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 
*

In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. 

4. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1''' ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.'''''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.'' 

= ''Conclusion: High prevalence of fatigue was found in Norwegian children and adults with MO. Such findings have not been previously reported. Pain was prevalent in both children and adults. This implies that fatigue and pain warrant specific attention in clinical practice and further research regarding persons with MO.'' =

= Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;. ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones. Defective endochondral ossification is likely to be involved in the formation of osteochondromas. In order to investigate potential changes in chondrocyte proliferation and/or differentiation during this process, osteochondroma samples from MHE patients were obtained and used for genetic, morphological, immunohistological, and in situ hybridization studies. The expression patterns of IHH (Indian hedgehog) and FGFR3 (Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 3) were similar with transcripts expressed throughout osteochondromas. Expression of PTHR1 (Parathyroid Hormone Receptor 1) transcripts was restricted to a narrow zone of prehypertrophic chondrocytes. Numerous cells forming osteochondromas although resembling prehypertrophic chondrocytes, stained positively with an anti-proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) antibody. In addition, ectopic expression of collagen type I and abnormal presence of osteocalcin (OC), osteopontin (OP), and bone sialoprotein (BSP) were observed in the cartilaginous osteochondromas. These data indicate that most chondrocytes involved in the growth of osteochondromas can proliferate, and that some of them exhibit bone-forming cell characteristics. We conclude that in MHE, defective heparan sulfate biosynthesis caused by EXT mutations maintains the proliferative capacity of chondrocytes and promotes phenotypic modification to bone-forming cells.'' =
'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799. ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome:an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis''' ''An explanatory model of coagulation activation has been demonstrated through use of the ISAC panel of five tests, including, Fibrinogen, Prothrombin Fragment 1+2, Thrombin/ AntiThrombin Complexes, Soluble Fibrin Monomer, and Platelet Activation by flow cytometry. These tests show low level coagulation activation from immunoglobulins (Igs) as demonstrated by Anti-B2GPI antibodies, which allows classification of these diseases as a type of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. This phenotype markedly reduces heparan sulfate proteoglycan synthesis and surface expression by ECs. (Note: basically, the idea is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.)''

= Case studies =
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''</text>
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      <text bytes="21761" sha1="qtr144az1q5tn2uijtct4oadm9ipt1h" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues.Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== How to Advocate ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. 

4. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ==
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.'' 

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.'''''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799. ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome:an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis''' ''An explanatory model of coagulation activation has been demonstrated through use of the ISAC panel of five tests, including, Fibrinogen, Prothrombin Fragment 1+2, Thrombin/ AntiThrombin Complexes, Soluble Fibrin Monomer, and Platelet Activation by flow cytometry. These tests show low level coagulation activation from immunoglobulins (Igs) as demonstrated by Anti-B2GPI antibodies, which allows classification of these diseases as a type of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. This phenotype markedly reduces heparan sulfate proteoglycan synthesis and surface expression by ECs. (Note: basically, the idea is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.)''

= Case studies =
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''</text>
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      <text bytes="22200" sha1="8zadi0y0gb78o9ke6jnd7g0jy7tcxyb" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== How to Advocate ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

4. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ==
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.'' 

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

= Case studies =
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]]

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="22245" sha1="eevc8613mqahemvoiw3kea29nt8qc6o" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== How to Advocate ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

4. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== Research and medical studies ==

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]]

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="22260" sha1="mv9gyw8v7vehggo85a3eilq8bev42tk" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

4. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== Research and medical studies ==

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]]

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="29107" sha1="7mlv6ke63qs0a5d417zmad2jhrjoalz" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== Research and medical studies ==

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.''' ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors. Previous studies revealed that the glycosaminoglycan-bearing domain I of perlecan (HSPG2), a large, multidomain, multifunctional heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG), supports early chondrogenesis and growth factor delivery.'' 

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt;     ''' ''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease is characterized by multiple benign cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, termed exostoses or osteochondromas, that locate most commonly in the juxta-epiphyseal portions of long bones. Affected individuals usually complain of persistent pain caused by the pressure on neighboring tissues, disturbance of blood circulation, or rarely by spinal cord compression. However, the most severe complication of this condition is malignant transformation into chondrosarcoma, occurring in up to 3.9% of HMEs patients. . The disease results mainly from heterozygous loss-of-function alterations in the EXT1 or EXT2 genes, encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases, responsible for heparan sulfate biosynthesis.  CONCLUSION HME is a rare pediatric skeletal disease in which benign tumors next to bone growth plates develop. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses. Despite the studies on potential causal therapies, the only available treatment options are surgical removal of the most symptomatic tumors, correction of skeletal defects, and analgesic interventions. Although the treatment strategies are limited, the precise diagnosis, which can be obtained only by molecular methods, seems to be crucial in patient management.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births. The most serious complication is malignant degeneration to chondro- or osteosarcomas, which occurs in 2–5% of the patients. The patients are heterozygous for the mutation and a number of mutations in EXT1 and EXT2 have been reported in HMO patients (Jennes et al., 2009)'''''.''' 

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.'' 

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="28982" sha1="f979t4sf92jvglrdv0asgiwea3m2bwk" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== Research and medical studies ==

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' 

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors. Previous studies revealed that the glycosaminoglycan-bearing domain I of perlecan (HSPG2), a large, multidomain, multifunctional heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG), supports early chondrogenesis and growth factor delivery.'' 


'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births. The most serious complication is malignant degeneration to chondro- or osteosarcomas, which occurs in 2–5% of the patients. The patients are heterozygous for the mutation and a number of mutations in EXT1 and EXT2 have been reported in HMO patients (Jennes et al., 2009)'''''.''' 

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.'' 

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="28513" sha1="349d8q9z7l8vwp9r12xfo0f3y7xodqq" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== Research and medical studies ==

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significan''t.

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' 

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''


'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.'' 

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="28890" sha1="h2hq6k94b45wmfsr8j68v3fxf437dda" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

== Research and medical studies ==

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' 

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''
=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="28888" sha1="26ydlbvvqkozdn1rmvswssk9yvk5vv2" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' 

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''
=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="32387" sha1="7xlf49y4asviqlzmob6n3w92g74exrf" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' 

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="35874" sha1="k0n35sybcelmpys1dq4ghepcr5lzw0p" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms, so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="42716" sha1="gxv61pq8xcw5otomq6mrmaoelyjkvw5" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Background:HSPGs are glycoproteins containing covalently attached heparan sulfate (HS) chains which bind to growth factors, chemokines, etc., and regulate various aspects of inflammation including cell recruitment. We previously showed that deletion of endothelial N-acetylglucosamine N-deacetylase-N-sulfotransferase-1 (Ndst1), an enzyme responsible for N-sulfation during HS biosynthesis, reduces allergic airway inflammation (AAI). Here, we investigated the importance of O-sulfation mediated by uronyl 2-O-sulfotransferase (Hs2st) in development of AAI relative to N-sulfation.Conclusions:Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' 

''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt; Remarkable progress has been achieved in understanding the regulation of gene expression and protein translation, and how aberrancies in these template-driven processes contribute to disease pathogenesis. However, much of cellular physiology is controlled by non-DNA, nonprotein mediators, such as glycans. The focus of this Translational Review is to highlight the importance of a specific glycan polymer—the glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS)—on lung health and disease. We demonstrate how HS contributes to lung physiology and pathophysiology via its actions as both a structural constituent of the lung parenchyma as well as a regulator of cellular signaling. By highlighting current uncertainties in HS biology, we identify opportunities for future high-impact pulmonary and critical care translational investigations.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="42174" sha1="i1zzdnv7xlwqgrl9xx2lnn4cflqct8v" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.'' 

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="46559" sha1="j8mijuxhxnledwatdsw5ekzvw2cwmw5" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 


'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.'''''Depletion of the epithelial HS leads to stomach hypoplasia, with phenotypic differences in the gastric mucosa between the forestomach and hindstomach. In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity. Inhibition of Fgf signaling in vitro recapitulates the patterning defect. Ligand and carbohydrate engagement assay (LACE) reveals a diminished assembly of Fgf10 and Fgfr2b in the mutant. In the anterior stomach, loss of epithelial HS leads to stratification and differentiation defects of the multilayered squamous epithelium, along with reduced Hh and Bmp signaling activity. Our data demonstrate that epithelial HS plays multiple roles in regulating mammalian stomach morphogenesis in a regional-specific manner.''

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="46877" sha1="s529gikkk6ydvoirvnu83rwyovt453n" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="52734" sha1="2s1h3ucmf5x9xsfrcfnkepo9xtn5ayp" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''''Article'''Volume 43, Issue 1p24-34.e5October 09, 2017'''Open Archive'''Download Full Issue''

'''Anissa Kemp, anissa.kempf@cncb.ox.ac.uk ∙ et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''

''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. The extracellular, active 180 amino acid Nogo-A region, named Nogo-A-?20, binds to heparin and brain-derived heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) but not to the closely related chondroitin sulfate GAGs. HSPGs are required for Nogo-A-?20-induced inhibition of adhesion, cell spreading, and neurite outgrowth, as well as for RhoA activation. Surprisingly, we show that Nogo-A-?20 can act via HSPGs independently of its receptor, Sphingosine-1-Phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2). We thereby identify the HSPG family members syndecan-3 and syndecan-4 as functional receptors for Nogo-A-?20. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="52811" sha1="ap0ymvafhecrxibxdnjyjdkl3p171it" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="52980" sha1="sinknjs9y2x6z5d6on8wnrbit10tdaa" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =
Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. 

=== HME Specific studies ===
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''  

=== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ===
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' 

=== HSPG-Related studies ===
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="65633" sha1="jcvueut7w5lait5uw8cn1heoxpediac" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016 for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =
Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. 

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''

'''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.''

'''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}&lt;/ref&gt;''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.'''

== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ==
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.''

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

'''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.]  ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.''

'''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' 

'''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies  which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.''

'''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death &amp; Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' 

'''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.''

'''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). &quot;Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins&quot;. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. &lt;nowiki&gt;PMID 26289657&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.'''

'''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.'' 

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' 

'''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., &amp; Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436&lt;nowiki/&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' 

'''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death.  This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="70947" sha1="k083u172lxtvnyyccjnyumcvefpawyb" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nencini |first=Sara |last2=Ivanusic |first2=Jason J. |date=2016-04-26 |title=The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157/full |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157 |issn=1664-042X |pmc=4844598 |pmid=27199772}}&lt;/ref&gt; for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =
Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. 

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''

'''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.''

'''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}&lt;/ref&gt;''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.'''

== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ==
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.''

'''Nozawa S, Inubushi T, Irie F, et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass. JCI Insight. 2018;3(3):e89624. Published 2018 Feb 8. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.89624.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nozawa |first=Satoshi |last2=Inubushi |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Irie |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Takigami |first4=Iori |last5=Matsumoto |first5=Kazu |last6=Shimizu |first6=Katsuji |last7=Akiyama |first7=Haruhiko |last8=Yamaguchi |first8=Yu |date=2018-02-08 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass |url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/89624 |journal=JCI Insight |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.89624 |issn=2379-3708 |pmc=5821205 |pmid=29415886}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''To determine the role of HS in bone homeostasis, we conditionally ablated Ext1, which encodes an essential glycosyltransferase for HS biosynthesis, in osteoblasts. Resultant conditional mutant mice developed severe osteopenia. Surprisingly, this phenotype is not due to impairment in bone formation but to enhancement of bone resorption. We also show that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses, a genetic bone disorder caused by heterozygous mutations of Ext1, suggesting that the mechanism revealed in this study may be relevant to low bone mass conditions in humans.''

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

'''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.]  ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.''

'''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' 

'''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies  which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.''

'''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death &amp; Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' 

'''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.''

'''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). &quot;Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins&quot;. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. &lt;nowiki&gt;PMID 26289657&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.'''

'''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.''

'''Nackaerts, K. et al. 1997. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Expression In Human Lung-Cancer Cells. Int. J. Cancer (Pred. Oncol.): 74, 335–345 (1997) r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurits_Demedts/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells/links/5600565108aeafc8ac8c7374.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nackaerts |first=Kris |last2=Verbeken |first2=Erik |last3=Deneffe |first3=Georges |last4=Vanderschueren |first4=Bernadette |last5=Demedts |first5=Maurits |last6=David |first6=Guido |date=1997-07-01 |title=Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in human lung-cancer cells |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells |journal=International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer |volume=74 |pages=335–45 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970620)74:33.3.CO;2-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) functions as a co-factor in several signal-transduction systems that affect cellular growth, differentiation, adhesion and motility. HS, therefore, may also play a role in the malignant transformation of cells, tumor growth, cell invasiveness and the formation of tumor metastases. Our results suggest that poorly differentiated lung tumors have markedly altered patterns of HSPG expression, which may contribute to their invasive phenotype. Int. J. Cancer 74:335– 345, 1997.''

'''Nencini Sara , Ivanusic Jason J. The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? Frontiers in Physiology. Volume 7 - 2016.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157&lt;/nowiki&gt;. DOI=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157. ISSN=1664-042X'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; ''Pain is associated with most bony pathologies. Clinical and experimental observations suggest that bone pain can be derived from noxious stimulation of the periosteum or bone marrow Whilst these provide some clues as to the way information about bone pain is centrally coded, they need to be expanded to further our understanding of other central territories involved.'' 

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' 

'''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., &amp; Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436&lt;nowiki/&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' 

'''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death.  This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.''

'''Narvid, J., M. L. Gorno-Tempini, A. Slavotinek, S. J. DeArmond, Y. H. Cha, B. L. Miller &amp; K. Rankin, 2009. Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A. Neurocase Vol. 15, Iss. 3, 2009.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13554790802632967&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Narvid |first=J. |last2=Gorno-Tempini |first2=M. L. |last3=Slavotinek |first3=A. |last4=DeArmond |first4=S. J. |last5=Cha |first5=Y. H. |last6=Miller |first6=B. L. |last7=Rankin |first7=K. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790802632967 |journal=Neurocase |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1080/13554790802632967 |issn=1355-4794 |pmc=2997763 |pmid=20183548}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a clinical syndrome characterized by progressive decline in social conduct and a focal pattern of frontal and temporal lobe damage. Its biological basis is still poorly understood but the focality of the brain degeneration provides a powerful model to study the cognitive and anatomical basis of social cognition. Here, we present Dr. A, a patient with a rare hereditary bone disease (hereditary multiple exostoses) and FTD (pathologically characterized as Pick's disease),  This case provides new evidence regarding the neural basis of social cognition and suggests a possible genetic link between bone disease and FTD.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="80758" sha1="rm2x03fmiai85whstdbnqkkunxycbwf" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Pacifici |first=Maurizio |date=2018-10 |title=The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6015767/ |journal=Matrix Biology: Journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology |volume=71-72 |pages=28–39 |doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011 |issn=1569-1802 |pmc=6015767 |pmid=29277722}}&lt;/ref&gt;).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Pérez |first=Christine |last2=Sawmiller |first2=Darrell |last3=Tan |first3=Jun |date=2016-04-18 |title=The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |journal=Neural Development |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |issn=1749-8104 |pmc=4836088 |pmid=27089953}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nencini |first=Sara |last2=Ivanusic |first2=Jason J. |date=2016-04-26 |title=The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157/full |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157 |issn=1664-042X |pmc=4844598 |pmid=27199772}}&lt;/ref&gt; for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =
Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. 

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''

'''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.''

'''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}&lt;/ref&gt;''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.'''

'''Phan, A. Q., Pacifici, M., &amp; Esko, J. D. (2017). Advances in the pathogenesis and possible treatments for multiple hereditary exostoses from the 2016 international MHE conference. Connective Tissue Research, 59(1), 85–98. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=www.tandfonline.com |doi=10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295 |pmc=7604901 |pmid=29099240}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  MHE, also known as hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) or multiple osteochondromas (MO), is characterized by cartilage-capped outgrowths called osteochondromas that develop adjacent to the growth plates of skeletal elements in young patients. These benign tumors can affect growth plate function, leading to skeletal growth retardation, or deformations, and can encroach on nerves, tendons, muscles, and other surrounding tissues and cause motion impairment, chronic pain, and early onset osteoarthritis. In about 2–5% of patients, the osteochondromas can become malignant and life threatening.'' 

== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ==
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.''

'''Nozawa S, Inubushi T, Irie F, et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass. JCI Insight. 2018;3(3):e89624. Published 2018 Feb 8. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.89624.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nozawa |first=Satoshi |last2=Inubushi |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Irie |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Takigami |first4=Iori |last5=Matsumoto |first5=Kazu |last6=Shimizu |first6=Katsuji |last7=Akiyama |first7=Haruhiko |last8=Yamaguchi |first8=Yu |date=2018-02-08 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass |url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/89624 |journal=JCI Insight |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.89624 |issn=2379-3708 |pmc=5821205 |pmid=29415886}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''To determine the role of HS in bone homeostasis, we conditionally ablated Ext1, which encodes an essential glycosyltransferase for HS biosynthesis, in osteoblasts. Resultant conditional mutant mice developed severe osteopenia. Surprisingly, this phenotype is not due to impairment in bone formation but to enhancement of bone resorption. We also show that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses, a genetic bone disorder caused by heterozygous mutations of Ext1, suggesting that the mechanism revealed in this study may be relevant to low bone mass conditions in humans.''

'''Pacifici M. The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses. Matrix Biol. 2018 Oct;71-72:28-39. doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011. Epub 2017 Dec 24. PMID: 29277722; PMCID: PMC6015767'''''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential component of cell surface and matrix proteoglycans (HS-PGs) that include syndecans and perlecan. Because of their unique structural features, the HS chains are able to specifically interact with signaling proteins–including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-via their HS-binding domain, regulating protein availability, distribution and action on target cells. Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) is a rare pediatric disorder linked to germline heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in EXT1 or EXT2 that encode Golgi-resident glycosyltransferases responsible for HS synthesis, resulting in a systemic HS deficiency. HME is characterized by cartilaginous/bony tumors-called osteochondromas or exostoses- that form within perichondrium in long bones, ribs and other elements. This review examines most recent studies in HME, framing them in the context of classic studies. New findings show that the spectrum of EXT mutations is larger than previously realized and the clinical complications of HME extend beyond the skeleton.'' 

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

'''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.]  ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.''

'''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' 

'''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies  which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.''

'''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death &amp; Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' 

'''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.''

'''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). &quot;Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins&quot;. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. &lt;nowiki&gt;PMID 26289657&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.'''

'''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.''

'''Nackaerts, K. et al. 1997. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Expression In Human Lung-Cancer Cells. Int. J. Cancer (Pred. Oncol.): 74, 335–345 (1997) r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurits_Demedts/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells/links/5600565108aeafc8ac8c7374.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nackaerts |first=Kris |last2=Verbeken |first2=Erik |last3=Deneffe |first3=Georges |last4=Vanderschueren |first4=Bernadette |last5=Demedts |first5=Maurits |last6=David |first6=Guido |date=1997-07-01 |title=Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in human lung-cancer cells |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells |journal=International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer |volume=74 |pages=335–45 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970620)74:33.3.CO;2-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) functions as a co-factor in several signal-transduction systems that affect cellular growth, differentiation, adhesion and motility. HS, therefore, may also play a role in the malignant transformation of cells, tumor growth, cell invasiveness and the formation of tumor metastases. Our results suggest that poorly differentiated lung tumors have markedly altered patterns of HSPG expression, which may contribute to their invasive phenotype. Int. J. Cancer 74:335– 345, 1997.''

'''Nencini Sara , Ivanusic Jason J. The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? Frontiers in Physiology. Volume 7 - 2016.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157&lt;/nowiki&gt;. DOI=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157. ISSN=1664-042X'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; ''Pain is associated with most bony pathologies. Clinical and experimental observations suggest that bone pain can be derived from noxious stimulation of the periosteum or bone marrow Whilst these provide some clues as to the way information about bone pain is centrally coded, they need to be expanded to further our understanding of other central territories involved.''

'''Otsu, K.; Kato, S.; Ohtake, K.; Akamatsu, N. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1992, 294, 544–549. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration - PubMed (nih.gov)'''''. Heparan sulfates (HS) are probably the major GAGs present on the surface of hepatocytes under normal conditions. Nevertheless, HSPGs expression increases during liver regeneration. Using [35S] sulfuric acid incorporation, Otsu et al. showed that, in the hepatic regeneration phase after hepatectomy, the synthesis of heparin sulfate proteoglycans, and to a lesser extent, of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate proteoglycans, increases up to 3–5 days and is temporally shifted compared to the stage of maximum mitosis that occurs 1–2 days following the surgical procedure [94].'' 

'''Otsuka, T., Phan, A.Q., Laurencin, C.T. et al. Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration. Regen. Eng. Transl. Med. 6, 7–17 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Otsuka |first=T. |last2=Phan |first2=A. Q. |last3=Laurencin |first3=C. T. |last4=Esko |first4=J. D. |last5=Bryant |first5=S. V. |last6=Gardiner |first6=D. M. |date=2020-03 |title=Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |journal=Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |issn=2364-4133 |pmc=7971174 |pmid=33748405}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''. We hypothesized that there are cells in the axolotl that synthesize specific HSPGs that control growth factor signaling in time and space. Given their high level of HSPG expression, their stellate morphology, and their distribution throughout the loose connective tissues, we refer to these as the positional information GRID (Groups that are Regenerative, Interspersed and Dendritic) cells.''

'''Parish, C., 2005. Heparan sulfate and inflammation. Nature Immunology 6(9):861-2 ·  October. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Parish |first=Christopher |date=2005-10-01 |title=Heparan sulfate and inflammation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation |journal=Nature immunology |volume=6 |pages=861–2 |doi=10.1038/ni0905-861}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Entry of leukocytes into tissues is a key feature of inflammation. New data suggest the polysaccharide heparan sulfate is required for several stages of this entry process.''

'''Park, P.J, and D. Shukla. Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases, Experimental Eye Research, Volume 110, 2013, Pages 1-9, ISSN 0014-4835, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Paul J. |last2=Shukla |first2=Deepak |date=2013-05-01 |title=Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014483513000274 |journal=Experimental Eye Research |volume=110 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015 |issn=0014-4835 |pmc=3638857 |pmid=23410824}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Abstract: Heparan sulfate (HS), a ubiquitous and structurally diverse cell surface polysaccharide and extracellular matrix component, is a factor common to several major eye pathologies. Its multitude of functions and variable distribution among the different ocular tissues makes it an important contributor to a variety of disease states. Although HS facilitates the pathogenesis of many disorders, its role in each varies. Unique functions of HS have been particularly noted in viral and bacterial keratitis and age-related macular degeneration.'' 

'''Pérez, C., Sawmiller, D. &amp; Tan, J. The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation. Neural Dev 11, 11 (2016). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; ''Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are the second most common developmental cause of disability in the United States. The brains of ASD patients have marked structural abnormalities, in the form of increased dendritic spines and decreased long distance connections. These structural differences may be due to deficiencies in Heparin Sulfate (HS), a proteoglycan involved in a variety of neurodevelopmental processes. Through interference with this pathway, HS deficiency can lead to excess spine formation.''


'''Poli, Maura, Michela Asperti, Paola Ruzzenenti, Annamaria Naggi, and Paolo Arosio. 2017. &quot;Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia&quot; Molecules 22, no. 4: 598. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22040598&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''The peptide hormone hepcidin is a key controller of systemic iron homeostasis, and its expression in the liver is mainly regulated by bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), which are heparin binding proteins. In fact, heparins are strong suppressors of hepcidin expression in hepatic cell lines that act by inhibiting the phosphorylation of SMAD1/5/8 proteins elicited by the BMPs. The inhibitory effect of heparins has been demonstrated in cells and in mice, where subcutaneous injections of non-anticoagulant heparins inhibited liver hepcidin expression and increased iron bioavailability. The chemical characteristics for high anti-hepcidin activity in vitro and in vivo include the 2O-and 6O-sulfation and a molecular weight above 7 kDa. The most potent heparins have been found to be the super-sulfated ones, active in hepcidin suppression with a molecular weight as low as 4 kDa. Moreover, the alteration of endogenous heparan sulfates has been found to cause a reduction in hepcidin expression in vitro and in vivo, indicating that heparins act by interfering with the interaction between BMPs and components of the complex involved in the activation of the BMP/SMAD1/5/8 pathway. This review summarizes recent findings on the anti-hepcidin activity of heparins and their possible use for the treatment of anemia caused by hepcidin excess, including the anemia of chronic diseases.''

=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' 

'''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., &amp; Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436&lt;nowiki/&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' 

'''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death.  This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.''

'''Narvid, J., M. L. Gorno-Tempini, A. Slavotinek, S. J. DeArmond, Y. H. Cha, B. L. Miller &amp; K. Rankin, 2009. Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A. Neurocase Vol. 15, Iss. 3, 2009.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13554790802632967&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Narvid |first=J. |last2=Gorno-Tempini |first2=M. L. |last3=Slavotinek |first3=A. |last4=DeArmond |first4=S. J. |last5=Cha |first5=Y. H. |last6=Miller |first6=B. L. |last7=Rankin |first7=K. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790802632967 |journal=Neurocase |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1080/13554790802632967 |issn=1355-4794 |pmc=2997763 |pmid=20183548}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a clinical syndrome characterized by progressive decline in social conduct and a focal pattern of frontal and temporal lobe damage. Its biological basis is still poorly understood but the focality of the brain degeneration provides a powerful model to study the cognitive and anatomical basis of social cognition. Here, we present Dr. A, a patient with a rare hereditary bone disease (hereditary multiple exostoses) and FTD (pathologically characterized as Pick's disease),  This case provides new evidence regarding the neural basis of social cognition and suggests a possible genetic link between bone disease and FTD.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="80032" sha1="d094594sugg7kpjtvckl98x4ao9mzch" xml:space="preserve">[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Pacifici |first=Maurizio |date=2018-10 |title=The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6015767/ |journal=Matrix Biology: Journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology |volume=71-72 |pages=28–39 |doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011 |issn=1569-1802 |pmc=6015767 |pmid=29277722}}&lt;/ref&gt;).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Pérez |first=Christine |last2=Sawmiller |first2=Darrell |last3=Tan |first3=Jun |date=2016-04-18 |title=The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |journal=Neural Development |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |issn=1749-8104 |pmc=4836088 |pmid=27089953}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nencini |first=Sara |last2=Ivanusic |first2=Jason J. |date=2016-04-26 |title=The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157/full |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157 |issn=1664-042X |pmc=4844598 |pmid=27199772}}&lt;/ref&gt; for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =
Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. 

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''

'''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.''

'''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}&lt;/ref&gt;''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.'''

'''Phan, A. Q., Pacifici, M., &amp; Esko, J. D. (2017). Advances in the pathogenesis and possible treatments for multiple hereditary exostoses from the 2016 international MHE conference. Connective Tissue Research, 59(1), 85–98. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=www.tandfonline.com |doi=10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295 |pmc=7604901 |pmid=29099240}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  MHE, also known as hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) or multiple osteochondromas (MO), is characterized by cartilage-capped outgrowths called osteochondromas that develop adjacent to the growth plates of skeletal elements in young patients. These benign tumors can affect growth plate function, leading to skeletal growth retardation, or deformations, and can encroach on nerves, tendons, muscles, and other surrounding tissues and cause motion impairment, chronic pain, and early onset osteoarthritis. In about 2–5% of patients, the osteochondromas can become malignant and life threatening.'' 

== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ==
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.''

'''Nozawa S, Inubushi T, Irie F, et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass. JCI Insight. 2018;3(3):e89624. Published 2018 Feb 8. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.89624.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nozawa |first=Satoshi |last2=Inubushi |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Irie |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Takigami |first4=Iori |last5=Matsumoto |first5=Kazu |last6=Shimizu |first6=Katsuji |last7=Akiyama |first7=Haruhiko |last8=Yamaguchi |first8=Yu |date=2018-02-08 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass |url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/89624 |journal=JCI Insight |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.89624 |issn=2379-3708 |pmc=5821205 |pmid=29415886}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''To determine the role of HS in bone homeostasis, we conditionally ablated Ext1, which encodes an essential glycosyltransferase for HS biosynthesis, in osteoblasts. Resultant conditional mutant mice developed severe osteopenia. Surprisingly, this phenotype is not due to impairment in bone formation but to enhancement of bone resorption. We also show that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses, a genetic bone disorder caused by heterozygous mutations of Ext1, suggesting that the mechanism revealed in this study may be relevant to low bone mass conditions in humans.''

'''Pacifici M. The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses. Matrix Biol. 2018 Oct;71-72:28-39. doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011. Epub 2017 Dec 24. PMID: 29277722; PMCID: PMC6015767'''''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential component of cell surface and matrix proteoglycans (HS-PGs) that include syndecans and perlecan. Because of their unique structural features, the HS chains are able to specifically interact with signaling proteins–including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-via their HS-binding domain, regulating protein availability, distribution and action on target cells. Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) is a rare pediatric disorder linked to germline heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in EXT1 or EXT2 that encode Golgi-resident glycosyltransferases responsible for HS synthesis, resulting in a systemic HS deficiency. HME is characterized by cartilaginous/bony tumors-called osteochondromas or exostoses- that form within perichondrium in long bones, ribs and other elements. This review examines most recent studies in HME, framing them in the context of classic studies. New findings show that the spectrum of EXT mutations is larger than previously realized and the clinical complications of HME extend beyond the skeleton.'' 

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

'''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.]  ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.''

'''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' 

'''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies  which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.''

'''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death &amp; Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' 

'''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.''

'''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). &quot;Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins&quot;. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. &lt;nowiki&gt;PMID 26289657&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.'''

'''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.''

'''Nackaerts, K. et al. 1997. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Expression In Human Lung-Cancer Cells. Int. J. Cancer (Pred. Oncol.): 74, 335–345 (1997) r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurits_Demedts/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells/links/5600565108aeafc8ac8c7374.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nackaerts |first=Kris |last2=Verbeken |first2=Erik |last3=Deneffe |first3=Georges |last4=Vanderschueren |first4=Bernadette |last5=Demedts |first5=Maurits |last6=David |first6=Guido |date=1997-07-01 |title=Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in human lung-cancer cells |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells |journal=International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer |volume=74 |pages=335–45 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970620)74:33.3.CO;2-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) functions as a co-factor in several signal-transduction systems that affect cellular growth, differentiation, adhesion and motility. HS, therefore, may also play a role in the malignant transformation of cells, tumor growth, cell invasiveness and the formation of tumor metastases. Our results suggest that poorly differentiated lung tumors have markedly altered patterns of HSPG expression, which may contribute to their invasive phenotype. Int. J. Cancer 74:335– 345, 1997.''

'''Nencini Sara , Ivanusic Jason J. The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? Frontiers in Physiology. Volume 7 - 2016.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157&lt;/nowiki&gt;. DOI=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157. ISSN=1664-042X'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; ''Pain is associated with most bony pathologies. Clinical and experimental observations suggest that bone pain can be derived from noxious stimulation of the periosteum or bone marrow Whilst these provide some clues as to the way information about bone pain is centrally coded, they need to be expanded to further our understanding of other central territories involved.''

'''Otsu, K.; Kato, S.; Ohtake, K.; Akamatsu, N. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1992, 294, 544–549. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration - PubMed (nih.gov)'''''. Heparan sulfates (HS) are probably the major GAGs present on the surface of hepatocytes under normal conditions. Nevertheless, HSPGs expression increases during liver regeneration. Using [35S] sulfuric acid incorporation, Otsu et al. showed that, in the hepatic regeneration phase after hepatectomy, the synthesis of heparin sulfate proteoglycans, and to a lesser extent, of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate proteoglycans, increases up to 3–5 days and is temporally shifted compared to the stage of maximum mitosis that occurs 1–2 days following the surgical procedure [94].'' 

'''Otsuka, T., Phan, A.Q., Laurencin, C.T. et al. Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration. Regen. Eng. Transl. Med. 6, 7–17 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Otsuka |first=T. |last2=Phan |first2=A. Q. |last3=Laurencin |first3=C. T. |last4=Esko |first4=J. D. |last5=Bryant |first5=S. V. |last6=Gardiner |first6=D. M. |date=2020-03 |title=Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |journal=Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |issn=2364-4133 |pmc=7971174 |pmid=33748405}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''. We hypothesized that there are cells in the axolotl that synthesize specific HSPGs that control growth factor signaling in time and space. Given their high level of HSPG expression, their stellate morphology, and their distribution throughout the loose connective tissues, we refer to these as the positional information GRID (Groups that are Regenerative, Interspersed and Dendritic) cells.''

'''Parish, C., 2005. Heparan sulfate and inflammation. Nature Immunology 6(9):861-2 ·  October. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Parish |first=Christopher |date=2005-10-01 |title=Heparan sulfate and inflammation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation |journal=Nature immunology |volume=6 |pages=861–2 |doi=10.1038/ni0905-861}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Entry of leukocytes into tissues is a key feature of inflammation. New data suggest the polysaccharide heparan sulfate is required for several stages of this entry process.''

'''Park, P.J, and D. Shukla. Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases, Experimental Eye Research, Volume 110, 2013, Pages 1-9, ISSN 0014-4835, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Paul J. |last2=Shukla |first2=Deepak |date=2013-05-01 |title=Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014483513000274 |journal=Experimental Eye Research |volume=110 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015 |issn=0014-4835 |pmc=3638857 |pmid=23410824}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Abstract: Heparan sulfate (HS), a ubiquitous and structurally diverse cell surface polysaccharide and extracellular matrix component, is a factor common to several major eye pathologies. Its multitude of functions and variable distribution among the different ocular tissues makes it an important contributor to a variety of disease states. Although HS facilitates the pathogenesis of many disorders, its role in each varies. Unique functions of HS have been particularly noted in viral and bacterial keratitis and age-related macular degeneration.'' 

'''Pérez, C., Sawmiller, D. &amp; Tan, J. The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation. Neural Dev 11, 11 (2016). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; ''Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are the second most common developmental cause of disability in the United States. The brains of ASD patients have marked structural abnormalities, in the form of increased dendritic spines and decreased long distance connections. These structural differences may be due to deficiencies in Heparin Sulfate (HS), a proteoglycan involved in a variety of neurodevelopmental processes. Through interference with this pathway, HS deficiency can lead to excess spine formation.''


'''Poli, Maura, Michela Asperti, Paola Ruzzenenti, Annamaria Naggi, and Paolo Arosio. 2017. &quot;Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia&quot; Molecules 22, no. 4: 598. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22040598&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Poli |first=Maura |last2=Asperti |first2=Michela |last3=Ruzzenenti |first3=Paola |last4=Naggi |first4=Annamaria |last5=Arosio |first5=Paolo |date=2017-04-08 |title=Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/22/4/598 |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=598 |doi=10.3390/molecules22040598 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=6154463 |pmid=28397746}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This review summarizes recent findings on the anti-hepcidin activity of heparins and their possible use for the treatment of anemia caused by hepcidin excess, including the anemia of chronic diseases.''
=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' 

'''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., &amp; Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436&lt;nowiki/&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' 

'''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death.  This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.''

'''Narvid, J., M. L. Gorno-Tempini, A. Slavotinek, S. J. DeArmond, Y. H. Cha, B. L. Miller &amp; K. Rankin, 2009. Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A. Neurocase Vol. 15, Iss. 3, 2009.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13554790802632967&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Narvid |first=J. |last2=Gorno-Tempini |first2=M. L. |last3=Slavotinek |first3=A. |last4=DeArmond |first4=S. J. |last5=Cha |first5=Y. H. |last6=Miller |first6=B. L. |last7=Rankin |first7=K. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790802632967 |journal=Neurocase |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1080/13554790802632967 |issn=1355-4794 |pmc=2997763 |pmid=20183548}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a clinical syndrome characterized by progressive decline in social conduct and a focal pattern of frontal and temporal lobe damage. Its biological basis is still poorly understood but the focality of the brain degeneration provides a powerful model to study the cognitive and anatomical basis of social cognition. Here, we present Dr. A, a patient with a rare hereditary bone disease (hereditary multiple exostoses) and FTD (pathologically characterized as Pick's disease),  This case provides new evidence regarding the neural basis of social cognition and suggests a possible genetic link between bone disease and FTD.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

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[[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses, hereditary multiple osteochondromas, and Multiple Osteochondromedas.

== Bone Issues ==
The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database  for an overview of the reported variants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include:

* Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012, Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025)
* Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)  
* Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis 
* Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017)
*  Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) 
*  Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023)
* Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025)

== List of associated issues ==
'''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Pacifici |first=Maurizio |date=2018-10 |title=The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6015767/ |journal=Matrix Biology: Journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology |volume=71-72 |pages=28–39 |doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011 |issn=1569-1802 |pmc=6015767 |pmid=29277722}}&lt;/ref&gt;).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:'''

* Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) 
* Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004)
* Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) and migraines
* Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) 
* Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007)
* Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013)
* Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012)
* Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021)
* Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007])
* Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015)
* Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016)
* Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024)
* Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018)
* Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007)
* Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020).
* Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022)
* Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999)
* Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021)

== How to advocate for your child with HME in schools ==
It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. 

My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include:

*  '''Limited mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}&lt;/ref&gt;''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications.
*  '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Pérez |first=Christine |last2=Sawmiller |first2=Darrell |last3=Tan |first3=Jun |date=2016-04-18 |title=The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |journal=Neural Development |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |issn=1749-8104 |pmc=4836088 |pmid=27089953}}&lt;/ref&gt; so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan.
*  '''Frequent pain and fatigue&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school.
* '''Writing difficulties'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking.
*  '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method.
* '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. 

=== Advocation Laws and Directives ===
In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


= How to Respond to Doctors =
MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Do advocate for yourself. 

1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms.

'''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nencini |first=Sara |last2=Ivanusic |first2=Jason J. |date=2016-04-26 |title=The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157/full |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157 |issn=1664-042X |pmc=4844598 |pmid=27199772}}&lt;/ref&gt; for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005.

3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME.  

'''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants?

=== Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously ===
'''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed'''

'''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well.

'''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. 

'''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?'''  What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record!

'''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized'''

'''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you.

'''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. 

• '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). 

'''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation'''

'''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything.

• '''Can we  go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. 

'''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes.

'''Scripts for Asking for Clarification'''

• “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.)

• “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma)

• “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.)

= Research and medical studies =
Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. 

== HME Specific studies ==
'''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.''

'''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.''

'''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.''

'''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.''

'''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME).  Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.''

'''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).''

'''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., &amp; Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.''

'''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.''

'''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.''

'''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}&lt;/ref&gt;''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.'''

'''Phan, A. Q., Pacifici, M., &amp; Esko, J. D. (2017). Advances in the pathogenesis and possible treatments for multiple hereditary exostoses from the 2016 international MHE conference. Connective Tissue Research, 59(1), 85–98. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=www.tandfonline.com |doi=10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295 |pmc=7604901 |pmid=29099240}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  MHE, also known as hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) or multiple osteochondromas (MO), is characterized by cartilage-capped outgrowths called osteochondromas that develop adjacent to the growth plates of skeletal elements in young patients. These benign tumors can affect growth plate function, leading to skeletal growth retardation, or deformations, and can encroach on nerves, tendons, muscles, and other surrounding tissues and cause motion impairment, chronic pain, and early onset osteoarthritis. In about 2–5% of patients, the osteochondromas can become malignant and life threatening.'' 

== Genetic studies (EXT genes) ==
As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies:

'''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}&lt;/ref&gt; . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.''

'''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). &quot;The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions&quot;. Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.''

'''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.''

'''Nozawa S, Inubushi T, Irie F, et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass. JCI Insight. 2018;3(3):e89624. Published 2018 Feb 8. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.89624.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nozawa |first=Satoshi |last2=Inubushi |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Irie |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Takigami |first4=Iori |last5=Matsumoto |first5=Kazu |last6=Shimizu |first6=Katsuji |last7=Akiyama |first7=Haruhiko |last8=Yamaguchi |first8=Yu |date=2018-02-08 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass |url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/89624 |journal=JCI Insight |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.89624 |issn=2379-3708 |pmc=5821205 |pmid=29415886}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''To determine the role of HS in bone homeostasis, we conditionally ablated Ext1, which encodes an essential glycosyltransferase for HS biosynthesis, in osteoblasts. Resultant conditional mutant mice developed severe osteopenia. Surprisingly, this phenotype is not due to impairment in bone formation but to enhancement of bone resorption. We also show that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses, a genetic bone disorder caused by heterozygous mutations of Ext1, suggesting that the mechanism revealed in this study may be relevant to low bone mass conditions in humans.''

'''Pacifici M. The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses. Matrix Biol. 2018 Oct;71-72:28-39. doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011. Epub 2017 Dec 24. PMID: 29277722; PMCID: PMC6015767'''''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential component of cell surface and matrix proteoglycans (HS-PGs) that include syndecans and perlecan. Because of their unique structural features, the HS chains are able to specifically interact with signaling proteins–including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-via their HS-binding domain, regulating protein availability, distribution and action on target cells. Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) is a rare pediatric disorder linked to germline heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in EXT1 or EXT2 that encode Golgi-resident glycosyltransferases responsible for HS synthesis, resulting in a systemic HS deficiency. HME is characterized by cartilaginous/bony tumors-called osteochondromas or exostoses- that form within perichondrium in long bones, ribs and other elements. This review examines most recent studies in HME, framing them in the context of classic studies. New findings show that the spectrum of EXT mutations is larger than previously realized and the clinical complications of HME extend beyond the skeleton.'' 

== HSPG-Related studies ==
While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes.

'''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&quot;The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed.&quot;''

'''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. &amp; Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' 

'''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.''

'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''

'''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation &amp; Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG.

'''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. &amp; Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' 

'''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …''

'''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.''

'''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' 

'''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' 

'''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.''

'''Condomitti, G., &amp; de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.''

'''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). &quot;Rethinking  Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas&quot; Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].''

'''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.''

'''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' 

'''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' 

'''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.''

'''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.''

'''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.''

'''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.''

'''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}&lt;/ref&gt;''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' 

'''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' 

'''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.''

'''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}&lt;/ref&gt;''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' 

'''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., &amp; Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957&lt;/nowiki&gt;.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.''

'''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.''

'''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.]  ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.''

'''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' 

'''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies  which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.''

'''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death &amp; Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' 

'''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.''

'''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). &quot;Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins&quot;. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. &lt;nowiki&gt;PMID 26289657&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.'''

'''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.''

'''Nackaerts, K. et al. 1997. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Expression In Human Lung-Cancer Cells. Int. J. Cancer (Pred. Oncol.): 74, 335–345 (1997) r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurits_Demedts/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells/links/5600565108aeafc8ac8c7374.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nackaerts |first=Kris |last2=Verbeken |first2=Erik |last3=Deneffe |first3=Georges |last4=Vanderschueren |first4=Bernadette |last5=Demedts |first5=Maurits |last6=David |first6=Guido |date=1997-07-01 |title=Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in human lung-cancer cells |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells |journal=International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer |volume=74 |pages=335–45 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970620)74:33.3.CO;2-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Heparan sulfate (HS) functions as a co-factor in several signal-transduction systems that affect cellular growth, differentiation, adhesion and motility. HS, therefore, may also play a role in the malignant transformation of cells, tumor growth, cell invasiveness and the formation of tumor metastases. Our results suggest that poorly differentiated lung tumors have markedly altered patterns of HSPG expression, which may contribute to their invasive phenotype. Int. J. Cancer 74:335– 345, 1997.''

'''Nencini Sara , Ivanusic Jason J. The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? Frontiers in Physiology. Volume 7 - 2016.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157&lt;/nowiki&gt;. DOI=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157. ISSN=1664-042X'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; ''Pain is associated with most bony pathologies. Clinical and experimental observations suggest that bone pain can be derived from noxious stimulation of the periosteum or bone marrow Whilst these provide some clues as to the way information about bone pain is centrally coded, they need to be expanded to further our understanding of other central territories involved.''

'''Otsu, K.; Kato, S.; Ohtake, K.; Akamatsu, N. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1992, 294, 544–549. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration - PubMed (nih.gov)'''''. Heparan sulfates (HS) are probably the major GAGs present on the surface of hepatocytes under normal conditions. Nevertheless, HSPGs expression increases during liver regeneration. Using [35S] sulfuric acid incorporation, Otsu et al. showed that, in the hepatic regeneration phase after hepatectomy, the synthesis of heparin sulfate proteoglycans, and to a lesser extent, of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate proteoglycans, increases up to 3–5 days and is temporally shifted compared to the stage of maximum mitosis that occurs 1–2 days following the surgical procedure [94].'' 

'''Otsuka, T., Phan, A.Q., Laurencin, C.T. et al. Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration. Regen. Eng. Transl. Med. 6, 7–17 (2020). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Otsuka |first=T. |last2=Phan |first2=A. Q. |last3=Laurencin |first3=C. T. |last4=Esko |first4=J. D. |last5=Bryant |first5=S. V. |last6=Gardiner |first6=D. M. |date=2020-03 |title=Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |journal=Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |issn=2364-4133 |pmc=7971174 |pmid=33748405}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''. We hypothesized that there are cells in the axolotl that synthesize specific HSPGs that control growth factor signaling in time and space. Given their high level of HSPG expression, their stellate morphology, and their distribution throughout the loose connective tissues, we refer to these as the positional information GRID (Groups that are Regenerative, Interspersed and Dendritic) cells.''

'''Parish, C., 2005. Heparan sulfate and inflammation. Nature Immunology 6(9):861-2 ·  October. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Parish |first=Christopher |date=2005-10-01 |title=Heparan sulfate and inflammation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation |journal=Nature immunology |volume=6 |pages=861–2 |doi=10.1038/ni0905-861}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Entry of leukocytes into tissues is a key feature of inflammation. New data suggest the polysaccharide heparan sulfate is required for several stages of this entry process.''

'''Park, P.J, and D. Shukla. Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases, Experimental Eye Research, Volume 110, 2013, Pages 1-9, ISSN 0014-4835, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Paul J. |last2=Shukla |first2=Deepak |date=2013-05-01 |title=Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014483513000274 |journal=Experimental Eye Research |volume=110 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015 |issn=0014-4835 |pmc=3638857 |pmid=23410824}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Abstract: Heparan sulfate (HS), a ubiquitous and structurally diverse cell surface polysaccharide and extracellular matrix component, is a factor common to several major eye pathologies. Its multitude of functions and variable distribution among the different ocular tissues makes it an important contributor to a variety of disease states. Although HS facilitates the pathogenesis of many disorders, its role in each varies. Unique functions of HS have been particularly noted in viral and bacterial keratitis and age-related macular degeneration.'' 

'''Pérez, C., Sawmiller, D. &amp; Tan, J. The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation. Neural Dev 11, 11 (2016). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; ''Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are the second most common developmental cause of disability in the United States. The brains of ASD patients have marked structural abnormalities, in the form of increased dendritic spines and decreased long distance connections. These structural differences may be due to deficiencies in Heparin Sulfate (HS), a proteoglycan involved in a variety of neurodevelopmental processes. Through interference with this pathway, HS deficiency can lead to excess spine formation.''


'''Poli, Maura, Michela Asperti, Paola Ruzzenenti, Annamaria Naggi, and Paolo Arosio. 2017. &quot;Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia&quot; Molecules 22, no. 4: 598. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22040598&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Poli |first=Maura |last2=Asperti |first2=Michela |last3=Ruzzenenti |first3=Paola |last4=Naggi |first4=Annamaria |last5=Arosio |first5=Paolo |date=2017-04-08 |title=Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/22/4/598 |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=598 |doi=10.3390/molecules22040598 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=6154463 |pmid=28397746}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''This review summarizes recent findings on the anti-hepcidin activity of heparins and their possible use for the treatment of anemia caused by hepcidin excess, including the anemia of chronic diseases.''
=== Case studies ===
'''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.''

'''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.''

'''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}&lt;/ref&gt;''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' 

'''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., &amp; Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436&lt;nowiki/&gt;.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' 

'''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death.  This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.''

'''Narvid, J., M. L. Gorno-Tempini, A. Slavotinek, S. J. DeArmond, Y. H. Cha, B. L. Miller &amp; K. Rankin, 2009. Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A. Neurocase Vol. 15, Iss. 3, 2009.''' '''&lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13554790802632967&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Narvid |first=J. |last2=Gorno-Tempini |first2=M. L. |last3=Slavotinek |first3=A. |last4=DeArmond |first4=S. J. |last5=Cha |first5=Y. H. |last6=Miller |first6=B. L. |last7=Rankin |first7=K. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790802632967 |journal=Neurocase |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1080/13554790802632967 |issn=1355-4794 |pmc=2997763 |pmid=20183548}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a clinical syndrome characterized by progressive decline in social conduct and a focal pattern of frontal and temporal lobe damage. Its biological basis is still poorly understood but the focality of the brain degeneration provides a powerful model to study the cognitive and anatomical basis of social cognition. Here, we present Dr. A, a patient with a rare hereditary bone disease (hereditary multiple exostoses) and FTD (pathologically characterized as Pick's disease),  This case provides new evidence regarding the neural basis of social cognition and suggests a possible genetic link between bone disease and FTD.''

== People and books with HME: ==
[[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs

Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==</text>
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    <title>Talk:Hereditary Multiple Exostoses</title>
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      <comment>/* Citations and comments */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="656" sha1="aror6geyvp4l9ekhuimsch2itfp3qxl" xml:space="preserve">== Citations and comments ==

I have been collecting these references for years. In &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www&lt;/nowiki&gt;  DOT tinyurl DOT com SLASH MHETalk, I do have the actual abstracts.  Here I am only pulling out a sentence or two. I am not paraphrasing, because I am not a molecular scientist or doctor. I am merely a patient who is also a technical writer. I do not feel comfortable re-writing any of this jargon! I do believe that a sentence quote is fair use. [[User:LoveElectronicLiterature|LoveElectronicLiterature]] ([[User talk:LoveElectronicLiterature|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/LoveElectronicLiterature|contribs]]) 01:03, 16 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Taiwan history/Taiwan in World War II</title>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;After Japan started invading China, Southeast Asia and the America, Taiwan, as a colony of Japan, automatically entered the war. ==Affect== ===Military=== [[File:Takasago Volunteer Corps.JPG|thumb|Taiwan Indigenous Volunteer Troops]] More than 200,000 Taiwanese men served in the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Around 2,000 Taiwanese women were forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese military system. Taiwan's strategic location along the resource logistics route to So...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="1170" sha1="ey5gcypaafa6807suoe57urtlsbvgv8" xml:space="preserve">After Japan started invading China, Southeast Asia and the America, Taiwan, as a colony of Japan, automatically entered the war.
==Affect==
===Military===
[[File:Takasago Volunteer Corps.JPG|thumb|Taiwan Indigenous Volunteer Troops]]
More than 200,000 Taiwanese men served in the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Around 2,000 Taiwanese women were forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese military system. Taiwan's strategic location along the resource logistics route to Southeast Asia and the Japanese home islands made it a key operational hub. Japan used Taiwanese airfields to launch strikes on the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Starting in late 1943, American began bombing Taiwan until the end of the war.
===Culture===
The Japanese colonial government banned Chinese-language sections in newspapers and prohibited the use of local dialects. Most of the political movement was forced to end.Japan pressured Taiwanese families to abandon their Chinese surnames and adopt Japanese ones.Literature, theater, and music were strictly censored and repurposed to serve the war effort. Pop music and traditional opera were replaced by patriotic military marches.</text>
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      <comment>A space-time reference frame without massive particles</comment>
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      <text bytes="1508" sha1="snhmlbh94eay6uwkcketaala2dlgsfu" xml:space="preserve">(currently under reflexion)

== A space-time reference frame without massive particles ==

Let us consider a one-dimensional space.

Let A and B be two photon trains moving in opposite directions. We assume that the photons within a given train are evenly spaced, like the crests of a periodic wave.

Let A(i) be the i-th photon of train A and B(i) be the i-th photon of train B. We assume that A moves from left to right and that its photons are numbered in the direction opposite to the motion; B moves from right to left, and its photons are also numbered in the direction opposite to the motion.

The encounter between A(i) and B(i) constitutes an event e(i) in space-time. All events e(i) lie along the same time-like trajectory. The interval between e(i) and e(i+1) is constant and can serve as a unit of time measurement.

More generally, the encounter between A(i) and B(i+j) constitutes an event e(i,j) in space-time. For a given j, all events e(i,j) lie on time-like trajectories that are parallel to one another—and thus at rest relative to each other. The interval between e(i,j) and e(i,j+1) depends on neither i nor j. It is space-like and can serve as a unit of distance measurement.

The events e(i,j) can therefore be regarded as a space-time reference frame, as they allow for the measurement of distances and durations.

In three-dimensional space, six photon trains traveling in opposite directions along three spatial axes are required to establish a space-time reference frame.

(...)</text>
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      <comment>/* A space-time reference frame without massive particles */</comment>
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      <text bytes="1629" sha1="j7nfp6031b1w5fvrpqu4ye5zb7cvut5" xml:space="preserve">(currently under reflexion)

== A space-time reference frame without massive particles ==

Let us consider a one-dimensional space.

Let A and B be two photon trains moving in opposite directions. We assume that the photons within a given train are evenly spaced, like the crests of a periodic wave.

Let A(i) be the i-th photon of train A and B(i) be the i-th photon of train B. We assume that A moves from left to right and that its photons are numbered in the direction opposite to the motion; B moves from right to left, and its photons are also numbered in the direction opposite to the motion.

The encounter between A(i) and B(i) constitutes an event e(i) in space-time. All events e(i) lie along the same time-like trajectory. The interval between e(i) and e(i+1) is constant and can serve as a unit of time measurement.

More generally, the encounter between A(i) and B(i+j) constitutes an event e(i,j) in spacetime. For a given j, all events e(i,j) lie on the same timelike trajectory T(j). All trajectories T(j) are parallel to one another, in the sense that they never intersect. They can therefore be identified as the trajectories of objects at rest relative to each other. The interval between e(i,j) and e(i,j+1) depends on neither i nor j; it is spacelike and can serve as a unit of distance measurement.

The events e(i,j) can therefore be regarded as a space-time reference frame, as they allow for the measurement of distances and durations.

In three-dimensional space, six photon trains traveling in opposite directions along three spatial axes are required to establish a space-time reference frame.

(...)</text>
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      <comment>/* A space-time reference frame without massive particles */</comment>
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      <text bytes="1631" sha1="p88q10dk2sf3qkb1equjc1e2zehhpy4" xml:space="preserve">(currently under reflexion)

== A space-time reference frame without massive particles ==

Let us consider a one-dimensional space.

Let A and B be two photon trains moving in opposite directions. We assume that the photons within a given train are evenly spaced, like the crests of a periodic wave.

Let A(i) be the i-th photon of train A and B(i) be the i-th photon of train B. We assume that A moves from left to right and that its photons are numbered in the direction opposite to the motion; B moves from right to left, and its photons are also numbered in the direction opposite to the motion.

The encounter between A(i) and B(i) constitutes an event e(i) in space-time. All events e(i) lie along the same time-like trajectory. The interval between e(i) and e(i+1) is constant and can serve as a unit of time measurement.

More generally, the encounter between A(i+j) and B(i-j) constitutes an event e(i,j) in spacetime. For a given j, all events e(i,j) lie on the same timelike trajectory T(j). All trajectories T(j) are parallel to one another, in the sense that they never intersect. They can therefore be identified as the trajectories of objects at rest relative to each other. The interval between e(i,j) and e(i,j+1) depends on neither i nor j; it is spacelike and can serve as a unit of distance measurement.

The events e(i,j) can therefore be regarded as a space-time reference frame, as they allow for the measurement of distances and durations.

In three-dimensional space, six photon trains traveling in opposite directions along three spatial axes are required to establish a space-time reference frame.

(...)</text>
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    <title>Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 16</title>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot; =16.Basic Chinese History (第十六课：基本中国历史/第十六課：基本中國歷史)= {| width=&quot;80%&quot; ! Traditional Characters ! Simplified Characters |- | 唐堯虞舜夏商周， &lt;br /&gt; 春秋戰國亂悠悠。&lt;br /&gt; 秦漢三國西東晉，&lt;br /&gt; 南朝北朝是對頭。&lt;br /&gt; 隋唐五代又十國，&lt;br /&gt; 宋元明清帝王休。&lt;br /&gt; | 唐尧虞舜夏商周， &lt;br /&gt; 春秋战国乱悠悠。 &lt;br /&gt; 秦汉三国西东晋，&lt;br /&gt; 南朝北朝是对头。...&quot;</comment>
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=16.Basic Chinese History (第十六课：基本中国历史/第十六課：基本中國歷史)=
{| width=&quot;80%&quot;
! Traditional Characters
! Simplified Characters
|-
|
唐堯虞舜夏商周， &lt;br /&gt;
春秋戰國亂悠悠。&lt;br /&gt;
秦漢三國西東晉，&lt;br /&gt;
南朝北朝是對頭。&lt;br /&gt;
隋唐五代又十國，&lt;br /&gt;
宋元明清帝王休。&lt;br /&gt;
|
唐尧虞舜夏商周， &lt;br /&gt;
春秋战国乱悠悠。 &lt;br /&gt;
秦汉三国西东晋，&lt;br /&gt;
南朝北朝是对头。 &lt;br /&gt;
隋唐五代又十国，&lt;br /&gt;
宋元明清帝王休。 &lt;br /&gt;
|-
! Pīnyīn
! English
|-
|
Táng yáo yúshùnxià shāng zhōu, &lt;br/&gt;
chūnqiū zhànguó luàn yōuyōu. &lt;Br/&gt;
qínhàn sānguó xī dōngjìn,&lt;br/&gt;
náncháo běicháo shì duìtóu. &lt;Br/&gt;
suítáng wǔdài yòu shí guó,&lt;br/&gt;
sòngyuánmíng qīng dìwáng xiū. &lt;Br/&gt;
|
Yao, Shun, Xia, Shang, Zhou,&lt;br /&gt;
Spring and Autumn, Warring States, chaos in full blow.&lt;br /&gt;
Qin, Han, Three Kingdoms, West and East Jin,&lt;br /&gt;
Southern and Northern Dynasties, rivalries begin.&lt;br /&gt;
Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms wide,&lt;br/&gt;
Song, Yuan, Ming, Qing, the emperors died. &lt;br/&gt;
|}


=== Vocabulary &amp; Cultural Notes ===
* '''乱悠悠/亂悠悠''' (luàn yōu yōu): A descriptive phrase meaning chaotic, messy, or long-lasting turmoil. 
* '''是对头/是對頭''' (shì duìtóu): An idiom meaning to be adversaries, rivals, or opposing forces.
* '''帝王休''' (dìwáng xiū): Literally translates to &quot;emperors cease/stop,&quot; marking the historical transition from imperial rule to a republic following the 1911 Xinhai Revolution.</text>
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[[File:Neutral density filter demonstration.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Neutral-density filter|Neutral-density (ND)]] filter]]
Lens filters can be installed in front of your [[Photography Equipment/Lenses|lens]]. This page will discuss their form factors, describe some popular types, how they work and what to look for when buying.

==Form factors==

===Round screw-on filters===
This is the most common type. They have a screw thread that fits into a groove on your lens. You screw them on, simple as that. The filter typically contains a groove of the same size to allow the stacking of multiple lens filters. Their size is measured in millimeters, you have to make sure that the filter you buy matches the groove on your lens. On your lens you will often find an indication like &quot;∅ 58mm&quot;, this means you need a 58mm filter.

Larger filters can be fitted on smaller lenses with an adapter. The reverse (a smaller filter on a larger lens) is possible but not advised as it will likely result in [[w:vignetting|vignetting]]. It may work on a zoom lens however, as you may be able to zoom past the vignetting. Many cameras also crop the image when shooting video which may remove some vignetting.

If you have multiple lenses with similarly (but not identical) sized lens threads, like a 58mm and a 52mm, you should buy 58mm filters and a 52mm to 58mm adapter. This works for any size, but an 82mm filter on a 37mm lens may be awkward to use.

===Round magnetic filters===
Some filters can be snapped on the lens using magnets. They use a magnetic adapter ring that is screwed onto the lens. Unlike screw-on filters, magnetic filters are not standardized. Magnetic filters and adapter rings from various manufacturers may or may not be interoperable.

===Rectangular slide-in filters===
These are mostly used in professional productions for color filters and fixed neutral density filters as they can be swapped quickly with little risk of accidentally putting fingerprints on them.

==Material==
The very cheapest lens filters could be made of plastic. Do not buy these, buy glass. Not all glass is created equal, but the glass substrate is generally not the limiting factor for image quality.

==Coatings==
Lens filters may have various coatings. The type and quality of coating will vary between manufacturers. If you pay less than 10 USD/EUR per filter, you are almost certainly buying uncoated filters. You can use these, but they may induce [[w:lens flare|lens flare]] and other unwanted reflections. This being said, if you are taking a photo of a car in the sun even a scratched, uncoated CPL filter you found in a garage sale for $3 will vastly improve the final image over no filter at all.

The next step is a &quot;multi coated&quot; filter, often indicated by the initialism &quot;MC&quot; on the side of the filter. These are much better generally and start from 15 USD/EUR.

Finally there are filters with &quot;multiple resistive coatings&quot;, often indicated with the initialism &quot;MRC&quot; on the side of the filter. While uncoated and multi coated filters are sometimes advertised as &quot;anti scratch&quot;, this merely means those filters protect your ''lens'' from being scratched. A filter with MRC has some resistance to getting scratched itself and is easier to clean. This improves their longevity. They tend to cost a bit more, generally starting from roughly 25 USD/EUR.

Some minor scratches or dust or generally not visible in your photos unless you use an extremely small aperture, like f/22.

==Utilitarian filters==

===UV/protectors===
While technically different, these are identical in practice. You don't need a UV filter, it will not improve image quality. It will, however, protect your (potentially expensive) lens from fingerprints, sand, dirt, scratches, etc. Think of it like a screen protector on a smartphone.

===Circular polarization (CPL)===
Similar to [[w:polarized sunglasses|polarized sunglasses]], this is a single sheet of polarized glass. It can be rotated inside of the frame to remove polarized light. This can often remove reflections from windows, cars and water, allowing you to see through them. They may also darken the image on LCD and OLED displays.

A CPL filter will reduce how much light hits your sensor overall, this is normal.

===Neutral density (ND)===
[[File:Long exposure night shot of Sutton pace.jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot resulting in long streaks of headlights]]
[[File:Long exposure done at 5 in the morning (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot of the sea, making the water appear like mist]]
Often described as &quot;sunglasses for your camera&quot;. In photography they are useful in two cases: if your scene is extremely bright and you are using a lens with a large aperture you might end maxing out your ISO and shutter speed values while still having an overexposed image. This is uncommon, but when it happens an ND-filter is the only solution. More commonly it is used for long-exposure photography, resulting in extreme [[w:motion blur|motion blur]].

In videography, an exposure time of half the length of the frame display time (e.g. 1/48 of a second for 24 frames per second) is commonly used to make a video more pleasant to watch with some motion blur. If your ISO is already maxed out and you'd rather not decrease the aperture you're out of options and need an ND-filter to get the exposure under control.

=====Fixed ND=====
This is the simplest ND filter. It makes the whole image darker and isn't customizable. This generally results in the highest quality, but is the least convenient. A generally useful set would consist of an 8ND (3 stops), 64ND (6 stops)  and 1000ND (9 stops) filter. 3 stops is often used for outdoor videography, 6 stops for outdoor videography on a very sunny day and 9 stops is useful for long-exposure photography.

=====Gradient ND (GND)=====
The same as a fixed ND, but with a gradient in darkness from end to end. Often used to darken the bright sky while allowing more light from the bottom half to reach the lens.

=====Variable ND (VND)=====
This filter consists of two sheets of polarized glass. One of the sheets is fixed while the other can be rotated with a dial. How much light passes through depends on how well the polarization of the two piece of glass aligns.

This filter will result in a color shift, how strong this shift will be varies strongly between various brands and models. When designed poorly it may also result in a &quot;cross&quot; effect where the image is darkened unevenly. Do not buy a VND that promises a range of 1-9 stops, the last three stops will likely be unacceptable.

You can get the effect of a VND by using two CPL filters if you mount one in the wrong direction (possible using a male-male lens adapter). This isn't recommended.

You should frankly not buy a VND, buy a VND plus CPL instead. That's essentially the same product with an extra dial to control the rotation of both sheets of glass. A VND can be used as a CPL even, by rotating the whole filter within the groove of your lens. This creates a risk of the filter rattling around or even falling out, which is why you should buy the VND plus CPL instead.

=====VND plus CPL=====
It's the same as a VND, but allows to rotation of both sheets of glass independently.

===Diopter===
Moves the focus closer. Can be useful for macro photography with a non-macro lens. Will create considerable distortion, though.

===Clear sky (FLD)===
Fluorescent filter, often sold as a &quot;clear sky&quot; filter for night photography to counter [[w:light pollution|light pollution]]. May have been useful at one point in time, but has no effect on modern street lighting. Do not buy.

==Artistic filters==

===Black mist===
Softens light sources. Makes images look less harsh/clinical while maintaining detail in other areas. Comes in different strengths which aren't really standardized. 1/8 is usually a mild effect, 1/4 is &quot;standard&quot;, 1/2 is strong. These filters can be stacked for an increased effect. 1/8 or 1/4 is usually sufficient. Some photographers leave these on their lens permanently.

===White mist===
While similar in name, not quite the same effect as black mist. They create a foggy white dream-like haze.

===Kaleidoscope===
Creates a [[w:kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] effect. Could be used to create a &quot;dizzy&quot; effect.

===Blue streak===
Causes blue streaks of light in one direction to radiate from light sources. May create a &quot;futuristic&quot; vibe.

===Starburst===
Causes streaks of light to radiate from light sources, making them look like stars.

===Color filter===
As it says on the tin: it just filters colors, so your image looks blue/yellow/green/etc. May be used for artistic purposes, but the effect is easily and more flexibly achieved in post.

==Where to buy==

===Used===

===Specialized camera shops===

===Western marketplaces===

===Chinese marketplaces===

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[[File:Neutral density filter demonstration.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Neutral-density filter|neutral-density (ND)]] filter]]
Lens filters can be installed in front of your [[Photography Equipment/Lenses|lens]]. This page will discuss their form factors, describe some popular types, how they work and what to look for when buying.

==Form factors==

===Round screw-on filters===
This is the most common type. They have a screw thread that fits into a groove on your lens. You screw them on, simple as that. The filter typically contains a groove of the same size to allow the stacking of multiple lens filters. Their size is measured in millimeters, you have to make sure that the filter you buy matches the groove on your lens. On your lens you will often find an indication like &quot;∅ 58mm&quot;, this means you need a 58mm filter.

Larger filters can be fitted on smaller lenses with an adapter. The reverse (a smaller filter on a larger lens) is possible but not advised as it will likely result in [[w:vignetting|vignetting]]. It may work on a zoom lens however, as you may be able to zoom past the vignetting. Many cameras also crop the image when shooting video which may remove some vignetting.

If you have multiple lenses with similarly (but not identical) sized lens threads, like a 58mm and a 52mm, you should buy 58mm filters and a 52mm to 58mm adapter. This works for any size, but an 82mm filter on a 37mm lens may be awkward to use.

===Round magnetic filters===
Some filters can be snapped on the lens using magnets. They use a magnetic adapter ring that is screwed onto the lens. Unlike screw-on filters, magnetic filters are not standardized. Magnetic filters and adapter rings from various manufacturers may or may not be interoperable.

===Rectangular slide-in filters===
These are mostly used in professional productions for color filters and fixed neutral density filters as they can be swapped quickly with little risk of accidentally putting fingerprints on them.

==Material==
The very cheapest lens filters could be made of plastic. Do not buy these, buy glass. Not all glass is created equal, but the glass substrate is generally not the limiting factor for image quality.

==Coatings==
Lens filters may have various coatings. The type and quality of coating will vary between manufacturers. If you pay less than 10 USD/EUR per filter, you are almost certainly buying uncoated filters. You can use these, but they may induce [[w:lens flare|lens flare]] and other unwanted reflections. This being said, if you are taking a photo of a car in the sun even a scratched, uncoated CPL filter you found in a garage sale for $3 will vastly improve the final image over no filter at all.

The next step is a &quot;multi coated&quot; filter, often indicated by the initialism &quot;MC&quot; on the side of the filter. These are much better generally and start from 15 USD/EUR.

Finally there are filters with &quot;multiple resistive coatings&quot;, often indicated with the initialism &quot;MRC&quot; on the side of the filter. While uncoated and multi coated filters are sometimes advertised as &quot;anti scratch&quot;, this merely means those filters protect your ''lens'' from being scratched. A filter with MRC has some resistance to getting scratched itself and is easier to clean. This improves their longevity. They tend to cost a bit more, generally starting from roughly 25 USD/EUR.

Some minor scratches or dust or generally not visible in your photos unless you use an extremely small aperture, like f/22.

==Utilitarian filters==

===UV/protectors===
While technically different, these are identical in practice. You don't need a UV filter, it will not improve image quality. It will, however, protect your (potentially expensive) lens from fingerprints, sand, dirt, scratches, etc. Think of it like a screen protector on a smartphone.

===Circular polarization (CPL)===
Similar to [[w:polarized sunglasses|polarized sunglasses]], this is a single sheet of polarized glass. It can be rotated inside of the frame to remove polarized light. This can often remove reflections from windows, cars and water, allowing you to see through them. They may also darken the image on LCD and OLED displays.

A CPL filter will reduce how much light hits your sensor overall, this is normal.

===Neutral density (ND)===
[[File:Long exposure night shot of Sutton pace.jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot resulting in long streaks of headlights]]
[[File:Long exposure done at 5 in the morning (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot of the sea, making the water appear like mist]]
Often described as &quot;sunglasses for your camera&quot;. In photography they are useful in two cases: if your scene is extremely bright and you are using a lens with a large aperture you might end maxing out your ISO and shutter speed values while still having an overexposed image. This is uncommon, but when it happens an ND-filter is the only solution. More commonly it is used for long-exposure photography, resulting in extreme [[w:motion blur|motion blur]].

In videography, an exposure time of half the length of the frame display time (e.g. 1/48 of a second for 24 frames per second) is commonly used to make a video more pleasant to watch with some motion blur. If your ISO is already maxed out and you'd rather not decrease the aperture you're out of options and need an ND-filter to get the exposure under control.

=====Fixed ND=====
This is the simplest ND filter. It makes the whole image darker and isn't customizable. This generally results in the highest quality, but is the least convenient. A generally useful set would consist of an 8ND (3 stops), 64ND (6 stops)  and 1000ND (9 stops) filter. 3 stops is often used for outdoor videography, 6 stops for outdoor videography on a very sunny day and 9 stops is useful for long-exposure photography.

=====Gradient ND (GND)=====
The same as a fixed ND, but with a gradient in darkness from end to end. Often used to darken the bright sky while allowing more light from the bottom half to reach the lens.

=====Variable ND (VND)=====
This filter consists of two sheets of polarized glass. One of the sheets is fixed while the other can be rotated with a dial. How much light passes through depends on how well the polarization of the two piece of glass aligns.

This filter will result in a color shift, how strong this shift will be varies strongly between various brands and models. When designed poorly it may also result in a &quot;cross&quot; effect where the image is darkened unevenly. Do not buy a VND that promises a range of 1-9 stops, the last three stops will likely be unacceptable.

You can get the effect of a VND by using two CPL filters if you mount one in the wrong direction (possible using a male-male lens adapter). This isn't recommended.

You should frankly not buy a VND, buy a VND plus CPL instead. That's essentially the same product with an extra dial to control the rotation of both sheets of glass. A VND can be used as a CPL even, by rotating the whole filter within the groove of your lens. This creates a risk of the filter rattling around or even falling out, which is why you should buy the VND plus CPL instead.

=====VND plus CPL=====
It's the same as a VND, but allows to rotation of both sheets of glass independently.

===Diopter===
Moves the focus closer. Can be useful for macro photography with a non-macro lens. Will create considerable distortion, though.

===Clear sky (FLD)===
Fluorescent filter, often sold as a &quot;clear sky&quot; filter for night photography to counter [[w:light pollution|light pollution]]. May have been useful at one point in time, but has no effect on modern street lighting. Do not buy.

==Artistic filters==

===Black mist===
Softens light sources. Makes images look less harsh/clinical while maintaining detail in other areas. Comes in different strengths which aren't really standardized. 1/8 is usually a mild effect, 1/4 is &quot;standard&quot;, 1/2 is strong. These filters can be stacked for an increased effect. 1/8 or 1/4 is usually sufficient. Some photographers leave these on their lens permanently.

===White mist===
While similar in name, not quite the same effect as black mist. They create a foggy white dream-like haze.

===Kaleidoscope===
Creates a [[w:kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] effect. Could be used to create a &quot;dizzy&quot; effect.

===Blue streak===
Causes blue streaks of light in one direction to radiate from light sources. May create a &quot;futuristic&quot; vibe.

===Starburst===
Causes streaks of light to radiate from light sources, making them look like stars.

===Color filter===
As it says on the tin: it just filters colors, so your image looks blue/yellow/green/etc. May be used for artistic purposes, but the effect is easily and more flexibly achieved in post.

==Where to buy==

===Used===

===Specialized camera shops===

===Western marketplaces===

===Chinese marketplaces===

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[[File:Neutral density filter demonstration.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Neutral-density filter|neutral-density (ND)]] filter]]
Lens filters can be installed in front of your [[Photography Equipment/Lenses|lens]]. This page will discuss their form factors, describe some popular types, how they work and what to look for when buying.

==Form factors==

===Round screw-on filters===
This is the most common type. They have a screw thread that fits into a groove on your lens. You screw them on, simple as that. The filter typically contains a groove of the same size to allow the stacking of multiple lens filters. Their size is measured in millimeters, you have to make sure that the filter you buy matches the groove on your lens. On your lens you will often find an indication like &quot;∅ 58mm&quot;, this means you need a 58mm filter.

Larger filters can be fitted on smaller lenses with an adapter. The reverse (a smaller filter on a larger lens) is possible but not advised as it will likely result in [[w:vignetting|vignetting]]. It may work on a zoom lens however, as you may be able to zoom past the vignetting. Many cameras also crop the image when shooting video which may remove some vignetting.

If you have multiple lenses with similarly (but not identical) sized lens threads, like a 58mm and a 52mm, you should buy 58mm filters and a 52mm to 58mm adapter. This works for any size, but an 82mm filter on a 37mm lens may be awkward to use.

===Round magnetic filters===
Some filters can be snapped on the lens using magnets. They use a magnetic adapter ring that is screwed onto the lens. Unlike screw-on filters, magnetic filters are not standardized. Magnetic filters and adapter rings from various manufacturers may or may not be interoperable.

===Rectangular slide-in filters===
These are mostly used in professional productions for color filters and fixed neutral density filters as they can be swapped quickly with little risk of accidentally putting fingerprints on them.

==Material==
The very cheapest lens filters could be made of plastic. Do not buy these, buy glass. Not all glass is created equal, but the glass substrate is generally not the limiting factor for image quality.

==Coatings==
Lens filters may have various coatings. The type and quality of coating will vary between manufacturers. If you pay less than 10 USD/EUR per filter, you are almost certainly buying uncoated filters. You can use these, but they may induce [[w:lens flare|lens flare]] and other unwanted reflections. This being said, if you are taking a photo of a car in the sun even a scratched, uncoated CPL filter you found in a garage sale for $3 will vastly improve the final image over no filter at all.

The next step is a &quot;multi coated&quot; filter, often indicated by the initialism &quot;MC&quot; on the side of the filter. These are much better generally and start from 15 USD/EUR.

Finally there are filters with &quot;multiple resistive coatings&quot;, often indicated with the initialism &quot;MRC&quot; on the side of the filter. While uncoated and multi coated filters are sometimes advertised as &quot;anti scratch&quot;, this merely means those filters protect your ''lens'' from being scratched. A filter with MRC has some resistance to getting scratched itself and is easier to clean. This improves their longevity. They tend to cost a bit more, generally starting from roughly 25 USD/EUR.

Some minor scratches or dust or generally not visible in your photos unless you use an extremely small aperture, like f/22.

==Utilitarian filters==

===UV/protectors===
While technically different, these are identical in practice. You don't need a UV filter, it will not improve image quality. It will, however, protect your (potentially expensive) lens from fingerprints, sand, dirt, scratches, etc. Think of it like a screen protector on a smartphone.

===Circular polarization (CPL)===
Similar to [[w:polarized sunglasses|polarized sunglasses]], this is a single sheet of polarized glass. It can be rotated inside of the frame to remove polarized light. This can often remove reflections from windows, cars and water, allowing you to see through them. They may also darken the image on LCD and OLED displays.

A CPL filter will reduce how much light hits your sensor overall, this is normal.

===Neutral density (ND)===
[[File:Long exposure night shot of Sutton pace.jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot resulting in long streaks of headlights]]
[[File:Long exposure done at 5 in the morning (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot of the sea, making the water appear like mist]]
Often described as &quot;sunglasses for your camera&quot;. In photography they are useful in two cases: if your scene is extremely bright and you are using a lens with a large aperture you might end maxing out your ISO and shutter speed values while still having an overexposed image. This is uncommon, but when it happens an ND-filter is the only solution. More commonly it is used for long-exposure photography, resulting in extreme [[w:motion blur|motion blur]].

In videography, an exposure time of half the length of the frame display time (e.g. 1/48 of a second for 24 frames per second) is commonly used to make a video more pleasant to watch with some motion blur. If your ISO is already maxed out and you'd rather not decrease the aperture you're out of options and need an ND-filter to get the exposure under control.

=====Fixed ND=====
This is the simplest ND filter. It makes the whole image darker and isn't customizable. This generally results in the highest quality, but is the least convenient. A generally useful set would consist of an 8ND (3 stops), 64ND (6 stops)  and 1000ND (9 stops) filter. 3 stops is often used for outdoor videography, 6 stops for outdoor videography on a very sunny day and 9 stops is useful for long-exposure photography.

=====Gradient ND (GND)=====
The same as a fixed ND, but with a gradient in darkness from end to end. Often used to darken the bright sky while allowing more light from the bottom half to reach the lens.

=====Variable ND (VND)=====
This filter consists of two sheets of polarized glass. One of the sheets is fixed while the other can be rotated with a dial. How much light passes through depends on how well the polarization of the two piece of glass aligns.

This filter will result in a color shift, how strong this shift will be varies strongly between various brands and models. When designed poorly it may also result in a &quot;cross&quot; effect where the image is darkened unevenly. Do not buy a VND that promises a range of 1-9 stops, the last three stops will likely be unacceptable.

You can get the effect of a VND by using two CPL filters if you mount one in the wrong direction (possible using a male-male lens adapter). This isn't recommended.

You should frankly not buy a VND, buy a VND plus CPL instead. That's essentially the same product with an extra dial to control the rotation of both sheets of glass. A VND can be used as a CPL even, by rotating the whole filter within the groove of your lens. This creates a risk of the filter rattling around or even falling out, which is why you should buy the VND plus CPL instead.

=====VND plus CPL=====
It's the same as a VND, but allows to rotation of both sheets of glass independently.

===Diopter===
Moves the focus closer. Can be useful for macro photography with a non-macro lens. Will create considerable distortion, though.

===Clear sky (FLD)===
Fluorescent filter, often sold as a &quot;clear sky&quot; filter for night photography to counter [[w:light pollution|light pollution]]. May have been useful at one point in time, but has no effect on modern street lighting. Do not buy.

==Artistic filters==
Filters that are used exclusively for artistic purposes. Unless indicated otherwise they can be stacked for a stronger or extra effect.
===Black mist===
Softens light sources. Makes images look less harsh/clinical while maintaining detail in other areas. Comes in different strengths which aren't really standardized. 1/8 is usually a mild effect, 1/4 is &quot;standard&quot;, 1/2 is strong. 1/8 or 1/4 is usually sufficient. Some photographers leave these on their lens permanently.

===White mist===
While similar in name, not quite the same effect as black mist. They create a foggy white dream-like haze.

===Kaleidoscope===
Creates a [[w:kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] effect. Could be used to create a &quot;dizzy&quot; effect.

===Blue streak===
Causes blue streaks of light in one direction to radiate from light sources. May create a &quot;futuristic&quot; vibe.

===Starburst===
Causes streaks of light to radiate from light sources, making them look like stars.

===Color filter===
As it says on the tin: it just filters colors, so your image looks blue/yellow/green/etc. May be used for artistic purposes, but the effect is easily and more flexibly achieved in post. Stacking the same color will have little effect.

==Where to buy==

===Used===

===Specialized camera shops===

===Western marketplaces===

===Chinese marketplaces===

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[[File:Neutral density filter demonstration.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Neutral-density filter|neutral-density (ND)]] filter]]
Lens filters can be installed in front of your [[Photography Equipment/Lenses|lens]]. This page will discuss their form factors, describe some popular types, how they work and what to look for when buying.

==Form factors==

===Round screw-on filters===
This is the most common type. They have a screw thread that fits into a groove on your lens. You screw them on, simple as that. The filter typically contains a groove of the same size to allow the stacking of multiple lens filters. Their size is measured in millimeters, you have to make sure that the filter you buy matches the groove on your lens. On your lens you will often find an indication like &quot;∅ 58mm&quot;, this means you need a 58mm filter.

Larger filters can be fitted on smaller lenses with an adapter. The reverse (a smaller filter on a larger lens) is possible but not advised as it will likely result in [[w:vignetting|vignetting]]. It may work on a zoom lens however, as you may be able to zoom past the vignetting. Many cameras also crop the image when shooting video which may remove some vignetting.

If you have multiple lenses with similarly (but not identical) sized lens threads, like a 58mm and a 52mm, you should buy 58mm filters and a 52mm to 58mm adapter. This works for any size, but an 82mm filter on a 37mm lens may be awkward to use.

===Round magnetic filters===
Some filters can be snapped on the lens using magnets. They use a magnetic adapter ring that is screwed onto the lens. Unlike screw-on filters, magnetic filters are not standardized. Magnetic filters and adapter rings from various manufacturers may or may not be interoperable.

===Rectangular slide-in filters===
These are mostly used in professional productions for color filters and fixed neutral density filters as they can be swapped quickly with little risk of accidentally putting fingerprints on them.

==Material==
The very cheapest lens filters could be made of plastic. Do not buy these, buy glass. Not all glass is created equal, but the glass substrate is generally not the limiting factor for image quality.

==Coatings==
Lens filters may have various coatings. The type and quality of coating will vary between manufacturers. If you pay less than 10 USD/EUR per filter, you are almost certainly buying uncoated filters. You can use these, but they may induce [[w:lens flare|lens flare]] and other unwanted reflections. This being said, if you are taking a photo of a car in the sun even a scratched, uncoated CPL filter you found in a garage sale for $3 will vastly improve the final image over no filter at all.

The next step is a &quot;multi coated&quot; filter, often indicated by the initialism &quot;MC&quot; on the side of the filter. These are much better generally and start from 15 USD/EUR.

Finally there are filters with &quot;multiple resistive coatings&quot;, often indicated with the initialism &quot;MRC&quot; on the side of the filter. While uncoated and multi coated filters are sometimes advertised as &quot;anti scratch&quot;, this merely means those filters protect your ''lens'' from being scratched. A filter with MRC has some resistance to getting scratched itself and is easier to clean. This improves their longevity. They tend to cost a bit more, generally starting from roughly 25 USD/EUR.

Some minor scratches or dust or generally not visible in your photos unless you use an extremely small aperture, like f/22.

==Utilitarian filters==

===UV/protectors===
While technically different, these are identical in practice. You don't need a UV filter, it will not improve image quality. It will, however, protect your (potentially expensive) lens from fingerprints, sand, dirt, scratches, etc. Think of it like a screen protector on a smartphone.

===Circular polarization (CPL)===
Similar to [[w:polarized sunglasses|polarized sunglasses]], this is a single sheet of polarized glass. It can be rotated inside of the frame to remove polarized light. This can often remove reflections from windows, cars and water, allowing you to see through them. They may also darken the image on LCD and OLED displays.

A CPL filter will reduce how much light hits your sensor overall, this is normal.

===Neutral density (ND)===
[[File:Long exposure night shot of Sutton pace.jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot resulting in long streaks of headlights]]
[[File:Long exposure done at 5 in the morning (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot of the sea, making the water appear like mist]]
Often described as &quot;sunglasses for your camera&quot;. In photography they are useful in two cases: if your scene is extremely bright and you are using a lens with a large aperture you might end maxing out your ISO and shutter speed values while still having an overexposed image. This is uncommon, but when it happens an ND-filter is the only solution. More commonly it is used for long-exposure photography, resulting in extreme [[w:motion blur|motion blur]].

In videography, an exposure time of half the length of the frame display time (e.g. 1/48 of a second for 24 frames per second) is commonly used to make a video more pleasant to watch with some motion blur. If your ISO is already maxed out and you'd rather not decrease the aperture you're out of options and need an ND-filter to get the exposure under control.

=====Fixed ND=====
This is the simplest ND filter. It makes the whole image darker and isn't customizable. This generally results in the highest quality, but is the least convenient. A generally useful set would consist of an 8ND (3 stops), 64ND (6 stops)  and 1000ND (9 stops) filter. 3 stops is often used for outdoor videography, 6 stops for outdoor videography on a very sunny day and 9 stops is useful for long-exposure photography.

=====Gradient ND (GND)=====
The same as a fixed ND, but with a gradient in darkness from end to end. Often used to darken the bright sky while allowing more light from the bottom half to reach the lens.

=====Variable ND (VND)=====
This filter consists of two sheets of polarized glass. One of the sheets is fixed while the other can be rotated with a dial. How much light passes through depends on how well the polarization of the two piece of glass aligns.

This filter will result in a color shift, how strong this shift will be varies strongly between various brands and models. When designed poorly it may also result in a &quot;cross&quot; effect where the image is darkened unevenly. Do not buy a VND that promises a range of 1-9 stops, the last three stops will likely be unacceptable.

You can get the effect of a VND by using two CPL filters if you mount one in the wrong direction (possible using a male-male lens adapter). This isn't recommended.

You should frankly not buy a VND, buy a VND plus CPL instead. That's essentially the same product with an extra dial to control the rotation of both sheets of glass. A VND can be used as a CPL even, by rotating the whole filter within the groove of your lens. This creates a risk of the filter rattling around or even falling out, which is why you should buy the VND plus CPL instead.

=====VND plus CPL=====
It's the same as a VND, but allows to rotation of both sheets of glass independently.

===Diopter===
Moves the focus closer. Can be useful for macro photography with a non-macro lens. Will create considerable distortion, though. Stackable.

===Clear sky (FLD)===
Fluorescent filter, often sold as a &quot;clear sky&quot; filter for night photography to counter [[w:light pollution|light pollution]]. May have been useful at one point in time, but has no effect on modern street lighting. Do not buy.

==Artistic filters==
Filters that are used exclusively for artistic purposes. Unless indicated otherwise they can be stacked for a stronger or extra effect.
===Black mist===
Softens light sources. Makes images look less harsh/clinical while maintaining detail in other areas. Comes in different strengths which aren't really standardized. 1/8 is usually a mild effect, 1/4 is &quot;standard&quot;, 1/2 is strong. 1/8 or 1/4 is usually sufficient. Some photographers leave these on their lens permanently.

===White mist===
While similar in name, not quite the same effect as black mist. They create a foggy white dream-like haze.

===Kaleidoscope===
Creates a [[w:kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] effect. Could be used to create a &quot;dizzy&quot; effect.

===Blue streak===
Causes blue streaks of light in one direction to radiate from light sources. May create a &quot;futuristic&quot; vibe.

===Starburst===
Causes streaks of light to radiate from light sources, making them look like stars.

===Color filter===
As it says on the tin: it just filters colors, so your image looks blue/yellow/green/etc. May be used for artistic purposes, but the effect is easily and more flexibly achieved in post. Stacking the same color will have little effect.

==Where to buy==

===Used===

===Specialized camera shops===

===Western marketplaces===

===Chinese marketplaces===

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[[File:Neutral density filter demonstration.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Neutral-density filter|neutral-density (ND)]] filter]]
Lens filters can be installed in front of your [[Photography Equipment/Lenses|lens]]. This page will discuss their form factors, describe some popular types, how they work and what to look for when buying.

==Form factors==

===Round screw-on filters===
This is the most common type. They have a screw thread that fits into a groove on your lens. You screw them on, simple as that. The filter typically contains a groove of the same size to allow the stacking of multiple lens filters. Their size is measured in millimeters, you have to make sure that the filter you buy matches the groove on your lens. On your lens you will often find an indication like &quot;∅ 58mm&quot;, this means you need a 58mm filter.

Larger filters can be fitted on smaller lenses with an adapter. The reverse (a smaller filter on a larger lens) is possible but not advised as it will likely result in [[w:vignetting|vignetting]]. It may work on a zoom lens however, as you may be able to zoom past the vignetting. Many cameras also crop the image when shooting video which may remove some vignetting.

If you have multiple lenses with similarly (but not identical) sized lens threads, like a 58mm and a 52mm, you should buy 58mm filters and a 52mm to 58mm adapter. This works for any size, but an 82mm filter on a 37mm lens may be awkward to use.

===Round magnetic filters===
Some filters can be snapped on the lens using magnets. They use a magnetic adapter ring that is screwed onto the lens. Unlike screw-on filters, magnetic filters are not standardized. Magnetic filters and adapter rings from various manufacturers may or may not be interoperable.

===Rectangular slide-in filters===
These are mostly used in professional productions for color filters and fixed neutral density filters as they can be swapped quickly with little risk of accidentally putting fingerprints on them.

==Material==
The very cheapest lens filters could be made of plastic. Do not buy these, buy glass. Not all glass is created equal, but the glass substrate is generally not the limiting factor for image quality.

==Coatings==
Lens filters may have various coatings. The type and quality of coating will vary between manufacturers. If you pay less than 10 USD/EUR per filter, you are almost certainly buying uncoated filters. You can use these, but they may induce [[w:lens flare|lens flare]] and other unwanted reflections. This being said, if you are taking a photo of a car in the sun even a scratched, uncoated CPL filter you found in a garage sale for $3 will vastly improve the final image over no filter at all.

The next step is a &quot;multi coated&quot; filter, often indicated by the initialism &quot;MC&quot; on the side of the filter. These are much better generally and start from 15 USD/EUR.

Finally there are filters with &quot;multiple resistive coatings&quot;, often indicated with the initialism &quot;MRC&quot; on the side of the filter. While uncoated and multi coated filters are sometimes advertised as &quot;anti scratch&quot;, this merely means those filters protect your ''lens'' from being scratched. A filter with MRC has some resistance to getting scratched itself and is easier to clean. This improves their longevity. They tend to cost a bit more, generally starting from roughly 25 USD/EUR.

Some minor scratches or dust or generally not visible in your photos unless you use an extremely small aperture, like f/22.

==Utilitarian filters==

===UV/protectors===
While technically different, these are identical in practice. You don't need a UV filter, it will not improve image quality. It will, however, protect your (potentially expensive) lens from fingerprints, sand, dirt, scratches, etc. Think of it like a screen protector on a smartphone.

===Circular polarization (CPL)===
Similar to [[w:polarized sunglasses|polarized sunglasses]], this is a single sheet of polarized glass. It can be rotated inside of the frame to remove polarized light. This can often remove reflections from windows, cars and water, allowing you to see through them. They may also darken the image on LCD and OLED displays.

A CPL filter will reduce how much light hits your sensor overall, this is normal.

===Neutral density (ND)===
[[File:Long exposure night shot of Sutton pace.jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot resulting in long streaks of headlights]]
[[File:Long exposure done at 5 in the morning (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|Long exposure shot of the sea, making the water appear like mist]]
Often described as &quot;sunglasses for your camera&quot;. In photography they are useful in two cases: if your scene is extremely bright and you are using a lens with a large aperture you might end maxing out your ISO and shutter speed values while still having an overexposed image. This is uncommon, but when it happens an ND-filter is the only solution. More commonly it is used for long-exposure photography, resulting in extreme [[w:motion blur|motion blur]].

In videography, an exposure time of half the length of the frame display time (e.g. 1/48 of a second for 24 frames per second) is commonly used to make a video more pleasant to watch with some motion blur. If your ISO is already maxed out and you'd rather not decrease the aperture you're out of options and need an ND-filter to get the exposure under control.

=====Fixed ND=====
This is the simplest ND filter. It makes the whole image darker and isn't customizable. This generally results in the highest quality, but is the least convenient. A generally useful set would consist of an 8ND (3 stops), 64ND (6 stops)  and 1000ND (9 stops) filter. 3 stops is often used for outdoor videography, 6 stops for outdoor videography on a very sunny day and 9 stops is useful for long-exposure photography.

=====Gradient ND (GND)=====
The same as a fixed ND, but with a gradient in darkness from end to end. Often used to darken the bright sky while allowing more light from the bottom half to reach the lens.

=====Variable ND (VND)=====
This filter consists of two sheets of polarized glass. One of the sheets is fixed while the other can be rotated with a dial. How much light passes through depends on how well the polarization of the two piece of glass aligns.

This filter will result in a color shift, how strong this shift will be varies strongly between various brands and models. When designed poorly it may also result in a &quot;cross&quot; effect where the image is darkened unevenly. Do not buy a VND that promises a range of 1-9 stops, the last three stops will likely be unacceptable.

You can get the effect of a VND by using two CPL filters if you mount one in the wrong direction (possible using a male-male lens adapter). This isn't recommended.

You should frankly not buy a VND, buy a VND plus CPL instead. That's essentially the same product with an extra dial to control the rotation of both sheets of glass. A VND can be used as a CPL even, by rotating the whole filter within the groove of your lens. This creates a risk of the filter rattling around or even falling out, which is why you should buy the VND plus CPL instead.

=====VND plus CPL=====
It's the same as a VND, but allows to rotation of both sheets of glass independently.

===Diopter===
Moves the focus closer. Can be useful for macro photography with a non-macro lens. Will create considerable distortion, though. Stackable.

===Clear sky (FLD)===
Fluorescent filter, often sold as a &quot;clear sky&quot; filter for night photography to counter [[w:light pollution|light pollution]]. May have been useful at one point in time, but has no effect on modern street lighting. Do not buy.

==Artistic filters==
Filters that are used exclusively for artistic purposes. Unless indicated otherwise they can be stacked for a stronger or extra effect.
===Black mist===
Softens light sources. Makes images look less harsh/clinical while maintaining detail in other areas. Comes in different strengths which aren't really standardized. 1/8 is usually a mild effect, 1/4 is &quot;standard&quot;, 1/2 is strong. 1/8 or 1/4 is usually sufficient. Some photographers leave one on their lens permanently.

===White mist===
While similar in name, not quite the same effect as black mist. They create a foggy white dream-like haze.

===Kaleidoscope===
Creates a [[w:kaleidoscope|kaleidoscope]] effect. Could be used to create a &quot;dizzy&quot; effect.

===Blue streak===
Causes blue streaks of light in one direction to radiate from light sources. May create a &quot;futuristic&quot; vibe.

===Starburst===
Causes streaks of light to radiate from light sources, making them look like stars.

===Color filter===
As it says on the tin: it just filters colors, so your image looks blue/yellow/green/etc. May be used for artistic purposes, but the effect is easily and more flexibly achieved in post. Stacking the same color will have little effect.

==Where to buy==

===Used===

===Specialized camera shops===

===Western marketplaces===

===Chinese marketplaces===

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