Sanskrit

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  <page>
    <title>Sanskrit</title>
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      <text bytes="1649" sha1="33kv5fuq0x52epey8fmgxbrh8nhyxxo" xml:space="preserve">Sanskrit is an old Indo-Aryan language once spoken throughout India. Many poems, epics, and prayers are written in it. Although not widely spoken anymore, it gave rise to many of the modern languages of India and influenced several more languages that are not related to it; Sanskrit is also still used as a language of culture and religion in India.

In the past, Sanskrit was written in a variety of scripts by people from various places. Today, a modified version of the Devanagari script has been agreed upon as a standard.

==General Sanskrit lessons==
*[[/Introduction|Introduction to Sanskrit]]
*[[/Basic grammar/]]
*[[/Nouns/]]
*[[/Verbs/]]
*[[/Pronouns/]]
*[[/Adjectives/]]
*[[/Sandhi/]]
*[[/Everyday_Phrases|Words and Phrases]]

==Cultural==
*[[/History|History]]
*[[/Culture|Culture]]
**[[/Clothing|Clothing]]

== Sanskrit script ==
*[[Devanagari]]
*[[/Transliteration|Transliteration]]

=== Harvard-Kyoto coding ===
a A i I u U 
e ai o au 
aM aH (or a:) 
ka kha ga gha Ga (nasal &quot;ng&quot;) 
ca cha ja jha Ja (nasal &quot;ny&quot;) 
ta tha da dha na 
Ta Tha Da Dha Na (retroflex) 
pa pha (not &quot;fa&quot;) ba bha ma
ya ra la va 
ha

== Glossary ==
*[[/Vocabulary nouns|Nouns]]
*[[/Vocabulary verbs|Verbs]]
*[[/Vocabulary adjectives|Adjectives]]
*[[/Numbers|Numbers]]
*[[/Everyday Phrases|Phrases and idioms]]

==See also==
Wikner's [http://www.danam.co.uk/Sanskrit/Sanskrit%20Introductory/Sanskrit%20Introductory.html introduction to Sanskrit] is a good start.

''Sanskrit: An Easy Introduction to an Enchanting Language'' by Professor Ashok Aklujkar is also recommended.

{{Shelves|Languages of Asia}}
{{alphabetical|S}}
{{status|0%}}
__NOTOC__

[[zh:梵文]]</text>
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    <title>A-level Mathematics/OCR</title>
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      <text bytes="4494" sha1="lnyxogyztgcrkjhkyy2atrpdee37x2p" xml:space="preserve">This is a book about AS (advanced subsidiary) and A (advanced) level Mathematics. It aims to fit in with the [http://www.ocr.org.uk/Data/publications/key_documents/AS_A_Level86696.pdf OCR New GCE A-level Mathematics] syllabus but is not endorsed by OCR. It should be useful as a revision guide or to find alternative explanations to the ones in your textbook. It assumes you have already done GCSE Mathematics. While it is aimed at people studying A-levels, it may be of interest to others in general. More information about A-levels can be obtained from the [[w:A-level|A-level]] article in Wikipedia.
==Course structure==
=== Current structure ===
==== Mathematics ====
The OCR AS and A-Level Mathematics syllabus is focused on pure mathematics in addition to applications in statistics and mechanics. The current structure uses a linear exam system, meaning students must take all required exams in the same session, at the end of their course.

*To be awarded an AS-level qualification in Mathematics, it is required that a student takes two papers; one covers Pure Mathematics and Statistics, and the other features Pure Mathematics and Mechanics.
*To be awarded an A-level qualification in Mathematics, it is required that a student takes three papers; one covers Pure Mathematics and Statistics, one covers Pure Mathematics and Mechanics, and one consisting of only Pure Mathematics. One of these papers in the OCR B (MEI) specification also features a comprehension section.

=== Legacy structure ===
====Mathematics====
*To be awarded an AS-level qualification in Mathematics, it is required that a student takes 3 modules. These must be C1, C2 and any one of the applied modules.
*To be awarded an A-level qualification in Mathematics, it is required that a student takes 6 modules. These must be C1, C2, C3, C4 and any two of the applied modules.
====Further Mathematics====
*To be awarded an AS-level qualification in Further Mathematics, it is required that a student takes 3 modules. These must be FP1 and any two of the applied modules.
*To be awarded an A-level qualification in Further Mathematics, it is required that a student take 6 modules. These must be FP1, either FP2 or FP3, and any four other modules.
A module may only be taken as part of a Mathematics '''or''' a Further Mathematics course. A student must therefore take 6 unique modules to be awarded an AS-level qualification in Further Mathematics. These 6 modules must be C1, C2, FP1 and any three of the applied modules. A student must take 12 unique modules to receive an A-level qualification in Further Mathematics. You must take all the core modules and FP1. Then you have a choice of taking either FP2 ''or'' FP3 with any 6 applied modules or FP2 ''and'' FP3 with any 5 applied modules.

Students at schools or colleges that do not offer the Further Mathematics A-Level can now study it through one of the local centres of [http://www.fmnetwork.org.uk/ The Further Mathematics Network].

==Modules==
{| style=&quot;border:2px #000000 solid; background-color:#f2f6ff;{{Text default color}};&quot; 
| width=&quot;100px&quot; style=&quot;font-size:70px;&quot; | AS
| style=&quot;font-size:14px; letter-spacing: 1.1px;&quot; | 
===AS modules===
*[[/C1|Core Mathematics 1 (C1)]] {{stage short|100%}}
*[[/C2|Core Mathematics 2 (C2)]] {{stage short|75%|}}
*[[/FP1|Further Pure 1 (FP1)]] {{stage short|50%|May 28, 2007}}
*[[/S1|Statistics 1 (S1)]] {{stage short|25%|February 18, 2006}}
*[[/M1|Mechanics 1 (M1)]] {{stage short|25%|February 18, 2006}}
*[[/D1|Decision 1 (D1)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
|}

{| style=&quot;border:2px #000000 solid; background-color:#f2f6ff;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| width=&quot;100px&quot; style=&quot;font-size:70px;&quot; | A2
| style=&quot;font-size:14px; letter-spacing: 1.1px;&quot; |

===A2 modules===
*[[/C3|Core Mathematics 3 (C3)]] {{stage short|100%}}
*[[/C4|Core Mathematics 4 (C4)]] {{stage short|75%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/FP2|Further Pure 2 (FP2)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/FP3|Further Pure 3 (FP3)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/FP4|Further Pure 4 (FP4)]] {{stage short|00%|May 17, 2007}}
*[[/S2|Statistics 2 (S2)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/S3|Statistics 3 (S3)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/S4|Statistics 4 (S4)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/M2|Mechanics 2 (M2)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/M3|Mechanics 3 (M3)]] {{stage short|50%|Dec 14, 2005}}
*[[/M4|Mechanics 4 (M4)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
*[[/D2|Decision 2 (D2)]] {{stage short|00%|Jul 30, 2005}}
|}

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>Ancient History/Rome</title>
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      <text bytes="9257" sha1="1a70howblf3gw0vse2g1zq9ux51kjeo" xml:space="preserve">{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:solid #BBBBBB 1px; background:#EEEEEE&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:75%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Introduction|'''Introduction''' - Ancient Rome]]&lt;/big&gt;

The Roman civilization achieved greatness through a culture that borrowed, begged and stole the best elements of many other societies, while welding them together with a common legal and military structure.  Arguments about the parallels between ancient Rome and modern society arise regularly; hence the study of ancient Rome may prove instructive.
&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:50%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Etruscans|'''Chapter 1''' - The Etruscans]] &lt;small&gt;2000-800 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

The Etruscans lived in the region of modern Tuscany in Italy.  In contact with both Phoenicians and Greeks, they developed an interesting culture that made several important contributions to the Latin society in which Rome appeared.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:25%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Origins|'''Chapter 2''' - Origins of Rome]] &lt;small&gt;800-500 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Beginning as a collection of villages near an important river crossing, Rome became a united city-state eager to dominate its neighbors as part of a strategy for security and prosperity.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:25%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Republic|'''Chapter 3''' - The Roman Republic]] &lt;small&gt;600-350 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

After throwing out the Etruscan royal family, a group of prominent families established a new constitution — one which enabled the new state to assume a leading role in the affairs of the Italian peninsula.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Expansion|'''Chapter 4''' - Expansion]] &lt;small&gt;350-290 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Between 509 BC and 394 BC, Rome came to dominate the Italian peninsula, and began to assume important diplomatic and military functions in the wider Mediterranean world.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Punic Wars|'''Chapter 5''' - The Punic Wars]] &lt;small&gt;264-146 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Between 264 and 146 BC, the Romans fought three wars with their great rivals, the Carthaginians.  These two early superpowers had different cultural values, different military strengths, and different political aims.  Both states sought to rule the Mediterranean, and neither could accept the others' survival.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Crisis|'''Chapter 6''' - Republic to Empire]]&lt;small&gt;146 BCE - 27 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Now unchallenged in the Mediterranean, Rome found domestic disputes among the great men, great families and great classes of society to be the ruling force in her politics.  These disputes broke out of the Curia and into a series of open civil wars, which led to the collapse of the Republic and the rise of the Empire.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Empire 1|'''Chapter 7''' - The Early Empire]] &lt;small&gt;27 CE - 305 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

The new political model of the Empire demonstrated its value rapidly.  The Emperors maintained control of the city only haphazardly, while the provinces remained relatively stable.  As the Empire grew, the problems of succession and leadership kept recurring, and Diocletian decided to find some other solution.  His failures led to a new era in Roman society.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Empire 2|'''Chapter 8''' - The Later Empire]] &lt;small&gt;305 CE - 450 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Now the Emperors had to contend with a new religion as well as resurgent enemies on the frontiers.  Christianity had made great gains in the previous three centuries, and now the Romans had to embrace a formerly-persecuted faith.  At the same time, political and economic changes on the fringes of the Empire, and growing weaknesses within were pushing the Empire toward collapse.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
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| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Collapse|'''Chapter 9''' - The Fall of Rome]]&lt;small&gt;400 CE - 600 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Many theories abound explaining why Rome fell: barbarian invasions, dried-up trade, economic failures, hard currency fleeing the country, lead in the water, adoption of the Christian faith, and failure to adopt Christian values completely. In this section we look at some of the reasons for Rome's collapse, and examine some of the reasons why it continued to exert a strong hold on the Western imagination.&lt;/div&gt;
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|}

[[Ancient History|&lt;&lt;Return to Front Page]]

__NOTOC__

== Rome under the Etruscans==
# [[/Etruscans|The Etruscans]]
# [[/Etruscan Political Systems|Etruscan Political Systems]]
# [[/Etruscan Economy|Etruscan Economy]]
# [[/Etruscan Religion and Philosophy|Etruscan Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Etruscan Daily Life|Etruscan Daily Life]]

== Early Rome ==
# [[/Early Rome (the Seven Hills)|Early Rome (the Seven Hills)]]
# [[/Early Roman Political Systems|Early Roman Political Systems]]
# [[/Early Roman Economy|Early Roman Economy]]
# [[/Early Roman Religion and Philosophy|Early Roman Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Early Roman Daily Life|Early Roman Daily Life]]

== The Roman Republic ==
# [[/The Rise of the Republic|The Rise of the Republic]]
# [[/Republican Political Systems|Republican Political Systems]]
# [[/Republican Economy|Republican Economy]]
# [[/Republican Religion and Philosophy|Republican Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Republican Daily Life|Republican Daily Life]]

== The Late Republic ==
# [[/The First Triumvirate (Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus)|The First Triumvirate (Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus)]]
# [[/Late Republic Political Systems|Late Republic Political Systems]]
# [[/Late Republic Economy|Late Republic Economy]]
# [[/Late Republic Religion and Philosophy|Late Republic Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Late Republic Daily Life|Late Republic Daily Life]]

== The Roman Empire ==
# [[/Founding of the Empire (Octavian/Emperor Augustus)|Founding of the Empire (Octavian/Emperor Augustus)]]
# [[/Imperial Political Systems|Imperial Political Systems]]
# [[/Imperial Economy|Imperial Economy]]
# [[/Imperial Religion and Philosophy|Imperial Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Imperial Daily Life|Imperial Daily Life]]
# [[/The Imperial Dyansties|The Imperial Dynasties]]
# [[/The Client States|The Client States]]
# [[/Slavery|Slavery]]
# [[/The Military|The Military]]
# [[/The Pax Deorum|The Pax Deorum]]
# [[/The Equestrian Order|The Equestrian Order]]

==The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire==
# [[/Imperial Collapse|Imperial Collapse]]
# [[/Rise of Christianity|Rise of Christianity]]
# [[/Coming of the Dark Ages|Coming of the Dark Ages]]
==Legacy of the Roman Empire==
# [[/The Romantic Languages/]]
# [[/Romanticism/]]([[Wikipedia:Romanticism|Wikipedia]])
# [[/Effect of Roman Law/]]
# [[/Mention in Literature/]]

{{BookCat}}

[[id:Romawi Kuno]]
[[ka:ძველი რომის ისტორია]]
[[nl:Ab Urbe Condita]]</text>
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|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:75%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Introduction|'''Introduction''' - Ancient Rome]]&lt;/big&gt;

The Roman civilization achieved greatness through a culture that borrowed, begged and stole the best elements of many other societies, while welding them together with a common legal and military structure.  Arguments about the parallels between ancient Rome and modern society arise regularly; hence the study of ancient Rome may prove instructive.
&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:50%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Etruscans|'''Chapter 1''' - The Etruscans]] &lt;small&gt;2000-800 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

The Etruscans lived in the region of modern Tuscany in Italy.  In contact with both Phoenicians and Greeks, they developed an interesting culture that made several important contributions to the Latin society in which Rome appeared.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:25%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Origins|'''Chapter 2''' - Origins of Rome]] &lt;small&gt;800-500 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Beginning as a collection of villages near an important river crossing, Rome became a united city-state eager to dominate its neighbors as part of a strategy for security and prosperity.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:25%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Republic|'''Chapter 3''' - The Roman Republic]] &lt;small&gt;600-350 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

After throwing out the Etruscan royal family, a group of prominent families established a new constitution — one which enabled the new state to assume a leading role in the affairs of the Italian peninsula.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Expansion|'''Chapter 4''' - Expansion]] &lt;small&gt;350-290 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Between 509 BC and 394 BC, Rome came to dominate the Italian peninsula, and began to assume important diplomatic and military functions in the wider Mediterranean world.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Punic Wars|'''Chapter 5''' - The Punic Wars]] &lt;small&gt;264-146 BCE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Between 264 and 146 BC, the Romans fought three wars with their great rivals, the Carthaginians.  These two early superpowers had different cultural values, different military strengths, and different political aims.  Both states sought to rule the Mediterranean, and neither could accept the others' survival.

&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Crisis|'''Chapter 6''' - Republic to Empire]]&lt;small&gt;146 BCE - 27 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Now unchallenged in the Mediterranean, Rome found domestic disputes among the great men, great families and great classes of society to be the ruling force in her politics.  These disputes broke out of the Curia and into a series of open civil wars, which led to the collapse of the Republic and the rise of the Empire.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Empire 1|'''Chapter 7''' - The Early Empire]] &lt;small&gt;27 CE - 305 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

The new political model of the Empire demonstrated its value rapidly.  The Emperors maintained control of the city only haphazardly, while the provinces remained relatively stable.  As the Empire grew, the problems of succession and leadership kept recurring, and Diocletian decided to find some other solution.  His failures led to a new era in Roman society.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[File:00%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Empire 2|'''Chapter 8''' - The Later Empire]] &lt;small&gt;305 CE - 450 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Now the Emperors had to contend with a new religion as well as resurgent enemies on the frontiers.  Christianity had made great gains in the previous three centuries, and now the Romans had to embrace a formerly-persecuted faith.  At the same time, political and economic changes on the fringes of the Empire, and growing weaknesses within were pushing the Empire toward collapse.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;text-align:center&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px&quot;&gt;[[Image:75%.svg]]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;margin-right:20px&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;[[../Rome/Collapse|'''Chapter 9''' - The Fall of Rome]]&lt;small&gt;400 CE - 600 CE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Many theories abound explaining why Rome fell: barbarian invasions, dried-up trade, economic failures, hard currency fleeing the country, lead in the water, adoption of the Christian faith, and failure to adopt Christian values completely. In this section we look at some of the reasons for Rome's collapse, and examine some of the reasons why it continued to exert a strong hold on the Western imagination.&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCEE;{{Text default color}};vertical-align:top&quot; | [[Image:Example.jpg|60px|caption]]
|}

[[Ancient History|&lt;&lt;Return to Front Page]]

__NOTOC__

== Rome under the Etruscans==
# [[/Etruscans|The Etruscans]]
# [[/Etruscan Political Systems|Etruscan Political Systems]]
# [[/Etruscan Economy|Etruscan Economy]]
# [[/Etruscan Religion and Philosophy|Etruscan Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Etruscan Daily Life|Etruscan Daily Life]]

== Early Rome ==
# [[/Early Rome (the Seven Hills)|Early Rome (the Seven Hills)]]
# [[/Early Roman Political Systems|Early Roman Political Systems]]
# [[/Early Roman Economy|Early Roman Economy]]
# [[/Early Roman Religion and Philosophy|Early Roman Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Early Roman Daily Life|Early Roman Daily Life]]

== The Roman Republic ==
# [[/The Rise of the Republic|The Rise of the Republic]]
# [[/Republican Political Systems|Republican Political Systems]]
# [[/Republican Economy|Republican Economy]]
# [[/Republican Religion and Philosophy|Republican Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Republican Daily Life|Republican Daily Life]]

== The Late Republic ==
# [[/The First Triumvirate (Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus)|The First Triumvirate (Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus)]]
# [[/Late Republic Political Systems|Late Republic Political Systems]]
# [[/Late Republic Economy|Late Republic Economy]]
# [[/Late Republic Religion and Philosophy|Late Republic Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Late Republic Daily Life|Late Republic Daily Life]]

== The Roman Empire ==
# [[/Founding of the Empire (Octavian/Emperor Augustus)|Founding of the Empire (Octavian/Emperor Augustus)]]
# [[/Imperial Political Systems|Imperial Political Systems]]
# [[/Imperial Economy|Imperial Economy]]
# [[/Imperial Religion and Philosophy|Imperial Religion and Philosophy]]
# [[/Imperial Daily Life|Imperial Daily Life]]
# [[/The Imperial Dyansties|The Imperial Dynasties]]
# [[/The Client States|The Client States]]
# [[/Slavery|Slavery]]
# [[/The Military|The Military]]
# [[/The Pax Deorum|The Pax Deorum]]
# [[/The Equestrian Order|The Equestrian Order]]

==The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire==
# [[/Imperial Collapse|Imperial Collapse]]
# [[/Rise of Christianity|Rise of Christianity]]
# [[/Coming of the Dark Ages|Coming of the Dark Ages]]
==Legacy of the Roman Empire==
# [[/The Romantic Languages/]]
# [[/Romanticism/]]([[Wikipedia:Romanticism|Wikipedia]])
# [[/Effect of Roman Law/]]
# [[/Mention in Literature/]]

{{BookCat}}

[[id:Romawi Kuno]]
[[ka:ძველი რომის ისტორია]]
[[nl:Ab Urbe Condita]]</text>
      <sha1>mvrqqyqzi9zakyjrbdstur6rbfyan0m</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AP Biology/The Science of Biology</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>23335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662523</id>
      <parentid>4488174</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:37:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="7151" sha1="56n3ccqivd7dxtx2ef9ctc3pytg2rdm" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
'''Study Time''' | ''2 minutes''. &lt;small&gt;(This should be common knowledge for most.  Review the keywords you need to, and skip to the next chapter.)&lt;/small&gt;

==Keywords==
{|
|-
|[[#What is Biology?|Biology]] || [[#Scientific Reasoning|Predictions]]
|- 
|[[#What is Biology?|Properties of Life]] || [[#QuickDef|Theory]]
|- 
|[[#What is Biology?|Homeostasis]] || [[#QuickDef|Scientific Method]]
|- 
|[[#Scientific Reasoning|Deductive Reasoning]] || Control Experiment
|- 
|[[#Scientific Reasoning|Inductive Reasoning]] || Control
|- 
|[[#QuickDef|Observation]] || Variable
|- 
|[[#QuickDef|Inference]] || Comprehensive bibliography
|- 
|[[#QuickDef|Hypothesis (Accepted/Rejected)]] || [[#Proper Procedure|Scientific Journal]]
|- 
|[[#QuickDef|Experiment]] || [[#Proper Procedure|Peer Review]]
|-
|}
==What is Biology?==
''Biology'' is the study of living things, literally the science of life.  Though there is disagreement, five characteristics that usually define life are:
# '''Order''' - All organisms are cellular, with one or more, and are highly structured.  Atoms create organic molecules, which combine into macromolecules, which construct cellular organelles, and so on.  There is a rising hierarchy of order to life.  Cells form tissues, which make up organs, which are part of organ systems, which work together to form a complex organism.
# '''Sensitivity''' - Organisms respond to their environment, or stimuli.
# '''Growth, development, and reproduction''' - The ability to grow and reproduce are fundamental traits inherent to all organisms.  Organisms also possess hereditary molecules (usually DNA) that are passed to offspring.  
# '''Regulation''' - Regulatory mechanisms coordinate an organism's internal functions, including food intake, waste disposal, and many more.
# '''Homeostasis''' - All organisms are capable of maintaining relatively constant internal conditions, different from their environment.  The ability to maintain this internal balance is called homeostasis.

==Scientific Reasoning==

Science is a methodology for learning about the world.  The scientific method deals with systematic investigation, reproducible results, the formation and testing of hypotheses, and reasoning.  Reasoning can be broken down into two categories: induction and deduction. Most reasoning in science is done through induction.

===Inductive Reasoning===

''Definition:'' Determining a '''general statement''' from '''several facts'''. (Not always accurate)&lt;br&gt;
''Example:'' We have had a test every Tuesday for the past three months; therefore, we will have a test next Tuesday (and all Tuesdays).

===Deductive Reasoning===

''Definition:'' Determining a '''single fact''' from a '''general statement'''. (Only as accurate as the statement)&lt;br&gt;
''Example:'' The teacher said she checks homework every Monday; therefore she will check homework on next Monday.

==The Scientific Method==

The scientific method is not a step by step, linear process.  It is an intuitive process, a methodology for learning about the world through the application of knowledge.  Scientists must be able to have an &quot;imaginative preconception&quot; of what the truth is.  Scientists will often observe and then hypothesize the reason why a phenomenon occurred.  They use all of their knowledge and a bit of imagination, all in an attempt to uncover something that might be true.    A typical scientific investigation might go like so:

{| style=&quot;background:#efefef;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|You ''observe'' that a room appears dark, and you ponder ''why'' the room is dark.  In an attempt to find explanations to this curiosity, your mind unravels several different ''hypotheses''.  One hypothesis might state that the lights are turned off.  Another hunch might be that the room's light bulb has burnt out.  Worst yet, you could be going blind.  To discover the truth, you ''experiment''.  You feel your way around the room and find a light switch and turn it on.  No light.  You ''repeat'' the experiment, flicking the switch back and forth.  Still, nothing happens.  Your initial hypothesis (the room is dark because the lights are off) has been ''rejected''.  You devise more experiments to test your hypotheses, utilizing a flashlight to prove that you are indeed not blind.  In order to ''accept'' your last remaining hypothesis as the truth,  you ''predict'' that changing the light bulb will fix the problem.  It does.  Another prediction you could make is that the light will not work in another socket because it is burnt out.  This is easily testable.  If ''all'' of your predictions succeed, the original hypothesis is considered valid and is accepted, usually after repetitive testing.  In some cases, however, your predictions will not be correct, and you'll have to start over.  You can see how there can never really be a degree of absolute certainty, but if the bulb does not work in all sockets and replacing it fixes the original problem, we can be reasonably certain that the bulb was burnt out.
|}
[[File:Ap_biology_scienceofbiology01.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''How Science is Done'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;A diagram that illustrates scientific investigation&lt;/small&gt;]]

The general process is summed up by this diagram.  Scientists first make observations that raise a particular question.  In order to explain the observed phenomenon, they develop a number of possible explanations, or hypotheses.  This is the inductive part of science, observing and constructing plausible arguments for why an event occurred.  Experiments are then used to eliminate one of more of the possible hypotheses until there one hypothesis remains.  Using deduction, scientists use the principles of their hypothesis to make predictions, and then test to make sure that their predictions are confirmed.  After many trials (repeatability) and all predictions have been confirmed, the hypothesis then may become a theory.

&lt;span id=&quot;QuickDef&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;'''Quick Definitions'''

:'''Observation''' - quantitative and qualitative measurements of a particular phenomenon.
:'''Inference''' - deriving new knowledge based upon old knowledge.
:'''Hypotheses''' - a suggested explanation.
:'''Rejected Hypothesis''' - an explanation that has been ruled out through experimentation.
:'''Accepted Hypothesis''' - an explanation that has not been ruled out through excessive experimentation and makes verifiable predictions that are true.
:'''Experiment''' - A test that is used to rule out a hypothesis or validate something already known.
:'''Scientific Method''' - The process of scientific investigation.
:'''Theory''' - A widely accepted hypothesis that stands the test of time.  It has withstood many attempts at falsification.

==Bioethics==

As our ability to manipulate life in profound ways has increased with the advent of technologies like genetic modification, pharmacology, and cloning, we as a species have taken upon ourselves the obligation to be responsible with our power. Given our understanding of the processes that allow life to exist, we must use our knowledge to advance humanity.  The study of this responsibility is called bioethics.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Calculus/Integration</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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        <username>~2026-45649-55</username>
        <id>3622858</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed text description to image for better visual.</comment>
      <origin>4662449</origin>
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      <text bytes="2174" sha1="i5vw5gtga14qjld2xlt74wpjxqdqkky" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Calculus/Top Nav|Differentiation/Applications of Derivatives/Exercises|Definite integral}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Calculus/Integration|Integration]]==
&lt;/includeonly&gt;
[[File:Integral.svg|thumb|right|The definite integral of a function ''f''(''x'') from ''x''=0 to ''x''=''a'' is equal to the area under the curve from 0 to ''a''.]]
=== Basics of Integration ===
{{Calculus/map page|Definite integral}}  [[Calculus/Definite integral|Definite integral]] {{stage short|25%}}

{{Calculus/map page|Fundamental Theorem of Calculus}}  [[Calculus/Fundamental Theorem of Calculus|Fundamental Theorem of Calculus]] {{stage short|25%}}

{{Calculus/map page|Indefinite integral}}  [[Calculus/Indefinite_integral|Indefinite integral]] {{stage short|25%}}

{{Calculus/map page|Improper Integrals}}  [[Calculus/Improper Integrals|Improper Integrals]]

=== Integration Techniques ===
[[File:1-D kinematics.svg|thumb|right|&lt;b&gt;From bottom to top (red - green)&lt;/b&gt;: &lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;an acceleration function ''a''(''t'');&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;the integral of the acceleration is the velocity function ''v''(''t'');&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;and the integral of the velocity is the distance function ''s''(''t'').&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;]]
{{:Calculus/Integration_techniques}}

{{Calculus/map page|Integration/Exercises}}  [[Calculus/Integration/Exercises|Exercises]]

=== Applications of Integration ===
{{Calculus/map page|Area}}  [[Calculus/Area|Area]]

{{Calculus/map page|Volume}}  [[Calculus/Volume|Volume]]

{{Calculus/map page|Volume of solids of revolution}}  [[Calculus/Volume of solids of revolution|Volume of Solids of Revolution]]

{{Calculus/map page|Arc length}}  [[Calculus/Arc length|Arc Length]]

{{Calculus/map page|Surface area}}  [[Calculus/Surface area|Surface Area]]

{{Calculus/map page|Work}}  [[Calculus/Work|Work]]

{{Calculus/map page|Centre of mass}}  [[Calculus/Centre of mass|Center of Mass]]

{{Calculus/map page|Pressure and force}}  [[Calculus/Pressure and force|Pressure and Force]]

{{Calculus/map page|Probability}}  [[Calculus/Probability|Probability]]&lt;noinclude&gt;

{{Calculus/Top Nav|Differentiation/Applications of Derivatives/Exercises|Definite integral}}
{{Calculus/TOC}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Linux Guide/Installing SugarCRM On Linux</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>33703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662446</id>
      <parentid>4096112</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T15:03:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WereSpielChequers</username>
        <id>248949</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <origin>4662446</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5922" sha1="2r3i69swmo3zrwu1bkxczw1u0gqg1aa" xml:space="preserve">Here is how I installed {{w|SugarCRM}} on a new PC:

* Download the four Fedora Core 4 image files and make install CD’s
* Install Fedora Core 4 using the standard “Workstation” settings (don’t use the Server setup as it will put all the [[Apache]], [[PHP]], and [[MySQL]] files in the wrong place. Enable Firewall, Enable SELinux, Install Default Software Packages)
* Finish Installing, Reboot, Login as ‘root’
* After booting, click Desktop -&gt; Security -&gt; Security Level (if using Gnome GUI), check the box next to WWW (HTTP), click OK to close.
* Launch WEB browser
* From http://www.mysql.com/ download the v4.1.12 MySQL Linux x86 RPM Files, you will need the Server, Client Program, Libraries &amp; Headers, and Dynamic Client Libraries.
* From http://www.php.net/ download PHP 4.3.11 (tar.gz)
* From http://www.apache.org/ download Apache 2.0.54 (tar.gz)
* Copy downloaded files to /usr/src directory
* Open a terminal window, Applications -&gt; System Tools -&gt; Terminal
* Type the following in the terminal to install MySQL
 #cd /usr/src
 #rpm -i MySQL* 		(don’t worry if MySQL fails to start)
 #mysql_install_db
 #mysqld_safe &amp;
 &lt; hit enter again &gt;

* Now set the root password for MySQL
 #mysqladmin –u root password ‘enter-new-root-password-in-single-quotes’

* Now check to see if install was successful
 #mysqlshow –p
 Enter Password:

You should see something like:

 Databases
 ---------
 mysql
 test

* Now we need to set the ‘root’ password to the old password format and delete the blank user that was created automatically when MySQL was installed.
 #mysql –u root –p
 Enter Password:
 mysql&gt;SET PASSWORD FOR ‘root’@’localhost’=OLD_PASSWORD(‘New-Password’);
 mysql&gt;use mysql
 mysql&gt;delete from user where User=’’;
 mysql&gt;quit

* Now MySQL is installed and we need to install Apache and PHP. Type:
 #gzip –d httpd-2.0.54.tar.gz
 #tar xvf httpd-2.0.54.tar
 #gunzip php-4.3.11.tar.gz
 #tar -xvf php-4.3.11.tar
 #cd httpd-2.0.54
 #./configure --enable-so
 #make
 #make install
 #cd ../php-4.3.11
 #./configure --with-apxs2=/usr/local/apache2/bin/apxs \    (hit enter key)
 --with-mysql-sock=/var/lib/mysql/mysql.sock
 #make
 #make install

* Now copy the php.ini file to the correct place
 #cp php.ini-dist /usr/local/lib/php.ini

* Edit the php.ini file
Search for: memory_limit = 8M,  change 8M to 16M
Save &amp; Close file

* Look for libphp4.so file in /usr/local/apache2/modules/ to make sure it’s there.
* Edit the Apache configuration file in /usr/local/apache2/conf/httpd.conf

Find '''loadmodule''' and make sure this line was added, (or add)

 LoadModule php4_module modules/libphp4.so

Find '''addtype''' and add 

 AddType application/x-tar.tgz
 AddType application/x-httpd-php .php .phtml
 AddType application/x-httpd-php-source .phps

Find '''directoryindex''' and add '''index.php''' to the line:

 DirectoryIndex index.php index.html index.html.var

* launch apache by typing in the terminal
 #/usr/local/apache2/bin/apachectl start

If you get the following error: “ Cannot load /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so into server: /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so: cannot restore segment prot after reloc: Permission Denied” 
Type:
 #chcon –t shlib_t /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so

now try and start:
 #/usr/local/apache2/bin/apachectl start

* Test Apache by opening a web browser and typing in http://localhost/ . You should see an apache success screen.
* Test PHP
Create a file in /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/ named test.php and enter the following line in the file:

 &lt;?php phpinfo(); ?&gt;

Save and close.
Set permissions on file to 755.
Now in a browser type http://localhost/test.php You should see a PHP information screen with your current settings.

* Edit MySQL’s my.cnf file
Edit or create the /etc/my.cnf file, make it look like the following:

 [mysqld]
 #use old password encryption method (needed for 4.0 and older clients).
 old-passwords
 basedir=/var/lib/mysql

Save and close file.

* Edit the MySQL startup file /etc/init.d/mysql

Find: '''basedir=/''' and change to:
 basedir=/var/lib/mysql

* restart MySQL by going clicking Desktop -&gt; System Settings -&gt; Server Settings -&gt; Services
select mysql, click restart

* create '''sugarsuite''' folder in /usr/local/apache2/htdocs
* copy the contents of the SugarCRM 3.0.1 folder (or latest) to the sugarsuite folder
* Set permissions on all files to 777 for installation. Type in a terminal:
 #chmod -R 777 /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/sugarsuite

** alternate instructions that worked great for me...
**
 #cd .. [now in htdocs folder]
 #chown -R apache sugarsuite  [change file owner to the apache webserver]
 #cd sugarsuite  [back to sugar webroot]
 #chmod -R 775 cache custom data modules
** alternately #chmod -R 775 ./cache/ ./custom/ ./data/ ./modules/
 #chmod 664 config.php
**

* To install SugarCRM, open a browser and type http://localhost/sugarsuite/ 
* Follow install instruction: Create User, Create Database. Finish Installation.
* Set SugarCRM directory permissions in terminal window.
 #chmod -R 755 /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/sugarsuite
 #cd /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/sugarsuite
 #chmod -R 777 ./cache/ &lt; does not work!
 #chmod -R 777 ./custom/
 #chmod -R 777 ./data/
 #chmod -R 777 ./modules/
 #chmod -R 444 config.php

* Sugar install is finished!

* Now let’s add apache to the startup process. First. Let’s copy the apache startup file to the startup directory. Type in the terminal:
 #cp /usr/local/apache2/bin/apachectl /etc/init.d/

* Edit the /etc/init.d/apachectl file: Add the lines in bold.

 #1/bin/sh
 #
 '''#chkconfig: - 85 15'''
 '''#description: Apache is a Web server to serve HTML files and CGI.'''
 #
 #copyright (c) 2000-2004 The Apache Software Foundation

* To enable httpd to start automatically. Type in a terminal:
 #/sbin/chkconfig --add apachectl

* Reboot server to see if everything starts up and works!

{{Auto category}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. a3</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>37368</id>
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      <id>4662602</id>
      <parentid>4660264</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T20:46:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no need</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2170" sha1="jxxtfitk68p4sldewqtkn7ytxrpkjm0" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Anderssen's Opening
|eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]]
|parent=[[../|Starting position]]
}}

== 1. a3 · Anderssen's Opening ==

This opening move does little for development or control of the center. In some cases, White can transpose the game to an opening where 1. a3 might have been useful, but using a tempo on such a move already on move one seems premature. In fact, this opening is based on the idea that White is playing with the black pieces, but he has the move 1. a3 already played. If a game starts 1. a3 e5 2. e4 Nf6 3. Nc3, Black cannot proceed in Ruy Lopez-fashion, and if Black plays 3... Bc5, then 4. Nf3 puts Black into the Two Knights' Defence and White's a3 precludes many possibilities.

Named after the German chess player Adolf Anderssen, who played this opening a few times against Morphy, this is a prophylactic waiting move that allows Black to choose an opening down a tempo, should a3 be useful in such cases.

=== Black's responses ===

There are a variety of ways for Black to respond to this move, including:

* '''[[/1...e5|1...e5]]''' may transpose into an English (1. c4 e5 2. a3), where a3 is a useful move for White. It covers and prepares b4, and allows White to set up a structure similar to that in the Najdorf or Kan for Black.
* '''1...d5''' makes transpositions into the Polish Opening or a reversed Pirc highly likely, should White eventually play b4 or d3/g3.
* '''1...g6''' may thwart White's plans if they planned to play b4 and Bb2 as the a1-h8 diagonal would be first occupied by a black Bg7 in that case, provided that Black fianchettos their bishop immediately.
* '''1...c5''' may transpose into an a3 Sicilian, or White may play b4 and attack c5.
* '''1...Nf6''' will likely transpose into other aforementioned lines.
* '''[[/1...a5|1...a5]]''' resembles 1. h3 h5, possibly aiming for the Polish Gambit, which, in turn, mirrors the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. h3/1...h5/2. g4|Spike Lee Gambit]]. This version is barely more plausible.

== References ==

{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{MCO14}}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Wikipedia|Anderssen's Opening}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}

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  <page>
    <title>A-level Physics/Forces and Motion/Dynamics</title>
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      <text bytes="5261" sha1="navgboohtbdur40fnwkr3aijl8vqrgy" xml:space="preserve">Dynamics is the study of why objects move, and the effects of forces on moving objects.

==Mass==

When you are standing on a bus, and the bus starts very quickly, your body seems to be pushed backward, and if the bus stops suddenly, then your body seems to be pushed forwards. Notice that when the bus turns left, you will seem to be pushed to the right, and when the bus turns right, you will seem to be pushed to the left.

Also consider a full shopping cart. If you try to push it from a stationary position, it will take some effort to get it moving. The same is true if you try to stop it when it is moving at a high speed, or try to turn it left or right.

In both cases, an object with '''mass''' is opposing a change in motion. In the first case, it is your body that tries to stay moving as it was before the change. Your body also tries to stay in a straight line when the bus turns, although it appears to be moving to the side. What is really happening is that your body is still moving straight and the bus turns in the opposite direction. The shopping cart exhibits the same behaiviour. When it is stationary, it tries to stay stationary, and when you try to stop it moving, it will try to continue. Your body and the cart both have mass.

From this, we can define a property of mass:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
Mass will resist changes in motion.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

This says that any object with mass will resist any change in motion.  Objects with greater mass will resist change in motion more than objects with less mass. It is like having the shopping cart only half full and finding that it is much easier to change its movement.  This is Newton's first law of motion:  An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside force.  Conversely: An object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by an outside force.

In the SI system, the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

==Force==

We all have an innate understanding of forces. To put quite simply, a force involves a push or a pull. Exerting a force on an object will cause that object to accelerate.

Try pushing your finger against a wall. By doing this, you are said to exert a '''force''' on the wall. You will feel the wall 'pushing' back on you. The wall is said to exert a '''force''' on you. The force you exert on the wall always equals the force with which the wall exerts on you (Newton's Third Law).* Note that the forces are acting on different bodies. Because the wall is heavy, the force you exert on it does not move the wall noticeably. However, being much lighter, you will be probably be moved by the force that the wall exerts on you. Try it!

A force can be applied to an object in different directions. Force is said to be a [[Waves/Vectors|vector]] quantity.

===Force and Acceleration===

Exerting a force on an object causes the object to accelerate. The same force applied on objects of different masses causes different accelerations in each object. We observe that a force applied on a light object causes greater acceleration than the same force applied on a heavier object. We also observe that the acceleration of an object is proportional to the force exerted on it.

This is summarized by the formula F = kma, where F=force, k=some constant, m=mass and a=acceleration.

===Defining the Newton===

In the SI unit system, force is measured in Newtons. One Newton is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1&amp;nbsp;kg at &lt;math&gt;1 \rm{m s^{-2}}&lt;/math&gt;.  Therefore, we have defined the unit of force in such a way that the value of k in F = kma is 1, thereby reducing the equation to F = ma.

1 N = 100000 dynes = 0.101971621298 kgforce = 0.2248089431 lbforce

1 dyne = 1E-5 Newtons,   1 kgforce=9.80665 Newtons,  and 1 lbforce=4.44822161526 Newtons

===Weight===

The weight of an object is defined as the gravitational force acting on the object, and is dependent on the mass of the body. Note that the acceleration due to gravity (or acceleration of free-fall, usually denoted by g) is taken as the constant &lt;math&gt;9.81 \rm{m s^{-2}}&lt;/math&gt; for all bodies, although it varies slightly from place to place. The direction of that force (weight) is always toward the center of this planet. We can calculate the weight of an object from its mass by the equation W = mg, where W=weight, m=mass and g=acceleration of free fall. In rough terms, an apple weighs approximately one Newton.

*Newton's third law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

==Motion of particles through fluids==

Mechanics of particle motion.

There are three forces acting on particles in motion through a fluid;

1) The external force (gravitational or otherwise);

2) The drag force (apparent when there is relative motion between a particle and a fluid);

3) The buoyant force (acting parallel to the external force, but in the opposite direction).

==Density==
&lt;math&gt;Density = \frac {Mass} {Volume}&lt;/math&gt;

== Viscosity ==
Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow. Objects drag fluid along near its surface. The faster the object moves, the bigger the viscous drag.

{{A-level physics}}

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    <title>A-level Physics/Electrons, Waves and Photons/Electric current</title>
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      <text bytes="8888" sha1="0dqh56jfahvqy6z050bl5px4kli4c6v" xml:space="preserve">Electricity is useful because we can easily transform electrical energy to other forms of energy such as light, sound and heat. Electricity is transferred from place to place by wires as an electric current.

==Current and Charge==

'''Electric current''' is the flow of charged particles, usually electrons, around a circuit. Metals are good conductors of electricity because they have '''free electrons''' that can move around easily.

Current is measured in '''amperes'''.

Charged particles have a charge which is either positive or negative. The strength of a charge can be found using the formula:

:&lt;math&gt;Q = I \times t&lt;/math&gt;

where Q is the quantity of charge in coulombs, I is the current in amps, and t is the time in seconds

We can use this formula to define the coulomb:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
One coulomb is the amount of charge which flows past a point when a current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

===Electron flow===

When you attach a battery to a small bulb with wires, you would say that the current is flowing from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative one. This is called '''conventional current'''. The electrons, however, flow from the negative terminal to the positive. This '''electron flow''' is in the opposite direction to the conventional current, and care must be taken to not confuse the two. When we just say current it is assumed that we are talking about conventional current.

The reason for this is that the direction of conventional current was chosen before people knew what was happening inside a conductor when a current flows.

In A-level, charge in coulombs is the product of current in amperes by the time in seconds.

==Resistance==

Any component with electrical resistance opposes the flow of an electrical current.

===Electrical Resistance===

In an electrical circuit, current flows around it. Each component in the circuit has a resistance, which resists the flow of the current.

The voltage that you get from the power supply can be simply described as the &quot;push&quot; given to the electrons to go around the circuit.

It would then make sense to say that the greater the voltage, the greater the current, and the greater the resistance, the lower the current. The current flowing around the circuit could then be written as the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;I=\frac {V}{R}&lt;/math&gt;.

For example, if you were to connect a 9 volt power supply to a 3 &amp;Omega; (read as 3 ohm) resistor, you could use the formula above to find the current. &lt;math&gt;I=\frac {9}{3}&lt;/math&gt;, so &lt;math&gt;I=3A&lt;/math&gt;.

A particular arrangement of this formula is used to define resistance and the ohm.

:&lt;math&gt;R=\frac {V}{I}&lt;/math&gt;.

This says that the resistance of a component is the voltage across it for every unit of current flowing through it. More formally this can be written as:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The resistance of a component in a circuit is the ratio of the voltage across that component to the current in it.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

The unit of resistance, the ohm (&amp;Omega;), is defined so that one ohm is the resistance of a component that has a voltage of 1 volt across it for every amp of current flowing through it. In other words, one ohm is one volt per amp.

===Ohm's Law===

In many components, the voltage across it is proportional to the current flowing through it. You can make this observation on a circuit with a resistor of a known resistance, a voltmeter, an ammeter, and a power supply with a variable voltage. As you increase the voltage, the current will also increase. You will come to the conclusion that &lt;math&gt;V \propto I&lt;/math&gt;, with the constant of proportionality equal to &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;. This gives us &lt;math&gt;V = IR&lt;/math&gt;, an arrangement of the familiar formula.

Components where &lt;math&gt;V \propto I&lt;/math&gt;, are known as '''ohmic conductors''', and have a constant resistance. They are said to follow '''Ohm's law''', which states that:
{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0399ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
If the source voltage remains constant, the flow of current is inversely proportional to resistance.
       '''OR'''
If the temperature remains constant, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it. 
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

Note that not all components are ohmic conductors, and can have varying values of resistance. You will have to use the formula &lt;math&gt;R = \frac {V}{I}&lt;/math&gt; to find the resistance for specific values of &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;I&lt;/math&gt;.

Below you can see 3 graphs with current on the vertical axis, and voltage on the horizontal axis. Where the graph is a straight line, the voltage is proportional to the current. Therefore, only the metallic conductor is an ohmic conductor.

[[Image:I-V_characteristics.png|350px|center]]

A diode and a filament lamp are two examples of '''non-ohmic''' conductors. The diode is designed to only allow current through in one direction, hence the use of negative values on its graph. The filament lamp doesn't have a constant temperature, which according to Ohm's law is required for a component to be an ohmic conductor. Instead, it heats up as a current passes through it, which has an effect on the resistance.

===Temperature===
===Resistivity===

The '''resistivity''' of a material is the property that determines its resistance for a unit length and unit cross sectional area of that material. Copper, for example, is a better conductor than lead, in other words lead has a higher resistivity than copper. You can compare different materials in this way.

Resistivity, ρ (the Greek letter rho), is defined by the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\rho = \frac{RA}{l}&lt;/math&gt;

Where ρ is resistivity, R is the resistance, A is the cross sectional area of the material, and l is the length of the material.

The units of resistivity are Ohm-meters, Ωm.

If we rearrange the above equation so that:

:&lt;math&gt;R = \frac{\rho l}{A}&lt;/math&gt;

You can see that as the length of a wire is increased, its resistance will increase, and as the cross sectional area of a wire is increased, its resistance will decrease. This is true provided that the temperature is constant, and that the same materials are always used, to make sure that the resistivity stays the same.

==Voltage and Energy==

Earlier, we simply said that a voltage is the &quot;push&quot; given to electrons, or units of charge. Now, we will take a look at voltage in terms of energy, and find a more accurate definition of the volt.

===Potential Difference===

When you attach a voltmeter across a component, the voltage you are measuring is a '''potential difference''' (PD). Electrical energy is being used up by the component, and so we can say that a potential difference is a voltage where the charge is ''losing energy''. Potential difference has the symbol V.

By definition, the potential difference is the energy converted from electrical energy to other forms of energy in moving a unit of electrical charge from one point to another. So, if the PD of a resistor is say, 2V then if 3 coulomb of charges pass through it, then the energy used up is 6 Joules.

Potential difference is the energy lost per unit charge, and can be written as the following formula:

:&lt;math&gt;V=\frac{W}{Q}&lt;/math&gt;

===Electromotive Force===

A battery provides a certain voltage to the circuit, and the electrons are ''gaining energy'' from the battery as they flow past. This voltage where the charge gains energy is called an '''electromotive force''' (EMF) and is measured in volts (V). Its symbol is ε.

EMF. is the energy gained per unit charge, and can be written as the following formula:

:&lt;math&gt;E=\frac{W}{Q}&lt;/math&gt;

Both the PD and EMF are measured in volts, and one volt is equivalent to one joule per coulomb.

===Electrical Energy and Power===

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, written as the formula:

:&lt;math&gt;P=\frac{W}{t}&lt;/math&gt;

To find a formula for electrical power, we take the following formula for voltage and make W the subject:

:&lt;math&gt;V=\frac{W}{Q}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;W=QV&lt;/math&gt;

Then we need to divide both sides by t to get power:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{W}{t}=\frac {QV}{t}&lt;/math&gt;

Recall that charge divided by time is current, we now have:

:&lt;math&gt;P=I \times V&lt;/math&gt;

From the formula above, you can see that the electrical power is simply the product of current and voltage. You can combine this with &lt;math&gt;V=IR&lt;/math&gt; to give two further equations:

:&lt;math&gt;P=I^2R&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;P=\frac{V^2}{R}&lt;/math&gt;

One last formula is for energy and is derived from the formula for power:

:&lt;math&gt;P=\frac{W}{t}=IV&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;W=IVt&lt;/math&gt;

{{A-level physics}}

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  <page>
    <title>A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Further dynamics</title>
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      <text bytes="3684" sha1="mtysagzx6yyhzk7lyw1zq43ptne36dh" xml:space="preserve">From last year, you should remember kinematics and dynamics, the branch of physics that relates to the motion of objects. We will now expand on this and have a look at what happens when two objects collide, the concept of momentum, and we will take a closer look at Newton's three laws of motion.

==Momentum==

If you have seen collisions involving two objects, you may have noticed that the velocity of one object seems to be passed to the other object. You may also have noticed that heavier objects seem to pass more velocity on to smaller objects, whereas smaller objects seem to pass less velocity to more massive ones.

What is in fact happening is that '''momentum''' is being conserved. Momentum is the product of an objects mass and velocity, or &lt;math&gt;p=mv&lt;/math&gt;. This means that, after a collision, an object that is heavier will have a lower velocity than a lighter object in its place, and vice versa. Momentum is conserved for all collisions. The principle of the conservation of momentum states that:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff;{{Text default color}}; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
Within a closed system, the total momentum in any specified direction remains constant.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

Momentum is a vector quantity and has the units &lt;math&gt;kg\,m\,s^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;Ns&lt;/math&gt; (Newton-seconds) in the SI system.

==Collisions==

Since momentum is conserved, the momentum before a collision is equal to the momentum after a collision. You can use this fact to solve problems involving collisions.

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{alignat}{2}
Before &amp; =After\\
m_1u_1+ m_2u_2 &amp; =m_1v_1 + m_2v_2\\
\end{alignat}
&lt;/math&gt;

For instance, a ball is moving at 3&amp;nbsp;m/s with mass 3&amp;nbsp;kg. It hits another ball with mass 1&amp;nbsp;kg moving at 2&amp;nbsp;m/s; the two balls collide and the second ball rebounds at 4&amp;nbsp;m/s. Find the velocity at which ball 1 is moving:

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{alignat}{2}
Before &amp; = After \\
m_1u_1 + m_2u_2 &amp; =  m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 \\
3\times 3 + 2\times 1 &amp; =  3v  + 1\times 4 \\
11 &amp; =  3v  + 4 \\
11-4 &amp; =  3v \\
7 &amp; =  3v \\
v &amp; =  \frac{7}{3} \\
\end{alignat}&lt;/math&gt;

So the velocity at which ball 1 is moving after the collision is 2.3&amp;nbsp;m/s (7/3)m/s
1

==Newton's laws of motion==

===Newton's first law of motion===

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff;{{Text default color}}; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
A body stays at rest or continues to move at constant velocity unless a resultant force acts on it
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

===Newton's second law of motion===

Originally, you learnt this to be:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff;{{Text default color}}; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
For an object with constant mass, its acceleration is proportional to the force producing the acceleration, and is in the direction of the force.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

However, since you now know that a force changes the rate of change of momentum of an object, we can use a more accurate interpretation of Newton's second law:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and takes place in the direction of the resultant force.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

===Newton's third law of motion===

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B will exert a force of the same type that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on body A..
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

{{A-level physics}}

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      <text bytes="3730" sha1="33mcgexwvyr2o3bgxu8r8lne3rulbcf" xml:space="preserve">From last year, you should remember kinematics and dynamics, the branch of physics that relates to the motion of objects. We will now expand on this and have a look at what happens when two objects collide, the concept of momentum, and we will take a closer look at Newton's three laws of motion.

==Momentum==

If you have seen collisions involving two objects, you may have noticed that the velocity of one object seems to be passed to the other object. You may also have noticed that heavier objects seem to pass more velocity on to smaller objects, whereas smaller objects seem to pass less velocity to more massive ones.

What is in fact happening is that '''momentum''' is being conserved. Momentum is the product of an objects mass and velocity, or &lt;math&gt;p=mv&lt;/math&gt;. This means that, after a collision, an object that is heavier will have a lower velocity than a lighter object in its place, and vice versa. Momentum is conserved for all collisions. The principle of the conservation of momentum states that:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff;{{Text default color}}; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
Within a closed system, the total momentum in any specified direction remains constant.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

Momentum is a vector quantity and has the units &lt;math&gt;kg\,m\,s^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;Ns&lt;/math&gt; (Newton-seconds) in the SI system.

==Collisions==

Since momentum is conserved, the momentum before a collision is equal to the momentum after a collision. You can use this fact to solve problems involving collisions.

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{alignat}{2}
Before &amp; =After\\
m_1u_1+ m_2u_2 &amp; =m_1v_1 + m_2v_2\\
\end{alignat}
&lt;/math&gt;

For instance, a ball is moving at 3&amp;nbsp;m/s with mass 3&amp;nbsp;kg. It hits another ball with mass 1&amp;nbsp;kg moving at 2&amp;nbsp;m/s; the two balls collide and the second ball rebounds at 4&amp;nbsp;m/s. Find the velocity at which ball 1 is moving:

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{alignat}{2}
Before &amp; = After \\
m_1u_1 + m_2u_2 &amp; =  m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 \\
3\times 3 + 2\times 1 &amp; =  3v  + 1\times 4 \\
11 &amp; =  3v  + 4 \\
11-4 &amp; =  3v \\
7 &amp; =  3v \\
v &amp; =  \frac{7}{3} \\
\end{alignat}&lt;/math&gt;

So the velocity at which ball 1 is moving after the collision is 2.3&amp;nbsp;m/s (7/3)m/s
1

==Newton's laws of motion==

===Newton's first law of motion===

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff;{{Text default color}}; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
A body stays at rest or continues to move at constant velocity unless a resultant force acts on it
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

===Newton's second law of motion===

Originally, you learnt this to be:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff;{{Text default color}}; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
For an object with constant mass, its acceleration is proportional to the force producing the acceleration, and is in the direction of the force.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

However, since you now know that a force changes the rate of change of momentum of an object, we can use a more accurate interpretation of Newton's second law:

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and takes place in the direction of the resultant force.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

===Newton's third law of motion===

{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B will exert a force of the same type that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on body A..
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

{{A-level physics}}

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      <text bytes="6799" sha1="6jilyfqzift0vwhxre5j4gyxwnu4zpa" xml:space="preserve">We have already met gravitational fields, where the gravitational field strength of a planet multiplied by an objects mass gives us the weight of that object, and that the gravitational field strength, &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; of Earth is equal to the acceleration of free fall at its surface, &lt;math&gt;9.81\, \mathrm{ms^{-2}}&lt;/math&gt;. We will now consider gravitational fields that are not uniform and how to calculate the value of &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; for any given mass.

==Gravity as a field of force==

The effects of the Earth's gravity extend far out into space. For example, the Moon is kept in orbit by the Earth even though it is 400,000 km away (where gravity is the centripetal force). The Earth has a gravitational field that will attract any object with mass towards the centre of the planet.

===Radial Fields===
[[Image:Gravitymacroscopic.png|right|150px|thumb|The Earth’s radial gravitational field is represented by the lines.]]

Gravitational field is a region surrounding the earth in which another object feels force of attraction. Direction of this force is towards centre of the earth, or the center of the mass in general. Further objects feel less force attraction whereas closer objects feel more force of attraction.

===Uniform fields===
[[File:Gravity field is arbitrary.gif|left|thumb|Gravity field lines representation is arbitrary as illustrated here represented in 30x30 grid to 0x0 grid and almost being parallel and pointing straight down to the center of the Earth]][[Image:Gravityroom.png|left|150px|thumb|The Earth's gravitational field is represented by parallel lines on small scales.]]

A '''uniform field''', however, has the lines perfectly parallel. The Earth's gravitational field can be considered to be uniform on the scale of small things such as cars, balls, and planes. For small heights at this scale (a few dozen kilometres), the strength of the field doesn't change enough to be noticeable. Again, the arrows point towards the centre of the Earth, since that is the way objects fall.

==Newton's ideas of gravity==

Isaac Newton was trying to find a way to explain why objects fell towards the centre of the Earth instead of simply staying put. He began to link the falling of an apple, with the &quot;falling&quot; of the Moon towards the Earth, and came up with his '''law of gravitation'''.

He suggested that any two objects with a mass would have a force of attraction between them. This force of attraction would be proportional to their masses, so that larger masses would have a stronger force of attraction than a smaller mass.

The gravitational field of every object is a radial field, since the mass is concentrated at the objects centre, and as you already know, this is the point at which gravity could be said to act.

[[image:InverseSquareLaw.png|200px|thumb|right|As you can see, a quarter of lines of force goes through the plane when the distance is doubled.]] The strength of a radial field decreases as you move further away from it. As you can see on the diagram on the right, the number of field lines going through the plane quarter when the distance is doubled, and it will be &lt;math&gt;\frac {1}{9}&lt;/math&gt; of the original value if the distance was tripled.

This is called the inverse square law, and is true for anything which is a point source, such a light from a point or the amount of radiation emitted.

The inverse square law follows &lt;math&gt;\frac {1}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Using the above, Newton suggested that the force of attraction was proportional to the two masses as well as the distance between them:

:&lt;math&gt;F \propto \frac {m_1 m_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

This relationship is the basis of how Newton's law of gravitation is often stated:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
Any two point masses attract each other with a force that is proportional to each of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

However, to make this into an equation, we need to add in a constant of proportionality, G:

:&lt;math&gt;F=-G\frac {m_1 m_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Where G is the '''gravitational constant''', &lt;math&gt;6.67 \times 10^{-11}\ \mathrm{N\cdot m^2 \cdot kg^{-2}}&lt;/math&gt;. There is also a minus sign in the equation, which will be explained in the &quot;electric fields&quot; module, where we will encounter repelling as well as attracting forces.

&lt;math&gt;F=-G\frac {m_1 m_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt; is also sometimes written as &lt;math&gt;F=-G\frac {M m}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;, so that capital M represents a large mass such a planet, and lower case m represents a small mass such as a ball or an aeroplane.

==Gravitational field strength==

===Defining the gravitational field strength===

The gravitational field strength tells us how strong a gravitational field is. You may recall that the gravitational field strength of the Earth near its surface is &lt;math&gt;9.81\,\mathrm{m/s^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;. This means an object that is near the surface of the earth will accelerate towards it at &lt;math&gt;9.81\,\mathrm{m/s^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;. We could then define the gravitational field strength as the acceleration an object will experience within that gravitational field.

A better definition, however, can be derived from the equation, &lt;math&gt;F=ma&lt;/math&gt;. Making &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; the subject of this gives us &lt;math&gt;a=\frac {F}{m}&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;g=\frac {F}{m}&lt;/math&gt;. From this arrangement of the equation, our definition of gravitational field strength now becomes:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}};padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The gravitational field strength at a point is the gravitational force exerted per unit mass placed at that point.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

This means that the gravitational field strength, &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is equal to the force experienced by a mass of 1&amp;nbsp;kg in that gravitational field.

From the new definition, it follows that gravitational field strength is measured in &lt;math&gt;\mathrm {N\ kg^{-1}}&lt;/math&gt;, though it is perfectly acceptable to use &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{ms^{-2}}&lt;/math&gt; for situations where it is treated as an acceleration (such as the acceleration of an object in free fall).

===Finding the field strength of a mass===

Since &lt;math&gt;F=-G \frac {M m}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\ F=mg&lt;/math&gt;, they can be combined to give:

:&lt;math&gt;mg=-G \frac {M m}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt; (by substituting F for mg)

:&lt;math&gt;g=-G \frac {M}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt; (by cancelling the lower case 'm's)

You can use this to find the gravitational field strength of a mass at a particular point, r.

Note that the gravitational field strength of the Earth near its surface is numerically equal to the acceleration of free fall, &lt;math&gt;9.81\ \mathrm{m s^{-2}}&lt;/math&gt;.

{{A-level physics}}

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  <page>
    <title>Cherokee</title>
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      <text bytes="8906" sha1="b88ovhunn0zzl6dxlqad1avubtyrduo" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Flag of the Cherokee Nation.svg|alt=Flag of the Cherokee Nation|thumb|Flag of the Cherokee Nation]]
Welcome to the [[w:Cherokee language|Cherokee]] Wikibook! This is a work in progress.

Are you a Cherokee person endeavoring to learn your ancestral language?

Are you a non-Cherokee person interested in the Cherokee language?

If so, we hope this book may be of great use to you! The introduction provides a contextualization of the Cherokee language, its status, and its standout features. The lessons are designed to explain concepts in thorough, accurate, and unpretentious language that the common reader will understand.

Learning Cherokee, or any language, is a long process requiring great emotional investment, time commitment, and a dedication to using practical strategies to overcome inevitable challenges, anxiety, and frustration. '''You must be patient.''' We graciously invite you to proceed if you believe this undertaking to be worth it.

If you have any general questions about content in this book, feel free to leave a comment on the Discussion tab of the corresponding page.

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'''Note''': You must be using Cherokee Unicode Supported Fonts to view this book correctly. Information on obtaining and installing Cherokee Unicode Fonts for Windows 2000 and Windows XP is available on the Cherokee [[w:chr:Unicode|Unicode page]]. Mac OS X from version 10.3 (Panther), Windows Vista and some Linux Operating Systems include default support for displaying the Cherokee Language in syllabary.
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== Mission and Philosophy ==
Our mission is not necessarily that you become fluent in Cherokee. Rather, with language being a vehicle for human connection, our goal is that you are able to use the Cherokee language to the extent that ''you'' wish in order to '''form and maintain meaningful connections''' with Cherokee speakers and learners.

As such, this course's layout and pedagogical content are (currently being) designed to facilitate your ability to ''smoothly'' climb up the ladder of functional proficiency in the language. Practical, everyday terms are the first focus in the course. From there, you will be guided to learn and internalize the ''structures'' within the language instead of being inundated with vocabulary that you have not been given the framework to handle.

Regardless of your experience with linguistics, if you are interested in learning ''about'' Cherokee rather than learning to speak it, you will find that this site also has many useful pages for you outside the Course section.

== Current Activities ==
Here are some activities currently happening. The results of these activities will be published in this book in the near future.

* pronominal prefixes chart
* new charts listing as close to ''all'' as possible of individual lexical categories
* summary of clitic grammar
* summary of adverbial grammar
* better writing on the Cherokee syllabary
* explanation of all lexical features of verbs (and then other lexical categories)
* guide on tapping into the &quot;social progression&quot; of vocabulary

The below link has existed for awhile and will be kept in this section at least for now.

[[Cherokee/Notebook|Notes for the Book Writers]]

== Introduction ==

=== For Everyone ===
Reading these short articles is highly recommended to everyone! You will understand how the Cherokee language fits into the larger North American linguistic situation, get an overview of the history of the language, and become aware of the revitalization projects and how you can help out! The accessibility statement pertains to the current and upcoming features of this site designed to foster a smooth learning experience for all.
*[[Cherokee/Classification|Classification]]
*[[Cherokee/History|History]]
*[[Cherokee/Revitalization|Revitalization]]
*[[Cherokee/Accessibility|Accessibility]]

=== For the New Learner ===
The new learner of Cherokee may easily feel discouraged by the reputation of the language as tonally complex and polysynthetic. The articles below will help demystify these phenomena and show you the true nature of the structure of Cherokee. Also check out the article on learning tips.
*[[Cherokee/On Tone|On Tone]]
*[[Cherokee/On Polysynthesis|On Polysynthesis]]
*[[Cherokee/Learning Tips|Learning Tips]]

=== For the Linguist and Dedicated Student ===

* [[Cherokee/Survey of Resources|Survey of Resources (Research History)]]

== Lexicon &amp; Vocabulary ==
This section contains the dictionary and vocabulary lists you may find useful for studying. Eventually we envision Anki decks (digital flashcards) for the vocabulary list to help you memorize the lexicon via spaced repetition.
*[[Cherokee/Dictionary|Dictionary]]
*[[Cherokee/Vocabulary|Learn Vocabulary]]
*[[Cherokee/Pairs|Critical Pairs]]

== Grammar ==
Below is a list of articles about specific areas of Cherokee grammar. Linguists will find this a good place to start research. The general learner is also highly encouraged to refer these articles as they are recommended throughout the course.

=== General Topics ===

==== Phonology ====

* [[Cherokee/Vowels|Vowels]]
* [[Cherokee/Consonants|Consonants]]
* [[Cherokee/LA|Laryngeal Alternation and Aspiration Classes]]
* [[Cherokee/PTL|Pronominal Tonic Lowering]]

* [[Cherokee/Tone|Tone in Cherokee]]

==== Orthography ====

* On the Syllabary

==== Verbs ====
* [[Cherokee/Verb Template|Verb Template]]
* Five Stems
* Modal Suffixes
* Conjugation Classes
* Verb Root
* [[Cherokee/Inflection Tree|Inflection Tree]]
* [[Cherokee/Lexical Features|Lexical Features of the Verb]]
* Prepronominal Prefixes
* Derivational Suffixes

==== Pronouns ====

* [[Cherokee/Pronouns|Pronominal Prefixes]]
* Reflexive and Middle Voice

==== Other Affixes ====

* Clitics

==== Nouns and Adjectives ====

* Nouns
* Adjectives
* Derivational Morphology

==== Adverbs ====

==== Connectors ====

* Adpositions
* Conjunctions

==== Quantity ====

* Expressing Quantity
* Numerals

=== Niche Studies ===

* Ambiguity in the Syllabary and Possible Solutions

== Explore the Language (Hyperfixation Stations) ==
Note: combine with Lexicon section

Niche Vocabulary Lists of Nouns with Pronunciation Tips

[[Cherokee/Structural Nuggets|Good-to-Know Lil' Connecting Elements]]

(Not So?) Secret Uses of Individual Verbs and Inflections

Literally All the Adjectives We Were Able to Document

== Course ==
General (i.e. non-linguist) learners should feel free to start from these lessons! Some important grammar points are contained in their own lesson pages for neater reference.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Cherokee Lessons
!Lesson Number
!Topic
!Associated Grammar Points
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |
=== Preparation and Drills ===
|-
|i
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Cherokee/Syllabary|Syllabary: Reading and Writing]]
|-
|ii
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Cherokee/Listening for Vowel Length|Listening for Vowel Length]]
|-
|iii
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Cherokee/Listening for Tones|Listening for Tones]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |
=== Module 1: Fundamentals ===
|-
|1
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 1|Greetings and Introductions]]
|
|-
|2
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 2|Basic Vocabulary]]
|
|-
|3
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 3|Simple Sentences]]
|Word Order, Parts of Speech
|-
|4
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 4|Important Verbs]]
|Features of Verbs, Conjugation Overview
|-
|5
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 5|More Sentence Structures]]
|
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |
=== Module 2: Core Content ===
|-
|6
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 6|Numbers and Quantity]]
|Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers, Counters
|-
|7
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 7|Time and Date]]
|
|-
|8
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 8|Stuff]]
|
|-
|9
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 9|Feelings and Emotions]]
|
|-
|10
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 10|Communication]]
|[[Cherokee/Using Tone|Using Tone]]
|-
|11
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 11|Sensory Perception]]
|
|-
|12
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 12|Cognition]]
|
|-
|13
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 13|Describing Life]]
|
|-
|14
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 14|Describing People]]
|
|-
|15
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 15|Interpersonal Relationships]]
|
|-
|16
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 16|Physics and Structure]]
|
|-
|17
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 17|Life Activities]]
|
|-
|18
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 18|Describing Stuff]]
|
|-
|19
|[[Cherokee/Lesson 19|Earth]]
|
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |
=== Module 3: Culture ===
|-
|20
|
|
|}
== Additional Resources ==
[https://language.cherokee.org/ Cherokee Nation Language Department]

[https://www.cherokeedictionary.net/ Cherokee-English Online Dictionary]

[https://ced-explorer.glitch.me/ CED Game]

[https://dailp.northeastern.edu/ Digital Archive of Indigenous Language Persistence (DAILP)]

[https://dailp.northeastern.edu/collections/cwkw/ Cherokee Writing the Keetoowah Way (DAILP)]

[https://www.culturev.com/cherokee/cherokee.html Culturev Cherokee Resource]

[[Cherokee/Resources|Resources]]

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    <title>A-level Physics/Cosmology/Models of the known universe</title>
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      <text bytes="15093" sha1="fhiqq6xhqhxh0deykuwtcfdi99qsxpk" xml:space="preserve">As more sophisticated tools have been developed, our understanding of the universe has improved. Some proposed models of the universe were proven wrong, and other ideas are still with us today.

==Measuring distances in the universe==

The distances at the scale of the universe are gigantic, and our everyday metres and even kilometres are too small to be used. We need to use units that are more appropriate for large distances. Often, other units are convenient to use because of the way they are measured.

===The light-year===

One light-year is defined as the distance light travels in one year. As you know, light travels at &lt;math&gt;3 \times 10^{8}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;\text{ms}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and so the distance it covers in one year is enormous. One light year is approximately &lt;math&gt;10^{16}\text{m}&lt;/math&gt;.

===The astronomical unit===

The astronomical unit is defined as the average distance between the Earth and the Sun. It originates from the fact that it was possible to measure the distances of the planets, but only in multiples of the distance between the Earth and Sun. It is still useful today for distances within the solar system. It is approximately equal to &lt;math&gt;1.5 \times 10^{11}\text{m}&lt;/math&gt;.
[[Image:Parallax Example en.svg|308px|thumb|A simplified example of parallax.]]

===The parsec===

One parsec is simply the reciprocal of half the angle of parallax of a star, when observed from Earth at two opposite points of its orbit. Parallax is the apparent change in position of an object against a fixed background when the position of the observer changes, like how buildings seem to move faster than background hills when you're in a car. It is convenient to find from the measured angle, and is therefore used mainly for the distances of stars. This concept is covered in more detail in [[A-level Physics/Cosmology/Stars and Galaxies|Stars &amp; Galaxies]]. One parsec is approximately &lt;math&gt;3 \times 10^{16}\text{m}&lt;/math&gt;, or 3.26 light-years.

==Overview of the solar system==
[[Image:Solar sys.jpg|thumb|250px|The Solar System, showing the Sun, the planets, the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and a comet.]]
Our solar system consists of the Sun, the planets and an asteroid belt. Additionally, there are comets that have highly elliptical orbits, and return to the solar system at regular intervals.

===Planets===

There are eight planets orbiting the Sun (Pluto being reclassified as a dwarf planet), which is at the centre of the solar system. Most planets also have natural satellites, or moons, orbiting them. The table below outlines the main features of the planets, relative to the Earth:

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|+align=bottom style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
! Planet
! Equator&lt;br&gt;diam.
! Mass
! Orbital&lt;br /&gt;radius ([[w:Astronomical Unit|AU]])
! [[w:Orbital period|Orbital period]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;(years)&lt;/SMALL&gt;
! &lt;SMALL&gt;Orbital&lt;br&gt;[[w:Inclination|Incline]] Angle (°)&lt;/SMALL&gt;
! &lt;SMALL&gt;Orbital&lt;br&gt;[[w:Eccentricity (orbit)|Eccentricity]]&lt;/SMALL&gt;
! Day&lt;br&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;(days)&lt;/SMALL&gt;
! [[w:List of natural satellites|Moons]]
|-
| [[w:Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.382
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.06
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.387
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.241
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;7.00
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.206
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 58.6
| align=&quot;center&quot; | none
|-
| [[w:Venus (planet)|Venus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.949
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.82
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.72
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.615
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;3.39
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.0068
| align=&quot;center&quot; | -243
| align=&quot;center&quot; | none
|-
| [[w:Earth (planet)|Earth]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.00
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.00
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.00
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.00
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;0.00
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.0167
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.00
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:Moon|1]]
|-
| [[w:Mars (planet)|Mars]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.53
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.11
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.52
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.88
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;1.85
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.0934
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.03
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:Mars's natural satellites|2]]
|-
| [[w:Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 11.2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 318
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5.20
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 11.86
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;1.31
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.0484
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.414
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:Jupiter's natural satellites|63]]
|-
| [[w:Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 9.41
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 95
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 9.54
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 29.46
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;2.48
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.0542
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.426
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:Saturn's natural satellites|49]]
|-
| [[w:Uranus (planet)|Uranus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3.98
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 14.6
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 19.22
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 84.01
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;0.77
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.0472
| align=&quot;center&quot; | -0.718
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:Uranus's natural satellites|27]]
|-
| [[w:Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3.81
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 17.2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 30.06
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 164.8
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp;1.77
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.0086
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.671
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:Neptune's natural satellites|13]]
|-
| [[w:Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.18
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0.002
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 39.5
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 248.5
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 17.1&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;left&quot;   | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0.249
| align=&quot;center&quot; | -6.4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:Pluto's natural satellites|4]]
|}

===Asteroid belt===

There is a concentration of small, rocky asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, which is known as the asteroid belt. There are hundreds of thousands of these planetoids orbiting the Sun, and are sometimes called minor planets.

===Comets===

Comets are lumps of rock, frozen water, methane and ammonia that orbit the Sun, and are typically only a few kilometres in diameter. They have very eccentric (elliptical) orbits and therefore vary greatly in their distance from the Sun. When they are near the Sun, they have long tails of approximately 1AU, due to the Sun's radiation.

==The progress in the understanding of the universe==

The accepted model of the Solar System has been subject to great controversy over the decades. In the old '''geocentric''' model, the Earth was originally placed in the centre of the Solar System, and had the other planets and the Sun orbiting it. Now, the accepted model places the Sun in the centre, with the Earth and other planets orbiting around it.

===Copernicus===
[[Image:Retrograde-motion-of-mars.png|right|thumb|300px|The retrograde motion of Mars]]
[[w:Nicolaus Copernicus|Nicolaus Copernicus]] found the old '''geocentric''' model unnecessarily complicated. Instead of having the Earth in the centre of the universe, he decided to place the Sun in the centre, which we now call the '''heliocentric''' model. This model could very easily explain the movement of the planets and the Sun across the sky, and in particular the '''retrograde motion''' of Mars, where it would appear to move &quot;backwards&quot; across the sky for several weeks. This retrograde motion of Mars was previously explained by '''epicycles''' where it would &quot;loop-the-loop&quot; around at certain points. With Copernicus' new model, it was explained that since the Earth was closer to the Sun than Mars, there will be sections where the Earth will &quot;overtake&quot; Mars, and will make Mars apparently move backwards across the sky.

====Opposition to Copernicus====

Copernicus' heliocentric model was rejected by most people mainly because of religious beliefs at the time, and although it seemed to simplify the motion of the planets, it was less accurate than the geocentric model at fitting the observed movements of the planets.

People also argued that if the Earth was moving, the stars would have a detectable parallax. Copernicus claimed that the stars were too far away to detect any parallax, and with more sensitive equipment, he has now been proved correct. Another argument against the heliocentric model was that objects all fall towards the Earth, and so it must be the centre of the universe. This was the intuitive conclusion before Newton revolutionised our ideas about motion.

===Kepler===
[[Image:Kepler-first-law.png|right|thumb|150px|An elliptical orbit with the Sun at one of the foci]]
Johannes Kepler improved upon Copernicus' original model by using elliptical orbits instead of circular ones. He devised three laws of planetary motion:

====Kepler's first law====

Kepler found that the planets fit the observed pattern better with the heliocentric model if they travelled in ellipses, not circles, and had the Sun at one of the foci of these ellipses. Therefore Kepler's first law states:

&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;The planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

====Kepler's second law====
[[Image:Kepler-second-law.svg|left|thumb|150px|Equal areas are covered in equal amounts of time]]
Now that the planets had elliptical orbits, it would not make sense for them to travel at the same speed at all points of their orbit. The planets would speed up nearer the Sun, and move slower when they were further away from the Sun. Kepler observed that the imaginary triangle formed between the planet at two points in its orbit and the Sun always had the same area provided the two points of the planets orbit had the same time difference between them. From this it follows that a planets orbit is faster nearer the Sun than further away from it. Kepler's second law states that:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The line connecting a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal amounts of time.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
[[Image:Semimajoraxis.svg|right|thumb|The semi-major axis of an ellipse]]

====Kepler's third law====

Kepler realised that the distance of a planet from the Sun and its orbital period were related by the formula: &lt;math&gt;T^2 \propto d^3&lt;/math&gt;, where T is the time taken for one orbit, and d is the distance from the Sun, although it is actually the length of the semi-major axis (which is half of the longest diameter of the elipse).

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff;{{Text default color}}; background: #ddeeff; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the distance from the Sun.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

===Galileo===
[[Image:The Phases of Venus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Phases of Venus.]]
Galileo Galilei was the first person to use a telescope to look at the night sky. He was able to view many things that weren't visible to the naked eye, such as the imperfectness of the surface of the moon, and the fact that there were many faint stars in the sky. Both of these supported Copernicus' ideas.

====Galileo and Venus====

When Galileo observed Venus with his telescope. he noticed that it went through phases, like the Moon. He also noticed that when Venus was a crescent, it was much larger than when it was full. This observation was evidence that Venus was orbiting around the Sun and not Earth.

====Galileo and Jupiter's Moons====

Galileo also observed four objects orbiting Jupiter, which are now known as the [[w:Galilean moons|Galilean moons]] They supported the view that not everything orbits the Earth.

===Newton's universal law of gravitation===

When Issac Newton created his [[A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Gravitational fields#Newton.27s ideas of gravity|universal law of gravitation]], he attempted to show that Kepler's observations of planetary motion agreed with it. This was significant evidence to show that he was correct.

Newton's law of gravitation can be used to give a formula for the planets in the form &lt;math&gt;T^2 \propto d^3&lt;/math&gt;:

The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun and a planet is equal to the centripetal force required to keep the planet in its orbit:
:&lt;math&gt;F=G\frac {m_1 m_2}{d^2} = \frac{m v^2}{d}&lt;/math&gt;

The period of the planets orbit can be given by:

:&lt;math&gt;\text{Time taken} = \frac {\text{distance}}{\text{velocity}}&lt;/math&gt;

Where the distance is the circumference of a circle, &lt;math&gt;2 \pi \times d&lt;/math&gt; (note that ''d'' is distance from Sun, and is therefore the radius, not the diameter). This gives us:

:&lt;math&gt;T = \frac{2 \pi d}{v}&lt;/math&gt;

Which we can re-arrange to make ''v'' the subject and substitute into &lt;math&gt;v^2&lt;/math&gt; in the centripetal force equation:

:&lt;math&gt;v = \frac{2 \pi d}{T}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;v^2 = \frac{4 \pi^2 d^2}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;G\frac {m_1 m_2}{d^2} = \frac{4 \pi^2 m d}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

Eliminating ''m'', the mass of the planet, and tidying up:

:&lt;math&gt;G \frac{m T^2}{4 \pi^2 d^3} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

And finally, making &lt;math&gt;T^2&lt;/math&gt; the subject:

:&lt;math&gt;T^2 = \frac{4 \pi^2}{Gm} d^3&lt;/math&gt;

We now have a formula in the form &lt;math&gt;T^2 \propto d^3&lt;/math&gt;, with &lt;math&gt;\frac {4 \pi^2}{Gm}&lt;/math&gt; as the constant of proportionality, where ''m'' is the mass of the Sun.

====The discovery of Neptune====

In 1821, Alexis Bouvard published very accurate observations in the orbit of Uranus. However, soon after this, the orbit of Uranus was observed to deviate from the published values. In 1845 John Adams, using Newton's universal law of gravitation, calculated  the orbit of another planet outside of Uranus whose gravity would account for the '''perturbations''' in Uranus' orbit. Neptune was discovered in its predicted position a year later. Pluto was discovered in a similar way, since it was causing further perturbations in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune.

====Problems encountered with Newton's theory====

Although Newton's theory was very successful in explaining the motion of the planets, and had even been used to discover unknown planets, there were still some problems with it:

*The orbit of Mercury was observed to have a different orbit to the one predicted by the theory. This has now been resolved by Einstein's [[A-level Physics/Cosmology/Relativity|general theory of relativity]].
*If every object in the universe attracts each other, then the entire universe should have collapsed because of the gravitational attraction. To solve this, Newton came up with the idea that the universe was infinitely large, and that matter was uniformly spread throughout. This led to its own problems, though, namely [[A-level Physics/Cosmology/Structure of the universe|Olber's paradox]], which states that an infinitely large universe will always have a star on any given line of sight, and so the night sky should actually be bright. This has been resolved with the observations of an [[A-level Physics/Cosmology/Structure of the universe|expanding universe]] by Edwin Hubble.

{{A-level physics}}

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{|
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;|Answers to '''F'''requently '''A'''sked '''Q'''uestions regarding '''[[w:AT&amp;T Mobility|AT&amp;T Mobility]]''' (also known as '''Wireless from AT&amp;T''', formerly Cingular Wireless). Founded by [http://navasgroup.com John Navas].
|
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#FFEFD5;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|This is the '''Main Page''' of this book. Other pages:
* '''[[AT&amp;T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration|MEdia Net Configuration]]'''
* '''[[AT&amp;T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration|Data Connect Configuration]]'''
|}
|}

== General Information ==

=== What is a SIM? ===

:See [[w:Subscriber Identity Module|Subscriber Identity Module]]

== Phones ==

=== Do GSM Phones Need to be Activated? ===

:No.  Only the [[w:SIM|SIM]] needs to be activated, and a GSM phone will work as long as:
:* An active SIM is installed in the phone. (A SIM can be moved from phone to phone by the user.)
:* The phone isn't &quot;locked&quot; to some other carrier. (See [[#What is locking?|What is locking?]])
:* The phone supports the correct [[w:Band (radio)|band(s)]] for the network (850 and 1900 in the case of AT&amp;T).

=== What is Locking? ===

: See [[w:Subsidy lock (cellular)|Subsidy lock (cellular)]].

=== When am I Eligible for a Phone Upgrade? ===

:See [http://www.cingular.com/customer_service/common_phone_upgrade Upgrade Your Phone]

:Note: &quot;TDMA&quot; ([[w:Digital AMPS|Digital AMPS]]) customers may only upgrade by switching to [[w:Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]], which entails a new rate plan that may not be as good as the old rate plan.

=== Do I have to buy a phone from AT&amp;T? ===

'''No.''' The real advantages to buying a phone from AT&amp;T are:
# ''Support'' from AT&amp;T
# Subsidized ''lower price'' in return for contract term extension ($50 off retail for each year of commitment before other possible promotional discounts)
Otherwise, any [[w:Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]] phone can be used on AT&amp;T that:
# Has support for the correct [[w:GSM frequency ranges|bands]]: 850&amp;nbsp;MHz and 1900&amp;nbsp;MHz
# Has either:
## Unbranded (generic) firmware
## AT&amp;T-branded (customized) firmware
# Is either:
## Locked to AT&amp;T 
## Unlocked
'''Simple rule of thumb''' is to either get:
# ''Current AT&amp;T-branded GSM phone''; or
# ''Unbranded unlocked GSM phone with 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands''
''Notes:''
# An unbranded phone will need to be configured for advanced services. See [[#Mobile Device (e.g., Cell Phone) Configuration|Mobile Device (e.g., Cell Phone) Configuration]].
# See also other questions in this section.

=== Where can I Get Help for my AT&amp;T Phone? ===

* [http://tutorials.cingular.com/ Tutorials for many different AT&amp;T phones]
* [http://forums.cingular.com/cng/ Support Forums]

=== Can I make my phone ring only for certain numbers? ===
Yes, if your phone supports (a) downloadable ringtones and (b) phonebook number-specific ringtones:
# Install a silent ringtone.
# Set that as your default ringtone.
# Configure certain phonebook numbers to use an audible ringtone.

=== How can I transfer contacts from old phone to new phone? ===
* '''SIM''': Most phones can save contacts to SIM or transfer contacts from phone to SIM. Move the SIM to a new phone, and either use contacts from the SIM or copy them to the phone.
* '''PC software''': Software can be used to sync old phone contacts with a PC over IrDA, cable, or Bluetooth. The process is then reversed with a new phone.
* '''SyncML'''
** Services
*** [http://gsmsync.net/ GSMSync] (free)
*** [http://www.mightybackup.com MightyBackup] (commercial, not yet available for AT&amp;T)
*** [http://www.mobical.net Mobical] (free)
*** [http://www.phonebackup.eu/ PhoneBackup] (commercial)
*** [http://www.scheduleworld.com/ ScheduleWorld] (free)
*** [http://zyb.com/ ZYB] (free)
** Resources
*** [[Wikipedia:SyncML]]
*** [http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/xml/library/wi-syncml/ IBM:Syncing data]
*** [http://www.openmobilealliance.org/tech/affiliates/syncml/syncmlindex.html Open Mobile Alliance:SyncML]

=== Is it still possible to get a high-power &quot;bag&quot; phone? ===
:Yes! [http://www.motorola.com/consumer/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=1bd206da427ed010VgnVCM1000008206b00aRCRD&amp;show=productHome Motorola M900] (also available in a car mount version)

== Rate Plans ==

=== What is my Service Agreement? ===

: See [https://onlinecare.cingular.com/my-account/legal/service-agreement.jsp AT&amp;T Service Agreement]

=== How Do I Know How Many Minutes I Have Left? ===

:* Call Customer Care (611).
:* Use [[#What is the difference between MEdia and Data Connect?|MEdia Net]]. ''Data charges apply.'' Go to your MEdia Net Home page, then ''My Account''.
:* See also [[#What are *Services?|What are *Services?]].
:* [http://www.cingular.com/my-account Sign in to your account on AT&amp;T website]

=== What are *Services? ===

[http://www.cingular.com/customer_service/starservices *Services] (&quot;star services&quot;) are ''free'' text messages about your AT&amp;T service that you request by dialing numbers on your phone:
:{|
| Check your balance: || *BAL# (*225#)
|-
| Check your minutes: || *MIN# (*646#)
|-
| Check your data usage (including text messages): || *DATA# (*3282#)
|-
| Pay Your Bill: || *PAY (*729)
|}

=== Rollover ===

==== What is Rollover? ====
:Rollover is a promotional tool which works under the advertising slogan, &quot;They're your minutes, keep'em&quot;. At the end of each billing cycle, all unused anytime(daytime) minutes roll over to your next billing cycle. For example, if you are on the Nation 450 plan and you use 300 of your 450 anytime minutes, then at the start of the next billing cycle you will have 450 anytime minutes, and 150 rollover minutes, totaling at 600 usable anytime minutes. Rollover is only available on plans that are $39.99 and up.

==== How does Rollover Expire? ====
:Rollover minutes expire after 12 billing periods(months); ''i.e.,'' any unused rollover minutes from month 1 expire at month 13, any unused rollover minutes from month 2 expire at month 14, ''etc.''

==== Do The Minutes Come Off The First Or Last Month? ====
: Rollover minutes are deducted from the oldest minutes first. Once you use up your current month's minutes, you begin drawing from your twelve month old minutes, then your eleven month old minutes, and so on.

=== Prepaid ===
{{ TODO|todonote=Coming soon! }}

==== What is Prepaid Service? ====

: [http://onlinestorez.cingular.com/cell-phone-service/gophone/index.jsp GoPhone]

==== Can I Use a Regular GSM Phone on Prepaid Service? ====

: '''Yes''' '''''if:'''''
:* The phone is either locked to AT&amp;T or unlocked. (See [[#What is Locking?|What is Locking?]])
:* The phone has the correct [[w:Band (radio)|frequency bands]].

== Features ==

=== Call Forwarding ===

=== Caller ID ===

==== Can I get Caller ID to show properly for each Family Plan phone? ====

: A common complaint is that the name of the account holder is shown to the called party for all of the phones on a Family Plan or with combined billing. Here's a report from one subscriber on getting the correct Caller ID for each phone/line:

:: Keep at it till you find the right guy. Many have said it can not be done, even third level managers. But a guy from Cingular Data Tech did it [for me] in about 3 minutes time.

: If your account is associated with a business discount, better known as &quot;f.a.n.&quot; (foundation account number), changing name is as simple as calling in.

=== Directory Assistance ===
AT&amp;T Directory Assistance is relatively expensive. Free alternatives include:
* Directory service providers (ad supported)
** [http://free411.com 1-800-FREE411]
* SMS messaging (messaging charges apply)
** Including Google and Yahoo!
** See [[#What are Messaging Services?|What are Messaging Services?]]
* WAP browsing (data charges apply)
** See [[#What Are Some Useful WAP Resources?|What Are Some Useful WAP Resources?]]

=== Voicemail ===

==== What's the AT&amp;T Voicemail Menu? ====

: AT&amp;T has different [[w:voicemail|voicemail]] systems in different areas that use different navigation keys.  &quot;Blue&quot; (old AT&amp;T) customers are being migrated to the GSM &quot;Orange&quot; (ATTWS) voicemail system with this [http://supportcingular.atgnow.com/cng/knowledgebase/KB25563.html Menu tree].

==== Can I Delete a Message Without Listening to It? ====

: Yes: When the message starts, press ''77'' -- that will delete the message that has started, and begin the next message (if any).

==== Why is my Voicemail Indicator Stuck On? ====

: The [[w:voicemail|voicemail]] indicator on a cell phone may sometimes get stuck ''ON'' when there are ''no'' voicemail messages. To clear the problem:
:* Try leaving yourself a voicemail, and then deleting that voicemail. Exit the voicemail system by pressing ''star'' (*) rather than just hanging up. If that doesn't work ...
:* Call Customer Care (611). Be warned that this may result in having to setup your voicemail again.

==== How Can I Reset my Voicemail Password? ====

:* Use [[#What is the difference between MEdia and Data Connect?|MEdia Net]].&lt;br&gt;''Data charges apply.'' Go to your MEdia Net Home page, then ''My Account'' &amp;rarr; ''Reset Voicemail Pwd''.
:* Call Customer Care (611).

==== Can I Check my AT&amp;T Voicemail from a Landline Phone? ====

: Yes: Dial your cellular number, when the voicemail greeting starts, press ''star'' (*), and then enter your voicemail password.
::''Note: your cell phone will ring if on.''

==== How to adjust ring duration before incoming call goes to voicemail? ====
:'''By standard [[w:GSM codes for supplementary services|GSM Service Codes]]:'''

::'''Divert ''Voice'' Calls, No Answer''' ''(delay nn seconds: max 30 seconds, in 5 second increments)''
:::{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|''Set:'' || **61*destination*11*''nn''#''[SEND]''
|-
|''Cancel:''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ##61*11#''[SEND]''
|-
|''Query:'' || *#61*11#''[SEND]'' 
|}

::'''Divert ''All'' Calls, No Answer''' ''(delay nn seconds: max 30 seconds, in 5 second increments)''
:::{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|''Set:'' || **61*destination*''nn''#''[SEND]''
|-
|''Cancel:''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ##61#''[SEND]''
|-
|''Query:'' || *#61#''[SEND]'' 
|}

::'''Notes:'''
::* The &quot;destination&quot; is the [[w:voice mail|voice mailbox]] number, not your mobile number! Do a ''Query'' first to get the correct destination number.
::* If the Voice codes don't work, try the All codes (which apply to data calls and fax calls in addition to voice calls).

:'''By Using a Phone's Menus'''

:: Call diversion/forwarding settings may be accessible through a ''network services ''menu. Read the phone's manual to find out if and where this menu is located, or begin by looking in the main ''settings ''menu.

==== What is the cost of voicemail? ====

: On consumer service plans:
:* '''Not roaming''':
:** Recording of voicemail on unanswered calls: no charge 
:** Retrieval of voicemail from a landline phone: no charge
:** Retrieval of voicemail from a cellular phone: regular air time charges apply
:* '''Roaming''': Billed at the roaming rate

== Mobile Device (''e.g.,'' [[w:Mobile phone|Cell Phone]]) Configuration ==

=== How do I configure my GSM phone for AT&amp;T? ===

:*[http://www.cingular.com/device-support Phone &amp; Device Support] (AT&amp;T website)&lt;br&gt;Select your Network (Cingular or former AT&amp;T Wireless), and handset Manufacturer and Model (or a similar device) to access Device Setup.
:*[[AT&amp;T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration|MEdia Net Configuration]]&lt;br&gt;Step-by-step instructions.

=== What's the Outgoing SMTP (E-mail) Server? ===
:;Cingular (orange) SIM
::* cwmx.com ''(no footer)''
::* photo.mycingular.com ''(adds a photo messaging footer)'' ''&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;[may not be working]&lt;/span&gt;''
:;AT&amp;T Service (blue) SIM : smtp.mymmode.com

:'''Notes:'''
::* This is for sending [[w:email|e-mail]] with an e-mail client in the mobile device, not [[w:Short message service|SMS messaging]] or [[w:WAP|WAP]].
::* No [[w:SMTP-AUTH|SMTP Authentication]] is needed.

=== How Can I Download Pictures and Ringtones to My Phone? ===

:; [[w:Bluetooth|Bluetooth]] : With a Bluetooth phone and a Bluetooth [[w:Personal computer|PC]], [[w:Microsoft Windows|Windows]] XP Bluetooth can be used to &quot;[[w:OBEX|push]]&quot; files to the phone over Bluetooth wireless. Make sure phone Bluetooth is on and &quot;[[w:Bluetooth#Pairing|paired]]&quot; with PC, then ''right click'' file &amp;rarr; ''Send To'' &amp;rarr; ''Bluetooth device'' &amp;rarr; receive and save file on phone. ''(Non-Microsoft Bluetooth drivers may work differently -- see the documentation.)''
{| style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:0 auto 0 auto;&quot;
| [[Image:Windows XP Bluetooth push 1.png|thumb|none|(click to enlarge)&lt;br&gt;Screen © Microsoft Corporation&lt;br&gt;Used with [http://www.microsoft.com/mscorp/permission/default.mspx#ELC permission]]]
| [[Image:Windows XP Bluetooth push 2.png|thumb|none|(click to enlarge)&lt;br&gt;Screen © Microsoft Corporation&lt;br&gt;Used with [http://www.microsoft.com/mscorp/permission/default.mspx#ELC permission]]]
|}
:; Cable ([[w:RS-232|serial]] or [[w:USB|USB]]) : With the phone connected by cable, special software on the PC can often be used to transfer files. See [[#What Computer Software Can Be Used With My Phone?|What Computer Software Can Be Used With My Phone?]].
:; [[w:IrDA|IrDA]] : Like Bluetooth (above), IrDA can be used to &quot;push&quot; files from a PC to a phone.
:; [[w:E-mail|E-mail]] : Requires a phone with an email client that can save attachments and with a working email configuration. Attach a file in an appropriate format (''e.g.,'' [[w:JPEG|JPEG]] image) to an email on a PC; send to an email address; retrieve email on the phone; and save attachment. (AT&amp;T data charges apply.)
:; [[w:Multimedia Messaging System|MMS]] : Use [[#How Can I Send Messages to AT&amp;T Mobility Phones by E-mail?|email-to-MMS]] (with an attachment), or a website that sends MMS messages. (AT&amp;T messaging charges apply.)
:; [[w:WAP|WAP]] : See [[#WAP Downloading and/or Hosting|WAP Downloading and/or Hosting]]. (AT&amp;T data charges apply.)

== Network Coverage, ENS, and Signal Quality ==

=== Where are Coverage Maps? ===

==== AT&amp;T Coverage Maps ====

*'''Voice/GPRS/EGPRS/EDGE''' (voice, low-to-medium speed data)
** [http://www.wireless.att.com/coverageviewer/ AT&amp;T (formerly Cingular) Coverage Viewer] (zoomable map with detailed coverage by location)
*'''HSDPA''' (high-speed data)
** [http://www.wireless.att.com/coverageviewer/popUp_3g.html Cities Supporting AT&amp;T Wirelsss (formerly Cingular) 3G/Mobile Broadband]

==== [[w:Roaming|Roaming]] Coverage Maps ====

*'''[http://www.gsmworld.com/roaming/gsminfo/ GSM Roaming]''' (includes network information and coverage for AT&amp;T)
** A GSM phone will only work in the [[w:Band (radio)|frequency bands]] it supports—be sure to check. 850 and 1900 bands are mostly confined to the USA and Canada; most other countries use 900 and 1800 bands.
** '''Roaming charges''' apply when using a AT&amp;T [[w:Subscriber identity module|SIM]] outside of AT&amp;T Nationwide coverage.
** See [[#International Calling|International Calling]] for phone use outside of AT&amp;T Nationwide coverage.

==== Tower Locations ====

:'''[http://www.cellreception.com/ Cell Phone Reception and Tower Search]'''

=== Why does one phone get better signal than another? ===

:While there are differences in ability to handle weak signal conditions between different phones, such differences are usually modest absent a defect in one of the phones. Substantial performance differences in a given location are thus much more likely to be due to different network programming of the [[w:Subscriber Identity Module|SIMs]] than to differences in the phones.

:For example, one phone might have a SIM &quot;homed&quot; on the old ATTWS (blue) network and the other phone might have a SIM homed on the old Cingular (orange) network.  If both blue and orange signals are present in a given location, and if (say) the blue signal is good while the orange signal is poor, then the phone homed on blue might well exhibit better performance than the phone homed on orange. This is because a [[w:Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]] phone will always prefer its home network to a non-home network even if the non-home network has a much better signal -- it will only [[w:Roaming|roam]] on the non-home network if there isn't a &quot;usable&quot; home network signal.

:Such a difference can even happen when both phones have orange SIMs because ENS (64K) SIMs can be homed by AT&amp;T OTA (over the air) to either the orange network or the blue network. (See [[#Does ENS make for better coverage and/or connections?|Does ENS make for better coverage and/or connections?]]) Thus to meaningfully compare two phones in a given location, the '''same SIM''' should be used to test each phone.

:Another possible cause of performance differences is [[w:Band (radio)|band]] support. AT&amp;T uses both the 850 band and the 1900 band (depending on location), so a phone with support for both 850 and 1900 bands may well perform better in a given location than a phone with support for only the 1900 band.

=== What's the Difference Between 800 and 850 bands? ===

:There is ''no'' difference between 800 and 850 [[w:Band (radio)|bands]] -- they are the ''same'' frequencies between 800 and 900 [[w:Mhz|Mhz]].  Since the term 800 had become associated with &quot;[[w:Digital AMPS|TDMA]]&quot;, 850 was coined to distinguish [[w:GSM|GSM]].

=== What Can I Do About Poor Coverage in My Area? ===

:* Call Customer Care (611) and ask to be transferred to '''Tech Support'''.
:* Click on http://support.cingular.com/, enter, and then click on '''report network issue''' in the ''contact us'' section. (Even though the site is only &quot;intended for former AT&amp;T Wireless customers&quot;, other Cingular customers can use the site by going through a 2nd login screen.)

=== Is the 800/850 Band Better Than 1900? ===

:You may have heard that 800 or 850 [[w:Band (radio)|band]] is &quot;better&quot; than the 1900 band because:
:*''It travels farther.'' That's ''not'' true. What is true is that there can be a difference in range due to power:
::* Maximum power in the 800 band is 3 watts.
::* Maximum power in the 1900 band is 2 watts.

::It may not be intuitively obvious, but that's only about 18% less range for 1900, or a maximum of about 20% more towers along a flat rural highway strip, or a maximum of 50% more towers in area coverage, and then only when range is limited only by maximum power, which is rarely the case in metro areas.  Tower spacing is usually only near maximum in flat rural areas (and current small handsets don't come close to maximum power levels).

:*''It penetrates buildings better.'' It's not that simple:  While 1900 penetrates walls less well than 800/850, it does a better job of penetrating small openings (''e.g.,'' windows).  In general the penetration difference tends to be relatively small.
:For a detailed technical assessment, see [http://www.sss-mag.com/pdf/1propagation.pdf CS 294-7: Radio Propagation] [Randy H. Katz, CS Division, University of California, Berkeley]

=== How Can I Improve My Signal Quality? ===

*; Change of Home Network : A [[w:GSM|GSM]] mobile device (''e.g.,'' phone) is &quot;homed&quot; to a particular network, and will only [[w:Roaming|roam]] on a different network when there is no &quot;usable&quot; network signal, even when the roaming network signal is much better than the home network signal. Until AT&amp;T completes the integration of the old Cingular (orange) network and the old AT&amp;T Wireless Service (blue) network (expected in mid-to-late 2006), a given mobile device will be homed on one network or the other, and will thus prefer that network over the other network even when the other network has a better signal. In such cases, and given an [[#Does ENS make for better coverage and/or connections?|ENS]]-capable mobile device and (64K orange) SIM, it may be possible to improve signal quality by:
::* Call AT&amp;T ''Customer Care'' (611).
::* Ask to be transferred to ''Technical Support'' because you have poor signal quality.
::* Ask ''Technical Support'' to switch your home network (orange to blue, or blue to orange).
:: Notes:
::* ENS won't work with AT&amp;T Wireless Service (blue) mobile devices (or SIMs).
::* Even with ENS, a mobile device still ''isn't'' able to automatically select the better network signal -- GSM roaming rules still apply.
::* AT&amp;T started selling ENS-capable devices in late 2004.
::* It may take up to 24 hours for a home network switch to take place.
::* It may help to turn the phone off and back on.
::* While a switch in home network may improve signal quality in one area, it may ''degrade'' signal quality in a different area.

*; Better Phone : Phones differ in how well they perform with weaker signals (as in other things), and thus a different (better) phone might help in poor signal areas. In general, more expensive phones tend to have better signal handling than less expensive phones. Of the various brands, [[w:Nokia|Nokia]] devices are generally well-regarded, although other major brands (''e.g.,'' [[w:Sony Ericsson|Sony Ericsson]], [[w:Motorola|Motorola]]) also have better devices.
*; External Antenna : The small antenna in most mobile devices compromises performance for smaller size, and significantly-to-substantially better performance is generally possible with an external antenna (connected to the mobile device with a special cable). External antenna options include:
::* Vehicle antennas
::* Outdoor building antennas
::* Indoor antennas (''e.g.,'' [http://www.antennas.com/ ARC Freedom Antenna])

*; Active Repeater : Where there is a usable outdoor signal, an active [[w:Repeater|repeater]] may provide improved indoor signal. An active repeater consists of (1) an outdoor antenna, connected by cable to (2) a two-way signal amplifier (usually located indoors), connected by cable to (3) an indoor antenna. Care must be taken to ensure that: (a) the system is properly designed for the correct technology ([[w:GSM|GSM]]) and [[w:Band (radio)|bands]] (850 and/or 1900); (b) the indoor signal is sufficiently isolated from the outdoor signal; and (c) no interference otherwise results. The advantages over external antennas are no antenna connections needed to mobile devices and potentially greater performance; the disadvantages are complexity and cost of at least several hundred dollars. Sources include:
*; Signal Boosters : Stick-on &quot;signal boosters&quot; change the antenna performance of the phone in random ways depending on the model of phone and where exactly you stick it.  Dozens of RF engineers at the phone manufacturer spend their careers optimizing antenna performance, so the change will generally be for the worse.  Since RF optimization involves hundreds of complex tradeoffs, it is possible that a stick-on booster will improve reception in one or two cases, while degrading it in many more cases.  Overall, signal boosters generally make your signal '''''worse'''''.

== Messaging ==

=== How Can I Send Messages to Cellular Phones by Computer? ===

* '''Messaging Software'''
: See [[#Messaging Software|Messaging Software]]
* '''Websites'''
** Carrier websites
*** [http://www.cingular.com/sendamessage Send to AT&amp;T Mobility customers only]
*** Other carriers also have websites that can be used to send messages to customers of those carriers.
** Non-carrier websites include:
*** [http://toolbar.google.com/send/sms Google]
*** [http://mobile.yahoo.com/sms/sendsms Yahoo!]
*** [http://www.sms.ac/HomePage/Default.aspx SMS.ac]
*** [https://www.vazu.com/ Vazu]

=== How Can I Send Messages to AT&amp;T Mobility Phones by E-mail? ===

:; ''NUMBER''@CingularME.com : Sends an SMS text message to the phone (no picture). '''''Preferred SMS method.'''''
:; ''NUMBER''@txt.att.net : Sends an SMS text message to the phone (no picture). '''''Use a ''Preferred SMS method'' instead.'''''
:; ''NUMBER''@mms.att.net : Sends a picture message to the phone, with the picture size reduced appropriately.
:; ''NUMBER''@MyCingular.com : Sends email to Cingular email, picture delivered as sent, but can't be downloaded to the phone over [[w:WAP|WAP]].

:; ''MEdia_ID''@CingularME.com : Sends an SMS text message to the phone (no picture). '''''Preferred SMS method.'''''
:; ''MEdia_ID''@Mobile.MyCingular.com : Does not work.
:; ''MEdia_ID''@mms.att.net
:; ''MEdia_ID''@MyCingular.com : Sends email to Cingular email, picture delivered as sent, but can't be downloaded to the phone over [[w:WAP|WAP]].

=== What are messages from 36245? ===

: 36245 (which spells &quot;email&quot; on a phone keypad) is the number of the AT&amp;T Mobility '''''GSM-standard'' email-to-SMS gateway'''.  When email is addressed to ''NUMBER''@Mobile.MyCingular.com, the gateway forwards to that ''NUMBER'' as SMS message(s).  The sender's email address is the first item in the message, followed by the subject (if any) in parentheses.  To Reply to the sender, you may have to change the message addressing (depending on your phone).  Use of the AT&amp;T MEdia email-to-SMS gateway is preferred -- see [[#What are messages from numbers like 1010100004?|What are messages from numbers like 1010100004?]].

: If the '''email-to-''MMS'' gateway''' is used instead of the email-to-SMS gateway (by addressing email to ''NUMBER''@'''mms'''.att.net), addressing (including replies from a phone) will be cleaner, and messages can be much longer, but MMS messages are more expensive than SMS messages.

=== What are messages from numbers like 1010100004? ===

: This is a '''special gateway number''' generated by the AT&amp;T '''''MEdia'' email-to-SMS gateway'''.  When email is addressed to ''NUMBER''@CingularME.com or ''MEdia_ID''@CingularME.com, the incoming gateway forwards to that ''NUMBER'' (or the ''NUMBER'' for that ''MEdia_ID'') as SMS message(s), and that special gateway number is used to track the email address of the sender.  Reply to the sender is easy, because the phone will automatically reply to that special gateway number, which will cause the outgoing AT&amp;T gateway to forward to the email address of the original sender. ''This is thus the '''preferred method''' of AT&amp;T email-to-SMS messaging.''

=== How Can I Send E-mail From Any AT&amp;T Mobility Phone? ===

; Phone [[w:E-mail|E-mail]] client : Your cell phone may have an e-mail client that (properly configured) can send email directly. (See [[#What's the Outgoing SMTP (E-mail) Server?|What's the Outgoing SMTP (E-mail) Server?]]) ''Wireless data charges apply.''

; [[#What is the difference between MEdia and Data Connect?|MEdia Net]] ([[w:WAP|WAP]]) : Go to your '''MEdia Net Home''' page and choose one of the following ways to compose and send email. ''Wireless data charges apply.''
::; Mail &amp; Messaging : Links to MEdia Net Mail, Yahoo! Mail, MSN Hotmail, and AOL Mail. If you don't see ''Mail &amp; Messaging'' on your ''MEdia Net Home'' page, you can use ''Customize MEdia Net'' &amp;rarr; ''Edit Categories'' to select it for display, '''''OR'''''
::; More Categories &amp;rarr; Mail &amp; Messaging

; [[w:Short message service|SMS]] Text Messaging : AT&amp;T operates an '''E-Mail to SMS Gateway''' that forwards SMS text messages to Internet e-mail. ''Message charges apply.''
::; Automatically : Your cell phone may be smart enough to use the Gateway automatically when you send SMS text messages to an e-mail address rather than a numeric phone number, '''''OR'''''
::; Manually : Put the email address at the start of your message, separated by a space from the message, and send to the phone number '''121'''.

=== How can messages be translated? ===
* [http://go9990.co.il/main.asp?changelange=2501 Go9990] (Commercial SMS translation service)
* [http://www.etranslator.ro/english-sms-en.html SMS Translator] (Commercial SMS translation service)
* [http://www.tranexp.com/win/PalmTran.htm PalmTran] (Translator for Palm)
* [http://www.tranexp.com/win/PocketTran.htm PocketTran] (Translator for Pocket PC)
* [http://www.tauyou.com/en/paypal.html Ta with you] (Commercial SMS Translator for any mobile phone)
* [http://tauyou.com/mobile/mt.php tauyou.com mobile portal] (Mobile internet translation portal)

=== What are Messaging Services? ===

[[w:Short message service|Messaging]] Services provide ways to send, receive, and query (search for) information. ''Many such services are free, but messaging charges still apply.''

* '''Google'''
:; Blogger Mobile : http://www.blogger.com/mobile-start.g (post text or photos to a blog, free)
:; Google SMS : http://www.google.com/sms/ (free directories, directions, movies, weather, stocks, answers, prices, definitions, and more)

* '''Yahoo!'''
:; 360° : http://mobile.yahoo.com/mblog (mobile blog)
:; Alerts : http://alerts.yahoo.com/
:; Contacts Back-up : http://mobile.yahoo.com/clife
:; Mail : http://mobile.yahoo.com/mobilemail
:; Messenger : http://mobile.yahoo.com/messenger
:; SMS Search : http://wap.oa.yahoo.com/raw?dp=page&amp;pg=smss/smss_help (free directories, weather, stocks, definitions, horoscopes, area codes, [[w:ZIP Code|ZIP codes]], [[w:Wi-Fi|Wi-Fi]] [[w:Hotspot (wifi)|hotspots]], and more)

=== Is Cellular Spam Illegal? ===

: Cellular [[w:Spam (electronic)|spam]] is prohibited by the [[w:Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991|Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991]] (TCPA).

: From [http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/canspam.html CAN-SPAM, Unwanted Text Messages and E-Mail on Wireless Phones and Other Mobile Devices]:

::Under the TCPA rules, a &quot;call&quot; includes [[w:text messaging|text messaging]] if the messaging is sent to a telephone number rather than to an [[w:e-mail|e-mail]] address.
::...
::Text messages to wireless devices
::...
::* No one may use an [[w:Autodialer|automatic dialing machine]] to call your wireless phone number - including to send a text message to that telephone number - unless you have given prior express permission for the call or the call is made for an emergency purpose, ''i.e.,'' the call is necessary in a situation that affects the health and safety of consumers. There is a limited exception allowing cell phone companies to contact their own subscribers.
::* If you have registered your cell phone number on the [[w:National Do Not Call Registry|National Do-Not-Call Registry]], no one may make a telephone solicitation to that telephone number, unless you have given prior express permission for the solicitation or have an established business relationship with the caller. If you tell a company not to call again - even if it has a business relationship with you - that company is prohibited from calling you with solicitations.

==== What Can I Do About Cellular Spam? ====
:* '''Marketing Messages from AT&amp;T'''
:::  Respond to the text message with the single word, &quot;Stop.&quot; You should receive a response that says marketing messages will be discontinued within 10 days.

:* '''Your Carrier'''
:** Complain first to your carrier, and ask your carrier to contact the originating carrier. Make it clear that the [[w:Spam (electronic)|spam]] is in violation of the [[w:Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991|Telephone Consumer Protection Act]] (TCPA). In your complaint be as specific as possible about the spam: sender number, date and time of receipt by you, actual content, etc.
:** &lt;s&gt;AT&amp;T has a variety of filtering options available if you register and login to [http://CingularME.com/ CingularME.com]:&lt;/s&gt;&lt;br&gt;'''(Unfortunately, the CingularME.com website has been disabled by AT&amp;T -- see this [http://forums.cingular.com/cng/board/message?board.id=messaging&amp;message.id=9448 AT&amp;T Customer Forum thread].)'''
:*** Limiting times when email-to-SMS messages are delivered
:*** Limiting the number of SMS segments generated from a given email message
:*** White and black listing
:*** Blocking all SMS messages sent to you by email
:*** Blocking all MMS messages sent to you by email
:*** Blocking messages from the AT&amp;T web site
:*** Blocking messages sent to ''NUMBER''@CingularME.com
:*** Spam filtering with quarantine

:* '''The [http://fcc.gov/ FCC]''' - From [http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/canspam.html CAN-SPAM, Unwanted Text Messages and E-Mail on Wireless Phones and Other Mobile Devices]:

::: If you receive (1) an unwanted '''commercial''' message sent to a wireless device, or (2) a telephone solicitation made to a wireless device for which the phone number was registered on the [[w:National Do Not Call Registry|National Do-Not-Call Registry]], or (3) any [[w:Autodialer|autodialed]] text message on your cell phone or wireless device, you may file a complaint with the FCC. While the FCC cannot award monetary or other damages and does not settle individual consumer complaints against spammers and telemarketers, it can issue citations or impose fines against those violating the [[w:CAN-SPAM Act|CAN-SPAM Act]], the Telephone Consumer Protection Act, the National Do-Not-Call Registry, and the FCC's related rules.

:* '''Legal Action''' - In the event of a violation of the TCPA, individuals are entitled to collect damages directly from a solicitor for $500 to $1,500 or recover actual monetary loss, whichever is higher.

=== Technical Information ===

: '''[http://www.gsm-technology.com/gsm.php/en,unlock,subpage_id,smsfaq.html SMS FAQ]'''

== Push To Talk ==

=== What is Push To Talk? ===
* Also known as:
** PTT
** PoC (Push to talk over Cellular)
* For information, see:
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push_to_talk Push to talk] (Wikipedia)
** [http://www.cingular.com/pushtotalk Push To Talk] (AT&amp;T)
* The current market leader in PTT is the Nextel part of [[w:Sprint Nextel|Sprint Nextel Corp]].
* To use AT&amp;T PTT, both you and those you contact must have phones that support PTT.
* Initial AT&amp;T PTT phone selection is very limited.

== Data Service ==

=== Can I use my Phone as a Modem? ===

: Most [[w:GSM|GSM]] phones can be used as &quot;dial-up&quot; ([[w:Circuit Switched Data|CSD]]) [[w:Modem|modems]], and many can also be used as [[w:GPRS|GPRS]] (packet data) modems.  For this to work, your phone must be &quot;[[w:Tethering (cellular wireless)|tethered]]&quot; (connected) to your computer by:
:* [[w:Bluetooth|Bluetooth]]
:* Cable ([[w:RS-232|serial]] or [[w:USB|USB]])
:* [[w:IrDA|IrDA]]

=== What is the Difference Between CSD, GPRS/EGPRS(EDGE) and HSDPA? ===

:; [[w:Circuit Switched Data|CSD]] : Makes a dedicated data connection like a conventional wired [[w:modem|modem]]. Speed (on AT&amp;T) limited to 9600 bps. Charged like voice minutes (and is not ''Mobile to Mobile''). ''Must be enabled by AT&amp;T to work'' (which may require a $4/month data feature), and is only available to &quot;orange&quot; accounts (Cingular, not AT&amp;T Wireless) and on the &quot;orange&quot; network.

::* A [[w:GSM|GSM]] phone has no real dialup modem, just a sort of virtual modem which makes a connection to a carrier's IWU (Inter Working Unit), located in some service center. The IWU has the actual modem that can make analog data calls over the [[w:PSTN|PSTN]] (public switched telephone network). If the carrier doesn't provide an IWU, or if your account isn't provisioned for CSD (Circuit Switched Data), then a GSM phone cannot make data and/or fax calls. If your account is provisioned for CSD, then all you need is to install the phone as a modem with [[w:Microsoft Windows|Windows]] Dial-Up Networking.

::* A regular [[w:Analog signal|analog]] dialup modem ''cannot'' be made to work over a GSM voice channel because of the [[w:digital|digital]] [[w:audio data compression|audio data compression]] used in the GSM channel.

:; [[w:GPRS|GPRS]]/[[w:EDGE|EGPRS(EDGE)]] : Makes a [[w:Packet switching|packet data]] connection, sharing channel(s) with packets to/from other users, connecting and disconnecting on demand. Much faster and more efficient than CSD. Charged by the amount of data transferred, as ''(expensive) Pay-As-You-Go'' if you don't have a ''data package'' ([http://www.cingular.com/media/media_net MEdia] or [http://www.cingular.com/sbusiness/data_connect Data Connect]).

:; [[w:HSDPA|HSDPA]] : See [[#What is BroadbandConnect?|What is BroadbandConnect?]]

: '''See also [[#What data speeds are possible with AT&amp;T (GSM)?|What data speeds are possible with AT&amp;T (GSM)?]]'''

=== What is the difference between MEdia and Data Connect? ===

:; [http://www.cingular.com/media/media_net MEdia] : Intended for use only on a cell phone. &quot;[[w:Tethering (cellular wireless)|Tethering]]&quot; ''works'', but is ''discouraged'', and AT&amp;T reserves the right to ''deny service'' based on usage. (See [http://www.cingular.com/media/media_legal MEdia Legal Notices]) Uses a [[w:Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] profile, but access to the entire [[w:Internet|Internet]] is available. [[wikipedia:Virtual private network|VPN]] may ''not'' work. No Data Acceleration.
:; [http://www.cingular.com/sbusiness/data_connect Data Connect] : Intended for use with [[w:Personal digital assistant|PDA]] or [[w:computer|computer]], depending on specific package. Uses an Internet profile. [[wikipedia:Virtual private network|VPN]] is supported. Data Acceleration is optional.

=== What is Data Acceleration? ===

: Data Acceleration, an optional feature available only on [[w:Circuit Switched Data|CSD]] and Data Connect (not MEdia Net) service, speeds [[w:Internet|Internet]] access primarily by compressing images. The tradeoff is lower image quality. See [http://web.archive.org/web/20040330072221/http://www.cingular.com/download/dc_tput_orange.pdf Wireless Data Throughput Orange Paper] ([[w:Portable Document Format|Adobe PDF]] format). Data Acceleration is easily controlled if you use [[#What is AT&amp;T Communication Manager?|AT&amp;T Communication Manager]]. If instead configuring manually, Data Acceleration is enabled or disabled with &quot;DA&quot; in login ''Userid'' as follows:
::{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
! || Data Acceleration ON || Data Acceleration OFF
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''CSD''' || ISP'''DA'''@CINGULAR.COM&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(or legacy Userid&lt;br&gt; WIDC0001@W4.MYCINGULAR.COM)&lt;/small&gt; || valign=&quot;top&quot; | ISP@CINGULAR.COM
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''Data Connect''' || ISP'''DA'''@CINGULAR'''GPRS'''.COM&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(or legacy Userid&lt;br&gt; WIXDC001@W5.MYCINGULAR.COM)&lt;/small&gt; || valign=&quot;top&quot; | ISP@CINGULAR'''GPRS'''.COM
|}

=== What is Tethering? ===
: See:
:* [[w:Tethering (cellular wireless)|Tethering (cellular wireless)]]
:* [[#What is the difference between MEdia and Data Connect?|What is the difference between MEdia and Data Connect?]]

=== What is BroadbandConnect? ===
* [http://www.cingular.com/midtolarge/laptop_connect Information and Packages]
** [http://www.cingular.com/midtolarge/laptop_connect/integrated Laptops (notebooks) with integrated BroadbandConnect]
*** [http://www.cingular.com/midtolarge/laptop_connect/integrated_dell Dell Latitude]
*** [http://www.cingular.com/midtolarge/laptop_connect/integrated_lenovo Lenovo (IBM) ThinkPad]
**** ''[http://www-131.ibm.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/PromotionDisplay?promoId=1074822927&amp;catalogId=-840&amp;storeId=10000001&amp;langId=-1&amp;re=home_News_us Lenovo (IBM) website]''
*** [http://www.cingular.com/midtolarge/laptop_connect/integrated_sony Sony VAIO]
** Coverage Maps:
***[http://www.cingular.com/business/3G_cov_maps_pop BroadbandConnect]
***[http://onlinestorez.cingular.com/cell-phone-service/maps/pop_mapfinder.jsp?mapt=dataMap EDGE(EGPRS)]

=== How Do I Configure my Phone for Data? ===

Details of data settings for manual entry into a phone are given below, but it may be easier and simpler to use OTA (over the air) configuration by SMS messaging:

:* [http://secure.mouse2mobile.com/clients/hellomoto/launch.asp Motorola Phone set-up]
:* [http://www.nokiausa.com/support/settings/1,1921,,00.html Nokia USA Phone Settings]
:* [http://sonyericsson.wdsglobal.com/worp/ota/wholesale.tt/sem/wap?siteLanguageId=249 Sony Ericsson Configurator]

See also:

:* [http://www.cingular.com/support/tutorials.do AT&amp;T Tutorials] for many AT&amp;T phones

==== [[w:Circuit Switched Data|CSD]] ====

:{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! rowspan=2 | Settings Summary
! rowspan=2 | MEdia
! colspan=2 | Data Connect
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[#What is Data Acceleration?|Acceleration]] ON
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[#What is Data Acceleration?|Acceleration]] OFF
|-
| '''Phone Number'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 14152441012
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 18472549270
|-
| '''UserID'''*&lt;br&gt;__@CINGULAR.COM&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(''ex.'' WAP@CINGULAR.COM)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | WAP
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | ISPDA
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | ISP
|-
| '''Password'''*
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | CINGULAR1
|-
| '''Data Call Type'''
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | ISDN
|-
| '''Data Call Speed'''
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9600
|-
| '''Home Page'''
| device:home ''or''&lt;br&gt;device.home
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Session Mode'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Permanent
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Connection Security'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | On
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Gateway IP Address'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 66.209.11.61
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Authentication Type'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Secure
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Login Type'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Automatic
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| colspan=4 | * Must be all UPPERCASE
|}

==== [[w:GPRS|GPRS]]/[[w:EDGE|EGPRS/EDGE]] ====

:{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! rowspan=2 | Settings Summary
! rowspan=2 | MEdia
! colspan=2 | Data Connect
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[#What is Data Acceleration?|Acceleration]] ON
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[#What is Data Acceleration?|Acceleration]] OFF
|-
| '''Phone Number'''&lt;br&gt;''(for [[#What is &quot;Tethering&quot;?|tethered]] device)''
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | *99# &amp;nbsp; ''(default profile) &amp;nbsp; or &amp;nbsp; ''*99***1# &amp;nbsp; ''(profile #1) &amp;nbsp; etc.''
|-
| '''APN'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | wap.cingular
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | isp.cingular
|-
| '''UserID'''*&lt;br&gt;__@CINGULARGPRS.COM&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(''ex.'' WAP@CINGULARGPRS.COM)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | WAP
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | ISPDA
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | ISP
|-
| '''Password'''*
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | CINGULAR1
|-
| '''Connect Type'''
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | GPRS/Packet
|-
| '''IP Address'''
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Obtain Automatically
|-
| '''DNS Server'''
| colspan=3 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Obtain Automatically
|-
| '''Home Page'''
| device:home ''or''&lt;br&gt;device.home
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Session Mode'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Permanent
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Connection Security'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | On
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''PDP_Type'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | IP
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Gateway IP Address (WAP 1)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 66.209.11.61
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Gateway IP Address (WAP 2)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 66.209.11.32
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Authentication Type'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Secure
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| '''Login Type'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Automatic
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:silver;{{text default color}};&quot; |
|-
| colspan=4 | * Must be all UPPERCASE
|}

===== MEdia Setup =====

: See '''[[AT&amp;T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration|MEdia Net Configuration]].'''

===== Data Connect Setup =====

: See '''[[AT&amp;T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration|Data Connect Configuration]].'''

=== What is AT&amp;T Communication Manager? ===

: An AT&amp;T software package that makes it easier to connect your computer to the Internet over AT&amp;T Mobility.  Available for [http://www.cingular.com/midtolarge/communicationmgr free download].  Although standard Dial-Up Networking is all that's actually needed, AT&amp;T Communication Manager '''includes drivers for mobile devices supported by Cingular''', which can make it useful when you don't otherwise have the necessary driver.

=== What data speeds are possible with AT&amp;T (GSM)? ===

:; [[w:Circuit Switched Data|CSD]] : Speed of '''9.6 [[w:Kbps|Kbps]]''' (9600 [[w:bits per second|bps]], or about 1K [[w:Byte|Bytes]]/sec). Available in most [[w:GSM|GSM]] areas, but being phased out.
:; [[w:GPRS|GPRS]] : With a [[w:General Packet Radio Service#GPRS Multislot Classes|Class]] 10 device and good signal, typical download speeds of about '''50 Kbps''' (about 6K Bytes/sec). Available in all GSM areas.
:; [[w:EDGE|EGPRS(EDGE)]] : With a Class 10 device and good signal, typical download speeds of about '''150 Kbps''' (about 18.5K Bytes/sec). Latency (as measured by [[w:ping|ping]]) of about 300 ms. Widely available. Backward compatible to GPRS.
:; [[w:UMTS|UMTS]] : Typical download speeds of '''200-320 Kbps''' (or about 2x EGPRS). Available in 6 markets as of 4Q 2005. Most (but not all; ''e.g.,'' [http://www.novatelwireless.com/products/merlin/merlin-u520.html Novatel U520]) devices are backward compatible to EGPRS and GPRS.
:; [[w:HSDPA|HSDPA]] (BroadbandConnect) : Typical speeds are expected to be '''400-700 Kbps''' (or about 4x EGPRS). Latency (as measured by [[w:ping|ping]]) expected to be about 150 ms (or about 1/2 EGPRS). Launched in 16 markets in December 2005. Backward compatible to UMTS, EGPRS and GPRS.

=== Why is my GPRS, EDGE, UMTS, or HSDPA so slow? ===

:; Poor Signal : Good signal (typically at least 3 bars) is needed for best performance.

:; Mobile Device Capabilities : Handsets (and PC Cards) do not all have the same data performance, which is determined in part by [[w:GPRS#GPRS Multislot Classes|GPRS/EGPRS(EDGE) Multislot Class]]. In general, as of this writing, all reasonably current GPRS/EGRPS(EDGE)-capable devices from [[w:Ericsson|Ericsson]] and [[w:Sony Ericsson|Sony Ericsson]] support Class 8 (4+1) and Class 10 (4+2, max of 5), whereas most [[w:Nokia|Nokia]] devices are limited to slower Class 2 (2+1), Class 4 (3+1), and Class 6 (3+2, max 4). [[w:Motorola|Motorola]] has both Class 4 and Class 8 devices. (The first number is the max downlink slots, and the number after the &quot;+&quot; is the max uplink slots.) This can translate into a substantial difference in throughput ''if'' supported by the carrier:
::; Class 4 &amp; 6 : 50% faster on downlink than Class 2.
::; Class 8 &amp; 10 : 100% faster on downlink than Class 2.&lt;br&gt;33% faster on downlink than Class 4 &amp; 6.
::; Class 10 : 100% faster on uplink than Class 2, 4 &amp; 8.

:; Serial Port Bottleneck : Connections between handsets and &quot;[[w:Tethering (cellular wireless)|tethered]]&quot; devices (''e.g.,'' notebook [[w:computer|computer]], [[w:Personal digital assistant|PDA]]) are typically implemented as a [[w:Serial port|serial port]], either real or virtual, and port speed usually defaults to 115 [[w:Kbps|Kbps]]. (A [[w:Bluetooth|Bluetooth]] stack implemented as a virtual serial port may go as fast as 921 Kbps, but will run at only 115 Kbps by default.) While 115 Kbps is generally fast enough for GPRS, it can be a bottleneck for [[w:EDGE|EGPRS(EDGE)]] and [[w:UMTS|UMTS]]/[[w:HSDPA|HSDPA]]. Recommended ''minimum'' port speeds:
::* GPRS: 230 Kbps
::* EGPRS(EDGE): 460 Kbps
::* UMTS/HSDPA: 920 Kbps

=== How To Set the Port Speed in Windows XP? ===
:Connections between handsets and &quot;[[w:Tethering (cellular wireless)|tethered]]&quot; devices (''e.g.,'' notebook [[w:computer|computer]], [[w:Personal digital assistant|PDA]]) are typically implemented as a [[w:Serial port|serial port]], either real or virtual. To set the port speed in [[w:Microsoft Windows|Windows]] XP:
:* Open ''Control Panel'' &amp;rarr; ''Network Connections''
:* Right-click on the cellular connection, and choose ''Properties''
:* In ''Properties-General'', select checked cellular modem, and click ''Configure''
:* In ''Modem Configuration'', select desired ''Maximum Speed''. Recommended port speeds:
::* GPRS: 230000 (or higher)
::* EGPRS(EDGE): 460000 (or higher)
::* UMTS/HSDPA: 920000 (or higher)
:* Click ''OK'' to close all windows.

== Fax ==

=== How Can I Send a Fax From My Cell Phone? ===

:Since AT&amp;T has apparently phased out [[w:facsimile|facsimile]] (fax) service over  [[w:Circuit Switched Data|CSD]], the most straightforward way of '''sending''' a fax from a AT&amp;T phone is to use an '''[[w:E-mail|E-mail]] to Fax Service'''.
:* See [[#How Can I Send E-mail From Any AT&amp;T Mobility Phone?|How Can I Send E-mail From Any AT&amp;T Mobility Phone?]] by:
:** Phone E-mail client ''(Data charges apply.)''
:** MEdia Net e-mail ([[w:WAP|WAP]]) ''(Data charges apply.)''
:** SMS text messaging ''(Messaging charges apply.)''
:* E-Mail to Fax Services
:** [http://efax.com/ eFax] (free incoming fax)
:** [http://fax1.com/ Fax1] (low-cost outgoing fax)
:'''Receiving''' faxes is much harder than sending them, since most Internet fax services e-mail incoming faxes as [[w:E-mail attachment|attachments]] in formats that most current cellular phones can't display.  It's sometimes possible to view them on an e-mail website (''e.g.,'' [http://gmail.google.com/ Google Mail]) with a [[w:WAP|WAP]] or [[w:Web browser|Web browser]] (''e.g.,'' [http://mini.opera.com/ Opera Mini]), but that's very painful on a small screen.

== What are Some Useful Services for Mobile Devices? ==

=== Remote Access ===

:; [http://www.avvenu.com/ Avvenu] : Free service that allows you to access files on your home or office PC from a mobile device

=== Wallpaper Conversion ===

:; [http://wallpaper.hellaphone.com Hellaphone Wallpaper Maker] : Free online tool to turn images into cell phone wallpaper

=== WAP Downloading and/or Hosting ===

: [[w:WAP|WAP]] hosting services allow you to upload and/or download content (audio, image and/or video) from/to WAP-enabled phones. Some of these sites also provide conversion services to audio, image, and/or video formats supported by phones. This can be a good way to transfer content from your computer to your phone. '''Free''' (except for '''AT&amp;T data charges''', which can be substantial depending on your plan) sites include:

:;[http://www.cellphoto.net/ CellPhoto.Net] : WAP file hosting for pictures ringtones and java games/apps easy install
:; [http://www.mobango.com/ Mobango] : Upload, manage, convert, download, files and apps.
:; [http://www.mobcrop.com/ mobcrop dot com] : Upload and make wallpapers and logos; download via WAP to phone, or to your PC.
:; [http://www.mobstorage.com/ mobstorage.com] : Upload images, videos, ringtones, music, wallpapers, themes and documents; download to your phone via WAP.
:; [http://mywaplink.com/ MyWapLink] : Free WAP hosting
:; [http://peperonity.com peperonity.com] : Free WAP hosting
:; [http://www.phoneimage.com/ PhoneImage] : Wallpapers and photo storage.
:; [http://www.pix2fone.com/ Pix2Fone] : Lets you make custom cell phone wallpapers, backgrounds and logos.
:; [http://tagtag.com/ tagtag.com] : WAP hosting, pictures and games.
:; [http://www.wapdj.com/ WapDj] : WAP hosting to put your files on your phone, ringtones, music, screen savers, wallpapers, themes, videos.

== What Computer Software Can Be Used With My Phone? ==

=== Management ===

Upload &amp; download files; syncing of address book and/or calendar; modify and/or backup phone configuration; dialing; etc.

:; General purpose : Check to see if your particular phone and type of computer (''e.g., ''[[w:Personal computer|PC]], [[w:Apple Macintosh|Mac]], [[w:Linux|Linux]]) are supported.

::* [http://www.bvrp.com/eng/products/mobilephonetools/ BVRP mobile PhoneTools]
::* [http://www.mobiledit.com/ MOBILedit!]

:; Brand specific : Special software for your brand and model of phone may be available from the manufacturer of the phone and/or from independent sources.

=== Ringtones ===

:* [http://www.anvilstudio.com/ Anvil Studio] MIDI editor (free)
:* [http://audacity.sourceforge.net/ Audacity] Sound editor (free, cross-platform)
:* [http://www.polyphonicwizard.com/ Polyphonic Wizard] Create and edit polyphonic ringtones (commercial)

=== Images ===

:* [http://www.gimp.org/ GIMP] Image editor (free, cross-platform)

=== Messaging Software ===
:* [http://toolbar.google.com/firefox/extensions/sendtophone/ Google Send to Phone]: [[w:Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]] extension to send [[w:Short message service|SMS]] messages of web page content to a mobile phone; ''e.g.,'' a phone number, an address, or directions
:* [http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/outreach/dnloads/smsSender.mspx Microsoft SMS Sender] (uses your phone)
:* [http://www.mobimarketing.com/ MobiMarketing] (uses the Internet)
::* freeSMS (free)
::* MobiSMS for Outlook (commercial)

== What Are Some Useful WAP Resources? ==
Enter these [[w:WAP|WAP]] sites [[w:URL|URLs]] directly into the WAP browser in your mobile device (''e.g.,'' cell phone), or send them to your mobile device by [[w:SMS|SMS]].
* '''Multipurpose'''
::; AOL Portal : http://mobile.aol.com/portal/main.php (Search, AOL Mail, News, Weather, Sports, Entertainment, Yellow Pages)
::; Google Mobile : http://mobile.google.com/
:::; Personalized Google Mobile : http://mobile.google.com/personalized/
::; MSN Mobile : http://mobile.msn.com/ (Hotmail, Messenger, Mobile Web, Alerts)
::; Mobile portal  : http://www.hooqs.com/  (Music and video channels)
::; Yahoo! : http://wap.oa.yahoo.com
* '''Search'''
::; Google : http://www.google.com (Web demo at http://www.google.com/xhtml)
::; Y! Search : http://wap.oa.yahoo.com/raw?dp=yms
* '''Directories'''
::; 4INFO : http://www.4info.net/ (Mobile Web, Web Search, Alerts)
::; Infospace Mobile : http://phone.infospace.com/phone.att/index_find.hdml (Driving directions, yellow pages, and other services)
::; SuperPages : http://wap.superpages.com (directories)
::; YP.com : http://m.yp.com/ (Yellow Pages, Yellow Pages Reverse Look-up, White Pages, Reverse Phone Look-up, Reverse Address Look-up, Neighbor Look-up, Maps and Driving Directions)
* '''Movies'''
::; Hollywood.com : http://wap.hollywood.com
* '''News'''
::; BBC News : http://news.bbc.co.uk/mobile/bbc_news
* '''Shipping'''
::; FedEx : http://mobile.fedex.com

* '''Shopping'''
::; eBay : http://mmm.ebay.com/ (auctions)
::; Froogle : http://wml.froogle.com/ (search for product prices)
* '''Travel'''
::; eSkyGuide : http://sg2go.com/ (flight schedules)
::; MapQuest for Small Screens : http://wap.mapquest.com (places/directions/maps)
::; Sabre Mobile : http://sabremobile.com/wasapi/docs/vt.jsp (air travel)
::; Synfonic : http://www.synfonic.com/ (Directions)
::; Y! Directions : http://wap.oa.yahoo.com/raw?dp=dd
* '''Weather'''
::; AccuWeather : http://wireless.accuweather.com/
::; National Weather Service : http://mobile.srh.noaa.gov/
::; Weather Underground : http://phone.wunderground.com:99

== What Are Some Useful Downloadable Applications? ==

=== For mobile devices with J2ME (Java Mobile Edition) ===
:; AmAze : http://www.amazegps.com/ (free GPS mapping)
:; Google Maps for Mobile : http://google.com/gmm '''''Amazing!'''''
:; Google Mail (Gmail) Mobile : http://gmail.com/app '''''Excellent!'''''
:; Opera Mini : http://mini.opera.com/ (full Web browser) '''''Excellent!'''''
:; Notepad : http://www.getjar.com/products/510/Notepad
:; Calc: An RPN scientific calculator with plotting, macros, financial, statistics, more... : http://midp-calc.sourceforge.net/Calc.html

==== J2ME Download Sites ====

:* [http://www.getjar.com/ GetJar.com]
:* [http://www.midlet.org/ midlet.org]

=== Mobile Games ===

:* [http://www.coolmobilegames.com/ CoolMobileGames]
:* [http://dadamobile.com/ DADAmobile]
:* [http://www.gameloft.com/ Gameloft]
:* [http://www.glu.com/games/ Glu Mobile]
:* [http://www.iplay.com/ I-play]
:* [http://www.jamdat.com/ JAMDAT]
:* [http://www.play-mobile-games.com/ play-mobile-games.com]
:* [http://mmp.mobile.yahoo.com/ Yahoo! Mobile]
:* [http://www.zingy.com/ Zinghy]

:'''See also:'''

:* [http://www.gamespot.com/mobile/ GameSpot Mobile]

== International Calling ==

=== What is the International Calling Format? ===

When called from a [[w:GSM|GSM]] cellular phone, an international phone number (''e.g.,'' ''+330142961202'' [the American Consulate in Paris]) consists of:
# International Access Code:  '''+'''  (''not'' ''00'' or ''011'' as with landline calls)
# [[w:List of country calling codes|Country Code]] (2 or 3 digits; ''e.g.,'' ''33'' for France)&lt;br&gt;Note: The Country Code for the USA is ''1'' the same as the area code prefix. Thus:
#* ''+18005551234'' is an international format number located in the USA that can be dialed from anywhere in the world (even within the USA, without incurring any extra cost).
#* ''18005551234'' is a USA format number with Area Code Prefix and Area Code that can only be dialed within the USA. Note that the Area Code Prefix is not needed when calling USA format numbers with AT&amp;T (''e.g.,'' ''8005551234'' works as well as ''18005551234'').
# Number (including any [[w:List of North American area codes|Area Code]]; ''e.g.,'' ''0142961202'' [the American Consulate in Paris])

=== What Are Country Codes? ===

: See [[w:List of country calling codes|List of country calling codes]].

=== How Do I Call Other Countries From the USA? ===

: '''International Calling''' is disabled on AT&amp;T accounts by default (presumably to protect against inadvertant charges).  To activate it, call Customer Care (611).

=== In Which Countries Can I Use My GSM phone? ===

:* [http://onlinestorez.cingular.com/travelguide/ AT&amp;T Travel Guide]
:* [http://www.gsmworld.com/roaming/gsminfo/index.shtml GSM Coverage Maps and Roaming Information]

=== How Do I Use My AT&amp;T Mobility Phone in Other Countries? ===

:'''International Roaming''' is disabled on AT&amp;T accounts by default (presumably to protect against inadvertant charges).  To activate it, call Customer Care (611 inside the USA; +19168434685 outside the USA).

:For your AT&amp;T Mobility [[w:GSM|GSM]] phone to work in countries other than the USA you will need a multi-[[w:Band (radio)|band]] &quot;world&quot; phone:
:* GSM bands used in the USA are 850 and 1900.
:* GSM bands used outside of the USA are 900 and 1800.
:The best option for use in and out of the USA is a '''quad-band''' (850/900/1800/1900) phone.

:Be warned that the convenience of International Roaming comes at a price: International Roaming Calls are much more expensive than calls made on local carriers. For more than just an occasional call it's generally much less expensive to use a '''local prepaid [[w:SIM|SIM]]'''. To do that you need to have your phone &quot;unlocked&quot; -- see [[#What is locking?|What is locking?]]

:To be reached at your own AT&amp;T Mobility cellular number when using a local prepaid SIM overseas, change your AT&amp;T Mobility voicemail greeting to give out the phone number (including country code) of your overseas prepaid SIM, which can be used for low-cost [[w:Short message service|SMS text messaging]] as well as for voice

:When calling from '''outside''' of the USA, note that:
:* '''USA toll-free numbers''' ''cannot'' be reached from outside of the USA.
:* '''[http://www.cingular.com/customer_service/contact_us AT&amp;T Customer Service]''' ''cannot'' be dialed as ''611'' from outside of the USA. Instead, dial '''+1 916 843 4685'''.

==== International Data Roaming ====

:'''[http://cingular.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&amp;item=1452 AT&amp;T GlobalConnect]''' offers two international wireless data usage plans, both of which include unlimited data usage on AT&amp;T' domestic data networks (pricing as of announcement date):
:* '''North American''' plan ($110/month for 100 MB) for Canada and Mexico
:* '''Overseas''' plan ($140/month for 100 MB)

Be very careful—many travelers have experienced phantom data roaming charges totaling $3000 or more.

=== What's the Best Way to Call Back to the USA from Other Countries? ===

:Use an '''international callback or return-call service''' -- see &quot;International calling&quot; in [[w:Callback (telecommunications)|Callback (telecommunications)]]. Such services include:
:* [http://www.kallback.com/ Kallback]
:* [https://www.telestial.com/return_call_service.php Telestial Return Call Service]
:* [http://www.onesuite.com/access_international.asp OneSuite.com]

:Note that USA toll-free numbers ''cannot'' be called from outside of the USA

== Miscellaneous ==

=== How can I use an Apple Macintosh with AT&amp;T Mobility devices? ===

:* [http://www.taniwha.org.uk/ Ross Barkman's Mobile Phone Scripts]
:* [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Drivers/Sony-Ericsson-PC-Card-Modem-Script.shtml Sony Ericsson PC Card Modem Script]
:** For Sony Ericsson PC Card GC75, GC75e, GC82, GC83 and GC85
:** Step by step guide for CSD, HSCSD, GPRS and EDGE connections
:* [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Internet-Utilities/GPRS-Script-Generator.shtml GPRS Script Generator]
:* Mobile High Speed
:** [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Internet-Utilities/Mobile-High-Speed-2G.shtml 2G]&lt;br&gt;Set up a GPRS or HSCSD High Speed Internet connection with your mobile phone or modem in seconds
:** [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Internet-Utilities/Mobile-High-Speed.shtml 3G]&lt;br&gt;Set up a 3G/UMTS, EDGE or GPRS High Speed Internet connection with your mobile phone or modem in seconds
:* [http://www.osnews.com/story.php?news_id=12247 HowTo: Motorola Linux Smartphones, Mac OS X and Cingular GPRS]
:* [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Network-Admin/GSM-Remote.shtml GSM Remote]&lt;br&gt;Transfer contacts from your computer or from another phone
:* [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Drivers/Apple-iTunes-Phone-Driver.shtml Apple iTunes Phone Driver]
:* [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Dashboard-Widgets/Email-Messaging/SMS-Widget.shtml SMS Widget]
:* [http://mac.softpedia.com/get/Utilities/Salling-Clicker.shtml Salling Clicker]&lt;br&gt;Remotely control a wide range of applications with your mobile phone or handheld computer

=== What's that Buzzing in my Speakers? ===

:GSM radio transmissions, particularly control signals (''e.g.,'' periodic mobile device registration, SMS message transmission), can induce audible interference (buzzing) in nearby speakers. (Hearing aids can also be affected.) The general issue of [[w:Radio frequency interference|radio frequency interference (RFI)]] is exacerbated by the short pulsing nature of these [[w:Time division multiplexing|time division multiplexed]] transmissions. The most straightforward solution is to separate the mobile device (''e.g.,'' cell phone) from the speakers; otherwise, shielded speakers and/or shielded speaker wiring may help. See the ''Ask Slashdot'' article [http://ask.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=06/04/07/2111217 How to Avoid Mobile Phone Interference w/ Speakers].

=== How Can a Billing or Contract Problem be Resolved? ===

; AT&amp;T : First do everything you can to resolve the matter with AT&amp;T:

:* '''Carefully document''' your position.  Be sure to have copies of your Service Agreement, any relevant bills, etc.
:* '''Be specific and be fair and reasonable''' in what you are asking for. Asking for more than that will tend to be counterproductive.
:* Be persistent, but always '''polite''' -- getting upset or even abusive will only be counterproductive.
:* If it's a '''network or coverage problem''', call Customer Care (611), and ask to be transferred to '''Technical Support'''.  (Standard Customer Care personnel can't really handle such problems.)  Be reasonable, and give AT&amp;T a reasonable period of time to correct any problem.
:* Call Customer Care (611), and ask to be transferred to '''Escalations'''.  (Standard Customer Care personnel have very little authority.)  Be persistent, calling back if necessary.
:* If that doesn't work, ask to be put in contact with the '''Office of the President''' (actually the highest level of dispute resolution).  ''Don't'' start there -- it's a ''last resort'', and you'll be taken more seriously if you've done everything you can to work it out through normal channels. Again, be persistent, calling back if necessary.  If you can't get through that way, try these reported contact points:
::* AT&amp;T Mobility Office Of The President&lt;Br&gt;5565 Glenridge Connector, Atlanta, GA 30349&lt;Br&gt;877-707-6220 (disconnected)
::* AT&amp;T Mobility Office Of The President&lt;br&gt;1910 Customer Care Way, Atwater, CA 95301&lt;br&gt;866-894-2464 (disconnected)
::* AT&amp;T Mobility Office of the President&lt;br&gt;2221 N. University, Lubbock, TX 79415
::* 800-947-5096 (disconnected)
::* 877-734-0766 (disconnected)
::* [mailto:resospecialist@yahoo.com Email resospecialist@yahoo.com]

; Complaints : If you fail to resolve the matter with AT&amp;T, complaints may be effective:

:* [http://www.hearusnow.org/phones/consumertips/wirelessphoneservices/howtocomplainaboutcellphoneservice/ How to Complain about Cell Phone Service] (Consumers Union)
:* [http://www.bbb.org/complaint.asp Better Business Bureau (BBB)]  May be effective.
:* Consumer Help Line of a local radio or TV station
:* [http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/complaints.html Federal Communications Commission (FCC)]  Wireless carriers are required to respond to complaints filed with the FCC.
:* [https://rn.ftc.gov/pls/dod/wsolcq$.startup?Z_ORG_CODE=PU01 Federal Trade Commission (FTC)]  While the FTC doesn't resolve individual complaints, accumulated complaints can result in enforcement action

=== How does AT&amp;T Mobility do E911 positioning? ===

:AT&amp;T is doing [[w:E911|E911]] location by means of [http://www.trueposition.com/TrueNorth-utdoa.php TruePosition U-TDOA], which works with any [[w:GSM|GSM]] mobile device.  Claimed accuracy is under 50 meters.  See:

:* [http://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=189 U-TDOA] (definition)
:* [http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/May2003/5332.htm U-TDOA Formally Standardized by 3GPP]
:* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BMD/is_44_9/ai_98614876 Cingular's E-911 Aim Is TruePosition]

== What is the Internet newsgroup for AT&amp;T Mobility? ==
; [news:alt.cellular.cingular alt.cellular.cingular] : The [[w:newsgroup|Internet newsgroup]] originally created for [[w:Cingular Wireless|Cingular Wireless]], now [[w:AT&amp;T Mobility|AT&amp;T Mobility]]. Articles with a good deal of useful information (along with a significant amount of noise) are posted to this newsgroup, which can also be used to post your own questions and comments. (Before posting, ''please'' be sure to check that the information you need hasn't been posted previously.) To access the newsgroup, use:
; [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.cellular.cingular Google Groups] : Allows you to browse, post, and search using Google's powerful search engine.
; Newsreader on your own computer : You can use software like [[w:Outlook Express|Outlook Express]] or [[w:Mozilla Thunderbird|Mozilla Thunderbird]], configured to access a news server at your [[w:Internet Service Provider|Internet Service Provider]] (ISP) or at a [[w:Usenet Service Provider|news provider]], to access [news:alt.cellular.cingular alt.cellular.cingular].

{{center|1='''Charter of alt.cellular.cingular'''}}

This newsgroup is for discussion of topics directly related to AT&amp;T Mobility service, including voice, data (GPRS as well as GSM), and fax.
Non-commercial For Sale and Want To Buy notices for compatible products,
tagged in the subject line with &quot;FS&quot; and &quot;WTB&quot; respectively (without the
quote symbols), are permitted.  All articles must be in plain text only,
in the English language, and human-readable.

Inappropriate (banned) articles:
* Off-topic (not directly related to AT&amp;T Mobility service)
* Binaries (except for appended text-encoded digital signatures)
* [[w:Spam (electronic)|Spam]] (including excessive cross-posting)
* Make-money-fast or other chain or fraudulent schemes
* Work-at-home or other scams
* Commercial advertisements, &quot;[[w:infomercial|infomercials]]&quot;, or announcements
* Auction notices (''e.g.,'' [[w:eBay|eBay]])
* Forged articles (anonymous articles are allowed)
* Personal insults or repetitive [[w:flaming|flaming]] (attacks)
* Employment (help and/or position wanted) notices

MODERATOR INFO:

The group is unmoderated.

== See also ==

=== [[w:Main Page|Wikipedia]] ===

:* [[w:List of North American area codes|List of North American area codes]]

=== AT&amp;T Mobility on the Web ===

:* [http://cingular.com/ AT&amp;T Mobility] (AT&amp;T Mobility Web site)
:* [http://support.cingular.com/ AT&amp;T Mobility Support] (Technical Support)
:* [http://mycingular.com/ My AT&amp;T Mobility] (manage your account)
:* [http://www.cingular.com/db AT&amp;T Mobility Direct Bill] (find any companies that are billing services to your AT&amp;T Mobility phone bill.)

=== Phone Reviews on the Web ===

:* [http://reviews.cnet.com/Cell_phones/2001-3504_7-0.html CNET]
:* [http://mobileburn.com Mobile Burn]
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;* [http://www.phonerev.com/ Phonerev.com]

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{{Shelves|Wireless communication}}
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      <text bytes="25147" sha1="ninw4afvoi996gs82xnwhmvxm3nzwid" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{C sharp/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
C# operators and their precedence closely resemble the operators in other languages of the C family.

Similar to C++, classes can ''overload'' most operators, defining or redefining the behavior of the operators in contexts where the first argument of that operator is an instance of that class, but doing so is often discouraged for clarity.

Operators can be grouped by their [[:w:Arity|arity]] as [[:w:nullary operation|nullary]], [[:w:unary operator|unary]], [[:w:binary operator|binary]], [[:w:ternary operator|ternary]], [[:w:n-ary operation|n-ary]].

Following are the built-in behaviors of C# operators.

==Arithmetic==
The following arithmetic operators operate on numeric operands (arguments {{C sharp|a}} and {{C sharp|b}} in the &quot;expression&quot; below).
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a + b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''plus'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|+}} returns the [[w:en:addition|sum]] of its arguments.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a - b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''minus'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|-}} returns the [[w:en:subtraction|difference]] between its arguments.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a*b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''times'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|*}} returns the [[w:en:multiplication|multiplicative product]] of its arguments.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a/b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''divided by'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|/}} returns the [[w:en:division (mathematics)|quotient]] of its arguments. If both of its operators are integers, it obtains that quotient using ''integer division'' (i.e. it drops any resulting remainder).
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a%b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''mod'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|%}} operates only on integer arguments. It returns the [[w:en:remainder|remainder]] of ''integer division'' of those arguments. ''(See [[w:en:modular arithmetic|modular arithmetic]].)''
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a++}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''plus plus'' or ''Postincrement'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || {{C sharp|++}} operates only on arguments that have an ''l-value''. When placed '''after''' its argument, it increments that argument by 1 and returns the value of that argument before it was incremented.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|++a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''plus plus'' {{C sharp|a}} or ''Preincrement'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || {{C sharp|++}} operates only on arguments that have an ''l-value''. When placed '''before''' its argument, it increments that argument by 1 and returns the resulting value.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a--}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''minus minus'' or ''Postdecrement'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || {{C sharp|--}} operates only on arguments that have an ''l-value''. When placed '''after''' its argument, it decrements that argument by 1 and returns the value of that argument before it was decremented.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|--a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''minus minus'' {{C sharp|a}} or ''Predecrement'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || {{C sharp|--}} operates only on arguments that have an ''l-value''. When placed '''before''' its argument, it decrements that argument by 1 and returns the resulting value.
|}

==Logical==
The following logical operators operate on boolean or integral operands, as noted.
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a&amp;b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''bitwise and'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|&amp;}} evaluates both of its operands and returns the [[w:en:Logical conjunction|logical conjunction]] (&quot;AND&quot;) of their results. If the operands are integral, the logical conjunction is performed bitwise.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a&amp;&amp;b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''and'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|&amp;&amp;}} operates on boolean operands only. It evaluates its first operand. If the result is ''false'', it returns ''false''. Otherwise, it evaluates and returns the results of the second operand. Note that, if evaluating the second operand would hypothetically have no side effects, the results are identical to the logical conjunction performed by the {{C sharp|&amp;}} operator.  This is an example of [[w:en:Short-circuit_evaluation|Short Circuit Evaluation]].
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt; b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''bitwise or'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; evaluates both of its operands and returns the [[w:en:Logical disjunction|logical disjunction]] (&quot;OR&quot;) of their results. If the operands are integral, the logical disjunction is performed bitwise.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &lt;nowiki&gt; || &lt;/nowiki&gt; b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''or'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;||&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; operates on boolean operands only. It evaluates the first operand. If the result is ''true'', it returns ''true''. Otherwise, it evaluates and returns the results of the second operand. Note that, if evaluating the second operand would hypothetically have no side effects, the results are identical to the logical disjunction performed by the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; operator.  This is an example of [[w:en:Short-circuit_evaluation|Short Circuit Evaluation]].
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a ^ b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''x-or'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || &lt;code&gt;^&lt;/code&gt; returns the [[w:en:exclusive or|exclusive or]] (&quot;XOR&quot;) of their results. If the operands are integral, the exclusive or is performed bitwise.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|!a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''not'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || {{C sharp|!}} operates on a boolean operand only. It evaluates its operand and returns the [[w:en:negation|negation]] (&quot;NOT&quot;) of the result. That is, it returns ''true'' if {{C sharp|a}} evaluates to ''false'' and it returns ''false'' if {{C sharp|a}} evaluates to ''true''.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|~a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''bitwise not'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || {{C sharp|~}} operates on integral operands only. It evaluates its operand and returns the bitwise negation of the result. That is, {{C sharp|~a}} returns a value where each bit is the negation of the corresponding bit in the result of evaluating {{C sharp|a}}.
|}

==Bitwise shifting==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a &lt;&lt; b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''left shift'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|&lt;&lt;}} evaluates its operands and returns the resulting first argument left-shifted by the number of bits specified by the second argument. It discards high-order bits that shift beyond the size of its first argument and sets new low-order bits to zero.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a &gt;&gt; b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''right shift'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || {{C sharp|&gt;&gt;}} evaluates its operands and returns the resulting first argument right-shifted by the number of bits specified by the second argument. It discards low-order bits that are shifted beyond the size of its first argument and sets new high-order bits to the sign bit of the first argument, or to zero if the first argument is unsigned.
|}

== Relational ==
The binary relational operators &lt;code&gt;==&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;!=&lt;/code&gt;, {{C sharp|&lt;}}, {{C sharp|&gt;}}, &lt;code&gt;&lt;=&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;&gt;=&lt;/code&gt; are used for relational operations and for type comparisons.

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a == b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''is equal to'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || For arguments of ''value'' type, the operator &lt;code&gt;==&lt;/code&gt; returns ''true'', if its operands have the same value, false otherwise. For the ''string'' type, it returns ''true'', if the strings' character sequences match. For other ''reference'' types (types derived from {{C sharp|System.Object}}), however, &lt;code&gt;a == b&lt;/code&gt; returns ''true'' only if {{C sharp|a}} and {{C sharp|b}} reference the same object.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a != b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''is not equal to'' &lt;code&gt;b&lt;/code&gt; || binary || The operator &lt;code&gt;!=&lt;/code&gt; returns the logical negation of the operator &lt;code&gt;==&lt;/code&gt;. Thus, it returns ''true'', if &lt;code&gt;a&lt;/code&gt; is not equal to &lt;code&gt;b&lt;/code&gt;, and ''false'', if they are equal.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &lt; b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''is less than'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || The operator {{C sharp|&lt;}} operates on integral types. It returns ''true'', if {{C sharp|a}} is less than &lt;code&gt;b&lt;/code&gt;, ''false'' otherwise.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &gt; b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; |  {{C sharp|a}} ''is greater than'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || The operator {{C sharp|&gt;}} operates on integral types. It returns ''true'', if {{C sharp|a}} is greater than {{C sharp|b}}, ''false'' otherwise.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &lt;= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''is less than or equal to'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || The operator &lt;code&gt;&lt;=&lt;/code&gt; operates on integral types. It returns ''true'', if {{C sharp|a}} is less than or equal to {{C sharp|b}}, ''false'' otherwise.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &gt;= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''is greater than or equal to'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || The operator &lt;code&gt;&gt;=&lt;/code&gt; operates on integral types. It returns ''true'', if {{C sharp|a}} is greater than or equal to {{C sharp|b}}, ''false'' otherwise.
|}

==Assignment==
The most basic is the operator &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt;. Not surprisingly, it assigns the value (or reference) of its second argument to its first argument. As such, the assignment operator is binary, but has an n-ary form.

(More technically, the operator &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt; requires for its first (''left'') argument an expression to which a value can be assigned (an ''l-value'') and for its second (''right'') argument an expression that can be evaluated (an ''r-value''). That requirement of an ''assignable'' expression to its left and a ''bound'' expression to its right is the origin of the terms ''l-value'' and ''r-value''.)

The first argument of the assignment operator (&lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt;) is typically a variable. When that argument has a ''value'' type, the assignment operation changes the argument's underlying value. When the first argument is a ''reference'' type, the assignment operation changes the reference, so the first argument typically just refers to a different object, but the object that it originally referenced does not change (except that it may no longer be referenced and may thus be a candidate for ''garbage collection'').

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a = b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''equals'' (or ''set to'') {{C sharp|b}} || binary || The operator &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt; evaluates its second argument and then assigns the results to (the ''l-value'' indicated by) its first argument.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a = b = c&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|b}} ''set to'' {{C sharp|c}}, and then {{C sharp|a}} ''set to'' {{C sharp|b}} || n-ary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = (b = c)&lt;/code&gt;. When there are consecutive assignments, the right-most assignment is evaluated first, proceeding from right to left. In this example, both variables {{C sharp|a}} and {{C sharp|b}} have the value of {{C sharp|c}}. This may be continued ''ad infinitum'' to assign the same ''r-value'' to multiple ''l-values'' (e.g., &lt;code&gt;a = b = c = d = 0;&lt;/code&gt; is equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = 0; b = 0; c = 0; d = 0;&lt;/code&gt;).
|}

==Short-hand Assignment==
The short-hand assignment operators shortens the common assignment operation of &lt;code&gt;a = a ''operator'' b&lt;/code&gt; into &lt;code&gt;a ''operator''= b&lt;/code&gt;, resulting in less typing and neater syntax.

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a += b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''plus equals'' (or ''increment by'') {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a + b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a -= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''minus equals'' (or ''decrement by'') {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a - b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a *= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''multiply equals'' (or ''multiplied by'') {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a*b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a /= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''divide equals'' (or ''divided by'') {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a/b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a %= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''mod equals'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a%b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &amp;= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''and equals'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a&amp;b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;a |= b&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''or equals'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;a = a|b&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a ^= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''xor equals'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a^b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &lt;&lt;= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''left-shift equals'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a &lt;&lt; b&lt;/code&gt;.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | &lt;code&gt;a &gt;&gt;= b&lt;/code&gt; || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a}} ''right-shift equals'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || Equivalent to &lt;code&gt;a = a &gt;&gt; b&lt;/code&gt;.
|}

== Type information ==

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|x is T}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''is'' {{C sharp|x}} ''of type'' {{C sharp|T}} || binary || returns true, if the variable {{C sharp|x}} of base class type stores an object of derived class type T, or, if {{C sharp|x}} is of type {{C sharp|T}}. Else returns false.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|x as T}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''cast'' {{C sharp|x}} ''to'' {{C sharp|T}} || binary || returns {{C sharp|(T)x}} ''(x cast to T)'', if the variable {{C sharp|x}} of base class type stores an object of derived class type {{C sharp|T}}, or, if {{C sharp|x}} is of type {{C sharp|T}}. Else returns null. Equivalent to {{C sharp|x is T ? (T)x : null}}
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|sizeof(x)}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''size of'' {{C sharp|x}} || unary || returns the size of the value type {{C sharp|x}}. Remarks: The sizeof operator can be applied only to value types, not reference types..
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|typeof(T)}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''type of'' {{C sharp|T}} || unary || returns a {{C sharp|System.Type}} object describing the type. {{C sharp|T}} must be the name of the type, and not a variable. Use the {{C sharp|GetType}} method to retrieve run-time type information of variables.
|}

== Pointer manipulation ==
''NOTE: Most C# developers agree that direct manipulation and use of pointers is not recommended in C#. The language has many built-in classes to allow you to do almost any operation you want. C# was built with memory-management in mind and the creation and use of pointers is greatly disruptive to this end. This speaks to the declaration of pointers and the use of pointer notation, not arrays. In fact, a program may only be compiled in &quot;unsafe mode&quot;, if it uses pointers.''

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|*a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''object at'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || ''Indirection'' operator. Allows access the object being pointed.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a-&gt;member}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''member'' {{C sharp|member}} ''of'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || Similar to the {{C sharp|.}} operator. Allows access to members of classes and structs being pointed.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a[b]}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''object at offset'' {{C sharp|b}} ''from'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || Used to ''index'' a pointer.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|&amp;a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''reference to'' {{C sharp|a}} || unary || References the ''address'' of the pointer.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|stackalloc a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''allocate'' {{C sharp|a}} ''on the stack'' || binary || Allocates memory on the stack, rather than the heap. See [[C Sharp Programming/Keywords/stackalloc]].
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|fixed a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''prevent'' {{C sharp|a}} ''from being relocated'' || binary || Temporarily fixes a variable in order that its address may be found. See [[C Sharp Programming/Keywords/fixed]].
|}

== Overflow exception control ==

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|checked(a)}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''evaluate'' {{C sharp|a}} ''and check for overflow'' || unary || uses overflow checking on value {{C sharp|a}}. See [[C Sharp Programming/Keywords/checked]].
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|unchecked(a)}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''evaluate'' {{C sharp|a}} ''without checking for overflow'' || unary || avoids overflow checking on value {{C sharp|a}}. See [[C Sharp Programming/Keywords/unchecked]].
|}

== Others ==

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Expression || Read || Arity || Explanation
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a.b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''member'' {{C sharp|b}} ''of'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || Accesses member {{C sharp|b}} of type or namespace {{C sharp|a}}. If {{C sharp|b}} is a field, it calls the {{C sharp|get}} function for that field.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a[b]}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''item'' {{C sharp|b}} ''in'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || Returns the value of index {{C sharp|b}} in {{C sharp|a}}. Arrays use 0-origin indexing.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|(a)b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''cast'' {{C sharp|b}} ''to type'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || Explicitly casts the value {{C sharp|b}} to type {{C sharp|a}}. Type {{C sharp|b}} must have a cast function that casts directly to {{C sharp|a}} or to another type that has a cast function to {{C sharp|a}}.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|new a}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''create a new'' {{C sharp|a}} || n-ary || Creates an object of type {{C sharp|a}} and calls its default constructor. Type {{C sharp|a}} may include constructors with arguments, in which case it takes the form {{C sharp|new a(type1 arg1, type2 arg2, ...)}}. See [[C Sharp Programming/Keywords/new]].
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a + b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''concatenate string'' {{C sharp|b}} ''to the end of string'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || If {{C sharp|a}} and {{C sharp|b}} are strings, concatenates {{C sharp|a}} and {{C sharp|b}}. If any addend is {{C sharp|null}}, the empty string ({{C sharp|&quot;&quot;}}) is used instead. If one addend is a string and the other one is a non-string object, {{C sharp|ToString()}} is called on that object before concatenation.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a + b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''concatenate delegate'' {{C sharp|b}} ''to delegate'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || If {{C sharp|a}} and {{C sharp|b}} are delegates, performs delegate concatenation.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a ? b : c}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''if'' {{C sharp|a}} ''then'' {{C sharp|b}} ''else'' {{C sharp|c}} || ternary || If {{C sharp|a}} is true, evaluates and returns the value of {{C sharp|b}}, otherwise it evaluates and returns {{C sharp|c}}. Only one of {{C sharp|b}} and {{C sharp|c}} will be evaluated.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a ?? b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''if'' {{C sharp|a}} ''is'' {{C sharp|null}} ''then'' {{C sharp|b}} ''else'' {{C sharp|a}} || binary || If {{C sharp|a}} is {{C sharp|null}}, evaluates and returns the value of {{C sharp|b}}, otherwise evaluates and returns {{C sharp|a}}. If {{C sharp|a}} is non-{{C sharp|null}}, {{C sharp|b}} will not be evaluated.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a?.b}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''if'' {{C sharp|a}} ''is not'' {{C sharp|null}} ''then evaluate'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || This determines if an object is {{C sharp|null}} before attempting to reference a member field or method. Ternary use in conjunction with {{C sharp|??}} to provide an alternative (e.g. {{C sharp|a?.b()??c}}). Can be used in n-ary form with {{C sharp|?[]}} for continual null-checks (e.g., {{C sharp|a?.b()?[c]}}). ''(Available since C# 6)''
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|a?[b]}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''if'' {{C sharp|a}} ''is not'' {{C sharp|null}} ''then get'' {{C sharp|b}} || binary || This determines if an array or other structure is {{C sharp|null}} before attempting to reference an item (numeric or identifier). Ternary use in conjunction with {{C sharp|??}} to provide an alternative (e.g. {{C sharp|a?[b]??c}}). Can be used in n-ary form with {{C sharp|?.}} for continual null-checks (e.g., {{C sharp|a?.b()?[c]}}). ''(Available since C# 6)''
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|@&quot;a&quot;}}  || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''verbatim'' {{C sharp|&quot;a&quot;}} || nullary || String constant of verbatim text, i.e., escape characters are ignored.
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|$&quot;{b}&quot;}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''insert'' {{C sharp|b}} ''into the string literal'' || n-ary || &lt;code&gt;$&lt;/code&gt; begins a string interpolation statement, which inserts substring(s) into the string literal, useful for quick string-building. A symbol name enclosed in &lt;code&gt;{}&lt;/code&gt; will be evaluated to the string value, using &lt;code&gt;ToString()&lt;/code&gt; where necessary. ''(Available since C# 6)''
|-
| style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | {{C sharp|$@&quot;{b}&quot;}} || style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot; | ''insert'' {{C sharp|b}} ''into the verbatim string literal'' || n-ary || Combines the functionality of &lt;code&gt;@&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;$&lt;/code&gt;. Brace literals can be designated by &lt;code&gt;{{&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;}}&lt;/code&gt; ''(Available since C# 6. NOTE: In C# 8 and beyond, the operators may be in either order.)''
|}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
{{BookCat}}

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[[it:C sharp/Operatori]]</text>
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'''[[w:variable#Computer programming|Variables]]''' are used to store values. More technically, a variable [[w:Name binding|binds]] an [[w:object (computer science)|object]] (in the general sense of the term, i.e. a specific value) to an identifier (the variable's name) so that the object can be accessed later. Variables can, for example, store a value for later use:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
string name = &quot;Dr. Jones&quot;;
Console.WriteLine(&quot;Good morning &quot; + name);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

In this example &quot;name&quot; is the identifier and &quot;Dr. Jones&quot; is the value that we bound to it. Also, each variable is declared with an explicit ''type''. Only values whose types are compatible with the variable's declared type can be bound to (stored in) the variable. In the above example we stored &quot;Dr. Jones&quot; into a variable of the type {{C sharp|string}}. This is a legal statement. However, if we had said {{C sharp|int name}} = {{C sharp|&quot;Dr. Jones&quot;}}, the compiler would have thrown an error telling us that you cannot implicitly convert between {{C sharp|int}} and {{C sharp|string}}. There are methods for doing this, but we will talk about them later.

==Fields, local variables, and parameters==

C# supports several program elements corresponding to the general programming concept of ''variable'': ''fields'', ''parameters'', and ''local variables''.

===Fields===

'''Fields''', sometimes called class-level variables, are variables associated with classes or structures. An ''instance variable'' is a field associated with an instance of the class or structure, while a ''static variable'', declared with the {{C sharp/kw|static}} keyword, is a field associated with the type itself. Fields can also be associated with their class by making them ''constants'' ({{C sharp/kw|const}}), which requires a declaration assignment of a constant value and prevents subsequent changes to the field.

Each field has a visibility of ''public'', ''protected'', ''internal'', ''protected internal'', or ''private'' (from most visible to least visible).

===Local variables===

Like fields, local variables can optionally be ''constant'' ({{C sharp/kw|const}}). Constant local variables are stored in the assembly data region, while non-constant local variables are stored on (or referenced from) the stack. They thus have both a scope and an extent of the method or statement block that declares them.

===Parameter===

'''Parameters''' are variables associated with a method.

An ''in'' parameter may either have its value passed in from the caller to the method's environment, so that changes to the parameter by the method do not affect the value of the caller's variable, or passed in by reference, so that changes to the variables will affect the value of the caller's variable.  Value types (int, double, string) are passed in &quot;by value&quot; while reference types (objects) are passed in &quot;by reference.&quot; Since this is the default for the C# compiler, it is not necessary to use '&amp;', as in C or C++.

An ''out'' parameter does not have its value copied, thus changes to the variable's value within the method's environment directly affect the value from the caller's environment. Such a variable is considered by the compiler to be ''unbound'' upon method entry, thus it is illegal to reference an ''out'' parameter before assigning it a value. It also '''must''' be assigned by the method in each valid (non-exceptional) code path through the method in order for the method to compile.

A ''reference'' parameter is similar to an ''out'' parameter, except that it is ''bound'' before the method call and it need not be assigned by the method.

A ''params'' parameter represents a variable number of parameters. If a method signature includes one, the ''params'' argument must be the last argument in the signature.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
// Each pair of lines is what the definition of a method and a call of a 
//   method with each of the parameters types would look like.
// In param:
void MethodOne(int param1)    // definition
MethodOne(variable);          // call

// Out param:
void MethodTwo(out string message)  // definition
MethodTwo(out variable);            // call

// Reference param;
void MethodThree(ref int someFlag)  // definition
MethodThree(ref theFlag)            // call

// Params
void MethodFour(params string[] names)           // definition
MethodFour(&quot;Matthew&quot;, &quot;Mark&quot;, &quot;Luke&quot;, &quot;John&quot;);   // call
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Types==

Each '''type''' in C# is either a ''value type'' or a ''reference type''. C# has several predefined (&quot;built-in&quot;) types and allows for declaration of custom value types and reference types.

There is a fundamental difference between value types and reference types: Value types are allocated on the stack, whereas reference types are allocated on the heap.

===Value types===

The value types in the .NET framework are usually small, frequently used types. The benefit of using them is that the type requires very little resources to get up and running by the CLR. Value types do not require memory to be allocated on the heap and therefore will not cause garbage collection. However, in order to be useful, the value types (or types derived from it) should remain small - ideally below 16 bytes of data. If you choose to make your value type bigger, it is recommended that you do not pass it to methods (which can require a copy of all its fields), or return it from methods.

Although this sounds like a useful type to have, it does have some flaws, which need to be understood when using it.

* Value types are always copied (intrinsically) before being passed to a method. Changes to this new object will not be reflected back in the original object passed into the method.
* Value types do not /need/ you to call their constructor. They are automatically initialized.
* Value types always initialize their fields to 0 or null. 
* Value types can NEVER be assigned a value of null (but can using Nullable types)
* Value types sometimes need to be ''boxed'' (wrapped inside an object), allowing their values to be used like objects.

===Reference types===

Reference types are managed very differently by the CLR. All reference types consist of two parts: A pointer to the heap (which contains the object), and the object itself. Reference types are slightly heavier weight because of the management behind the scenes needed to keep track of them. However, this is a minor price to pay for the flexibility and speed gains from passing a pointer around, rather than copying values to/from methods. 

When an object is initialized, by use of the constructor, and is of a reference type, the CLR must perform four operations:

#The CLR calculates the amount of memory required to hold the object on the heap.
#The CLR inserts the data into the newly created memory space.
#The CLR marks where the end of the space lies, so that the next object can be placed there.
#The CLR returns a reference to the newly created space.

This occurs every single time an object is created. However the assumption is that there is infinite memory, therefore some maintenance needs to take place - and that's where the garbage collector comes in.

===Integral types===

Because the type system in C# is unified with other languages that are CLI-compliant, each integral C# type is actually an alias for a corresponding type in the .NET framework. Although the names of the aliases vary between .NET languages, the underlying types in the .NET framework remain the same. Thus, objects created in assemblies written in other languages of the .NET Framework can be bound to C# variables of any type to which the value can be converted, per the conversion rules below. The following illustrates the cross-language compatibility of types by comparing C# code with the equivalent Visual Basic .NET code:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
// C#
public void UsingCSharpTypeAlias()
{
  int i = 42;
}

public void EquivalentCodeWithoutAlias()
{
  System.Int32 i = 42;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=VB&gt;
 ' Visual Basic .NET
 Public Sub UsingVisualBasicTypeAlias()
   Dim i As Integer = 42
 End Sub

 Public Sub EquivalentCodeWithoutAlias()
   Dim i As System.Int32 = 42
 End Sub
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Using the language-specific type aliases is often considered more readable than using the fully-qualified .NET Framework type names.

The fact that each C# type corresponds to a type in the unified type system gives each ''value type'' a consistent size across platforms and compilers. That consistency is an important distinction from other languages such as C, where, e.g. a {{C sharp|long}} is only guaranteed to be at ''least as large as an {{C sharp|int}}'', and is implemented with different sizes by different compilers. As ''reference'' types, variables of types derived from {{C sharp|object}} (i.e. any {{C sharp|class}}) are exempt from the consistent size requirement. That is, the size of ''reference'' types like {{C sharp|System.IntPtr}}, as opposed to ''value'' types like {{C sharp|System.Int32}}, may vary by platform. Fortunately, there is rarely a need to know the actual size of a ''reference'' type.

There are two predefined ''reference types'': {{C sharp|object}}, an alias for the {{C sharp|System.Object}} class, from which all other reference types derive; and {{C sharp|string}}, an alias for the {{C sharp|System.String}} class. C# likewise has several integral value types, each an alias to a corresponding value type in the {{C sharp|System}} namespace of the .NET Framework. The predefined C# type aliases expose the methods of the underlying .NET Framework types. For example, since the .NET Framework's {{C sharp|System.Int32}} type implements a {{C sharp|ToString()}} method to convert the value of an integer to its string representation, C#'s {{C sharp|int}} type exposes that method:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
int i = 97;
string s = i.ToString();  // The value of s is now the string &quot;97&quot;.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Likewise, the {{C sharp|System.Int32}} type implements the {{C sharp|Parse()}} method, which can therefore be accessed via C#'s {{C sharp|int}} type:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
string s = &quot;97&quot;;
int i = int.Parse(s); // The value of i is now the integer 97.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The unified type system is enhanced by the ability to convert value types to reference types (''boxing'') and likewise to convert certain reference types to their corresponding value types (''unboxing''). This is also known as ''casting''.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
object boxedInteger = 97;
int unboxedInteger = (int) boxedInteger;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Boxing and casting are, however, not type-safe: the compiler won't generate an error if the programmer mixes up the types. In the following short example the mistake is quite obvious, but in complex programs it may be very difficult to spot. Avoid boxing, if possible.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
object getInteger = &quot;97&quot;;
int anInteger = (int) getInteger; // No compile-time error. The program will crash, however.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The built-in C# type aliases and their equivalent .NET Framework types follow:

====Integers====

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!C# Alias || .NET Type || Size (bits) || Range
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|sbyte}} || System.SByte || 8 || -128 to 127
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|byte}} || System.Byte || 8 || 0 to 255
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|short}} || System.Int16 || 16 || -32,768 to 32,767
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|ushort}} || System.UInt16 || 16 || 0 to 65,535
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|char}} || System.Char || 16 || A unicode character of code 0 to 65,535
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|int}} || System.Int32 || 32 || -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|uint}} || System.UInt32 || 32 || 0 to 4,294,967,295
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|long}} || System.Int64 || 64 || -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|ulong}} || System.UInt64 || 64 || 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615
|}

====Floating-point====

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!C# Alias || .NET Type || Size (bits) || Precision || Range
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|float}} || System.Single || 32 || 7 digits || 1.5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-45&lt;/sup&gt; to 3.4 x 10&lt;sup&gt;38&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|double}} || System.Double || 64 || 15-16 digits || 5.0 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-324&lt;/sup&gt; to 1.7 x 10&lt;sup&gt;308&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|decimal}} || System.Decimal || 128 || 28-29 decimal places || 1.0 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-28&lt;/sup&gt; to 7.9 x 10&lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

====Other predefined types====

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9;{{text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!C# Alias || .NET Type || Size (bits) || Range
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|bool}} || System.Boolean || 32 || true or false, which aren't related to any integer in C#.
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|object}} || System.Object || 32/64 || Platform dependent (a pointer to an object).
|-
|{{C sharp/kw|string}} || System.String || 16*length || A unicode string with no special upper bound.
|}

===Custom types===

The predefined types can be aggregated and extended into custom types.

Custom ''value types'' are declared with the {{C sharp/kw|struct}} or {{C sharp/kw|enum}} keyword. Likewise, [[C Sharp Programming/Classes|custom reference types]] are declared with the {{C sharp/kw|class}} keyword.

====Arrays====

Although the number of dimensions is included in array declarations, the size of each dimension is not:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
string[] a_str;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Assignments to an array variable (prior to the variable's usage), however, specify the size of each dimension:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
a_str = new string[5];
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

As with other variable types, the declaration and the initialization can be combined:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
string[] a_str = new string[5];
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

It is also important to note that like in Java, arrays are passed by reference, and not passed by value. For example, the following code snippet successfully swaps two elements in an integer array:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
static void swap (int[] a_iArray, int iI, int iJ)
{
    int iTemp = a_iArray[iI];

    a_iArray[iI] = a_iArray[iJ];
    a_iArray[iJ] = iTemp;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

It is possible to determine the array size during runtime. The following example assigns the loop counter to the unsigned short array elements:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
    ushort[] a_usNumbers = new ushort[234];
    [...]
    for (ushort us = 0; us &lt; a_usNumbers.Length; us++)
    {
        a_usNumbers[us] = us;
    }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Since C# 2.0, it is possible to have arrays also inside of [[C_Sharp_Programming/Classes#Structures|structures]].

==Text &amp; variable example==

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=CSharp&gt;
using System;

namespace Login
{
  class Username_Password
  {
    public static void Main()
    {
      string username,password;
      Console.Write(&quot;Enter username: &quot;);
      username = Console.ReadLine();
      Console.Write(&quot;Enter password: &quot;);
      password = Console.ReadLine();

      if (username == &quot;SomePerson&quot; &amp;&amp; password == &quot;SomePassword&quot;)
      {
      	Console.WriteLine(&quot;Access Granted.&quot;);
      }
      else if (username != &quot;SomePerson&quot; &amp;&amp; password == &quot;SomePassword&quot;)
      {
      	Console.WriteLine(&quot;The username is wrong.&quot;);
      }
      else if (username == &quot;SomePerson&quot; &amp;&amp; password != &quot;SomePassword&quot;)
      {
      	Console.WriteLine(&quot;The password is wrong.&quot;);
      }
      else
      {
      	Console.WriteLine(&quot;Access Denied.&quot;);
      }
    }
  }
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Conversion===
Values of a given type may or may not be explicitly or implicitly convertible to other types depending on predefined conversion rules, inheritance structure, and explicit cast definitions.

====Predefined conversions====
Many predefined value types have predefined conversions to other predefined value types.  If the type conversion is guaranteed not to lose information, the conversion can be ''implicit'' (i.e. an explicit ''cast'' is not required).

====Inheritance polymorphism====
A value can be implicitly converted to any class from which it inherits or interface that it implements. To convert a base class to a class that inherits from it, the conversion must be explicit in order for the conversion statement to compile. Similarly, to convert an interface instance to a class that implements it, the conversion must be explicit in order for the conversion statement to compile. In either case, the runtime environment throws a conversion exception if the value to convert is not an instance of the target type or any of its derived types.

==Scope and extent==
The scope and extent of variables is based on their declaration. The scope of parameters and local variables corresponds to the declaring method or statement block, while the scope of fields is associated with the instance or class and is potentially further restricted by the field's access modifiers.

The extent of variables is determined by the runtime environment using implicit reference counting and a complex garbage collection algorithm.

{{BookCat}}

[[ko:C 샤프 프로그래밍/변수]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Oscillations</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>50116</id>
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      <id>4662438</id>
      <parentid>4651726</parentid>
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        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="9035" sha1="rrk5f7bu2b8r6or4zic988pl7kjh3dg" xml:space="preserve">If you observe the motion of a pendulum, a child on a swing, or a speaker cone playing a low frequency sound, you will notice that in each case, there is movement backwards and forwards of the same distance from a center point, or in other words, a vibration. These objects that vibrate are said to '''oscillate'''.

==Observing oscillations==
===Free oscillations===
When an object is in free oscillation, it vibrates at its '''natural frequency'''. For example, if you strike a tuning fork, it will begin to vibrate for some time after you struck it, or if you hit a pendulum, it will always oscillate at the same frequency no matter how hard you hit it. All oscillating objects have a natural frequency, at which they will vibrate at once they have been moved from the '''equilibrium position'''.

===Forced oscillations===
Imagine a building in an earthquake. The ground is moving side to side, and the building (assuming that it is strong enough to not be completely destroyed by the forces) will be moving side to side with the ground. In this case, this oscillation is not the buildings natural frequency, but it is being forced to vibrate with the ground. This is a forced oscillation.
===Examples of oscillating systems===
*A mass that is held up with a spring
*A pendulum
*A string of a guitar

==Describing oscillations==

Oscillations can be shown on a displacement-time graph, like this:

[[Image:Simple harmonic motion.png]]

Notice that the curves are smooth. This is because the object slows down before changing direction, instead of bouncing back and forth, which is what a graph with straight lines and sharp corners would describe. Movement that has a displacement-time graph with curved lines like the one above, is called '''sinusoidal motion'''.

The graph can show us the differences between several oscillating systems. For an oscillating system, the graph shows us:

*The '''displacement''' at a given point in time,
*The '''amplitude''',
*The '''period''' and,
*The '''frequency'''

===Displacement===

The displacement at a certain point in time is the distance of the object away from the centre point. The displacement is 0 at the centre, at its maximum at one end (usually on the right when right is taken as positive), and at its greatest negative value on the opposite end (usually left but, again, only when right is taken as positive). Displacement is given the symbol ''s'' or ''x''.

===Amplitude===

The amplitude is the greatest displacement of an oscillating object. It is measured from the center point to one of the maximum points of displacement. The amplitude can increase or decrease with time. Amplitude is represented by the symbol ''A''

===Period and frequency===
period is the time taken for a single oscillation.
the frequency is the number of oscillations per second

==Simple harmonic motion==

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
A body executes simple harmonic motion if its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from a fixed point, and is always in the direction of that point.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

To explore simple harmonic motion (SHM) let's take the example of a spring with a mass in the absence of gravity (interestingly, you get SHM even with gravity present).  If this is our ideal spring, the force is kx where k is a measure of the stiffness of the spring and x is the displacement.  The force is toward the origin if that is the equilibrium position of the spring, so we write -kx to remind ourselves of that.  Now, Newton's second law becomes

&lt;math&gt;m \frac{d^2 x}{dt^2} = -kx&lt;/math&gt;.

This differential equation is easy enough to solve, and the answer is &lt;math&gt;A cos( \omega_0 t + \phi)&lt;/math&gt; where A and &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; are arbitrary constants and &lt;math&gt;\omega_0 = \sqrt{k/m}&lt;/math&gt;.  It does not really matter how we got the solution, because we are physicists, not mathematicians.  This is the answer we are expecting, so we try it, and lo and behold, it works.  If you do not believe me, substitute it in.  Moreover, this is the complete solution, and you will just have to believe me on that because it is slightly more difficult to prove.

Without loss of generality, we will take &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;, also called the phase shift, to be zero (if you are concerned about this, we are just defining where t=0 is).

Now, a remarkable thing we recognize about the solution is that the frequency (radians per second), &lt;math&gt;\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; is independent of A.  That is, no matter how big the oscillations are, the frequency is the same.  A pendulum approximately undergoes SHM, so this is why they are used in clocks, the amplitude doesn't affect the period!  By the way, we have added the subscript zero to omega because we are going to have some other omegas soon.

Some terms to remember are frequency, f (cycles per second) = &lt;math&gt; \omega_0 / (2 \pi) &lt;/math&gt; and the period, T = &lt;math&gt; 1/f &lt;/math&gt;.  These are not so important, but often people will specify the frequency or the period instead of the angular frequency, so they can be helpful.

Now, to get the velocity, differentiate the position, and to get the acceleration, differentiate the velocity.  We have,

&lt;math&gt;v = A \omega_0 sin ( \omega_0 t)&lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;a = -A \omega_0^2 cos( \omega_0 t) = - \omega_0^2 x&lt;/math&gt;.

Now, we have avoided saying what A is.  It turns out, it depends on the problem, or the initial conditions.  We can say the velocity or position of the oscillator at some t is something and then use the expression for v or a to find A.  You can do the same thing with the phase if you want, but it is a little tedious and doesn't tell us much.

Notice the greatest velocity is at the equilibrium position (x = 0) of the oscillation.  We can go one making such statements, but they are all extremely obvious if you simply plot out the position, velocity, and acceleration on the same graph.

==Damping==

An object that oscillates freely oscillates at its natural frequency. If it loses no energy, it will continue to oscillate forever. Damping is when an oscillating mass loses energy. There are 3 types of damping:

1) Light - The amplitude gradually decreases over time

2) Critical - The mass would overshoot 0 displacement

3) Heavy - The displacement decreases to 0 without any oscillation.

The cause of damping is frictional forces, e.g. Car suspension

Let's try to quantify this a bit.  Say there is a friction force which is proportional to the velocity (this is a pretty good approximation in many cases) with constant of proportionality c.  Then, by Newton's second law,

&lt;math&gt;m \frac{d^2 x}{dt^2} + c \frac{dx}{dt} + kx = 0&lt;/math&gt;.

This equation is a little trickier to solve than without the friction.  I am going to use a very nice trick which you will find throughout physics, and whenever you have similar equations.  Notice that if x is a solution and y is a solution, then ax + by is also a solution, where a and b are constants (real or complex).  This property means the equation is called &quot;linear.&quot;  We know that &lt;math&gt;e^{ix} = cos(x) + i sin(x)&lt;/math&gt;.  Assume x is &lt;math&gt;Ae^{i \omega t}&lt;/math&gt;.  Then we just take the real part of x and we get our answer because the equation is linear, but exponentials are so much easier to work with than sines and cosines.  The equation of motion becomes

&lt;math&gt;(-m \omega^2 + i \omega c + k) e^{i \omega t} = 0&lt;/math&gt;

So,

&lt;math&gt;(m \omega^2 - i \omega c - k) = 0&lt;/math&gt; or
&lt;math&gt;\omega_0 = ic/2m \plusmn \sqrt{(c/m)^2 /4 - k/m}&lt;/math&gt;.

Defining &lt;math&gt; \gamma = c/m&lt;/math&gt;, and remembering &lt;math&gt;\omega_0^2 = k/m&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\omega = i \gamma /2 \plusmn \sqrt{-\gamma ^2 /4 + \omega_0^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Defining &lt;math&gt; \omega_\gamma = \sqrt{-\gamma ^2 /4 + \omega_0^2} &lt;/math&gt;, we have the general solution

&lt;math&gt; Ae^{-\gamma/2 + i\omega_\gamma} + Be^{-\gamma/2 - i\omega_\gamma} = e^{-\gamma/2} (A e^{i\omega_\gamma} + B e^{-i\omega_\gamma} ) &lt;/math&gt;.

All we do is take the real part of this with Euler's identity, and we have,

&lt;math&gt; C e^{-\gamma/2} cos( \omega_\gamma t + \phi) &lt;/math&gt;,

where C and &lt;math&gt;phi&lt;/math&gt; are just A and B written a different way.  You can find them if you want, but they won't be very helpful.  Notice that the oscillator oscillates with ever decreasing amplitude, but not at its &quot;natural&quot; frequency, but at a different frequency.

It is conceivable that &lt;math&gt;\omega_\gamma&lt;/math&gt; is imaginary, in which case, the entire solution is just a negative exponential!  This is called critical damping, when it just turns into being an exponential instead of oscillitory motion.

==Resonance==

A mass resonates, when the driving frequency of oscillations is equal to the natural frequency of the object. (See Tacoma Narrows Bridge also known as &quot;Galloping Gertie&quot;) This means that work is done to keep drive the oscillations.

If the driving frequency is less than the natural frequency, the amplitude decreases to a much smaller value.
{{A-level physics}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Electric fields</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>51273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662457</id>
      <parentid>4624488</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T15:53:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662457</origin>
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      <text bytes="8425" sha1="k83x7fedovb42smol7i8eo3kwfj4hpn" xml:space="preserve">Like gravitational fields, electric fields are a field of force that act from a distance, where the force here is exerted by a charged object on another charged object.Uniform electrical fields goes from positive to negative and the radial electrical fields are the electrical fields that are exerted on a point charge. You may already be familiar with the fact that opposite charges attract, and that like charges repel. Here, we will look at ways to calculate field strengths and the magnitude of forces exerted, in a very similar manner to gravitational fields. This information is correct and can be used efficiently.

==Representing electric fields==

Electric field lines are drawn always pointing from positive to negative, like the flow of current. Just like magnetic and gravitational fields, the separation of the lines tell us the relative strength.

===Radial fields===

Radial fields are drawn from a centre point. The field is stronger nearer the surface of the object, and weakens as you move further away. For a positive charge, the arrows point outwards, and for a negative charge, the arrows point inwards.

{|
| [[File:VFPt minus thumb.svg|150px|thumb|The field is directed into a negative point charge...]]
| [[File:VFPt plus thumb.svg|150px|thumb|...and it is directed outwards from a positive one.]]
|}

===Uniform fields===

[[File:VFPt capacitor.svg|alt=VFPt capacitor|120px|thumb|right|Two plates of opposite polarity (from inside a capacitor) and the lines representing the uniform field between them.]]

Uniform electric fields can be of two types depending on the behavior of the source of the electric field.

'''Static uniform electric field'''

In a static uniform electric field, the intensity or the strength of the electric field at each point is independent of time and the position of the point with respect to the source of the electric field. In other words, the electric field intensity is constant for all points. The electric field lines are represented by parallel lines. The source consists of charges that are at rest. A static uniform electric field can be established at points very close to a charged sheet. For example, a parallel plate capacitor offers a static uniform electric field in the dielectric medium present in between its plates. The field curves outwards slightly on the edges of the plates, and it is important that you draw it like that. These are conservative fields.

'''Moving uniform electric field'''

In a moving uniform electric field, the intensity or the strength of the electric field at each point is dependent on the time elapsed but is independent of the position of the point with respect to the source of the electric field. In other words, the electric field intensity varies with time alone. The electric field lines are represented by parallel lines. The source consists of charges that are moving. A moving uniform electric field can be established at points very close to a still charging sheet. For example, a parallel plate capacitor offers a moving uniform electric field in the dielectric medium present in between its plates, while its being charged. The field curves outwards slightly on the edges of the plates, and it is important that you draw it like that. These are non-conservative fields.

==Coulomb's law==

'''Coulomb's law''' is very similar to Newton's law of gravitation, except instead of relating the force between two masses together, it relates the force between two charges, &lt;math&gt;Q_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Q_2&lt;/math&gt;. Since the two charges are point charges which have radial fields, they follow the inverse square law.

Therefore, the relationship can be expressed as:

:&lt;math&gt;F \propto \frac {Q_1 Q_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Or, in words:

{{center/top}}&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
Any two point charges exert a force on each other that is proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.&lt;/div&gt;{{center/end}}

Just like Newton's law, we need to introduce a constant of proportionality to make it into an equation, which in this case is k:

:&lt;math&gt;F = k \frac {Q_1 Q_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Where &lt;math&gt;k= \frac {1}{4 \pi \epsilon_0} \approx 8.99 \times 10^9&lt;/math&gt;.

===Permittivity of free space===

&lt;math&gt;\epsilon_0&lt;/math&gt; is known as the permittivity of free space, and is roughly &lt;math&gt;8.85 \times 10^{-12}&lt;/math&gt;. It is often useful to just remember that &lt;math&gt;k \approx 8.99 \times 10^9&lt;/math&gt; in free space, however you do also need to know &lt;math&gt;k= \frac {1}{4 \pi \epsilon_0}&lt;/math&gt;, as you may be given the permittivity of different mediums.

===Signs of charges===

Note that for each charge, you must keep the signs intact in the equation. If you were to have two positive, or two negative charges in the equation, the result would be positive, but if you were to have one negative and one positive charge, the final answer would be negative. The sign of the answer tells us whether the force between the two charges is an attraction, or a repulsion, like charges will repel, and opposite charges will attract. This also explains the minus sign in Newton's law of gravitation, since the force between two masses is always an attraction.

==Electric field strength==

Just as gravitational field strength is the force exerted per unit mass, we could define the electric field strength in terms of charge:

{{center/top}}&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}};padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The electric field strength at a point is the force per unit charge exerted on a positive charge placed at that point.
&lt;/div&gt;{{center/end}}

This is just like saying that the electric field strength is the force a charge of +1 coulomb experiences in that electric field. Therefore, we can find the electric field strength, E, by:

:&lt;math&gt;E = \frac{F}{Q}&lt;/math&gt;.

From this equation, you can see that the electric field strength is measured in &lt;math&gt;N C^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;.

===Field strength of a uniform field===

You can make a uniform electric field by charging two plates. Increasing the voltage between them will increase the field strength, and moving the plates further apart will decrease the field strength. A simple equation for field strength can be made from these two points:

:&lt;math&gt;E= \frac{V}{d}&lt;/math&gt;

Where V is the voltage between the plates, and d is the distance between them.

Here you can see that the units of electric field strength is &lt;math&gt;Vm^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;. &lt;math&gt;NC^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is equivalent to &lt;math&gt;Vm^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;.

===Field strength of a radial field===

Since the electric field strength could be said to be the force exerted on a charge of +1C, we can substitute 1 coulomb for &lt;math&gt;Q_2&lt;/math&gt; in Coulomb's law. We then get the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;E = \frac {kQ}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;, or

:&lt;math&gt;E = \frac {Q}{4 \pi \epsilon_0 r^2}&lt;/math&gt;

This will tell us the field strength of a charge, Q, at a distance, r.

==Force on particles==

To calculate the force an electron experiences in a uniform field, we can combine &lt;math&gt;E = \frac {F}{Q}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;E= -\frac {V}{d}&lt;/math&gt; in the following steps:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac {F}{Q} = -\frac {V}{d}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{F} = -\frac {QV}{d}&lt;/math&gt;

For an electron with a charge of -e, this becomes:

:&lt;math&gt;{F} = \frac {eV}{d}&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;eE&lt;/math&gt;

This is useful if you are asked to find the force on an electron in a uniform field, most often in a cathode ray tube

==Comparison of electric and gravitational fields==

As you may have already noticed, electric and gravitational fields are quite similar. You should be aware of the similarities and differences between them.

===Similarities===

*For point charges or masses, the variation of force with distance follows the inverse square law.
*Both exert a force from a distance, with no contact.
*The field strength of both is defined in terms of force per unit of the property of the object that causes the force (i.e. mass and charge).

===Differences===

*Gravitational fields can only produce forces of attraction, whereas electric fields can produce attraction and repulsion.
*Objects can be shielded from an electric field, but there is no way to shield an object from a gravitational field.
*Electric fields only act upon charged masses, however gravitational fields act upon all masses.
{{A-level physics}}

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  <page>
    <title>A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Thermal physics</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>51385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662434</id>
      <parentid>4649513</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:34:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="10688" sha1="381ayz0gbprlewk5seb0cybgjwul37w" xml:space="preserve">Thermal physics deals with the changes that occur in substances when there is a change in temperature.

==Internal energy==

When you heat up a material, it may change state. The molecules vibrate with a greater amplitude, and break apart from one another. The material has been supplied with energy and you can feel it getting hotter. The increased kinetic and potential (from their greater separation) energy of the particles is an increase in what we call '''internal energy'''. Internal energy is defined as:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The internal energy of a system is the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic and potential energies of its molecules.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Therefore, an increase in temperature for a material means an increase in its internal energy.

==The thermodynamic temperature scale==
The Celsius scale of temperature depends on the properties of water. 0&amp;nbsp;°C is the freezing point of water, and 100&amp;nbsp;°C is the boiling point of water. It is a relative scale, because it is relative to the freezing and boiling points of water. The '''thermodynamic scale of temperature''' (represented by the letter ''T''), however, is an absolute scale of temperuture, and does not depend on the properties of any particular substance. It is also directly proportional to the amount of internal energy a substance possesses.

===Absolute zero===

This scale of temperature is defined in terms of internal energy, and is measured in kelvins (K). 0K is defined as the temperature at which a substance will have minimum internal energy, and is the lowest possible temperature. This temperature is known as '''absolute zero'''. It is at this point at which molecule stop vibrating and electrons stop spinning and orbiting.
[[File:Absolute Zero.JPG|thumb|Kelvin and Celsius Scales - Comparison]]

===Converting between K and °C===

The divisions of the kelvin scale are identical to the divisions of the Celsius scale, so that an increase of 1&amp;nbsp;°C is equal to an increase of 1K.

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta\theta&lt;/math&gt; K = &lt;math&gt;\Delta\theta\;^\circ&lt;/math&gt; C

This makes it simple to convert between the two, and if you know that absolute zero is -273.15&amp;nbsp;°C, you can simply use the formula:

:&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; K = &lt;math&gt;(\theta + 273.15)\;^\circ&lt;/math&gt; C

to convert between °C and K.

==Heating up substances==
When you apply heat to a substance, the temperature does not simply increase in a straight line. Some extra energy is required to break bonds between particles.
===Energy and temperature changes===

If we were to heat a block of ice at a steady rate and plot a graph of the temperature against time, we would get the following graph:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Temperature-time graph for water.png|400px]]&lt;/div&gt;

This shape is rather surprising. You would expect the line to increase in a straight line, with none of the breaks that you can see above. We should consider what is happening to the molecules of the water at each section of the graph to understand why this is so:

*'''AB'''
:The ice is below freezing point, but the temperature is increasing. The molecules are vibrating slowly, but begin to vibrate more.
*'''BC'''
:At 273K (0°C) the ice is at melting point. The bonds between molecules are being broken and molecules have greater potential energy. This is the Latent Heat of Fusion
*'''CD'''
:The water now increases in temperature towards boiling point. The molecules vibrate even more and move around rapidly as their kinetic energy increases.
*'''DE'''
:At 373K (100°C) the water is now at boiling point. Molecules completely break away from each other and their potential energy increases. DE is much larger than BC because ALL bonds need to be broken for a gas to form. (The Latent Heat of Vapourisation.)
*'''EF'''
:The water is now steam and the molecules are moving around much faster than before. Their kinetic energy continues to increase as energy is supplied.

At the sections BC and DE, where there is a change of state, the molecules do not increase in kinetic energy, but increase in potential energy. The heat energy being supplied does not change the temperature at these sections, but is instead used to break the bonds between molecules.

===Specific heat capacity===

Some materials will heat up quicker than others. For example, metals are good conductors of heat, and provided they are the same mass and that the energy is supplied at the same rate, copper will increase in temperature quicker than water.

The '''specific heat capacity''' can tell us how much energy is required to increase the temperature of a substance, and is defined as:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The specific heat capacity of a substance is numerically equal to the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1&amp;nbsp;kg of the substance by 1K (or by 1&amp;nbsp;°C).
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

This can be represented as:

&lt;math&gt;c=\frac { Q }{ m\Delta t } &lt;/math&gt;

Or rewritten,

:&lt;math&gt; { Q } = m c \Delta T&lt;/math&gt;

Where &lt;math&gt;{ Q }&lt;/math&gt; is the energy supplied, &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the substance, &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the specific heat capacity, and &lt;math&gt;\Delta T&lt;/math&gt; is the change in temperature

===Measuring the specific heat capacity===

To find the specific heat capacity of something, we can control all of the possible variables and then use them to calculate it. From the equation above, we can see that &lt;math&gt;c = \frac {Q}{m \Delta T}&lt;/math&gt;. This means that if we can supply a known amount of energy to a material of known mass, and measure the change in temperature, we can insert the values into the equation and obtain the specific heat capacity.

To supply a known amount of energy, we can use an electric heater. You may recall that electrical energy can be found by &lt;math&gt;E = IVt&lt;/math&gt;, so by measuring the voltage, the current and the time that the circuit is switched on, we will have a value for the energy supplied to the material.

In the same time period that the circuit is switched on, we must take measurments for the change in temperature. An ordinary mercury thermometer may be used, although it is recommend to use a temperature sensor with a computer to make more precise and accurate measurements.

Once we have taken readings of the temperature and energy at regular intervals of time, we can plot a graph of &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; against &lt;math&gt;\Delta T&lt;/math&gt;. We can calculate the gradient, making sure to use as much of the line in our calculation as possible, and divide it by the mass of the material to obtain the value of the materials specific heat capacity.

===Specific latent heat===

When you heat up a substance so that it changes state, the temperature stays the same during the change. Different substances will require more energy to change state than others. The '''specific latent heat''' will tell us how much energy a substance requires to change state and is defined as:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The specific latent heat of a substance is numerically equal to the energy that must be supplied to change the state of 1&amp;nbsp;kg of the substance without any change in temperature.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

This can be written as the equation:

&lt;math&gt;{ l}=\frac { Q }{m} &lt;/math&gt;

Or, rewritten,

:&lt;math&gt;Q = m l&lt;/math&gt;

Where &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; is the energy supplied, &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the substance, and &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is the specific latent heat.

==The gas laws==
There are four properties of a gas, that are related to each other. These properties are the pressure, the temperature, the volume and the mass of the gas, and these relationships are expressed as the gas laws.

===Boyle's law===

Boyle's law relates the pressure of a gas to its volume. Specifically, it states that:
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided that the temperature remains constant.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

This can be expressed as &lt;math&gt;p \propto \frac{1}{V}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;pV = constant&lt;/math&gt;.

You can picture this at the molecular level, if you were to imagine the number of collisions the particles of a gas make with the container of a particular size, and then imagine the increased number of collisions when the container is reduced in size but the number of particles remain the same. This is observed as an increase in pressure of the gas.
===Charles' law===

Charles' law relates the volume of a gas with its temperature on the thermodynamic temperature scale, and that:
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is proportional to its temperature on the thermodynamic temperature scale.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

This can be expressed as &lt;math&gt;V \propto T&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\frac {V}{T} = constant&lt;/math&gt;.

It is a little more difficult to understand why this is the case, because a gas will always take up the entire volume of its container. If you think about how a particle behaves when it is heated up, it will vibrate more and cause an increase in pressure, or harder and faster collisions of the molecules against the container. However, since pressure is to be kept constant in this case, the volume of the container will need to increase. Therefore by increasing the temperature of the gas, we have increased its volume.

===Pressure law===
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is proportional to its thermodynamic temperature.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

This can be expressed as &lt;math&gt;p \propto T&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\frac {p}{T} = constant&lt;/math&gt;.

===Equation for an Ideal Gas===

&lt;math&gt;pV = nRT&lt;/math&gt;

n is the number of moles of gas,

R is the Ideal Gas Constant, R ≈ 8.314 J/(mol･K)

T is the ABSOLUTE temperature in K,

p is the Pressure in Pa, or Nm&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;,

V is the Volume in m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.

===Properties of an Ideal Gas===

1) Its particles should be monatomic

2) The particles are infinitely small

3) There are no interaction between the particles, hence all the energy is kinetic.
{{A-level physics}}

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  <page>
    <title>A-level Mathematics/OCR/FP1/Roots of Polynomial Equations</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>54192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662456</id>
      <parentid>4624482</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T15:50:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="5081" sha1="gg03957dhrwu7cpnkazvf7xdjyikvq7" xml:space="preserve">In this module we will discuss how symmetrical polynomial have special relationships with their roots. This characteristics make it easier to find the roots of a symmetrical polynomial or multiply factors together.

==Symmetrical Polynomials==
In mathematics a polynomial is considered to be symmetrical if you take the roots of the original polynomial and then interchange any root with another root, the polynomial will remain the same. For example the polynomial &lt;math&gt;8x^3 + 16x^2 - 22x - 30&lt;/math&gt; is symmetrical because its factorized form is &lt;math&gt;(2x - 3)(2x + 2)(2x + 5)&lt;/math&gt; and if you interchange the roots the resulting polynomial will be the same. However the polynomial &lt;math&gt;4x^3 + 12x^2 - 7x - 30&lt;/math&gt; is not symmetrical because it factorized form is &lt;math&gt;(2x - 3)(x + 2)(2x + 5)&lt;/math&gt; and if you interchange the roots the resulting polynomial will be &lt;math&gt;4x^3 + 18x^2 - 16x - 30&lt;/math&gt; if you switch the 2 and the 5 around.

==Roots Of Quadratic Polynomial==
If we need to find the roots of a given quadratic function we have two formulae that can help us to find the roots of a quadratic equation.
{{center/top}}&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
Let &lt;math&gt;\alpha\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\beta\,&lt;/math&gt; be the roots of &lt;math&gt;ax^2+bx+c=0\,&lt;/math&gt;. Then, &lt;math&gt;\alpha + \beta = - \frac{b}{a},\quad \alpha\beta = \frac{c}{a}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;{{center/end}}

===Example===
Find the values of a and b of the equation &lt;math&gt;ax^2 + bx - 48\,&lt;/math&gt; if &lt;math&gt;\alpha + \beta = 6\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\alpha\beta = -16\,&lt;/math&gt;.
#First we need to find the value of a and b, we use the relationships of the roots to find a and b.
##&lt;math&gt;\alpha\beta = -16 = \frac{-48}{a}\,&lt;/math&gt; from this we can determine that a = 3
##&lt;math&gt;\alpha + \beta = 6 = -\frac{b}{a}\,&lt;/math&gt;
#Now that we have determined that a = 3 we can write the second relationship as:
#:&lt;math&gt;\alpha + \beta = 6 = -\frac{b}{3}\,&lt;/math&gt; so we can determine that b = -18
# Now we can write the complete equation.
#:&lt;math&gt;3x^2 -18 x - 48\,&lt;/math&gt;

==Roots Of Cubic Equations==
If we need to find the roots of a given cubic function we have three formulae that can help us to find the roots of a cubic equation.

{{center/top}}&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}};padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
Let &lt;math&gt;\alpha, \beta\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\gamma\,&lt;/math&gt; be the roots of &lt;math&gt;ax^3+bx^2+cx+d=0\,&lt;/math&gt;. Then, &lt;math&gt;\sum\alpha = - \frac{b}{a},\quad \sum\alpha\beta = \frac{c}{a},\quad \alpha\beta\gamma = -\frac{d}{a} &lt;/math&gt;

Where: &lt;math&gt;\sum\alpha = \alpha + \beta + \gamma&lt;/math&gt;

And: &lt;math&gt;\sum\alpha\beta = \alpha\beta + \alpha\gamma + \beta\gamma&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;{{Center/end}}
===Example===
In this example we consider the special case of  the cubic &lt;math&gt;x^3 + 21x^2 + cx + 280=0&lt;/math&gt;, where c is to be determined and we are given the additional information that its 3 roots are in [[A-level Mathematics/C2/Sequences and Series#Arithmetic Progression .28AP.29|arithmetic progression]]. Thus we can write the roots in the form p, p + q, p - q. Also factorize the equation.

#First to find p we use the &lt;math&gt;\sum\alpha&lt;/math&gt;.
#:&lt;math&gt;\sum\alpha = p + (p + q) + (p - q) = -\frac{21}{1}&lt;/math&gt;
#:&lt;math&gt;\sum\alpha = 3p = -21&lt;/math&gt;
#:&lt;math&gt;p = -7\,&lt;/math&gt;
#Then we need to find the value of q.
#:&lt;math&gt;-7(-7+q)(-7-q)= -\frac{280}{1}&lt;/math&gt;
#:&lt;math&gt;7q^2 - 343= -280\,&lt;/math&gt;
#:&lt;math&gt;7q^2= 63\,&lt;/math&gt;
#:&lt;math&gt;q^2= 9\,&lt;/math&gt;
#:&lt;math&gt;q= 3\,&lt;/math&gt;
#Now we can write out our roots.
#: (-7 - 3),-7,(-7 + 3)
#: -10,-7,-4
#We can now find c.
#:&lt;math&gt;\sum\alpha\beta = -7\times-4 + -7\times-10 + -10\times-4 = \frac{c}{1}&lt;/math&gt;
#:&lt;math&gt;138 = c\,&lt;/math&gt;
#The complete equation is &lt;math&gt;x^3 + 21x^2 + 138x + 280=0&lt;/math&gt;
#Finally we write out the factorized equation.
#&lt;math&gt;(x + 7)(x+4)(x+10)=0\,&lt;/math&gt;

==Simple Substitution of Roots==
If you increase each root in a polynomial equation by the number n, you can calculate the resulting equation by replacing each x term in the original polynomial equation with (x - n). This leads to [[A-level Mathematics/C2/Sequences and Series#Binomial expressions|binomial expansion]] so make sure that you are well versed in it.

===Example===
Suppose that the cubic equation &lt;math&gt;x^3+x^2-22x-40 = 0\,&lt;/math&gt; has roots &lt;math&gt;\alpha\,, \beta\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\gamma\,&lt;/math&gt;. Find a cubic equation with the roots &lt;math&gt;\alpha - 2\,, \beta- 2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\gamma -2\,&lt;/math&gt;

#If &lt;math&gt;x=\alpha-2&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;\alpha=x+2&lt;/math&gt;. Since &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is a root of the original equation you can replace each x term with x + 2:
#:&lt;math&gt;\left(x+2\right)^3+\left(x+2\right)^2-22\left(x+2\right)-40 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
#Using [[A-level Mathematics/C2/Sequences and Series#Binomial expressions|Binomial Expansion]] we can easily find the terms.
#:&lt;math&gt;\left(x^3+6x^2 + 12x + 8\right)+\left(x^2+4x+4\right)-22\left(x+2\right)-40 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
#Finally we combine all the terms and we have:

#:&lt;math&gt;x^3 + 7x^2 -6x -72\,&lt;/math&gt;

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{{Programmable Logic/Stub}}

{{wikipedia|Hardware description language}}

This page is going to discuss the history and development of HDL methods, and the 3 HDL languages that we are going to study in this book: Verilog, VHDL, and SystemC.

== History of HDL ==

Hardware Description Languages (HDL) are programming languages that are designed to program FPGAs and CPLDs. HDL compilers will often create a &quot;gate map&quot; instead of a computer executable file. This gate map can be downloaded onto the programmable device, and run.

There are three common HDLs: Verilog, VHDL, and SystemC. Of these, SystemC is the newest and least popular, although its use has been rising in the industry.

== History of Verilog ==

Verilog HDL originated at Automated Integrated Design Systems (later renamed as Gateway Design Automation) in 1985. The company was privately held at that time by Dr. Prabhu Goel, the inventor of the PODEM test generation algorithm. Verilog HDL was designed by Phil Moorby, who was later to become the Chief Designer for Verilog-XL and the first Corporate Fellow at Cadence Design Systems. Gateway Design Automation grew rapidly with the success of Verilog-XL and was finally acquired by Cadence Design Systems, San Jose, CA in 1989.

Verilog was invented as simulation language. Use of Verilog for synthesis was a complete afterthought. Rumors abound that there were merger discussions between Gateway and Synopsys in the early days, where neither gave the other much chance of success..

In the late 1980's it seemed evident that designers were going to be moving away from proprietary languages like n dot, HiLo and Verilog towards the US Department of Defense standard H.D.L., known as the VHSIC Hardware Description Language. VHSIC itself stands for &quot;Very High Speed Integrated Circuit&quot;).

Perhaps due to such market pressure, Cadence Design Systems decided to open the Verilog language to the public in 1990, and thus OVI (Open Verilog International) was born. Until that time, Verilog HDL was a proprietary language, being the property of Cadence Design Systems. When OVI was formed in 1991, a number of small companies began working on Verilog simulators, including Chronologic Simulation, Frontline Design Automation, and others. The first of these came to market in 1992, and now there are mature Verilog simulators available from many sources.

As a result, the Verilog market has grown substantially. The market for Verilog related tools in 1994 was well over $75,000,000, making it the most commercially significant hardware description language on the market.

An IEEE working group was established in 1993 under the Design Automation Sub-Committee to produce the IEEE Verilog standard 1364. Verilog became IEEE Standard 1364 in 1995.

As an international standard, the Verilog market continued to grow. In 1998 the market for Verilog simulators alone was well over $150,000,000; continuing its dominance.

The IEEE working group released a revised standard in March of 2002, known as IEEE 1364-2001. Significant publication errors marred this release, and a revised version was released in 2003, known as IEEE 1364-2001 Revision C.

Subsequently, a new working group was formed, IEEE P1800, to build on the IEEE 1364 language along with additional contributions from Accellera. In mid-2004 the IEEE 1364 committee was disbanded, and maintenance on the standard was taken up by the IEEE 1800 working group.

== History of VHDL ==

VHDL stands for &quot;Very High Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) Hardware Description Language&quot;, and is a common HDL for use in programmable gate arrays and application specific integrated circuits (ASIC). VHDL is very similar in form to Ada. VHDL is a language for describing digital electronic systems. It arose out of the United States Government’s Very High Speed Integrated Circuits (VHSIC) program, initiated in 1980. In the course of this program, it became clear that there was a need for a standard language for describing the structure and function of integrated circuits (ICs). Hence the VHSIC Hardware Description Language (VHDL) was developed. 

The first publicly available version of VHDL, version 7.2, was released in 1985. In 1986, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) was presented with a proposal to standardize the language, which it did in 1987 after substantial enhancements and modifications were made by a team of commercial, government and academic representatives. The resulting standard, IEEE 1076-1987, is the basis for virtually every simulation and synthesis product sold today. An enhanced and updated version of the language, IEEE 1076-1993, was released in 1994, and VHDL tool vendors have been responding by adding these new language features to their products.
 
Though IEEE Standard 1076 defines the complete VHDL language, there are aspects of the language that made it difficult to write completely portable design descriptions across different vendor tools. The problem stemmed from the fact that basic VHDL supported many abstract data types, but it did not address the simple problem of characterizing different signal strengths or commonly used simulation conditions such as unknowns and high-impedance. Simulator companies began enhancing VHDL with new, non-standard types to allow their customers to accurately simulate complex electronic circuits. This caused problems because design descriptions entered into one simulator were often incompatible with other simulation environments. VHDL was quickly becoming a nonstandard. To get around the problem of nonstandard data types, another standard was developed by an IEEE committee. This standard, numbered 1164, defines a standard package (a VHDL feature that allows commonly used declarations to be collected into an external library) containing definitions for a standard nine-valued data type. This standard data type is called std_logic, and the IEEE 1164 package is often referred to as the Standard Logic package. 
 
The IEEE 1076-1987 and IEEE 1164 standards together form the complete VHDL standard in widest use today. IEEE 1076-1993 is slowly working its way into the VHDL mainstream, but it does not add significant new features for synthesis users.
 
Standard 1076.3 (often called the Numeric Standard or Synthesis Standard) defines standard packages and interpretations for VHDL data types as they relate to actual hardware. This standard, which was released at the end of 1995, is intended to replace the many custom (nonstandard) packages that vendors of synthesis tools have created and distributed with their products.
 
IEEE Standard 1076.3 does for synthesis users what IEEE 1164 did for simulation users i.e. increase the power of Standard 1076, while at the same time ensuring compatibility between different vendors’ tools. The 1076.3 standard includes, among other things the annotation of timing information to a simulation model is an important aspect of accurate digital simulation. The VHDL 1076 standard describes a variety of language features that can be used for timing annotation. However, it does not describe a standard method for expressing timing data outside of the timing model itself.

== History of SystemC ==</text>
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The module &lt;code&gt;Data.Map&lt;/code&gt; provides the &lt;code&gt;Map&lt;/code&gt; datatype, which allows you to store ''values'' attached to specific ''keys''. This is called a lookup table, dictionary or associative array in other languages. 

== Motivation ==
Very often it would be useful to have some kind of data structure that relates a value or list of values to a specific key. This is often called a dictionary after the real-world example: a real-life dictionary associates a definition (the value) to each word (the key); we say the dictionary is a ''map from words to definitions''. A filesystem driver might keep a map from filenames to file information. A phonebook application might keep a map from contact names to phone numbers. Maps are a very versatile and useful datatype.

=== Why not just &lt;code&gt;[(a, b)]&lt;/code&gt;? ===
You may have seen in other chapters that a list of pairs (or 'lookup table') is often used as a kind of map, along with the function {{nowrap|&lt;code&gt;lookup :: a -&gt; [(a, b)] -&gt; Maybe b&lt;/code&gt;}}. So why not just use a lookup table all the time? Here are a few reasons:

* Working with maps gives you access to a whole load more useful functions for working with lookup tables.
* Maps are implemented far more efficiently than a lookup table would be, specially in terms of lookup speed.&lt;ref&gt;In the specific case of &lt;code&gt;Data.Map&lt;/code&gt;, the implementation is based on ''size balanced binary trees''.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Library functions ==
The module Data.Map provides an absolute wealth of functions for dealing with Maps, including setlike operations like unions and intersections. The full list can be found in the core libraries documentation&lt;ref&gt;http://hackage.haskell.org/package/containers-0.6.0.1/docs/Data-Map.html&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Example ==
The following example implements a password database. The user is assumed to be trusted, so is not authenticated and has access to view or change passwords.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;haskell&quot;&gt;
 {- A quick note for the over-eager refactorers out there: This is (somewhat)
    intentionally ugly. It doesn't use the State monad to hold the DB because it
    hasn't been introduced yet. Perhaps we could use this as an example of How
    Monads Improve Things? -}
 
 module PassDB where
 
 import qualified Data.Map as M
 import System.Exit
 
 type UserName = String
 type Password = String
 type PassDB   = M.Map UserName Password 
   -- PassBD is a map from usernames to passwords
 
 -- | Ask the user for a username and new password, and return the new PassDB
 changePass :: PassDB -&gt; IO PassDB
 changePass db = do
   putStrLn &quot;Enter a username and new password to change.&quot;
   putStr &quot;Username: &quot;
   un &lt;- getLine
   putStrLn &quot;New password: &quot;
   pw &lt;- getLine
   if un `M.member` db               -- if un is one of the keys of the map
     then return $ M.insert un pw db -- then update the value with the new password
     else do putStrLn $ &quot;Can't find username '&quot; ++ un ++ &quot;' in the database.&quot;
             return db
 
 -- | Ask the user for a username, whose password will be displayed.
 viewPass :: PassDB -&gt; IO ()
 viewPass db = do
   putStrLn &quot;Enter a username, whose password will be displayed.&quot;
   putStr &quot;Username: &quot;
   un &lt;- getLine
   putStrLn $ case M.lookup un db of
                Nothing -&gt; &quot;Can't find username '&quot; ++ un ++ &quot;' in the database.&quot;
                Just pw -&gt; pw
 
 -- | The main loop for interacting with the user. 
 mainLoop :: PassDB -&gt; IO PassDB
 mainLoop db = do
   putStr &quot;Command [cvq]: &quot;
   c &lt;- getChar
   putStr &quot;\n&quot;
   -- See what they want us to do. If they chose a command other than 'q', then
   -- recurse (i.e. ask the user for the next command). We use the Maybe datatype
   -- to indicate whether to recurse or not: 'Just db' means do recurse, and in
   -- running the command, the old database changed to db. 'Nothing' means don't
   -- recurse.
   db' &lt;- case c of
            'c' -&gt; fmap Just $ changePass db
            'v' -&gt; do viewPass db; return (Just db)
            'q' -&gt; return Nothing
            _   -&gt; do putStrLn $ &quot;Not a recognised command, '&quot; ++ [c] ++ &quot;'.&quot;
                      return (Just db)
   maybe (return db) mainLoop db'
 
 -- | Parse the file we've just read in, by converting it to a list of lines,
 --   then folding down this list, starting with an empty map and adding the
 --   username and password for each line at each stage.
 parseMap :: String -&gt; PassDB
 parseMap = foldr parseLine M.empty . lines
     where parseLine ln map = 
             let [un, pw] = words ln
             in M.insert un pw map
 
 -- | Convert our database to the format we store in the file by first converting
 --   it to a list of pairs, then mapping over this list to put a space between
 --   the username and password
 showMap :: PassDB -&gt; String
 showMap = unlines . map (\(un, pw) -&gt; un ++ &quot; &quot; ++ pw) . M.toAscList
 
 main :: IO ()
 main = do
   putStrLn $ &quot;Welcome to PassDB. Enter a command: (c)hange a password, &quot; ++
              &quot;(v)iew a password or (q)uit.&quot;
   dbFile &lt;- readFile &quot;passdb&quot;
   db'    &lt;- mainLoop (parseMap dbFile)
   writeFile &quot;passdb&quot; (showMap db')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{Haskell/NotesSection}}

{{Haskell navigation|chapter=Libraries Reference|noexercises=1}}
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      <text bytes="29033" sha1="1ww8pwnumt8dkojt7ih1bmc6g1wyj1a" xml:space="preserve">== Polyamides ==

A '''polyamide''' is a [[w:polymer|polymer]] containing [[w:monomer|monomers]] joined by [[w:peptide bond|peptide bonds]]. They can occur both naturally, examples being [[w:protein|proteins]], such as [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides#Wool|wool]] and [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides#Silk|silk]], and can be made artificially, examples being [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides#Nylon|Nylon]], [[w:Kevlar|Kevlar]] and [[w:sodium poly(aspartate)|sodium poly(aspartate)]].

=== Production from monomers ===

The amide link is produced from the condensation reaction of an amino group and a carboxylic acid or acid chloride group. A small molecule, usually water, ammonia or hydrogen chloride, is eliminated.

The amino group and the carboxylic acid group can be on the same monomer, or the polymer can be constituted of two different bifunctional monomers, one with two amino groups, the other with two carboxylic acid or acid chloride groups.

Amino Acids can be taken as examples of single monomer (if the difference between Alkyl|R groups is ignored) reacting with identical molecules to form a polyamide:

[[File:2-amino-acidsb.png|centre|thumbnail|600px|The reaction of two amino acids. Many of these reactions produce long chain proteins]]

Kevlar (pictured below) is made from two different monomers which continuously alternate to form the polymer:

[[File:Kelvar reaction.png|centre|frame|The reaction of 1,4-phenyl-diamine (para-phenylenediamine) and terephthaloyl chloride to produce Kevlar]]

== Nylon ==

{|style=&quot;border: 1px solid; float: right; width: 250px;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #CCC;{{Text default color}};&quot;| [[File:Nylon6_and_Nylon_66.png|235px|A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides]] Nylon
|-
| Density
|1.15&amp;nbsp;g/cm³
|-style=&quot;background-color: #EEE;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| Electrical conductivity (σ)
|10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;S/m
|-
| Thermal conductivity
|0.25&amp;nbsp;W/(m·K)
|-style=&quot;background-color: #EEE;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| Melting points
|463 K-624 K]&lt;br&gt; 190&amp;nbsp;°C-350&amp;nbsp;°C&lt;br&gt; 374&amp;nbsp;°F-663&amp;nbsp;°F
|}

'''Nylon''' represents a family of synthetic polymers, a thermoplastic material, first produced on 28 February 1935 by Gerard J. Berchet of Wallace Carothers' research group at DuPont. The first product was a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938), followed more famously by women's 'nylons' stockings (1940). It is made of repeating units linked by peptide bonds (another name for amide bonds) and is frequently referred to as ''polyamide'' (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful polymer and the first synthetic fibre to be made entirely from coal, water and air. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular mass, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains. It was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in parachutes after the United States entered World War II in 1941, making stockings hard to find until the war's end. Nylon fibres are now used in fabrics and ropes, and solid nylon is used for mechanical parts and as an engineering material. Engineering grade Nylon is processed by extrusion, casting and injection moulding. Type 6/6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of Nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of cast Nylon.

=== Chemistry of nylon ===
Most nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that peptide bonds form at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid second. The most common variant is nylon 6,6, also called nylon 66, which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the ''repeating unit'' consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: C&amp;nbsp;terminal&amp;nbsp;→ N&amp;nbsp;terminal. In the laboratory, nylon&amp;nbsp;6,6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic acid.

[[File:Nylon_6,6.png|thumb|center|300px|Nylon-6,6]]

It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (amu). To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid &quot;nylon salt&quot; can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285&amp;nbsp;°C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlled conditions, and the increasing concentration of &quot;salt&quot; is polymerized to the final molecular weight.

DuPont patented&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.caimateriali.org/Eventi/Torino/historynylon.html History of Nylon] US Patent 2,130,523 'Linear polyamides suitable for spinning into strong pliable fibers', U.S. Patent 2,130,947 'Diamine dicarboxylic acid salt' issued and U.S. Patent 2,130,948 'Synthetic fibres', all issued 20 September 1938&lt;/ref&gt; nylon&amp;nbsp;6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon&amp;nbsp;6, or polycaprolactam — not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ring-opening polymerisation (alternatively made by condensation polymerisation of aminocaproic acid).

[[File:Caprolactam-2D-skeletal.png|thumb|center|150px|Caprolactam - the monomer of nylon-6.]]

[[File:Nylon_6.png|thumb|center|200px|Nylon-6.]]

The properties of nylon&amp;nbsp;6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon&amp;nbsp;6,6—except for melt temperature (N6 is lower) and some fibre properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also a nylon&amp;nbsp;9.

Other nylons include other copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamines. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerised with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid (→ Kevlar) or isophthalic acid (→ Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters.

[[File:Kevlar_chemical_structure.png|thumb|center|400px|Kevlar]]

Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But &quot;star&quot; branched nylon can be produced by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amine groups.

The general reaction is:

[[File:Con_polymer.png|center| ]]

A molecule of water (or another small molecule e.g. HCl) is given off and the nylon is formed. Its properties are determined by the R and R' groups in the monomers. In nylon 6,6, R'&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;6C and R&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;4C alkanes, but one also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to get the number it donates to the chain. In Kevlar, both R and R' are benzene rings.

=== Bulk properties of nylon ===

Above their melting temperatures, thermoplastics like nylon are amorphous solids or viscous fluids in which the chains approximate random coils. Below ''T''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;, amorphous regions alternate with regions which are lamellar crystals.[http://aml.arizona.edu/classes/mse222/1998/nylon66/mse222.htm] The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity. The planar amide (-CO-NH-) groups are very polar, so nylon forms multiple hydrogen bonds among adjacent strands. Because the nylon backbone is so regular and symmetrical, especially if all the amide bonds are in the ''trans'' configuration, nylons often have high crystallinity and make excellent fibers. The amount of crystallinity depends on the details of formation, as well as on the kind of nylon. Apparently it can never be quenched from a melt as a completely amorphous solid.

Nylon&amp;nbsp;6,6 can have multiple parallel strands aligned with their neighboring peptide bonds at coordinated separations of exactly 6 and 4 carbons for considerable lengths, so the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can line up to form interchain hydrogen bonds repeatedly, without interruption. Nylon&amp;nbsp;5,10 can have coordinated runs of 5 and 8 carbons. Thus parallel (but not antiparallel) strands can participate in extended, unbroken, multi-chain β-pleated sheets, a strong and tough supermolecular structure similar to that found in natural silk and the β-keratins in [eathers. (Proteins have only an amino acid α-carbon separating sequential -CO-NH- groups.) Nylon&amp;nbsp;6 will form uninterrupted H-bonded sheets with mixed directionalities, but the β-sheet wrinkling is somewhat different. The three-dimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain depends on rotations about the 109.47° tetrahedral bonds of singly-bonded carbon atoms.

When extruded into fibres through pores in an industrial spinneret, the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow. If subjected to cold drawing afterwards, the fibres align further, increasing their crystallinity, and the material acquires additional tensile strength. Block nylon tends to be less crystalline, except near the surfaces due to shearing stresses during formation. Nylon is clear and colourless, or milky, but is easily dyed. Multistranded nylon cord and rope is slippery and tends to unravel. The ends can be melted and fused with a flame to prevent this.

There are carbon fibre/nylon composites with higher density than pure nylon.

=== Historical uses ===
During World War II, nylon replaced Asian silk in parachutes. It was also used to make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies. It was even used in the production of a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 80% of all fibres used, and manufactured and wool fibres accounted for the remaining 20%. By August, 1945, manufactured fibres had taken a market share of 25% and cotton had dropped.

Some people, such as Jack Herer, surmise that Cannabis sativa was made illegal because the fibres from the hemp plant, used for fabrics and ropes, were in strong competition with nylon (along with paper, fuel, and other industries). While the production of rope from hemp requires no chemicals or industrial processes, nylon fibre is more than twice as strong as hemp and weighs 25% less. An additional problem is that hemp rope rots from the inside out, making it difficult to determine the condition of a rope at a glance. While hemp was originally used in climbing rope, this is no longer the case, even in countries where cannabis is legal. Even though industrially produced nylon rope is superior than hemp, hemp is a strong alternative to nylons and plastics for many other products, and has the additional advantage of being biodegradable.

=== Uses of nylon ===
* nylon fibre
* clothing
* tights and stockings
* toothbrush bristles
* fishing lines
* nets
* carpet fibre
* airbag fibre
* auto parts: intake manifolds, gas (petrol) tanks
* slings and rope used in climbing gear
* machine parts, such as gears and bearings
* parachutes
* metallized nylon balloons
* classical and flamenco guitar strings
* paintball marker bolts
* racquetball, squash, and tennis racquet strings

=== External links ===

* [http://www.popsci.com/popsci/how20/c5a2c12c110fa010vgnvcm1000004eecbccdrcrd.html Article on making Nylon at home ]
* [http://www.machinedesign.com/BDE/materials/bdemat2/bdemat2_29.html Typical physical characteristics of nylon]

&lt;references /&gt;

== Silk ==

'''Silk''' is a natural protein [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres|fiber]] that can be woven into textiles. It is obtained from the cocoon of silkworm larvae reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance for which silk is prized comes from the fibres' triangular prism-like structure, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles.

=== Early history ===
Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, possibly as early as 6000 BC and definitely by 3000 BC. Legend gives credit to a Chinese Empress Xi Ling-Shi. Though first reserved for the Emperors of China, its use spread gradually through Chinese culture both geographically and socially. From there, silken garments began to reach regions throughout Asia. Silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants, because of its texture and lustre. Because of the high demand for the fabric, silk was one of the staples of international trade prior to industrialization.

=== Animal rights ===
The process of harvesting the silk from the cocoon kills the larvae. Silk has recently come under criticism from some animal rights activists who claims that the common practice of boiling silkworms alive in their cocoons is cruel.

=== Other uses ===
In addition to clothing manufacture and other handicrafts, silk is also used for items like parachutes, bicycle tires, comforter filling and artillery gunpowder bags. Early bulletproof vests were also made from silk in the era of blackpowder weapons until roughly World War I. Silk undergoes a special manufacturing process to make it adequate for its use in surgery as non-absorbable sutures. Chinese doctors have also used it to make prosthetic arteries. Silk cloth is also used as a material to write on.

=== External links ===

* Silkworm rearing (with photo journals): [http://www.wormspit.com]
* [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/271204_tech.htm Scientists have successfully created artificial silk using genetically engineered spider proteins]
* What is Dupioni Silk? : [http://www.plumridge.com/whatdupione.htm]

== Wool ==

:''See [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides#Alpaca wool|Alpaca wool]], [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides#Angora wool|Angora wool]] (of rabbits) and [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides#Cashmere wool|Cashmere wool]] (of goats) for information about other wools.''

[[File:Wool shorn from aust merino sheep.jpg|thumb|250px|Wool in a shearing shed]]
[[File:Wool.www.usda.gov.jpg|thumb|Long and short hair wool at the South Central Family Farm Research Center in Boonesville, Arizona|250px]]
[[File:Sheep - melbourne show 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Wool sheep, Royal Melbourne Show]]

'''Wool''' is the fibre derived from the fur of animals of the Caprinae family, principally sheep and goats, but the hair of certain species of other mammals such as alpacas and rabbits may also be called wool. This article deals explicitly with the wool produced from domestic sheep.

Most of the fibre from domestic sheep has two qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it has scales which overlap like shingles on a roof and it is crimped; in some fleeces the wool fibres have more than 20 bends per inch.

The quality of wool is determined by the following factors, fibre fineness, length, scale structure, colour, cleanliness, and freedom from damage. For example merino wool is typically 3-5 inches in length and is very fine. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat are typically more course, larger diameter, and fibres are 1.5 to 6 inches in length. Freedom from damage refers to the structure of the wool when it is removed from the sheep and implies that the wool is clean, white, long, fine, and free of defects from the environment[2].

Both the scaling and the crimp make it possible to spin and felt the fleece. They help the individual fibres attach to each other so that they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have a greater bulk than other textiles and retain air, which causes the product to retain heat. Insulation also works both ways; Bedouin and Tuareg use wool clothes to keep the heat out.

The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibres. A fine wool like merino may have up to a hundred crimps per inch, while the coarser wools like karakul may have as few as one to two crimps per inch.

Hair, by contrast, has little if any scale and no crimp and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed, and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products.

Wool is generally a creamy white colour, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colours such as black, brown (also called moorit) and grey.

Wool straight off a sheep contains a high level of grease (thus &quot;greasy wool&quot;) which contains valuable lanolin. In this state it can be worked into yarn or knitted into water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. The grease is generally removed for processing by scouring with detergent and alkali. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in the cosmetics industry.

After shearing, the wool is separated into five main categories: fleece (which makes up the vast bulk), pieces, bellies, crutchings and locks. The latter four are packaged and sold separately. The quality of fleece is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified wool classer tries to group wools of similar gradings together to maximise the return for the farmer or sheep owner.

The fibre diameter of wool varies from 15 micrometres (superfine merino) to 30 or more micrometres for the coarser wools. The finer diameters are generally more valuable.

Due to high concentrations of carbon dioxide, sheep wool does not burn and is therefore also used as an insulation.
=== Production of wool ===

Global wool production is approximately 1.3 million tonnes per annum of which 60% goes into apparel. Australia, China and New Zealand are leading commercial producers of wool. Most Australian wool comes from the merino breed. Breeds such as Lincoln and Romney produce coarser fibres and wool of these sheep is usually used for making carpets.

In the United States, Texas, New Mexico and Colorado also have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). There is also a thriving 'home flock' contingent of small scale farmers who raise small hobby flocks of speciality sheep for the handspinning market. These small scale farmers may raise any type of sheep they wish, so the selection of fleeces is quite wide.

==== Global wool clip 2004/2005 ====
# Australia: 25% of global wool clip (475 million kg greasy, 2004/2005)
# China: 18%
# New Zealand: 11%
# Argentina: 3%
# Turkey: 2%
# Iran: 2%
# United Kingdom: 2%
# India: 2%
# Sudan: 2%
# South Africa: 1%
# United States: 0.77%
([http://www.wool.com.au/attachments/Education/AWI_WoolFacts.pdf source])

Keeping with the times, organic wool is becoming more and more popular. This blend of wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia[1].

=== Uses of wool ===

In addition to clothing, wool has been used for carpeting, felt, insulation (see links) and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers and it is used to absorb odours and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt.

=== References ===
* [http://www.wool.com.au/attachments/Education/AWI_WoolFacts.pdf ''Wool Facts'' September 2005 edition: Australia's Wool Industry]
1. Apparel Magazine. '''Shearing the Edge of Innovation'''. Jordan K. Speer. May 1, 2006
2.Kadolph, Sara J. Anna L. Langford. '''Textiles''' Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 2002
=== External links ===
* [http://www.sheepusa.org/ American Sheep Industry Association]
* [http://www.ncwga.org/ Natural Coloured Wool Growers Association]
* [http://www.woolfestival.com/ Wool Festival]

== Mohair ==

'''Mohair''' is a silk-like fabric made from the hair of the Angora goat. Mohair is durable, light and warm. Mohair is used to make sweaters and other clothing and blankets. It is also popular material to make teddy bears.

Mohair should not be confused with the fur from the angora rabbit which is called ''angora''.

The term mohair is often used to describe a type of material used for the folding roof on convertible cars, however in this sense it has no connection with the term's more traditional usage. In these circumstances mohair refers to a form of denim-like canvas.

== Angora wool ==

'''Angora wool''' is a generic term for either Mohair if the hair is from an Angora goat or Angora fabric if the hair is from an Angora rabbit.

== Alpaca wool ==

[[File:Alpaca_cuzco_peru.jpg|thumb|left|Alpaca]]
Alpaca fibre is warmer than sheep's wool and lighter in weight. It is soft and luxurious and lacks the &quot;prickle&quot; factor. However, as with all fleece-producing animals, quality varies from animal to animal, and some alpaca produce fibre which is less than ideal. Fibre and conformation are the two most important factors in determining an alpaca's value.

In physical structure, alpaca fibre is somewhat akin to hair, being very glossy, but its softness and fineness enable the spinner to produce satisfactory yarn with comparative ease. Alpaca fiber can even be spun into yarn with one's fingers.

=== Alpaca fiber industry ===

In recent years, interest in alpaca fibre clothing has resurged, perhaps partly because alpaca ranching has a reasonably low impact on the environment. Outdoor sports enthusiasts recognize that its lighter weight and better warmth provides them more comfort in colder weather, so outfitters such as R.E.I. and others are beginning to stock more alpaca products. Occasionally, alpaca fibre is woven together with merino wool to attain even more softness and durability. Alpaca fibre is difficult to felt alone but by combining it with merino this is overcome.

The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and finishing process of alpaca and mohair are similar to that of wool.

=== Notes ===
&lt;references/&gt;

=== References ===

* Hoffman, Dr Eric, ''The Complete Alpaca Book'', published by Bonny Doon Press, 2003

== Cashmere wool ==

'''Cashmere wool''' is wool obtained from the Kashmir goat. The name derives from an archaic spelling of Kashmir. It is sometimes incorrectly applied to any extremely soft wool, similar to Champagne being used to describe any sparkling wine.

=== Classification ===

Cashmere is characterized by its soft fibers. For a natural sheep fiber to be considered cashmere, it must be under 19 micrometers in diameter and at least 3.175 centimeters long. It is noted as providing a natural light-weight insulation without bulk. Fibers are highly adaptable and it easily constructed into fine or thick yarns, and light to heavy-weight fabrics. Appropriate for all climates, high moisture content allows insulation properties to change with the relative humidity in the air.

=== Primary uses ===

Cashmere is used in men's and women's clothing. One of the most notable applications of cashmere is the highly regarded cashmere sweater.

=== General characteristics ===

Cashmere is characterized as luxuriously soft fiber, For a natural sheep fiber to be considered cashmere, it must be under 19 micrometers in diameter and at least 3.175 centimeters long.It is noted as providing a natural light-weight insulation without bulk. Cashmere is extremely warm (in order to serve its original purpose of protecting goats from cold mountain temperatures.) [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres|Fibres]] are highly adaptable and are easily constructed into fine or thick yarns, and light to heavy-weight fabrics. Appropriate for all climates, a high moisture content allows insulation properties to change with the relative humidity in the air.

The finest fibers are gathered from the saddle of the Cashmere goat; most of the cashmere comes off of the sides and back, from the shoulder to the rump. It is a misconception that the finest fibers come from the neck and belly, as these parts collect the most debris. If the goat is shorn, the fiber must be &quot;de-haired&quot; to remove the coarse, unusable guard hair. Sometimes the fine fibers are collected by combing the goat; either method is time consuming and tedious, thus the high cost of cashmere.

==== Natural colours ====

The original undyed or natural colors of cashmere wool are various shades of grey, brown and white. Source of the fibre Cashmere wool fiber for clothing and other textile articles is obtained from the Cashmere domestic goat. The goat (Capra hircus laniger) is a mammal belonging to the subfamily Caprinae of the family Bovidae. The goats produce a double fleece consisting of the fine, soft undercoat or underdown of hair mingled with a straighter and much coarser outer coating of hair called guard hair. In order for the fine under down to be sold and processed further, it must first be de-haired. De-hairing is a mechanical process that separates the coarse hairs from the fine hair and after de-hairing the resulting &quot;cashmere&quot; is ready to be dyed and converted into yarn, fabrics and garments . The word 'cashmere' is sometimes incorrectly applied to any extremely soft wool.

=== Source of the fiber ===

The Cashmere (Kashmir) or down goat is the source of the wool that becomes cashmere fibre for clothing and other textile articles.

The goats produce a double fleece consisting of the fine, soft undercoat or underdown of hair commingled with a straighter and much coarser outer coating of hair called guard hair. In order for the fine underwool to be classified and used as cashmere it must be de-haired. De-hairing is a mechanical process that separates the coarse hairs from the fine hair and after de-hairing the resulting &quot;cashmere&quot; is ready to be dyed to colour and converted into yarn, fabrics and garments.

=== Production ===

China is the largest producer of raw cashmere and current estimates of production put their annual clip at approximately 10,000 metric tons. Mongolia produces somewhat more than 3,000 tons annually with Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan, India and Central Asian Republics producing significant but lesser amounts. In total the annual world clip is estimated to be in excess of 15,000 but less than 20,000 tons. After the natural animal grease, accumulated dirt and coarse hairs have been removed from the fleece creating &quot;pure cashmere&quot; it is estimated the refined quantity is only about 6,500 tons.

Pure cashmere can be dyed and spun into yarns and knit into sweaters, hats, gloves, socks and other apparel items or woven into fabrics then cut and assembled into garments such as outer coats, jackets, pants, scarves, blankets and other highly luxurious and desirable items.

=== External links ===
* [http://www.cashmere.org The Cashmere &amp; Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute]

[[File:leathertools.jpg|thumb|250px|Modern leather-working tools]]

== Leather ==

'''Leather''' is a material created through the tanning of [hides, pelts and skins of animals, primarily cows.
Leather is a very important clothing material, and its other uses are legion.
Together with wood], leather formed the basis of much ancient technology.
Leather with the fur still attached is simply called fur.

There are a number of processes whereby the skin of a dead animal can be formed into a supple, strong material commonly called leather.

Leather—usually vegetable-tanned leather—can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically.

=== Dyeing leather ===

[[File:Phdinoleatherpic.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A dyed leather carving]]
'''Leather dying''' usually involves the use of spirit or alcohol based dyes where alcohol quickly gets absorbed into moistened leather, carrying the pigment deep into the surface. &quot;Hi-liters&quot; and &quot;Antiquing&quot; stains can be used to add more definition to patterns. These have pigments that will break away from the higher points of a tooled piece and so pooling in the background areas give nice contrasts. Leaving parts unstained also provides a kind of contrast.

Alternatives to spirit stains might include a number of options. Shoe polish could be used to dye and preserve leather. Oils, neatsfoot or linseed, can be applied to preserve leather but darkens them. For that reason, a wax paste more often than not serves as the final coat.

== Sources ==

[[w:Nylon]]

[[w:Silk]]

[[w:Mohair]]

[[w:Alpaca#Fiber]]

[[w:Cashmere wool:Gathering|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

[[w:Wool]]

[[w:Leather]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cascading Style Sheets/Important</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>85823</id>
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        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="28862" sha1="e0v9naid3c38bu13hd5mbbqc8ns2eq6" xml:space="preserve">==Overview==
The &lt;code&gt;important&lt;/code&gt; keyword makes a declaration take precedence over normal declarations—those that are not tagged with the &lt;code&gt;important&lt;/code&gt; keyword. So &quot;p { color: red ! important }&quot; takes precedence over &quot;p { color: green }&quot;.

The syntax for an important declaration is
::property: value ! important

The relative importance of a rule also depends on its the source: whether it comes from a style sheet specified by the document author, the user or the user agent.

The order of declarations from least important to most important:
# user agent declarations
# user normal declarations
# author normal declarations
# author important declarations
# user important declarations
User important declarations take precedence over everything else. This allows users to override the page designer's presentation to meet their needs. For example a user could override the text colours to be yellow on black in a large font to make the text easier to read.

The process of determining which of the rules from one or more style sheets applies to a given element is called the ''cascade'', hence the name ''Cascading Style Sheets''.

== An Example of the Cascade ==
The HTML document used for this example is:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;HTML&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot; &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;&gt;
&lt;html lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;
 &lt;head&gt;
  &lt;title&gt;'!important' CSS declarations&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;link rel=&quot;stylesheet&quot; type=&quot;text/css&quot; href=&quot;style.css&quot;&gt;
 &lt;/head&gt;
 &lt;body&gt;
  &lt;p&gt;Paragraph 1.&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;p id=&quot;para2&quot;&gt;Paragraph 2.&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;p&gt;Paragraph 3.&lt;/p&gt;
 &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The document is styled with the style sheet, &lt;code&gt;style.css&lt;/code&gt;:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;CSS&quot;&gt;
p {
  background-color:#fff ;
  color:#000 ! important
}

#para2 {
  background-color:#fc9 ;
  color:#00f ;
  border:1px solid black
}

p {
  background-color:#9cf ;
  color:#f00
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

How will the three paragraphs be presented?

=== First paragraph ===

Consider the first paragraph element (&lt;code&gt;&lt;p&gt;Paragraph 1.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/code&gt;).
The first and third selectors (the &lt;code&gt;p&lt;/code&gt; selectors) match the element. The second selector (&lt;code&gt;#para2&lt;/code&gt;) does not match the element. The rules for the two selectors that match are applied to the element. The rules, listed in the order they appear in the source, are:
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;thead&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Declaration&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;&gt;Weighting&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Specificity&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Property&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Value&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Importance&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;!-- The next four columns are the Specificity --&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;code&gt;style&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;attribute&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;ID&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Class&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Element&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Source&lt;br&gt;order&lt;sup&gt;**&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/thead&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#fff&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#000&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author important&lt;br&gt;(rank 4)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#9cf&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

: * The ranks for importance range from 1 (least important) to 5 (most important). Later examples on this page show other ranks.

: ** The source order column is the position of the declaration in the file, e.g. &lt;code&gt;background-color:#9cf&lt;/code&gt; is the sixth declaration in the file.

The rules that apply to the element are sorted by property. For each property the rules are sorted in ascending order by importance, then by specificity (style attribute, ID selector, class selector, element selector), then by source order. The last value for the property from the sorted list wins (i.e. the value for the most important, most specific rule).

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;thead&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Declaration&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;&gt;Weighting&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Specificity&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Property&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Value&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Importance&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;!-- The next four columns are the Specificity --&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;code&gt;style&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;attribute&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;ID&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Class&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Element&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Source&lt;br&gt;order&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/thead&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#fff&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;background-color&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;#9cf&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;background:#ccc;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;color&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;#000&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;author important&lt;br&gt;(rank 4)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
:The declarations that are used are shown in bold along with the winning tie-breaker that decided between the rules.

The &lt;code&gt;background-color&lt;/code&gt; is set to &lt;code&gt;#9cf&lt;/code&gt; (a pale blue). The two rules for the &lt;code&gt;background-color&lt;/code&gt; property have equal importance and specificity so the second rule wins because it occurs later in the source.

The &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; is set to &lt;code&gt;#000&lt;/code&gt; (black). The rules for the &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; property have different importance so the most important wins.

The first paragraph is rendered:
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#9cf;color:#000&quot;&gt;Paragraph 1.&lt;/p&gt;

=== Second paragraph ===
Consider the second paragraph element (&lt;code&gt;&lt;p id=&quot;para2&quot;&gt;Paragraph 2.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/code&gt;).
The first and third selectors (the &lt;code&gt;p&lt;/code&gt; selectors) match the element. The second selector (&lt;code&gt;#para2&lt;/code&gt;) also matches the element. The rules for all three selectors are applied to the element. The rules, listed in the order they appear in the source, are:
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;thead&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Declaration&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;&gt;Weighting&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Specificity&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Property&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Value&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Importance&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;!-- The next four columns are the Specificity --&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;code&gt;style&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;attribute&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;ID&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Class&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Element&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Source&lt;br&gt;order&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/thead&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#fff&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#000&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author important&lt;br&gt;(rank 4)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#fc9&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#para2&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#para2&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;border&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;1px solid black&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#para2&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#9cf&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Sorting the rules gives:

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;thead&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Declaration&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;&gt;Weighting&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Specificity&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Property&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Value&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Importance&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;!-- The next four columns are the Specificity --&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;code&gt;style&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;attribute&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;ID&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Class&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Element&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Source&lt;br&gt;order&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/thead&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#fff&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#9cf&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;background-color&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;#fc9&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#para2&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;border&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1px solid black&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#para2&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#para2&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;color&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;#000&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;author important&lt;br&gt;(rank 4)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The &lt;code&gt;background-color&lt;/code&gt; is set to &lt;code&gt;#fc9&lt;/code&gt; (a pale orange). The rule with an ID selector has a higher specificity than the other two rules so it wins.

There is only one rule for the &lt;code&gt;border&lt;/code&gt; property so it is set to &lt;code&gt;1px solid black&lt;/code&gt;.

The &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; is set to &lt;code&gt;#000&lt;/code&gt; (black). The rules for the &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; property have different importance so the most important wins.

The second paragraph is rendered:
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#fc9;color:#000;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Paragraph 2.&lt;/p&gt;

=== Third paragraph ===
The third paragraph is matched by exactly the same selectors as the first paragraph and so exactly the same values are applied.

The third paragraph is rendered:
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#9cf;color:#000&quot;&gt;Paragraph 3.&lt;/p&gt;

=== Result ===
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#9cf;color:#000&quot;&gt;Paragraph 1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#fc9;color:#000;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Paragraph 2.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#9cf;color:#000&quot;&gt;Paragraph 3.&lt;/p&gt;

== Example with a User Style sheet ==
In this example we will examine how the appearance of the document in the previous example is altered when the following user style sheet, &lt;code&gt;user.css&lt;/code&gt;, is combined with the style sheet from the previous example. (See the chapter [[../User Style Sheets/]] for information on how to set a user style sheet.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;CSS&quot;&gt;
p {
  color:#ff0 ! important ;
  background-color:#808080 ;
  font-family:cursive
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Consider the first paragraph element.
The single selector from the user style sheet matches the element.
The first and third selectors (the &lt;code&gt;p&lt;/code&gt; selectors) from &lt;code&gt;style.css&lt;/code&gt; also match the element. The second selector (&lt;code&gt;#para2&lt;/code&gt;) from &lt;code&gt;style.css&lt;/code&gt; does not match the element. The rules that apply to the element, listed in the order they appear in the source, are:
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;thead&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Declaration&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;&gt;Weighting&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Specificity&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Property&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Value&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Importance&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;!-- The next four columns are the Specificity --&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;code&gt;style&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;attribute&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;ID&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Class&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Element&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Source&lt;br&gt;order&lt;sup&gt;**&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/thead&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#ff0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;user important&lt;br&gt;(rank 5)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1:1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#808080&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;user normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 2)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1:2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;font-family&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;cursive&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;user normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 2)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1:3&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#fff&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2:1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#000&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author important&lt;br&gt;(rank 4)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2:2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#9cf&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2:6&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2:7&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

: * The ranks for importance range from 1 (least important) to 5 (most important). Notice that rules from the user style sheet are either rank 2 for normal declarations or rank 5 for important declarations.

: ** The first number in the source order column gives the order the file containing the rule was loaded in. In this case &lt;code&gt;user.css&lt;/code&gt; was loaded before &lt;code&gt;style.css&lt;/code&gt;. The second number is the position of the declaration within the file. E.g. &lt;code&gt;background-color:#9cf&lt;/code&gt; is the sixth declaration in the second file.

Sorting the rules gives:
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;colgroup span=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;
  &lt;thead&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Declaration&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th scope=&quot;colgroup&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;&gt;Weighting&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Specificity&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Property&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Value&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Importance&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;!-- The next four columns are the Specificity --&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;&lt;code&gt;style&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;attribute&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;ID&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Class&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Element&lt;br&gt;selector&lt;/th&gt;
      &lt;th&gt;Source&lt;br&gt;order&lt;sup&gt;**&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/thead&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#808080&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;user normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 2)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1:2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;background-color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#fff&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2:1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;background-color&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;#9cf&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2:6&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#00f&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 3)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2:7&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;#000&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;author important&lt;br&gt;(rank 4)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2:2&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;color&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;#ff0&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;user important&lt;br&gt;(rank 5)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1:1&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
  &lt;tbody&gt;
--&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;font-family&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ccc;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cursive&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;user normal&lt;br&gt;(rank 2)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1:3&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--
  &lt;/tbody&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

There are two rules with equal highest importance for the &lt;code&gt;background-color&lt;/code&gt; property. These two rules also have equal specificity so they are split by source order. The background color is  set to the author's choice, not the user's choice.

The important declaration for &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; in the user style sheet has the highest importance for this property so the user's choice of text color is used, not the page author's choice.

The only rule for &lt;code&gt;font-family&lt;/code&gt; is the user's so the user's choice is used.

The paragraphs are rendered:
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#9cf;color:#ff0;font-family:cursive&quot;&gt;Paragraph 1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#fc9;color:#ff0;border:1px solid black;font-family:cursive&quot;&gt;Paragraph 2.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:#9cf;color:#ff0;font-family:cursive&quot;&gt;Paragraph 3.&lt;/p&gt;

== Internet Explorer &lt;code&gt;!important&lt;/code&gt; Bug ==
'''This bug is known to occur in Internet Explorer versions 6.0 and 7.0 on Windows XP; however, version 8.0 is unaffected.'''

There is a bug in Internet Explorer's handling of &lt;code&gt;!important&lt;/code&gt;. If an important declaration for a property is followed by a normal declaration for the same property within the same block Internet Explorer treats both declarations as normal. For example in IE v6.0 the following style sheet incorrectly renders paragraphs as yellow on red. The paragraphs should be white on black because the first two declarations are important.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;CSS&quot;&gt;
p {
  background-color: black ! important ;
  color: white ! important;
  background-color: red ;
  color: yellow
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

You can check that the declarations revert to normal by adding an extra rule to the style sheet.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;CSS&quot;&gt;
p {
  background-color: black ! important ;
  color: white ! important;
  background-color: red ;
  color: yellow
}

p {
  color: green
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
In IE v6.0 this gives green on red indicating that all the &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; declarations are being treated as normal.

If you remove the second &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; declaration from the first block:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;CSS&quot;&gt;
p {
  background-color: black ! important ;
  color: white ! important;
  background-color: red ;
}

p {
  color: green
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
the paragraphs become white on red. This shows that the &lt;code&gt;color&lt;/code&gt; declaration in the first block in now correctly considered important.

A number of people suggest using this bug as a means of passing Interent Explorer different values from those given to other browsers. A better solution if you need to do this is to use [[HyperText Markup Language/Conditional Comments|conditional comments]].

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>e0v9naid3c38bu13hd5mbbqc8ns2eq6</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cascading Style Sheets/Lengths and Units</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>90265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662742</id>
      <parentid>4446510</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T10:21:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662742</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5099" sha1="8qxgc5vhmx2ul2j3r4mhcu1pkmsn66i" xml:space="preserve">To specify widths, heights and other lengths, you can use various units, listed in the following table.

&lt;!-- Note: percentage is not a unit. --&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Units in CSS
! Code
! Definition
! Example (1 unit)
|-
| em
| The height of the element's font.
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1em; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| rem
| The height of the browser font size.
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1rem; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| ex
| The height of the letter 'x' in the element's font.
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1ex; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| px
| pixel
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1px; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| mm
| millimeter
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1mm; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| cm
| centimeter
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1cm; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| pt
| point (1/72 inch)
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1pt; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| pc
| pica (12 points = 1/6 inch)
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1pc; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| in
| inch
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1in; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| vw
| 1/100 of a viewport's width
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1vw; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| vh
| 1/100 of a viewport's height
| &lt;div style=&quot;height: 1em; width: 1vh; background: var(--color-base, black);color:var(--background-base, white);&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|}

Lengths may also be specified as a percentage of another length. Using percentages can be complicated because the base length varies from property to property. For example, when percentages are used with the {{CSS:property|margin}} property the calculation is based on the width of the containing block. When percentages are used with the {{CSS:property|font-size}} property the calculation is based on the {{CSS:property|font-size}} of the parent element but with {{CSS:property|line-height}} it is based on the {{CSS:property|font-size}} of the current element.

Font sizes on screen are best given as a percentage or in &lt;code&gt;em&lt;/code&gt;s. (See the note on [[../Fonts and Text#Using ems in Internet Explorer|Using ems in Internet Explorer]].) This means that the page will interact gracefully with users' font preferences. Using pixels (&lt;code&gt;px&lt;/code&gt;) for font sizes causes a number of problems and should be avoided.

The absolute units &lt;code&gt;mm&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;cm&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;pt&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;pc&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;in&lt;/code&gt; do not work well on screen and cause problems in many older browsers. It is safest to only use them for print media. Even in print media they may interact badly with users' preferences.

== Relative units ==
The three units &lt;code&gt;em&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;ex&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;px&lt;/code&gt; are called relative units. These units do not specify a fixed length. Instead they scale relative to some other quantity. In the case of &lt;code&gt;em&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;ex&lt;/code&gt; they scale relative to the font size of some element.

=== Screen pixels, printer pixels and CSS pixels ===
The &lt;code&gt;px&lt;/code&gt; unit specifies a length in ''CSS pixels''. These are not the same as the pixels on the screen that the document is rendered on or the dots on the printer that it is printed on. It is perfectly possible, for example, for there to be two screen pixels or five printer dots to one CSS pixel. Many web browsers use the rule that one screen pixel equals one CSS pixel for simplicity but you can not rely on this. Opera and Internet Explorer version 7 allow the user to change the number of screen pixels per CSS pixel. It is common for users with poor vision who use these browsers to choose to have five or six screen pixels to the CSS pixel.

The [http://www.w3.org/TR/CSS21/syndata.html#value-def-length formal definition] of the CSS pixel is quite complicated but the basic idea is that a CSS pixel appears to be the same size when the document is at a comfortable reading distance. So a CSS pixel would be physically bigger on a monitor than on a mobile phone because the monitor would normally be further from the user's eyes than the mobile phone.

=== Calculations ===
Divide the desired margin width/height by the width/height of its container to convert it to ems. Multiply by 100 to convert that to percentages.

Divide the desired container width by 1.62 to use the Golden Ratio as the size of the content block. Subtract the content width from the container width to use the Golden Ratio as the size of the sidebar

{{BookCat}}

[[de:Websiteentwicklung: CSS: Schriftgröße]]
[[it:CSS/Unità di misura, ereditarietà e box model]]
[[pl:CSS/Jednostki miary]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>A-level Mathematics/OCR/C3/Numerical Methods</title>
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    <id>101293</id>
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      <text bytes="4921" sha1="bguj22z5w5thitz8yyojctt9pe1oqyi" xml:space="preserve">==Finding Roots of an Equation==
In this module we will explore approximating where an equation has a root. Below we have two graphs.
[[Image:C3NumericalMethods.svg|500px]]

===Finding A Root Using a Graph===
In the graph we have two functions. If we want to approximate where the roots are we have to look at where the function cross the x-axis. The lilac function crosses the x-axis somewhere between 2.05 and 2.25. The green function has roots around 1 and 3.5. If we want to know where the green function is equivalent to the lilac function we need to look at the graph. When the two graphs cross they are equivalent. This number will be the root. In this case it is around 1.75. We can also say that on this domain, the functions will only cross once.

===Finding A Root By Searching for A Sign Change===
When a function has a root the value of the function will change from a positive value to a negative value or vice versa. If below is the table of values for the lilac function we can say that the root occurs between 2.05 and 2.10:
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|x || f(x)
|-
|2 || -1
|-
|2.05 || -.4849
|-
|2.1 || .061
|-
|2.15 || .63838
|-
|2.2 || 1.248
|-
|2.25 || 1.08906
|-
|}

==Iterative Formulae==
An iterative formula is a formula that is composed of itself. That is the output of the function is the next input of the function. &lt;math&gt;x_{n + 1}= F(n)&lt;/math&gt;. These functions are a sequence of approximations that usually converge to the value of a function. You can tell if a function converges by the fact that the outputs become closer and closer to each other, if this does not happen then the function diverges and there is no value. The output of an iterative formula is written as:
:&lt;math&gt;x_2\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x_3\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x_4\,&lt;/math&gt;
The first x is provided for you. The output of the iterative formula is written as the Greek letter alpha: α. α can be found to the required degree of accuracy when &lt;math&gt;x_n = x_{n + 1}&lt;/math&gt; to the required number of decimal places. Given an iterative function you can find the root of an equation. Also you find the function from a given iterative function by setting x = iterative function, then solving so that you have a zero on one side. The aforementioned process can be done in reverse.

===Example===
Given the sequence that is defined by the iterative formula &lt;math&gt;\left(2x+5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;x_1 = 2&lt;/math&gt; converges to &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt;
#Find &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; correct to 4 decimal places.
#Find equation that has &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; as a root.
#Does the equation have any more roots?
With an iterative formula we have:
# We plug in &lt;math&gt;x_1&lt;/math&gt; to get &lt;math&gt;x_2&lt;/math&gt; and so on
##&lt;math&gt;x_2 = \left(2\times(2)+5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}} = 2.0801&lt;/math&gt;
##&lt;math&gt;x_3 = \left(2\times(2.0801)+5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}} = 2.0924&lt;/math&gt;
##&lt;math&gt;x_4 = \left(2\times(2.0924)+5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}} = 2.0942&lt;/math&gt;
##&lt;math&gt;x_5 = \left(2\times(2.0942)+5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}} = 2.0945&lt;/math&gt;
##&lt;math&gt;x_6 = \left(2\times(2.0945)+5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}} = 2.0945&lt;/math&gt;
## &lt;math&gt;\alpha = 2.0945\,&lt;/math&gt;
#&lt;math&gt;x = \left(2x+5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;
##&lt;math&gt;x^3 = 2x+5\,&lt;/math&gt;
##&lt;math&gt;x^3 -2x -5 = 0\,&lt;/math&gt;
# To determine if the function has any roots just graph the graph of the highest power of x and then the rest. The number of times they cross is the number of roots you have.
##If we plot &lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y = 2x + 5&lt;/math&gt; we can see that they only cross once.
##The function only has one root.

==Simpson's Rule for Area==
To find the area beneath a curve we have already learned the trapezium rule. The trapezium rule is not very accurate it takes a very large number of trapezoids to get an very accurate area. The Simpson rule is much more accurate to find the area underneath a curve. Simpson's Rule states:
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 80%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\int^b_a y dx \approx \frac{1}{3}h\left\{\left(y_0 + y_n\right) + 4\left(y_1 + y_3 + \ldots + y_{n-1}\right) + 2\left(y_2 + y_4 + \ldots + y_{n-2}\right) \right\}&lt;/math&gt;

where&lt;math&gt;h = \frac{b-a}{n}&lt;/math&gt; and n is even
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

====Example====
Use Simpson's Rule to evaluate &lt;math&gt;\int_{1}^{5}x^2 + 2x\, dx&lt;/math&gt; with h = 1.

&lt;math&gt;\int_{1}^{5}x^2 + 2x \,dx \approx \frac{1}{3}\left[\left(1^2 + 2\times 1 \right) + 4\left(2^2 + 2\times 2 \right) + 2\left(3^2 + 2\times 3\right) + 4\left(4^2 + 2\times 4\right)  + \left(5^2 + 2\times 5\right)\right]&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\int_{1}^{5}x^2 + 2x\,dx = 65\frac{1}{3}&lt;/math&gt;

The area under the curve &lt;math&gt;x^2 + 2x\,&lt;/math&gt;is equal to &lt;math&gt;65\frac{1}{3}&lt;/math&gt;.

This is the true value. If we compare it to the value of 66 that we trapezium rule and to the value of 65 that we got from the midpoint rule we can see that Simpson's rule is the most accurate.

{{A-level_Mathematics/C3/TOC}}</text>
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    <title>A-level Mathematics/OCR/FP2/Numerical Methods</title>
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      <text bytes="1633" sha1="5fmb2ouldpc1fhsij8v66bouu75tqt0" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FP2NumericalMethods.svg]]
==The Newton-Raphson method==
The best way to find a root of a function is to use the Newton-Raphson method; this uses a series of tangent lines to estimate the value of the root. The first number in the series is chosen from either one of the previous methods or semi-randomly. We can find the value of a function to a certain degree when the &lt;math&gt;x_n = x_{n + 1}&lt;/math&gt; to the specific number of digits. This method may not work always because if f'(x) = 0 the function will be undefined at this point the function will diverge.
{{center/s}}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #0099ff; background: #ddeeff;{{Text default color}}; padding: 0.5em; width: 75%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;math&gt;x_{n + 1} = x_n - \frac{f\left(x\right)}{f'\left(x\right)}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{center/e}}

====Example====
The graph that we have above is actually the same function that Newton used to demonstrate the theory. Find the value of the root accurate to six decimal places.
We are going to use 2.05 as the first value.

&lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 3x^2 -2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x_{2} = 2.05 - \frac{(2.05)^3 - 2(2.05) - 5}{3(2.05)^2 -2} = 2.095710&lt;/math&gt;

Now we use this output for the next input and so on.

:&lt;math&gt;x_{2} = 2.095710 - \frac{(2.095710)^3 - 2(2.095710) - 5}{3(2.095710)^2 -2} = 2.094552&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x_{3} = 2.094552 - \frac{(2.094552)^3 - 2(2.094552) - 5}{3(2.094552)^2 -2} = 2.094551&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x_{4} = 2.094552 - \frac{(2.094552)^3 - 2(2.094552) - 5}{3(2.094552)^2 -2} = 2.094551&lt;/math&gt;
The root is approximately 2.094551. If we plug this into the original function we get -.00000000000004 which is very close to zero.

{{BookCat|filing=deep}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bilingual Education/Theory and Practice</title>
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      <comment>/* An Overview to the Bilingual Education in Colombia */ typo</comment>
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      <text bytes="11903" sha1="teveorjnpr42s7483spjry0p60ec02j" xml:space="preserve">The bilingual education has swept across the language teaching context in our country. Bilingualism and bilingual education are the two straight points where schools, policy makers and teachers want to go. The design of the curriculum, application of different methodologies, and activities done in class, the objectives and goals expected to reach at the end of the academic year are elements that contribute to develop the bilingualism phenomenon among schools.

However, my experience and knowledge regarding bilingual education have awakened my critical thinking. Through my experience in bilingual and non bilingual schools I have had the opportunity to compare and contrast what happen between in these two contexts. In other words, I have analysed how theory and practice go together to facilitate or not the development of the bilingual process and observed how policy makers and teachers are involved in it as well.
As an English teacher, I have various questions that have been going around my head, questions that I am still trying to answer. They are: How do policy makers and teachers are working on the same way to foster a bilingual education? What role does society play in the development of the bilingual process?
That is why; I will begin by presenting some definitions regarding bilingualism.

==Bilingual and Bilingualism==
===Definitions===
Baker, (1996) remarks that is important to make the distinction “between bilingualism as an individual phenomenon and bilingualism as a group or societal possession” (p.4). Taking into account this, I can define the school as the one that has the societal possession and the student as the individual phenomenon. In addition, another distinction comes up an it is the one in which the societal possession can be identified as the one that bilingual schools have, where all the students are able to use the English language to express, exchange and negotiate meanings. The student can also be identified as an individual phenomenon. Both definitions can be connected to public schools, but with a different command of the English language or competence level.

===An Overview to the Bilingual Education in Colombia===
As far as I know, in public schools and  private schools teachers try to figure out what kind of foreign language  teaching process are guiding, and if the way they teach the foreign language asserts to the development of the communicative competence “which is the main goal” in their students. Teachers ask themselves if they are teaching English as a foreign or as a second language.  Allen (1965) defines” English as a foreign language……. English taught as a school subject for the purpose of giving the student a foreign – language competence which he may use in one of the several ways” (p.3) and “English as a second language is used, the reference is usually to a situation where English becomes a language of instruction in the schools” (p.4).
As I am able to judge, teachers can find the answer depending on the context they work on. Up to this point, public schools are teaching English as a foreign language and private schools, those that are recognize as “bilingual” are teaching English as a second language.
In effect, both groups of students do not have the same level of competence in the second language, understanding that the competence in a language involves knowledge about the language and the learner’s ability to decide when and how he can use the language as a way of communication. Savignon cited in Brown (1990) also states that “communicative competence is a relative not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved” (p.227).Now, giving a look to these definitions it is important to see how policy makers and teachers are guiding the bilingual education to foster a bilingualism in private and public schools.

On one hand, the Colombian government ignores the real situation that public schools have to face everyday trying to guide a “bilingual education” without having the resources to do so. Teachers are not prepared for the challenge, and the resources are not enough to develop the bilingualism process as it should be. What I have experienced in public schools is that teachers have to design and make the material they need to work with, such as: posters, flash cards, and games.  The books and worksheets some times are designed in both languages Spanish and English. In addition to this, teachers have to pay for thousand of photocopies that they need to give to their students, who most of the times do not have money to pay for.
Taking about teachers , most of them haven’t had the chance to go abroad, in effect they do not know about the foreign culture, which is really important to provide the students the opportunity to compare and contrast the Colombian culture with the foreign one.  Regarding to the teachers’ preparation you can find teachers with a very good command of the English language and teachers who just accomplish the basic requirements of it.
On the other hand, in bilingual schools the issues are different from the public one. For example, in bilingual schools policy makers and teachers some times pay more attention to the foreign cultural patterns than ours,  or which is worse the teachers and policy makers do not go the same path. 
A clear example is showed in a research carried out in bilingual school in our country, where policy makers and teachers celebrated American festivities such as: Thanksgiving and San Valentine’s Day. Policy makers believe that if they make these celebrations, including the flag raising event,  they are creating a bicultural environment. In contrast the teachers did not agree with this assumption, they though that these celebrations were not important either meaningful for the students. Tala (2002)  cited in her article the teachers’ comments regarding to this kind of activities. “Había un sentimiento casi unánime, de que se le daba más importancia a lo foráneo que a lo colombiano”  , “No he visto una celebración Colombiana que se celebre tan en grande como las gringas” (p.165).

Another clear example of the lack of the identity was the celebration of the Colombian flag raising, and the confusion among the teachers, when a teacher expressed his confusion when he saw “ …. Una niña hacienda el juramento  a la bandera  colombiana en inglés  porque, según de de los docente encargado de planearlo, dijo  “algo hay que hacerse en el idioma” (P.165) , or to see a teacher in the same context translating the program: “  Se veía al docente haciendo la traducción simultánea” Said  the teacher. The person in charge of the event’s organization supports his decision saying that it twas what he was asked to do. The policy maker asked him to do it in English not in Spanish.  Both examples show how policy makers and teachers do not work on the same way, and how teachers do what they are asked to do without presenting any disagreement about what is happening in the school. Here, we clearly see how cultural patterns and identity are important aspects that must be taken into account in a bilingualism process and how it helps to develop it per se.

In addition to this, it is important to reflect upon the use of the target language ”English” and why all the subjects are taught in the second language?. From my point of view this is a matter of justification. As Cameron (2001) presents the idea “ the more languages the pupils hear, the more they will learn” (p.190) as a way o  maximizing the process. I do not agree with this underlying assumption, since, in some bilingual schools the students are all the time in contact with the second language, and there are some of them with serious difficulties in the language.
Another important aspect that needs to be analyzed is the role of the society in the bilingual education in our country. Society plays an important role, since, being the context in which every single person grows up, develops and acquires cultural patterns. 

Taking into account what Donne says “Culture is a way of life. It is the context within which we exist, feel and relate to others.” (1624). consequently, every person has certain differences regarding thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and interests. However, the bilingual education system seems to be ignoring the individual differences and tend to stereotype learners according to their proficiency level in a second language. It seems to be a discriminatory issue. 

Teachers apparently classify their students according to the progress they show throughout the bilingualism process, without analyzing their abilities, skills and interests towards the process and resources to access to a bilingual education.
That is why, it is necessary to foster a bilingual education for both, majority and minority.  In our context, people would say that bilingual education is a matter of prestige, where the minority, the rich have access to bilingual education because they can pay for it. While the minority has to make do with an educational system where the English language is taught as another subject and the opportunities to learn more about the language and use it in a competent way is unlikely.  

On the whole,    the bilingualism phenomenon in Colombia needs to be frequently evaluated by both participants, policy makers and teachers to foster a bilingual education in which socio cultural factors can be used to facilitate the process without misjudging, devaluating and stereotyping people. 
It is also important to work on changing the discriminatory issue in which the bilingual education seems to be just for the minority, and the majority has to make it  with the poor opportunities they have to acquire a language .  
Regarding the great responsibility that policy makers and teachers have with the bilingualism process, it is convenient to adopt new strategies to have more policy makers play the role of inside participants and teachers as researchers. In this way, the educational context would improve and be ready for the challenge.

Finally, the way in which the bilingualism process has been carried out by public and private schools needs to be evaluated constantly  in order to foster a bilingual education  where  teachers and learners have the opportunity to learn, discover and propose new alternative to maximize the second language acquisition process without creating discriminatory classifications;  but always working hard to maximize the process and have students with a competence in that English language, and with a huge knowledge of the foreign culture and the Colombian one, identifying , comparing and contrasting them,  and at the same time to value what they have in their country.

==References==
*A. &amp; Amato  (1996). The classroom as an environment for language acquisition. Wesley Publishing Group. Longman (2nd ed.) pp.21 -35 
*Allen.(1965). Teaching English as a second Language. English as a second language and English as a foreign language. Mc. Graw Hill (Chapter 1)
*Baker, C. (1996) Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism Clevedon:  Multilingual Matters. (Chapter 1)  
*Cameron, L. (2001). Languages to young learners.  Cambridge University Press. (1st  ed). U.K pp 199-212
*Cummins, J. (200). Language, power and pedagogy. Bilingual children in the crossfire. Theory as dialogue. (part1)
*Klein, W. (1990). Second language acquisition. The process of language acquisition. Cambridge University Press. (3rd ed. pp. 1-33)
*Mejia, AM.(2002) Power, prestige and bilingualism. International perspectives on 
elite bilingual education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Definitions and distinctions.(Chapter 2)
*Tala.(2002). Formación Lingüística Intercultural Integrativa: Una Propuesta para la educación bilingüe en Colombia. (p.146-1

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>AQA A-Level Physics</title>
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      <text bytes="5420" sha1="pfplgitkj3vwwk66ennjbc3jwnlp3dl" xml:space="preserve">&lt;sub&gt;&lt; [[A-level Physics]]&lt;/sub&gt;
{{Denest}}&lt;div style=&quot;border:2px #000000 solid; background-color:#FEFEFE;{{Text default color}}; width:100%; padding:3px;&quot;&gt;
This book is designed to help students who are studying the ''AQA Specification A'' syllabus to understand the topics covered, as well as explaining the way in which questions are asked in exams and how they differ from other examining bodies.  Edited for the new Syllabus - from 2016)
&lt;/div&gt;

== AS Topics==

=== Measurements and their Errors===

* Use of SI Units
* Limitation of Physical Measurements
* Estimation of Physical Quantities
* [[/Scalars and vectors|Scalars and vectors]]

=== Particles and Radiation===
*[[/Atomic structure/]][[File:100%.svg]]
*[[/Particles and Anti-particles/]][[Image:25%.svg]]
**[[/Particles and Anti-particles/Constituents of the particle|Constituents of the particle]]
**[[/Particles and Anti-particles/Forces|Forces]]
**[[/Particles and Anti-particles/Particle-Antiparticle interactions|Particle-Antiparticle interactions]]
**[[/Particles and Anti-particles/Creation and annihilation|Creation and annihilation]]
**[[/Particles and Anti-particles/Creation and annihilation 2|Creation and annihilation 2]]
**[[/Particles and Anti-particles/Conserving and illustrating interactions|Conserving and illustrating interactions]]
*[[/Quarks and sub-atomic particles/]][[File:00%.svg]]

===Electromagnetic Radiation and Quantum Phenomena===
*[[/Photoelectric effect|The photoelectric effect]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/The photon|The photon]][[File:00%.svg]]
*Energy Levels and Spectra
*[[/Mass and energy|Mass and energy]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Waves and particles|Waves and particles]][[File:00%.svg]]

===Waves===
*[[/Progressive waves|Progressive waves]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Longitudinal and transverse waves|Longitudinal and transverse waves]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Superposition and Stationary Waves|Superposition and Stationary Waves]]
*[[/Interference|Interference]]
*[[/Diffraction|Diffraction]]
*[[/Reflection, refraction and optics|Reflection, refraction and optics]][[File:00%.svg]]

=== Mechanics===

*[[/Scalars and vectors|Scalars and vectors]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Moments|Moments]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Motion along a straight line|Motion along a straight line]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Projectile motion|Projectile motion]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Newton's laws of motion|Newton's laws of motion]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Momentum|Momentum]]
*[[/Work, energy and power|Work, energy and power]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Conservation of energy|Conservation of energy]][[File:00%.svg]]

===Materials===
*[[/Density|Density]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Springs|Springs]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Deformation of solids|Deformation of Solids]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/The Young Modulus|Momentum]]
*[[/Materials Summary Page|Materials Summary Page]][[File:00%.svg]]

===Current Electricity===
*[[/Charge and Current|Charge and Current]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Voltage and Power|Voltage and Power]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/IV Characteristics|IV Characteristics]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Resistivity|Resistivity]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Circuits|Circuits]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Potential divider|Potential divider]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/EMF and internal resistance|EMF and Internal resistance]][[File:00%.svg]]

==A2 Only Content==
===Further Mechanics===
* [[/Circular Motion|Circular Motion]]
* [[/Simple Harmonic Motion|Simple Harmonic Motion]]
* [[/Forced Vibrations, Damping and Resonance|Forced Vibrations, Damping and Resonance]]

===Thermal Physics===
*[[/Thermal energy|Thermal energy]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Ideal gases|Ideal gases]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Molecular kinetic theory model|Molecular kinetic theory model]][[File:00%.svg]]

===Fields===
*[[/Gravitational Fields|Gravitational Fields]]
*[[/Electric Fields|Electric Fields]]
*[[/Capacitance|Capacitance]]
*[[/Magnetic Fields|Magnetic Fields]]
*[[/Alternating currents|Alternating currents]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Oscilloscope|Oscilloscope]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Comparison of Fields|Comparison of Fields]]

=== Thermal Physics===
Specific Heat Capacity

Latent Heats

Gas Laws

Kinetic Theory

===Radioactivity===
*[[/Evidence for the nucleus/]][[File:75%.svg]]
*[[/Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation/]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Radioactive decay/]][[File:25%.svg]]
*[[/Nuclear Instability/]][[File:25%.svg]]
*[[/Nuclear Radius/]][[File:25%.svg]]

===Nuclear Energy===
*[[/Mass and energy|Mass and energy]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Induced fission|Induced fission]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Safety aspects|Safety aspects]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Binding Energy/]]

==Optional Topics==
Pupils study one of these:

===Astronomy and Cosmology===
*[[/Telescopes/]]
**[[/Astronomical Telescopes with Two Converging Lenses/]]
**[[/Reflecting Telescopes/]]
**[[/Single Dish Telescopes (Radio, IR, UV, X-ray)/]]
**[[/Large Diameter Telescopes and their Merits/]]
*[[/Classification of Stars/]]
**[[/Luminosity/]]
**[[/Absolute Magnitude/]]
**[[/Temperature/]]
**[[/Spectral Classes/]]
**[[/HR Diagram/]]
**[[/Supernovae, Neutron Stars, and Black Holes/]]
*[[/Cosmology/]]
**[[/Doppler Effect/]]
**[[/Hubble's Law/]]
**[[/Quasars/]]
**[[/Detection of Exoplanets/]]

===Medical Physics===

===Applied Physics===

===Turning Points in Physics===

== General Resources ==
*[[/List of formulas/]][[File:00%.svg]]
*[[/Past paper questions/]]

__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__

{{Shelves|Physics study guides|GCE Advanced Level}}
{{alphabetical|A}}
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    <title>Unicode/Versions</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Alexlatham96</username>
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{{Unicode page}}
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{{refimprove|date=June 2017}}
This page is about each version specification, and the differences between the versions.

== Unicode 1.0 ==

Unicode 1.0 was the first version of Unicode, released October 1991. It encoded 7,094 new characters.

=== “Blocks” ===
This version of Unicode did not formally group characters in blocks. But in comparison with version 2.0, the following “blocks” were available:
U+0000-U+FFFD
51 Blocks
* '''Basic Latin (formerly called ASCII)''' (U+0000-U+007F), containing 128 characters.
* '''Latin-1 Supplement (formerly called Latin1)'''  (U+0080-U+00FF), containing 128 characters.
* '''Latin Extended-A''' '''(formerly called European Latin)''' (U+0100-U+017F), containing 127 characters.
* '''Latin Extended-B''' '''(formerly called Extended Latin)''' (U+0180-U+01FF), containing 113 characters.
* '''IPA Extensions''' '''(formerly called Standard Phonetic)''' (U+0250-U+02AF), containing 89 characters.
* '''Spacing Modifier Letters''' '''(formerly called Modifier Letters)''' (U+02B0-U+02FF), containing 57 characters.
* '''Combining Diacritical Marks''' '''(formerly called Generic Diacritical Marks)''' (U+0300-U+036F), containing 66 characters.
* '''Greek and Coptic''' '''(formerly called Greek)''' (U+0370-U+03FF), containing 112 characters.
* '''Cyrillic''' (U+0400-U+04FF), containing 192 characters.
* '''Armenian''' (U+0530-U+058F), containing 84 characters.
* '''Hebrew''' (U+0590-U+05FF), containing 52 characters.
* '''Arabic''' (U+0600-U+06FF), containing 169 characters.
* '''Devanagari''' (U+0900-U+097F), containing 104 characters.
* '''Bengali''' (U+0980-U+09FF), containing 89 characters.
* '''Gurmukhi''' (U+0A00-U+0A7F), containing 74 characters.
* '''Gujarati''' (U+0A80-U+0AFF), containing 75 characters.
* '''Oriya''' (U+0B00-U+0B7F), containing 78 characters.
* '''Tamil''' (U+0B80-U+0BFF), containing 61 characters.
* '''Telugu''' (U+0C00-U+0C7F), containing 80 characters.
* '''Kannada''' (U+0C80-U+0CFF), containing 80 characters.
* '''Malayalam''' (U+0D00-U+0D7F), containing 78 characters.
* '''Thai''' (U+0E00-U+0E7F), containing 92 characters.
* '''Lao''' (U+0E80-U+0EFF), containing 70 characters.
* '''Tibetan''' (U+1000-U+105F), containing 71 characters.
* '''Georgian''' (U+10A0-U+10FF), containing 78 characters.
* '''General Punctuation''' (U+2000-U+206F), containing 67 characters.
* '''Superscripts and Subscripts''' (U+2070-U+209F), containing 28 characters.
* '''Currency Symbols''' (U+20A0-U+20CF), containing 11 characters.
* '''Combining Marks for Symbols''' '''(formerly called Diacritical Marks for Symbols)''' (U+20D0-U+20FF), containing 18 characters.
* '''Letterlike Symbols''' (U+2100-U+214F), containing 57 characters.
* '''Number Forms''' (U+2150-U+218F), containing 48 characters.
* '''Arrows''' (U+2190-U+21FF), containing 91 characters.
* '''Mathematical Operators''' (U+2200-U+22FF), containing 242 characters.
* '''Miscellaneous Technical''' (U+2300-U+23FF), containing 43 characters.
* '''Control Pictures''' '''(formerly called Pictures for Control Codes)''' (U+2400-U+243F), containing 37 characters.
* '''Optical Character Recognition''' (U+2440-U+245F), containing 11 characters.
* '''Enclosed Alphanumerics''' (U+2460-U+24FF), containing 139 characters.
* '''Box Drawing''' '''(formerly called Form and Chart Components)''' (U+2500-U+257F), containing 128 characters.
* '''Block Elements''' '''(formerly called Blocks)''' (U+2580-U+259F), containing 22 characters.
* '''Geometric Shapes''' (U+25A0-U+25FF), containing 79 characters.
* '''Miscellaneous Symbols''' '''(formerly called Miscellaneous Dingbats)''' (U+2600-U+26FF), containing 106 characters.
* '''Dingbats''' '''(formerly called Zapf Dingbats)''' (U+2700-U+27BF), containing 160 characters.
* '''CJK Symbols and Punctuation''' (U+3000-U+303F), containing 56 characters.
* '''Hiragana''' (U+3040-U+309F), containing 90 characters.
* '''Katakana''' (U+30A0-U+30FF), containing 90 characters.
* '''Bopomofo''' (U+3100-U+312F), containing 40 characters.
* '''Hangul Compatibility Jamo (formerly called Hangul Elements)''' (U+3130-U+318F), containing 94 characters.
* '''Kanbun (formerly called CJK Miscellaneous)''' (U+3190-U+31FF), containing 16 characters.
* '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months''' '''(formerly called''' '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Ideographs)''' (U+3200-U+32FF), containing 191 characters.
* '''CJK Compatibility''' '''(formerly called CJK Squared Words for U+3300-U+337F and CJK Squared Abbreviations for U+3380-33FF)''' (U+3300-U+33FF), containing 187 characters.
* '''Hangul''' (U+3400-U+3D2D), containing 2,350 characters.
* '''Private Use Area''' (U+E000-U+FDFF), reserved for 5,632 characters.
* '''CJK Compatibility Forms''' '''(formerly called CNS 11643 Compatibility)''' (U+FE30-U+FE4F), containing 28 characters.
* '''Small Form Variants''' '''(formerly called Small Variants)''' (U+FE50-U+FE6F), containing 26 characters.
* '''Arabic Presentation Forms-B''' '''(formerly called Basic Glyphs for Arabic Language)''' (U+FE70-U+FEFF), containing 140 characters.
* '''Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms''' '''(formerly called Halfwidth and Fullwidth Variants)''' (U+FF00-U+FFEF), containing 216 characters.
* '''Specials''' '''(formerly called Special)''' (U+FFF0-U+FFFF), containing 1 character.

== Unicode 1.0.1 ==
Unicode 1.0.1 was released June 1992. It encoded 28,292 characters, adding 21,204 new characters and removing 6 characters, for a net increase of 21,198 characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''CJK Unified Ideographs''' (U+4E00-U+9FFF), containing 20,902 Han Ideographs for Chinese, Japanese and Korean, was added.
* '''CJK Compatibility Ideographs''' (U+F900-U+FAFF), containing 302 Han Ideographs for compatibility with existing character sets, was added.

=== Removed characters ===
* Letters Ka and Kha with Ogonek (total 4 characters) were removed from '''Cyrillic'''. (U+04C5-U+04C6 and U+04C9-U+04CA)
* APL Compose Operator and APL Out (total 2 characters) were removed from '''Miscellaneous Technical'''. (U+2300-U+2301)

=== Rearranged characters ===
* A Japanese Industrial Standard symbol (〄) was moved from '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months''' (U+32FF) to '''CJK Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+3004)
*'''Circled Katakana:''' ''The characters well be arranged in modern order: e.g., A, I, U, E, O, KA, KI'' (U+32D0-U+32FE)
*'''Basic Glyphs For Arabic Language:''' ''The character shapes will be arranged in different order: Isolate, Final, Initial and Medial'' (U+FE80-FEFC)

=== Characters with semantics changed ===
*'''Zero Width Non-Joiner''' [ZWNJ] (U+20DC)

*'''Zero Width Joiner''' [ZWJ] (U+20DD)

== Unicode 1.1 ==

Unicode 1.1 was released June 1993. It encoded 34,168 characters, adding 5,969 new characters and removing 93 characters, for a net increase of 5,876 characters. It finalized the long anticipated Han Unification.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Hangul Jamo''' (U+1100-U+11FF), containing 240 ''jamo'' for the Hangul script, was added.
* '''Latin Extended Additional''' (U+1E00-U+1EFF), containing 245 precomposed characters for transliteration and Vietnamese, was added.
* '''Greek Extended''' (U+1F00-U+1FFF), containing 233 precomposed characters for polytonic Greek, was added.
* '''Hangul Supplementary-A''' (U+3D2E-U+44B7), containing 1,930 precomposed syllables for the Hangul script, was added.
* '''Hangul Supplementary-B''' (U+44B8-U+4DFF), containing 2,376 precomposed syllables for the Hangul script, was added.
* '''Alphabetic Presentation Forms''' (U+FB00-U+FB4F), containing 57 precomposed characters and ligatures, was added.
* '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A''' (U+FB50-U+FDFF), containing 593 combinations of Arabic letters, was added.
* '''Combining Half Marks''' (U+FE20-U+FE2F), containing 4 halves of diacritical marks, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* The long S (ſ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Latin Extended-A'''. (U+017F)
* The Hungarian Dz, characters for transliteration purposes and precomposed characters with double grave and inverted breve (total 35 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-B''' (U+01F1-U+01F5 and U+01FA-U+0217). The block was expanded from (U+0180-U+01FF) to (U+0180-U+024F)
* Diacritics for polytonic Greek and double width diacritics (total 6 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks'''. (U+0342-U+0345 and U+0360-U+0361)
* Compatibility character now deprecated, Ano Teleia, and other characters (total 5 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic''' (U+0374-U+0375, U+037A, U+037E and U+0387).
* Additional characters for non-Slavic languages (total 38 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic'''. (U+04D0-U+04EB, U+04EE-U+04F5 and U+04F8-U+04F9)
* A ligature of Ech and Yiwn (և) (total 1 character) was added to '''Armenian'''. (U+0587)
* One deprecated compatibility character and several characters for biblical texts (total 25 characters) were added to '''Arabic'''. (U+066D and U+06D6-U+06ED)
* A sign Virama (total 1 character) was added to '''Gurmukhi''' (U+0A4D).
* Letters Candra O and E (total 3 characters) were added to '''Gujarati'''. (U+0A8D, U+0A91 and U+0AC9)
* An Ai Length mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Oriya'''. (U+0B56)
* An undertie, a pair of brackets and six formatting characters now deprecated (total 9 characters) were added to '''General Punctuation'''. (U+203F, U+2045-U+2046 and U+206A-U+206F)
* Some additional symbols and the complete set of APL functional symbols (total 79 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''. (U+2300 and U+232D-U+237A)
* A large circle (◯) (total 1 character) was added to '''Geometric Shapes'''. (U+25EF)
* The ideographic telegraph line feed separator symbol (〷) (total 1 character) was added to '''CJK Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+3037)
* Four Katakana letters not in use since 1945 (total 4 characters) were added to '''Katakana'''. (U+30F7-U+30FA)
* Ideographic telegraph symbols for the twelve months (total 12 characters) were added to '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months'''. (U+32C0-U+32CB)
* Ideographic telegraph symbols for hours and days and six additional measure units (total 62 characters) were added to '''CJK Compatibility'''. (U+3358-U+3376 and U+33E0-U+33FE)
* Some more space (total 2,304 characters) was added to the '''Private Use Area'''.
* Seven halfwidth geometric shapes (total 7 characters) were added to '''Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms'''. (U+FFE8-U+FFEE)

=== Removed blocks ===
* '''Tibetan''', containing 71 letters for the Tibetan script, was removed from the Unicode standard.

=== Removed characters ===
* A total of 10 characters were removed from '''Greek and Coptic'''. (U+0370-U+0372, U+03D7-U+03D9, U+03DB, U+03DD, U+03DF, and U+03E1)
* Point Varika (total 1 character) was removed from ''Hebrew''. (U+05F5)
* Phonetic Order Vowel Signs (total 5 characters) were removed from '''Thai'''. (U+0E70-U+0E74)
* Phonetic Order Vowel Signs (total 5 characters) were removed from '''Lao'''. (U+0EF0-U+0EF4)
* An Ideographic Ditto Mark (total 1 character) was removed from '''CJK Symbols and Punctuation''' (U+3004) and merged with CJK Unified Ideograph-4EDD.

=== Rearranged characters ===
* Greek character U+03F3 was changed from Spacing Tonos to Letter Yot.
* A Japanese Industrial Standard symbol (〄) was moved from '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months''' (U+32FF) to '''CJK Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+3004)

== Unicode 2.0 ==

Unicode 2.0 was released July 1996. It encoded 38,885 characters, adding 11,373 new characters and removing 6,656 characters, for a net increase of 4,717 characters. This was the first Unicode version to reserve blocks outside of the Basic Multilingual Plane.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Hangul Syllables''' (U+AC00-U+D7AF), containing 11,172 precomposed syllables for the Hangul script, was added.
* '''High Surrogates''' (U+D800-U+DB7F), setting aside 896 codepoints for encoding UTF-16 surrogate pairs, was added.
* '''High Private Use Surrogates''' (U+DB80-U+DBFF), setting aside 128 codepoints for encoding UTF-16 surrogate pairs, was added.
* '''Low Surrogates''' (U+DC00-U+DFFF), setting aside 1,024 codepoints for encoding UTF-16 surrogate pairs, was added.
* '''Supplementary Private Use Area-A''' (U+F0000-U+FFFFF), reserving 65,534 characters for private use, was added.
* '''Supplementary Private Use Area-B''' (U+100000-U+10FFFF), reserving 65,534 characters for private use, was added.

=== Reinstated blocks ===

* '''Tibetan''' (U+0F00-U+0FFF), now containing 168 characters for the Tibetan script including religious signs, was readded.

=== Removed blocks ===

* '''Hangul''', containing 2,350 precomposed syllables for the Hangul script, was removed from the Unicode standard.
* '''Hangul Supplementary-A''', containing 1,930 precomposed syllables for the Hangul script, was removed from the Unicode standard.
* '''Hangul Supplementary-B''', containing 2,376 precomposed syllables for the Hangul script, was removed from the Unicode standard.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Cantillation marks for use in religious texts (total 31 characters) were added to '''Hebrew'''. (U+0591-U+05A1, U+05A3-U+05AF and U+05C4)
* A long S with Dot Above (total 1 character) was added to '''Latin Extended Additional'''. (U+1E9B)
* A Vietnamese Dong sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20AB)

== Unicode 2.1 ==

Unicode 2.1 was released May 1998. It encoded 38,887 characters, adding only 2 new characters.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A Euro sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20AC)
* An Object Replacement Character (total 1 character) was added to '''Specials'''. (U+FFFC)

== Unicode 3.0 ==

Unicode 3.0 was released September 1999. It was a big update and encoded 49,194 characters, adding 10,307 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Syriac''' (U+0700-U+074F), containing 71 characters used for writing in Syriac script, was added.
* '''Thaana''' (U+0780-U+07BF), containing 49 characters used for writing in Thaana script, was added.
* '''Sinhala''' (U+0D80-U+0DFF), containing 80 characters for the Sinhala script, was added.
* '''Myanmar''' (U+1000-U+109F), containing 78 characters for the Burmese script, was added.
* '''Ethiopic''' (U+1200-U+137F), containing 345 syllables and punctuation marks for the Ethiopic script, was added.
* '''Cherokee''' (U+13A0-U+13FF), containing 85 syllables for the Cherokee script, was added.
* '''Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics''' (U+1400-U+167F), containing 630 syllables and punctuation marks for writing in indigenous languages of Canada, was added.
* '''Ogham''' (U+1680-U+169F), containing 29 characters for the ancient Ogham script, was added.
* '''Runic''' (U+16A0-U+16FF), containing 81 characters for the Germanic runes, was added.
* '''Khmer''' (U+1780-U+17FF), containing 103 characters for the Khmer script, was added.
* '''Mongolian''' (U+1800-U+18AF), containing 155 characters for the classical Mongolian script, was added.
* '''Braille Patterns''' (U+2800-U+28FF), containing 256 Braille letters, was added.
* '''CJK Radicals Supplement''' (U+2E80-U+2EFF), containing 115 non-Kangxi radicals, was added.
* '''Kangxi Radicals''' (U+2F00-U+2FDF), containing 214 radicals from the Kangxi dictionary, was added.
* '''Ideographic Description Characters''' (U+2FF0-U+2FFF), containing 12 characters used to describe a Han ideograph not available in the font, was added.
* '''Bopomofo Extended''' (U+31A0-U+31BF), containing 24 characters used for phonetic transcription of minority languages of Taiwan, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A''' (U+3400-U+4DBF), containing 6,582 additional Han Ideographs, was added.
* '''Yi Syllables''' (U+A000-U+A48F), containing 1,165 syllables of the modern Yi script, was added.
* '''Yi Radicals''' (U+A490-U+A4CF), containing 50 radicals of Yi Syllables, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Additional precomposed characters, letters and capital letters of lowercase-only letters (total 30 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-B'''. (U+01F6-U+01F9, U+0218-U+021F and U+0222-U+0233)
* Extensions for disordered speech (total 5 characters) were added to '''IPA Extensions'''. (U+02A9-U+02AD)
* Some additional modifier letters (total 6 characters) were added to '''Spacing Modifier Letters'''. (U+02DF and U+02EA-U+02EE)
* Additional combining diacritics for IPA (total 10 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks'''. (U+0346-U+034E and U+0362)
* Lowercase versions of archaic letters and the Kai symbol (total 5 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic'''. (U+03D7, U+03DB, U+03DD, U+03DF and U+03E1)
* Nonstandard letters for Macedonian, combining numeral signs and three letters for Kildin Sami (total 12 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic'''. (U+0400, U+040D, U+0450, U+045D, U+0488-U+0489, U+048C-U+048F and U+04EC-U+04ED)
* A Hyphen (total 1 character) was added to '''Armenian'''. (U+058A)
* Combining hamza and maddah and nine additional Arabic characters (total 12 characters) were added to '''Arabic'''. (U+0653-U+0655, U+06B8-U+06B9, U+06BF, U+06CF and U+06FA-U+06FE)
* Additional letters and religious symbols (total 25 characters) were added to '''Tibetan'''. (U+0F6A, U+0F96, U+0FAE-U+0FB0, U+0FB8, U+0FBA-U+0FBC, U+0FBE-U+0FCC and U+0FCF)
* A narrow no-break space and 6 additional punctuation marks (total 7 characters) were added to '''General Punctuation'''. (U+202F and U+2048-U+204D)
* The Kip, Tugrik and Drachma sign (total 3 characters) were added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20AD-U+20AF)
* An enclosing screen and an enclosing key (total 2 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''. (U+20E2-U+20E3)
* The information symbol and a rotated Q (total 2 characters) were added to '''Letterlike Symbols'''. (U+2139-U+213A)
* A mirrored Roman capital numeral hundred (Ↄ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Number Forms'''. (U+2183)
* Some additional arrows (total 9 characters) were added to '''Arrows'''. (U+21EB-U+21F3)
* Some additional technical symbols, including common keys on a 101 keyboard (total 33 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''. (U+2301, U+237B and U+237D-U+239A)
* Two additional control pictures (total 2 characters) were added to '''Control Pictures'''. (U+2425-U+2426)
* Squares and circles with quadrants (total 8 characters) were added to '''Geometric Shapes'''. (U+25F0-U+25F7)
* Two Syriac crosses and a signature mark (total 3 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''. (U+2619 and U+2670-U+2671)
* Three Hangzhou numerals and a variation indicator (total 4 characters) were added to '''CJK Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+3038-U+303A and U+303E)
* A ligature Yod with Hiriq (יִ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Alphabetic Presentation Forms'''. (U+FB1D)
* Three additional control characters for ruby markup (total 3 characters) were added to '''Specials'''. (U+FFF9-U+FFFB)

== Unicode 3.1 ==

Unicode 3.1 was released March 2001. It encoded 94,140 characters, adding 44,946 new characters, and mainly focused on blocks outside of the Basic Multilingual Plane.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Old Italic''' (U+10300-U+1032F), containing 35 letters for the Etruscan script, was added.
* '''Gothic''' (U+10330-U+1034F), containing 27 letters for the Gothic script, was added.
* '''Deseret''' (U+10400-U+1044F), containing 76 letters for the constructed Deseret script, was added.
* '''Byzantine Musical Symbols''' (U+1D000-U+1D0FF), containing 246 symbols for musical notation in Byzantine, was added.
* '''Musical Symbols''' (U+1D100-U+1D1FF), containing 219 characters for current musical notation, was added.
* '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols''' (U+1D400-U+1D7FF), containing 991 Latin and Greek letters in serif, sans-serif, bold, italic, double-struck, script and Fraktur/Blackletter, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B''' (U+20000-U+2A6DF), containing 42,711 additional Chinese Ideographs, was added.
* '''CJK Compatibility Ideographs Supplement''' (U+2F800-U+2FA1F), containing 542 additional Chinese Ideographs for compatibility purposes, was added.
* '''Tags''', containing 97 language tags, was added. (U+E0000-U+E007F)

=== Extended noncharacters ===

* The Noncharacters range: U+FDD0..U+FDEF were added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''.

=== Extended blocks ===

* The capital Theta symbol and the Lunate Epsilon symbol (total 2 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic'''. (U+03F4-U+03F5)

=== Characters and Scripts Under Investigation or Rejected ===
* Khmer Sign Laak Was Rejected. (U+17DD) From '''Khmer.'''
* Georgian Letter U-Brjuu Was Rejected. From '''Georgian.'''

== Unicode 3.2 ==

Unicode 3.2 was released March 2002. It encoded 95,156 characters, adding 1,016 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Cyrillic Supplementary (now Cyrillic Supplement)''' (U+0500-U+052F), containing 16 characters used for the Komi language, was added.
* '''Tagalog''' (U+1700-U+171F), containing 20 characters for the Baybayin script, was added.
* '''Hanunoo''' (U+1720-U+173F), containing 23 characters and punctuation for the Hanunó'o script, was added.
* '''Buhid''' (U+1740-U+175F), containing 20 characters for the Buhid script, was added.
* '''Tagbanwa''' (U+1760-U+177F), containing 18 characters for the Tagbanwa script, was added.
* '''Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A''' (U+27C0-U+27EF), containing 28 symbols used in math notation, was added.
* '''Supplemental Arrows-A''' (U+27F0-U+27FF), containing 16 additional arrows, was added.
* '''Supplemental Arrows-B''' (U+2900-U+297F), containing 128 special arrows, was added.
* '''Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B''' (U+2980-U+29FF), containing 128 additional mathematical symbols, was added.
* '''Supplemental Mathematical Operators''' (U+2A00-U+2AFF), containing 256 additional mathematical operators, was added.
* '''Katakana Phonetic Extensions''' (U+31F0-U+31FF), containing 16 Katakana letters used for Ainu, was added.
* '''Variation Selectors''' (U+FE00-U+FE0F), containing 16 symbols used for indicating variations, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A capital letter N with Long Right Leg (total 1 character) was added to '''Latin Extended-B'''. (U+0220)
* The combining grapheme joiner and combining Latin letters used in medieval texts (total 14 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks'''. (U+034F and U+0363-U+036F)
* The Qoppa and a reversed lunate epsilon symbol (total 3 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic'''. (U+03D8-U+03D9 and U+03F6)
* Four additional letters used for the Kildin Sami language (total 8 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic'''. (U+048A-U+048B, U+04C5-U+04C6, U+04C9-U+04CA and U+04CD-U+04CE)
* A dotless Beh and a dotless Qaf (total 2 characters) were added to '''Arabic'''. (U+066E-U+066F)
* A Letter for Addu dialect (total 1 character) was added to '''Thaana'''. (U+07B1)
* The letters Yn and Elifi (total 2 characters) were added to '''Georgian'''. (U+10F7-U+10F8)
* Some additional punctuation marks and control characters (total 12 characters) were added to '''General Punctuation'''. (U+2047, U+204E-U+2052, U+2057 and U+205F-U+2063)
* A superscript letter I (total 1 character) was added to '''Superscripts and Subscripts'''. (U+2071)
* German Penny and Peso sign (total 2 characters) were added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20B0-U+20B1)
* Some additional combining characters (total 7 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''. (U+20E4-U+20EA)
* Some double-struck and reversed/turned letters (total 15 characters) were added to '''Letterlike Symbols'''. (U+213D-U+214B)
* Some additional arrows (total 12 characters) were added to '''Arrows'''. (U+21F4-U+21FF)
* Some additional mathematical operators (total 14 characters) were added to '''Mathematical Operators'''. (U+22F2-U+22FF)
* Variable-width and additional symbols (total 53 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''. (U+237C and U+239B-U+23CE)
* Black and double circled numerals (total 20 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Alphanumerics'''. U+24EB-U+24FE)
* Quadrant elements (total 10 characters) were added to '''Block Elements'''. (U+2596-U+259F)
* Some additional triangles and squares (total 8 characters) were added to '''Geometric Shapes'''. (U+25F8-U+25FF)
* Shogi pieces ,recycling symbols, dices and dotted circles (total 24 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''. (U+2616-U+2617, U+2672-U+267D and U+2680-U+2689)
* Additional parenthesis (total 14 characters) were added to '''Dingbats'''. (U+2768-U+2775)
* Three additional marks (total 3 characters) were added to '''CJK Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+303B-U+303D)
* A digraph and two additional characters (total 3 characters) were added to '''Hiragana'''. (U+3095-U+3096 and U+309F)
* A digraph and a double hyphen (total 2 characters) were added to '''Katakana'''. (U+30A0 and U+30FF)
* Additional circled numerals (total 30 characters) were added to '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months'''. (U+3251-U+325F and U+32B1-U+32BF
* Five missing radicals (total 5 characters) were added to '''Yi Radicals'''. (U+A4A2-U+A4A3, U+A4B4, U+A4C1, U+A4C5)
* Additional compatibility characters (total 59 characters) were added to '''CJK Compatibility Ideographs'''. (U+FA30-U+FA6A)
* A Rial sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''. (U+FDFC)
* Two sesame dots (total 2 characters) were added to '''CJK Compatibility Forms'''. (U+FE45-U+FE46)
* A tail fragment (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-B'''. (U+FE73)
* A pair of double parenthesis (total 2 characters) was added to '''Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms'''. (U+FF5F-U+FF60)

== Unicode 4.0 ==

Unicode 4.0 was released April 2003. It encoded 96,382 characters, adding 1,226 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Limbu''', containing 66 characters for the Limbu abugida, was added.
* '''Tai Le''', containing 35 letters for the Tai Le script, was added.
* '''Khmer Symbols''', containing 32 symbols for the lunar calendar, was added.
* '''Phonetic Extensions''', containing 108 letters used in phonetic transcription, was added.
* '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows''', containing 14 additional arrows, was added.
* '''Yijing Hexagram Symbols''', containing 64 hexagrams, was added.
* '''Linear B Syllabary''', containing 88 syllables of the ancient Linear B script, was added.
* '''Linear B Ideograms''', containing 123 ideograms of the ancient Linear B script, was added.
* '''Aegean Numbers''', containing 57 numerals used in the Aegean area, was added.
* '''Ugaritic''', containing 31 characters used in Ugaritic cuneiform, was added.
* '''Shavian''', containing 48 letters used for the artificial Shavian script, was added.
* '''Osmanya''', containing 40 characters used in the artificial Osmanya script, was added.
* '''Cypriot Syllabary''', containing 55 characters formerly used on Cyprus, was added.
* '''Tai Xuan Jing Symbols''', containing 87 symbols of Tai Xuan Jing, was added.
* '''Variation Selectors Supplement''', containing 240 additional variation selectors, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Letters with curl used in Sinology (total 4 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-B'''.
* Former IPA letters (total 2 characters) were added to '''IPA Extensions'''.
* Some additional characters (total 17 characters) were added to '''Spacing Modifier Letters'''.
* Additional combining double-width diacritics and diacritics corresponding to their spacing equivalent (total 11 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks'''.
* The archaic letters Sho and San and the capital Lunate Sigma (total 5 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic'''.
* Some additional markers, biblical signs, and letters with inverted V (total 19 characters) were added to '''Arabic'''.
* Letters used for foreign words from Persian and Sogdian (total 6 characters) were added to '''Syriac'''.
* The short A (ऄ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Devanagari'''.
* The Avagraha sign (ঽ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Bengali'''.
* The Adak Bindi and Visarga signs (total 2 characters) were added to '''Gurmukhi'''.
* The vocalic l and ll and the Rupee sign (total 5 characters) were added to '''Gujarati'''.
* The letters Va and Wa (total 2 characters) were added to '''Oriya'''.
* Additional signs for date and finance environments (total 8 characters) were added to '''Tamil'''.
* The Nukta and Avagraha signs (total 2 characters) were added to '''Kannada'''.
* Some symbols and signs (total 11 characters) were added to '''Khmer'''.
* An inverted undertie and a swung dash (total 2 characters) were added to '''General Punctuation'''.
* The facsimile sign (℻) (total 1 character) was added to '''Letterlike Symbols'''.
* The eject symbol and a vertical line (total 2 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''.
* A black circled digit zero (⓿) (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed Alphanumerics'''.
* Monograms and diagrams, flags, warning and weather symbols and a cup of tea (total 12 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''.
* Additional parenthesized and circled Korean characters and supplemental signs (total 9 characters) were added to '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months'''.
* Additional measure units (total 7 characters) were added to '''CJK Compatibility'''.
* An additional Arabic sign (﷽) (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''.
* A pair of vertical parenthesis (total 2 characters) was added to '''CJK Compatibility Forms'''.
* The letters Oi and Ew (total 4 characters) were added to '''Deseret'''.
* A small script l (ℓ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols'''.

== Unicode 4.1 ==

Unicode 4.1 was released March 31, 2005. It encoded 97,655 characters, adding 1,273 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Arabic Supplement''', containing 30 characters for various languages written with the Arabic script, was added.
* '''Ethiopic Supplement''', containing 26 characters and signs for Sebatbeit, was added.
* '''New Tai Lue''', containing 80 characters for the New Tai Lue script, was added.
* '''Buginese''', containing 30 characters for the Lontara script, was added.
* '''Phonetic Extensions Supplement''', containing 64 additional letters for phonetic transcription, was added.
* '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement''', containing 4 additional diacritics, was added.
* '''Glagolitic''', containing 94 characters for the Glagolitic script, was added.
* '''Coptic''', containing 114 characters for the Coptic script, was added.
* '''Georgian Supplement''', containing 38 Nuskhuri letters, was added.
* '''Tifinagh''', containing 55 characters for the Tifinagh script, was added.
* '''Ethiopic Extended''', containing 79 additional Ethiopic syllables, was added.
* '''Supplemental Punctuation''', containing 26 additional punctuation marks, was added.
* '''CJK Strokes''', containing 16 strokes for Han Ideographs, was added.
* '''Modifier Tone Letters''', containing 23 letters for Chinese tones, was added.
* '''Syloti Nagri''', containing 44 characters for the Syloti Nagri abugida, was added.
* '''Vertical Forms''', containing 10 punctuation marks suited for vertical text, was added.
* '''Ancient Greek Numbers''', containing 75 numerals and signs used in Ancient Greek, was added.
* '''Old Persian''', containing 50 characters for Old Persian cuneiform, was added.
* '''Kharoshthi''', containing 65 characters for the Kharoshthi abugida, was added.
* '''Ancient Greek Musical Notation''', containing 70 musical signs used in Ancient Greek, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Letters for Sencoten, digraphs, letters with swash tail and other additions (total 11 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-B'''.
* Additional diacritics for transliteration (total 5 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks'''.
* Rho with stroke, reversed and dotted Lunate Sigma (total 4 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic'''.
* Ghe with descender (Ӷ) (total 2 characters) was added to '''Cyrillic'''.
* An additional biblical mark and some punctuation marks (total 4 characters) were added to '''Hebrew'''.
* Additional biblical marks, punctuation marks and the Afghani sign (total 8 characters) were added to '''Arabic'''.
* A glottal stop (ॽ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Devanagari'''.
* The Khanda Ta letter (ৎ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Bengali'''.
* The letter Sha and the digit zero (total 2 characters) were added to '''Tamil'''.
* Two marks used in Bhutan (total 2 characters) were added to '''Tibetan'''.
* Two letters and a modifier letter (total 3 characters) were added to '''Georgian'''.
* Some additional syllables (total 11 characters) were added to '''Ethiopic'''.
* Additional phonetic symbols (total 20 characters) were added to '''Phonetic Extensions'''.
* A flower and dot punctuation marks (total 9 characters) were added to '''General Punctuation'''.
* Additional subscript letters (total 5 characters) were added to '''Superscripts and Subscripts'''.
* The Guarani, Austral, Hryvnia and Cedi signs (total 4 characters) were added to '''Currency Symbols'''.
* A combining long double solidus (total 1 character) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''.
* The per sign and a double-struck letter Pi (total 2 characters) were added to '''Letterlike Symbols'''.
* Metrical and electrical signs (total 11 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''.
* Additional gender and map symbols (total 30 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''.
* Some additional mathematical symbols (total 7 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A'''.
* Additional arrows and squares (total 6 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''.
* A circled Hangul character (㉾) (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months'''.
* Additional Han Ideographs (total 22 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''.
* Additional Compatibility Ideographs (total 106 characters) were added to '''CJK Compatibility Ideographs'''.
* Italic dotless small i and j (total 2 characters) were added to '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols'''.

== Unicode 5.0 ==

Unicode 5.0 was released July 14, 2006. It encoded 99,024 characters, adding 1,369 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''N'Ko''', containing 59 characters for the N'Ko script, was added.
* '''Balinese''', containing 121 characters and musical signs for the Balinese abugida, was added.
* '''Latin Extended-C''', containing 17 letters for various languages, was added.
* '''Latin Extended-D''', containing 2 characters for UPA, was added.
* '''Phags-pa''', containing 56 characters for the Phags-pa script, was added.
* '''Phoenician''', containing 27 letters and numerals for the Phoenician script, was added.
* '''Cuneiform''', containing 879 signs for Sumero-Akkadian Cuneiform, was added.
* '''Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation''', containing 103 numerals and punctuation signs for Sumero-Akkadian Cuneiform, was added.
* '''Counting Rod Numerals''', containing 18 numerals used with counting rods, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Various letters used mainly for aboriginal languages (total 14 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-B'''.
* Lowercase lunate sigma symbols (total 3 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic'''.
* Lowercase palochka and 3 letters used in Nivkh (total 7 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic'''.
* Two letters used in Khanty and other languages (total 4 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Supplement'''.
* A specific point meant for Vav (total 1 character) was added to '''Hebrew'''.
* Four letters used in Sindhi (total 4 characters) were added to '''Devanagari'''.
* Four letters used in Sanskrit (total 4 characters) were added to '''Kannada'''.
* Additional IPA diacritics (total 9 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''.
* Four combining arrows (total 4 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''.
* A danish symbol and a lowercase turned F (total 2 characters) were added to '''Letterlike Symbols'''.
* A lowercase reversed C (ↄ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Number Forms'''.
* Vertical parenthesis, geometric forms and electrical symbols (total 12 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''.
* A neuter symbol (⚲) (total 1 character) was added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''.
* Four additional mathematical symbols (total 4 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A'''.
* Additional squares, pentagons and hexagons (total 11 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''.
* Four additional tone letters used in Chinantec (total 4 characters) were added to '''Modifier Tone Letters'''.
* Bold Digamma (𝟊/'''Ϝ''') (total 2 characters) was added to '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols'''.

== Unicode 5.1 ==

Unicode 5.1 was released April 4, 2008. It encoded 100,648 characters, adding 1,624 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Sundanese''', containing 55 letters for Sundanese script, was added.
* '''Lepcha''', containing 74 letters for Lepcha script, was added.
* '''Ol Chiki''', containing 48 letters for Ol Chiki script, was added.
* '''Cyrillic Extended-A''', containing 32 letters for combining Cyrillic letters, was added.
* '''Vai''', containing 300 letters for Vai script, was added.
* '''Cyrillic Extended-B''', containing 78 letters for additional Cyrillic characters, was added.
* '''Saurashtra''', containing 81 letters for Saurashtra script, was added.
* '''Kayah Li''', containing 48 letters for Kayah languages, was added.
*  '''Rejang''', containing 37 letters for Rejang script, was added.
* '''Cham''', containing 83 letters for Cham script, was added.
* '''Ancient Symbols''', containing 12 characters for weights and measures and other Ancient symbols, was added.
* '''Phaistos Disc''', containing 46 hieroglyphs for Phaistos, was added.
* '''Lycian''', containing 29 letters for Lycian script, was added.
* '''Carian''', containing 49 letters for Carian script, was added.
* '''Lydian''', containing 27 letters for Lydian script, was added.
* '''Mahjong Tiles''', containing 44 mahjong tiles, was added.
* '''Domino Tiles''', containing 100 domino tiles, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Archaic letters and capital kai symbol (total 7 characters) were added to '''Greek and Coptic'''.
* Combining Pokrytie (total 1 character) was added to '''Cyrillic'''.
* Mordvin, Kurdish, Aleut and Chuvash letters (total 16 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Supplement'''.
* Radix symbols, Letterlike, punctuation, Koranic annotation signs and additions for early Persian and Azerbaijani (total 15 characters) were added to '''Arabic'''.
* Additional letters in Torwali, Burushaski and early Persian (total 18 characters) were added to '''Arabic Supplement'''.
* High spacing dot and candra a (total 2 characters) were added to '''Devanagari'''.
* Udaat and yakash signs (total 2 characters) were added to '''Gurmukhi'''.
* Vocalic rr, l and ll (total 3 characters) were added to '''Oriya'''.
* Om symbol (ௐ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Tamil'''.
* Avagraha, additional phonetic letters, vocalic l and ll, fractional signs and tuumu (total 13 characters) were added to '''Telugu'''.
* Avagraha, vocalic rr, l and ll, Malayalam numerics and fractions and chillu letters (total 17 characters) were added to '''Malayalam'''.
* Letters for Balti and various symbols (total 6 characters) were added to '''Tibetan'''.
* Characters for various languages (total 78 characters) were added to '''Myanmar'''.
* Manchu Ali Gali lha (ᢪ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Mongolian'''.
* Miscellaneous combining marks (total 28 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''.
* Medievalist latin letters and miscellaneous letters (total 10 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended Additional'''.
* Invisible plus (+) (total 1 character) was added to '''General Punctuation'''.
* Combining asterisk above ( ⃰)(total 1 character) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''.
* Symbol for Samaritan Source (⅏) (total 1 character) was added to '''Letterlike Symbols'''.
* Archaic Roman Numerals (total 4 characters) were added to '''Number Forms'''.
* Outlined white star and other signs (total 15 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''.
* Long division and additional mathematical brackets (total 5 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A'''.
* Miscellaneous signs (total 51 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''.
* Additional latin letters (total 12 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-C'''.
* Additional punctuation (total 23 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''.
* Letter ih (ㄭ) (total 1 character) was added to '''Bopomofo'''.
* Other strokes (total 20 characters) were added to '''CJK Strokes'''.
* Miscellaneous additions (total 8 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''.
* Africanist tone letters (total 5 characters) were added to '''Modifier Tone Letters'''.
* Miscellaneous letters and symbols (total 112 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''.
* Continuous macrons for Coptic (total 3 characters) were added to '''Combining Half Marks'''.
* Musical symbol multiple measure rest (𝄩) (total 1 character) was added to '''Musical Symbols'''.

== Unicode 5.2 ==

Unicode 5.2 was released in October 1, 2009. It encoded 107,296 characters, adding 6,648 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Samaritan''', containing 61 letters for Samaritan script, was added.
* '''Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Extended''', containing 70 syllables for various cree languages, was added.
* '''Tai Tham''', containing 127 letters for Tai Tham script, was added.
* '''Vedic Extensions''', containing 35 characters for tone marks and signs, was added.
* '''Lisu''', containing 48 letters for Lisu (Fraser) script, was added.
* '''Bamum''', containing 88 letters for Bamum script, was added.
* '''Common Indic Number Forms''', containing 10 fractions and marks, was added.
* '''Devanagari Extended''', containing 28 additional marks, was added.
* '''Hangul Jamo Extended-A''', containing 29 characters for additional old initial consonants in hangul jamo, was added.
* '''Javanese''', containing 91 letters for Javanese script, was added.
* '''Myanmar Extended-A''', containing 28 letters for Khamti Shan in Myanmar, was added.
* '''Tai Viet''', containing 72 letters for Tai Viet script, was added.
* '''Meetei Mayek''', containing 56 letters for Meetei Mayek script, was added.
* '''Hangul Jamo Extended-B''', containing 72 characters for additional old medieval vowels and final consonants in hangul jamo, was added.
* '''Imperial Aramaic''', containing 31 characters for Old Aramaic, was added.
* '''Old South Arabian''', containing 32 letters and numbers for South Arabian, was added.
* '''Avestan''', containing 61 characters for Avestan script, was added.
* '''Inscriptional Parthian''', containing 30 characters for Inscriptional Parthian script, was added.
* '''Inscriptional Pahlavi''', containing 27 characters for Inscriptional Pahlavi script, was added.
* '''Old Turkic''', containing 73 characters for Orkhon script, was added.
* '''Rumi Numeral Symbols''', containing 31 numeric characters used in Fez, Morocco, and elsewhere in North Africa and the Iberian peninsula, between the tenth and seventeenth centuries, was added.
* '''Kaithi''', containing 66 letters for Kaithi script, was added.
* '''Egyptian Hieroglyphs''', containing 1,071 hieroglyphs for Egyptian, was added.
* '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement''', containing 63 additional circled, parenthesized and squared alphanumerics, was added.
* '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement''', containing 44 squared and tortoised shell bracketed ideographs, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C''', containing 4,149 additional Chinese Ideographs, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Abhaz letters (total 2 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Supplement'''.
* Inverted Candrabinbu and additional signs and letters (total 5 characters) were added to '''Devanagari'''.
* Ganda Mark (৻) (total 1 character) was added to '''Bengali'''.
* Religious svasti signs (total 4 characters) were added to '''Tibetan'''.
* Extensions for Khamti Shan and Alton and Phake (total 4 characters) were added to '''Myanmar'''.
* Additional old initial consonants, medival vowels, and old final consonants (total 16 characters) were added to '''Hangul Jamo'''.
* Hyphen and additional syllables (total 10 characters) were added to '''Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics'''.
* Letter Sua and Tham Digit One (total 3 characters) were added to '''New Tai Lue'''.
* Combing Almost Equal to Below ( ᷽) (total 1 character) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''.
* The Live Tournosis, Spesmillo and Tenge signs (total 3 characters) were added to '''Currency Symbols'''.
* Additional vulgar fractions from ARIB STD B24 (total 4 characters) were added to '''Number Forms'''.
* Decimal exponent symbol (⏨) from ARIB STD B24 (total 1 characters) was added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''.
* A soccer ball and symbols from ARIB STD B24 (total 59 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''.
* Heavy exclamation mark symbol (❗)  from ARIB STD B24 (total 1 character) was added to '''Dingbats'''.
* Traffic sign, dictionary and map symbols from ARIB STD B24 (total 5 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''.
* Capital letter turned alpha and additions for shona (total 3 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-C'''.
* Cryptogrammic letters and combining marks (total 7 characters) were added to '''Coptic'''.
* Word separator middle dot used in Avestan (⸱) (total 1 character) was added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''.
* Circled ideographs and numbers on black squares from ARIB STD B24 (total 12 characters) were added to '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months'''.
* Miscellaneous additions (total 8 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''.
* Miscellaneous additions for compatibility (total 3 characters) were added to '''CJK Compatibility Ideographs'''.
* Number two and three (total 2 characters) were added to '''Phoenician'''.

== Unicode 6.0 ==

Unicode 6.0 was released in October 11, 2010. It encoded 109,384 characters, adding 2,088 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Mandaic''', containing 29 letters for Mandaic script, was added.
* '''Batak''', containing 56 letters for Batak script, was added.
* '''Ethiopic Extended-A''', containing 32 letters for Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, Basketo and Gumuz Ethiophic syllables, was added.
* '''Brahmi''', containing 108 characters for ancient Brahmi abugida, was added.
* '''Bamum Supplement''', containing 761 letters for additional Bamum script, was added.
* '''Kana Supplement''', containing 2 characters for archaic katakana, was added.
* '''Playing Cards''', containing 59 playing cards, was added.
* '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs''', containing 529 additional symbols, was added.
* '''Emoticons''', containing 63 faces, cat faces and gesture symbols, was added.
* '''Transport and Map Symbols''', containing 70 transportation, traffic signs and other symbols, was added.
* '''Alchemical Symbols''', containing 116 symbols for elements, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension D''', containing 222 miscellaneous Han ideographs, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Azerbaijani letters (total 2 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Supplement'''.
* Kashmiri Yeh and Wavy hamza below (total 2 characters) were added to '''Arabic'''.
* Dependent vowel signs and letters used in Kashmiri and Bihari (total 10 characters) were added to '''Devanagari'''.
* Fraction signs (total 6 characters) were added to '''Oriya'''.
* Letters used in scholarly only and letter dot reph (total 3 characters) were added to '''Malayalam'''.
* Leading and Trailing Mchan Rtags (total 6 characters) were added to '''Tibetan'''.
* Additional combining marks (total 2 characters) were added to '''Ethiopic'''.
* Combining Double Inverted Breve Below (᷼) (total 1 character) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''.
* Miscellaneous subscript letters (total 8 characters) were added to '''Superscripts and Subscripts'''.
* Indian Rupee Sign (₹) (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''.
* Pointing double triangle and additional mechanical symbols (total 11 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''.
* Ophiucisus, astronomical symbol for uranus and pentagrams (total 6 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols'''.
* Additional heavy punctation marks, raised fist, raised hand, sparkles, heavy arithmetic symbols and curly loops (total 16 characters) were added to '''Dingbats'''.
* Squared logicals (total 2 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A'''.
* Separator mark and consonant joiner (total 2 characters) were added to '''Tifinagh'''.
* Bopomofo for Hmu and Ge (total 3 characters) were added to '''Bopomofo Extended'''.
* Reversed Tse (total 2 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Extended-B'''.
* Additional letters (total 15 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''.
* Pedagogical symbols (total 16 characters) were added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''.
* Additional squared, black circled and squared letters and regional indicator letters (total 107 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''.
* Squared katakana, squared ideographs and circled advantage and accept (total 13 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement'''.

== Unicode 6.1 ==

Unicode 6.1 was released in January 31, 2012. It encoded 110,116 characters, adding 732 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Arabic Extended-A''' (U+08A0-U+08FF), containing 39 characters, was added.
* '''Sundanese Supplement''' (U+1CC0-U+1CCF), containing 8 characters, was added.
* '''Meetei Mayek Extensions''' (U+AAE0-U+AAFF), containing 23 characters, was added.
* '''Meroitic Hieroglyphs''' (U+10980-U+1099F), containing 32 characters, was added.
* '''Meroitic Cursive''' (U+109A0-U+109FF), containing 26 characters, was added.
* '''Sora Sompeng''' (U+110D0-U+110FF), containing 35 characters, was added.
* '''Chakma''' (U+11100-U+1114F), containing 67 characters, was added.
* '''Sharada''' (U+11180-U+111DF), containing 83 characters, was added.
* '''Takri''' (U+11680-U+116CF), containing 66 characters, was added.
* '''Miao''' (U+16F00-U+16F9F), containing 133 characters, was added.
* '''Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols''' (U+1EE00-U+1EEFF), containing 143 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* An Armenian Dram sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Armenian'''. (U+058F)
* A sign Samvat (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic'''. (U+0604)
* An Abbreviation mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Gujarati'''. (U+0AF0)
* Letters for Khmu (total 2 characters) were added to '''Lao'''. (U+0EDE-U+0EDF)
* Capital letter Yn, letter Aen, Hard and Labial sign (total 5 characters) were added to '''Georgian'''. (U+10C7, U+10CD and U+10FD-U+10FF)
* Letters and signs for Old Sundanese (total 9 characters) were added to '''Sundanese'''. (U+1BAB-U+1BAD and U+1BBA-U+1BBF)
* Sign Rotated Ardhavisarga, Candra Above, Jihvamuliya and Uphadhmaniya (total 4 characters) were added to '''Vedic Extensions'''. (U+1CF3-U+1CF6)
* Mathematical diagonals (total 2 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A'''. (U+27CB and U+27CD)
* A letter Bohairic Khei (total 2 characters) were added to '''Coptic'''. (U+2CF2-U+2CF3)
* Small letters Yn and Aen (total 2 characters) were added to '''Georgian Supplement'''. (U+2D27 and U+2D2D)
* Letters Ye and Yo (total 2 characters) were added to '''Tifinagh'''. (U+2D66-U+2D67)
* (total 10 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E32-U+2E3B)
* An additional ideograph for Kanji (total 1 character) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''. (U+9FCC)
* Combining letter for Slavonic (total 9 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Extended-B'''. (U+A674-U+A67B and U+A69F)
* Letter C with Bar, capital letter H with Hook and modifier letters for extended IPA (total 5 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A792-U+A793, U+A7AA and U+A7F8-U+A7F9)
* Some additional ideographs for Korea (total 2 characters) were added to '''CJK Compatibility Ideographs'''. (U+FA2E-U+FA2F)
* Symbols for Canadian legal use (total 2 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F16A-U+1F16B)
* Typikon symbols (total 4 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F540-U+1F543)
* (total 13 characters) were added to '''Emoticons'''. (U+1F600, U+1F611, U+1F615, U+1F617, U+1F619, U+1F61B, U+1F61F, U+1F626-U+1F627, U+1F62C, U+1F62E-U+1F62F and U+1F634)

== Unicode 6.2 ==

Unicode 6.2 was released in September 26, 2012. It encoded 110,117 characters, adding only 1 new character.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A Turkish Lira sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20BA)

== Unicode 6.3 ==

Unicode 6.3 was released in September 30, 2013. It encoded 110,122 characters, adding only 5 new characters.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A Letter mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic'''. (U+061C)
* Isolate directional format characters (total 4 characters) were added to '''General Punctuation'''. (U+2066-U+2069)

== Unicode 7.0 ==

Unicode 7.0 was released in June 16, 2014. It encoded 112,956 characters, adding 2,834 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended''' (U+1AB0-U+1AFF), containing 15 marks, was added.
* '''Myanmar Extended-B''' (U+A9E0-U+A9FF), containing 31 letters, was added.
* '''Latin Extended-E''' (U+AB30-U+AB6F), containing 50 letters, was added.
* '''Coptic Epact Numbers''' (U+102E0-U+102FF), containing 28 numbers, was added.
* '''Old Permic''' (U+10350-U+1037F), containing 43 letters, was added.
* '''Elbasan''' (U+10500-U+1052F), containing 50 letters, was added.
* '''Caucasian Albanian''' (U+10530-U+1056F), containing 53 letters and marks, was added.
* '''Linear A''' (U+10600-U+1077F), containing 341 signs, was added.
* '''Palmyrene''' (U+10860-U+1087F), containing 32 letters, was added.
* '''Nabataean''' (U+10880-U+108AF), containing 40 letters and numbers, was added.
* '''Old North Arabian''' (U+10A80-U+10A9F), containing 32 letters and numbers, was added.
* '''Manichaean''' (U+10AC0-U+10AFF), containing 51 characters, was added.
* '''Psalter Pahlavi''' (U+10B80-U+10BAF), containing 29 characters, was added.
* '''Mahajani''' (U+11150-U+1117F), containing 39 letters and signs, was added.
* '''Sinhala Archaic Numbers''' (U+111E0-U+111FF), containing 20 numbers, was added.
* '''Khojki''' (U+11200-U+1124F), containing 61 characters, was added.
* '''Khudawadi''' (U+112B0-U+112FF), containing 69 characters, was added.
* '''Grantha''' (U+11300-U+1137F), containing 83 characters, was added.
* '''Tirhuta''' (U+11480-U+114DF), containing 82 characters, was added.
* '''Siddham''' (U+11580-U+115FF), containing 72 characters, was added.
* '''Modi''' (U+11600-U+1165F), containing 79 characters, was added.
* '''Warang Citi''' (U+118A0-U+118FF), containing 84 letters and numbers, was added.
* '''Pau Cin Hau''' (U+11AC0-U+11AFF), containing 57 characters, was added.
* '''Mro''' (U+16A40-U+16A6F), containing 43 characters, was added.
* '''Bassa Vah''' (U+16AD0-U+16AFF), containing 36 characters, was added.
* '''Pahawh Hmong''' (U+16B00-U+16B8F), containing 127 letters and signs, was added.
* '''Duployan''' (U+1BC00-U+1BC9F), containing 143 characters, was added.
* '''Shorthand Format Controls''' (U+1BCA0-U+1BCAF), containing 4 format characters, was added.
* '''Mende Kikakui''' (U+1E800-U+1E8DF), containing 213 syllables and numbers, was added.
* '''Ornamental Dingbats''' (U+1F650-U+1F67F), containing 48 pictographic characters, was added.
* '''Geometric Shapes Extended''' (U+1F780-U+1F7FF), containing 85 pictographic characters, was added.
* '''Supplemental Arrows-C''' (U+1F800-U+1F8FF), containing 148 pictographic characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A capital letter Yot (total 1 character) was added to '''Greek and Coptic'''. (U+037F)
* Letters for Orok, Komi and Khanty (total 8 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Supplement'''. (U+0528-U+052F)
* An Eternity sign (total 2 characters) were added to '''Armenian'''. (U+058D-U+058E)
* A Number Mark Above (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic'''. (U+0605)
* Letters for African, Philippine, Turkic, Berber, Belarusian, Palula and Shina languages (total 8 characters) were added to '''Arabic Extended-A'''. (U+08A1, U+08AD-U+08B2 and U+08FF)
* A letter for Marwari (total 1 character) was added to '''Devanagari'''. (U+0978)
* A sign Anji (total 1 character) was added to '''Bengali'''. (U+0980)
* Sign Candrabindu and letter Llla (total 2 characters) were added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C00 and U+0C34)
* A Sign Candrabindu (total 1 character) was added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0C81)
* A Sign Candrabindu (total 1 character) was added to '''Malayalam'''. (U+0D01)
* Lith Numerals (total 10 characters) were added to '''Sinhala'''. (U+0DE6-U+0DEF)
* Additional Old English runes (total 8 characters) were added to '''Runic'''. (U+16F1-U+16F8)
* Letters Gyan and Tra (total 2 characters) were added to '''Limbu'''. (U+191D-U+191E)
* Signs for Jaiminiya Sama Veda (total 2 characters) were added to '''Vedic Extensions'''. (U+1CF8-U+1CF9)
* Marks for Germanic and American lexicology (total 15 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''. (U+1DE7-U+1DF5)
* Nordic Mark, Manat and Ruble sign (total 3 characters) were added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20BB-U+20BD)
* Playback symbols from Webdings font (total 7 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''. (U+23F4-U+23FA)
* A Scissors symbol from Wingdings 2 font (total 1 character) was added to '''Dingbats'''. (U+2700)
* Arrows for Lithuanian dialectology and symbols from Wingdings 3 font (total 115 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2B4D-U+2B4F, U+2B5A-U+2B5F, U+2B60-U+2B73, U+2B76-U+2B95, U+2B98-U+2BB9, U+2BBD-U+2BC8 and U+2BCA-U+2BD1)
* (total 7 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E3C-U+2E42)
* Early Cyrillic letters and letters for Lithuanian dialectology (total 6 characters) were added to '''Cyrillic Extended-B'''. (U+A698-U+A69D)
* Letters for European, American and African orthography (total 18 characters) were  added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A794-U+A79F, U+A7AB-U+A7AD, U+A7B0-U+A7B1 and U+A7F7)
* Tone marks for Tai Laing and letters for Shwe Palaung (total 4 characters) were added to '''Myanmar Extended-A'''. (U+AA7C-U+AA7F)
* Combining phonetic marks (total 7 characters) were added to '''Combining Half Marks'''. (U+FE27-U+FE2D)
* Additional mathematical symbols (total 2 characters) were added to '''Ancient Greek Numbers'''. (U+1018B-U+1018C)
* A Greek Tau Rho symbol (total 1 character) was added to '''Ancient Symbols'''. (U+101A0)
* A letter Ess (total 1 character) was added to '''Old Italic'''. (U+1031F)
* A Number Joiner (total 1 character) was added to '''Brahmi'''. (U+1107F)
* Sutra mark and sign Ekam (total 2 characters) were added to '''Sharada'''. (U+111CD and U+111DA)
* Additional cuneiform signs (total 42 characters) were added to '''Cuneiform'''. (U+1236F-U+12398)
* Additional numbers, vulgar fractions and a punctuation mark (total 13 characters) were added to '''Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation'''. (U+12463-U+1246E and U+12474)
* Red Joker, Fool and trumps (total 23 characters) were added to '''Playing Cards'''. (U+1F0BF and U+1F0E0-U+1F0F5)
* Dingbat normal and negative sans-serif digit zero (total 2 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F10B-U+1F10C)
* Symbols from Webdings, Wingdings 1 and 2 font (total 209 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F321-U+1F32C, U+1F336, U+1F37D, U+1F394-U+1F39F, U+1F3C5, U+1F3CB-U+1F3CE, U+1F3D4-U+1F3DF, U+1F3F1-U+1F3F7, U+1F43F, U+1F441, U+1F4F8, U+1F4FD-U+1F4FE, U+1F53E-U+1F53F, U+1F544-U+1F54A, U+1F568-U+1F579, U+1F57B-U+1F5A3 and U+1F5A5-U+1F5FA)
* Slightly frowning and smiling faces emoji (total 2 characters) were added to '''Emoticons'''. (U+1F641-U+1F642)
* Symbols from Webdings and Wingdings 2 font (total 27 characters) were added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6C6-U+1F6CF, U+1F6E0-U+1F6EC and U+1F6F0-U+1F6F3)

== Unicode 8.0 ==

Unicode 8.0 was released in June 17, 2015. It encoded 120,672 characters, adding 7,716 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Cherokee Supplement''' (U+AB70-U+ABBF), containing 80 lowercase letters, was added.
* '''Hatran''' (U+108E0-U+108FF), containing 26 letters, was added.
* '''Old Hungarian''' (U+10C80-U+10CFF), containing 108 letters, was added.
* '''Multani''' (U+11280-U+112AF), containing 38 letters, was added.
* '''Ahom''' (U+11700-U+1173F), containing 57 letters, was added.
* '''Early Dynastic Cuneiform''' (U+12480-U+1254F), containing 196 characters, was added.
* '''Anatolian Hieroglyphs''' (U+14400-U+1467F), containing 583 characters, was added.
* '''Sutton SignWriting''' (U+1D800-U+1DAAF), containing 672 signs, was added.
* '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs''' (U+1F900-U+1F9FF), containing 15 pictographic characters, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension E''' (U+2B820-U+2CEAF), containing 5762 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Letters for Arwi (total 3 characters) were added to '''Arabic Extended-A'''. (U+08B3-U+08B4 and U+08E3)
* A letter for Avestan transliteration (total 1 character) was added to '''Gujarati'''. (U+0AF9)
* A letter for Andhra Pradesh (total 1 character) was added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C5A)
* An archaic letter II (total 1 character) was added to '''Malayalam'''. (U+0D5F)
* A letter Mv and small letters (total 7 characters) were added to '''Cherokee'''. (U+13F5 and U+13F8-U+13FD)
* A Georgian Lari sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20BE)
* Turned digits (total 2 characters) were added to '''Number Forms'''. (U+218A-U+218B)
* Two headed arrows with triangle arrowheads (total 4 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2BEC-U+2BEF)
* Some additional ideographs (total 9 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''. (U+9FCD-U+9FD5)
* A combining letter Ef (total 1 character) was added to '''Cyrillic Extended-B'''. (U+A69E)
* Sinological dot, phonetic extension for African languages, letters for American and Gabonese orthography (total 7 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A78F and U+A7B2-U+A7B7)
* Sign Siddham and letter Jain Om (total 2 characters) were added to '''Devanagari Extended'''. (U+A8FC-U+A8FD)
* Letters for Yakut transliteration (total 4 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB60-U+AB63)
* A combining mark for Church Slavonic (total 2 characters) were added to '''Combining Half Marks'''. (U+FE2E-U+FE2F)
* Numerals and vulgar fractions (total 64 characters) were added to '''Meroitic Cursive'''. (U+109BC-U+109BD, U+109C0-U+109CF and U+109D2-U+109FF)
* Sandhi mark, diacritical marks for Kashmiri, sign Siddham and punctuation marks (total 9 characters) were added to '''Sharada'''. (U+111C9-U+111CC and U+111DB-U+111DF)
* Combining Anusvara Above and letter Om (total 2 characters) were added to '''Grantha'''. (U+11300 and U+11350)
* Section marks and alternate letters (total 20 characters) were added to '''Siddham'''. (U+115CA-U+115DD)
* An additional sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Cuneiform'''. (U+12399)
* East-Slavic musical symbols (total 11 characters) were added to '''Musical Symbols'''. (U+1D1DE-U+1D1E8)
* (total 24 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F32D-U+1F32F, U+1F37E-U+1F37F, U+1F3CF-U+1F3D3, U+1F3F8-U+1F3FF, U+1F4FF and U+1F54B-U+1F54F)
* Upside Down Face and Face With Rolling Eyes emoji (total 2 characters) were added to '''Emoticons'''. (U+1F643-U+1F644)
* A Place of Worship emoji (total 1 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D0)

== Unicode 9.0 ==

Unicode 9.0, was released in June 21, 2016. It encoded 128,172 characters, adding 7,500 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Cyrillic Extended-C''' (U+1C80-U+1C8F), containing 9 letters, was added.
* '''Osage''' (U+104B0-U+104FF), containing 72 letters, was added.
* '''Newa''' (U+11400-U+1147F), containing 92 letters, was added.
* '''Mongolian Supplement''' (U+11660-U+1167F), containing 13 letters, was added.
* '''Bhaiksuki''' (U+11C00-U+11C6F), containing 97 letters, was added.
* '''Marchen''' (U+11C70-U+11CBF), containing 68 letters, was added.
* '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation''' (U+16FE0-U+16FFF), containing 1 letter, was added.
* '''Tangut''' (U+17000-U+187FF), containing 6125 letters, was added.
* '''Tangut Components''' (U+18800-U+18AFF), containing 755 letters, was added.
* '''Glagolitic Supplement''' (U+1E000-U+1E02F), containing 38 letters, was added.
* '''Adlam''' (U+1E900-U+1E95F), containing 87 letters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Letters for Bravanese, Warsh and Quranic marks used in Pakistan (total 23 characters) were added to '''Arabic Extended-A'''. (U+08B6-U+08BD and U+08D4-U+08E2)
* A sign Spacing Candrabindu (total 1 character) were added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0C80)
* Sign Para, Chillu letters and vulgar fractions (total 14 characters) were added to '''Malayalam'''. (U+0D4F, U+0D54-U+0D56, U+0D58-U+0D5E and U+0D76-U+0D78)
* A diacritical mark for Newa (total 1 character) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''. (U+1DFB)
* Power symbols (total 4 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''. (U+23FB-U+23FE)
* Punctuation marks for Church Slavonic (total 2 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E43-U+2E44)
* A letter for Unifon (total 1 character) was added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7AE)
* A sign Candrabindu (total 1 character) was added to '''Saurashtra'''. (U+A8C5)
* Indiction sign and a currency symbol (total 2 characters) were added to '''Ancient Greek Numbers'''. (U+1018D-U+1018E)
* A sign Sukun (total 1 character) was added to '''Khojki'''. (U+1123E)
* Japanese TV symbols (total 18 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F19B-U+1F1AC)
* A Japanese TV symbol (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement'''. (U+1F23B)
* A dancing man and Black Heart emoji (total 2 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F57A and U+1F5A4)
* Octagonal Sign, Shopping Trolley, scooters and a Canoe emoji (total 5 characters) were added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D1-U+1F6D2 and U+1F6F4-U+1F6F6)
* (total 67 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F919-U+1F91E, U+1F920-U+1F927, U+1F930, U+1F933-U+1F93E, U+1F940-U+1F94B, U+1F950-U+1F95E and U+1F985-U+1F991)

===Variation Sequences===
Here is a table with new standardized variation sequences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|-
!Character Sequence
!Context
!Description of Variation Appearance
|-
|0030 FE00
|
|short diagonal stroke form # DIGIT ZERO
|-
|1000 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KA
|-
|1002 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER GA
|-
|1004 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER NGA
|-
|1010 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER TA
|-
|1011 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER THA
|-
|1015 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER PA
|-
|1019 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER MA
|-
|101A FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER YA
|-
|101C FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER LA
|-
|101D FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER WA
|-
|1022 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER SHAN A
|-
|1031 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR VOWEL SIGN E
|-
|1075 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER SHAN KA
|-
|1078 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER SHAN CA
|-
|107A FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER SHAN NYA
|-
|1080 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER SHAN THA
|-
|2205 FE00
|
|zero with long diagonal stroke overlay form # EMPTY SET
|-
|AA60 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI GA
|-
|AA61 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI CA
|-
|AA62 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI CHA
|-
|AA63 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI JA
|-
|AA64 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI JHA
|-
|AA65 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI NYA
|-
|AA66 FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI TTA
|-
|AA6B FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI NA
|-
|AA6C FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI SA
|-
|AA6F FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER KHAMTI FA
|-
|AA7A FE00
|
|dotted form # MYANMAR LETTER AITON RA
|-
|…
|
|278 additional emoji variation sequences
|}

== Unicode 10.0 ==

Unicode 10.0, was released in June 20, 2017. It encoded 136,690 characters, adding 8,518 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Syriac Supplement''' (U+0860-U+086F), containing 11 characters, was added.
* '''Zanabazar Square''' (U+11A00-U+11A4F), containing 72 characters, was added.
* '''Soyombo''' (U+11A50-U+11AAF), containing 80 characters, was added.
* '''Masaram Gondi''' (U+11D00-U+11D5F), containing 75 characters, was added.
* '''Kana Extended-A''' (U+1B100-U+1B12F), containing 31 characters, was added.
* '''Nushu''' (U+1B170-U+1B2FF), containing 396 characters, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension F''' (U+2CEB0-U+2EBEF), containing 7,473 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A Vedic Anusvara and Abbreviation mark (total 2 characters) were added to '''Bengali'''. (U+09FC-U+09FD)
* Letters for Arabic transliteration (total 6 characters) were added to '''Gujarati'''. (U+0AFA-U+0AFF)
* A combining Anusvara Above and Viramas (total 3 characters) were added to '''Malayalam'''. (U+0D00 and U+0D3B-U+0D3C)
* A sign Atikrama (total 1 character) was added to '''Vedic Extensions'''. (U+1CF7)
* Combining diacritical marks for Church Slavonic (total 4 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''. (U+1DF6-U+1DF9)
* A Bitcoin sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20BF)
* An Observe Eye symbol (total 1 character) was added to '''Miscellaneous Technical'''. (U+23FF)
* A Group mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2BD2)
* Medieval punctuation marks (total 5 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E45-U+2E49)
* A letter O with Dot Above (total 1 character) was added to '''Bopomofo'''. (U+312E)
* Ideographs for Slavonic transliteration (total 21 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''. (U+9FD6-U+9FEA)
* Letters for North Italic (total 3 characters) were added to '''Old Italic'''. (U+1032D-U+1032F)
* An Iteration mark for Nushu (total 1 character) was added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE1)
* Letters for Hentaigana (total 254 characters) were added to '''Kana Supplement'''. (U+1B002-U+1B0FF)
* Symbols for Chinese Folk religion (total 6 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement'''. (U+1F260-U+1F265)
* Stupa, Pagoda, Sled and Flying Saucer emoji (total 4 characters) were added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D3-U+1F6D4 and U+1F6F7-U+1F6F8)
* (total 66 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F900-U+1F90B, U+1F91F, U+1F928-U+1F92F, U+1F931-U+1F932, U+1F94C, U+1F95F-U+1F96B, U+1F992-U+1F997 and U+1F9D0-U+1F9E6)

== Unicode 11.0 ==

Unicode 11.0, was released in June 5, 2018. It encoded 137,374 characters, adding 684 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Georgian Extended''' (U+1C90-U+1CBF), containing 46 characters, was added.
* '''Hanifi Rohingya''' (U+10D00-U+10D3F), containing 50 characters, was added.
* '''Old Sogdian''' (U+10F00-U+10F2F), containing 40 characters, was added.
* '''Sogdian''' (U+10F30-U+10F6F), containing 42 characters, was added.
* '''Dogra''' (U+11800-U+1184F), containing 60 characters, was added.
* '''Gunjala Gondi''' (U+11D60-U+11DAF), containing 63 characters, was added.
* '''Makasar''' (U+11EE0-U+11EFF), containing 25 characters, was added.
* '''Medefaidrin''' (U+16E40-U+16E9F), containing 91 characters, was added.
* '''Mayan Numerals''' (U+1D2E0-U+1D2FF), containing 20 characters, was added.
* '''Indic Siyaq Numbers''' (U+1EC70-U+1ECBF), containing 68 characters, was added.
* '''Chess Symbols''' (U+1FA00-U+1FA6F), containing 14 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Small letters Turned Ayb and Yi with Stroke (total 2 characters) were added to '''Armenian'''. (U+0560 and U+0588)
* A triangle Yod (total 1 character) were added to '''Hebrew'''. (U+05EF)
* A Dantayalan and currency symbols (total 3 characters) were added to '''N'Ko'''. (U+07FD-U+07FF)
* A Small Low Waw (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic Extended-A'''. (U+08D3)
* A Sandhi mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Bengali'''. (U+09FE)
* An Abbreviation mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Gurmukhi'''. (U+0A76)
* A combining Anusvara Above (total 1 character) was added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C04)
* A sign Siddham (total 1 character) was added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0C84)
* A letter for Buryat (total 1 character) was added to '''Mongolian'''. (U+1878)
* Symbols for chess notation, astrological and half star symbols (total 43 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2BBA-U+2BBC, U+2BD3-U+2BEB and 2BF0-U+2BFE)
* Medieval punctuation marks (total 5 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E4A-U+2E4E)
* A letter NN (total 1 character) was added to '''Bopomofo'''. (U+312F)
* Some ideographs for Kanji (total 5 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''. (U+9FEB-U+9FEF)
* A small capital Q and a letter for Mazahua (total 3 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7AF and U+A7B8-U+A7B9)
* Letter and vowel sign Ay (total 2 characters) were added to '''Devanagari Extended'''. (U+A8FE-U+A8FF)
* Letters Ttta, Vha and a vulgar fraction (total 3 characters) were added to '''Kharoshthi'''. (U+10A34-U+10A35 and U+10A48)
* A Number Sign Above (total 1 character) was added to '''Kaithi'''. (U+110CD)
* Letter Lhaa, vowel sign Aa and Ei (total 3 characters) were added to '''Chakma'''. (U+11144-U+11146)
* A combining Bindu Below (total 1 character) was added to '''Grantha'''. (U+1133B)
* A Sandhi mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Newa'''. (U+1145E)
* An alternate letter Ba (total 1 character) was added to '''Ahom'''. (U+1171A)
* A mark Pluta (total 1 character) was added to '''Soyombo'''. (U+11A9D)
* Additional ideographs (total 5 characters) were added to '''Tangut'''. (U+187ED-U+187F1)
* Tally marks (total 7 characters) were added to '''Counting Rod Numerals'''. (U+1D372-U+1D378)
* A Copyleft symbol (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F12F)
* A Skateboard emoji (total 1 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6F9)
* Normal and negative circled shapes (total 4 characters) were added to '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''. (U+1F7D5-U+1F7D8)
* (total 65 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F94D-U+1F94F, U+1F96C-U+1F970, U+1F973-U+1F976, U+1F97A, U+1F97C-U+1F97F, U+1F998-U+1F99F, U+1F9A0-U+1F9A2, U+1F9B0-U+1F9B9, U+1F9C1-U+1F9C2 and U+1F9E7-U+1F9FF)

===Variation Sequences===
Here is a table with new standardized variation sequences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|-
!Character Sequence
!Context
!Description of Variation Appearance
|-
|FF10 FE00
|
|short diagonal stroke form # FULLWIDTH DIGIT ZERO
|}

== Unicode 12.0 ==

Unicode 12.0 was released on March 5, 2019. It encoded 137,928 characters, adding 554 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Elymaic''' (U+10FE0-U+10FFF), containing 23 characters, was added.
* '''Nandinagari''' (U+119A0-U+119FF), containing 65 characters, was added.
* '''Tamil Supplement''' (U+11FC0-U+11FFF), containing 51 characters, was added.
* '''Egyptian Hieroglyph Format Controls''' (U+13430-U+1343F), containing 9 characters, was added.
* '''Small Kana Extension''' (U+1B130-U+1B16F), containing 7 characters, was added.
* '''Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong''' (U+1E100-U+1E14F), containing 71 characters, was added.
* '''Wancho''' (U+1E2C0-U+1E2FF), containing 59 characters, was added.
* '''Ottoman Siyaq Numbers''' (U+1ED00-U+1ED4F), containing 61 characters, was added.
* '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A''' (U+1FA70-U+1FAFF), containing 16 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A sign Siddham (total 1 character) was added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C77)
* Letters for Pail and Sanskrit (total 15 characters) were added to '''Lao'''. (U+0E86, U+0E89, U+0E8C, U+0E8E-U+0E93, U+0E98, U+0EA0, U+0EA8-U+0EA9, U+0EAC and U+0EBA)
* A sign Double Anusvara Antargomukha (total 1 character) was added to '''Vedic Extensions'''. (U+1CFA)
* An astrological symbol and Hellschreiber Pause symbol (total 2 characters) were added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2BC9 and U+2BFF)
* A Cornish Verse Divider (total 1 character) was added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E4F)
* Egyptological letters, Anglicana W and letters for early Pinyin (total 11 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7BA-U+A7BF and U+A7C2-U+A7C6)
*Sinological phonetic letters (total 2 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB66-U+AB67)
* A Vedic Anusvara (total 1 character) was added to '''Newa'''. (U+1145F)
* An archaic letter Kha (total 1 character) was added to '''Takri'''. (U+116B8)
* Sign Jihvamuliya and Uphadhmaniya (total 2 characters) were added to '''Soyombo'''. (U+11A84-U+11A85)
* Letters for various Yi and Miao languages (total 16 characters) were added to '''Miao'''. (U+16F45-U+16F4A, U+16F4F and U+16F7F-U+16F87)
* Marks for Ancient Chinese texts (total 2 characters) were added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE2-U+16FE3)
* Some additional ideographs (total 6 characters) were added to '''Tangut'''. (U+187F2-U+187F7)
* A Nasalization mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Adlam'''. (U+1E94B)
* A Spanish and Portuguese register mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F16C)
* Hindu Temple and Auto Rickshaw emoji (total 2 characters) were added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D5 and U+1F6FA)
* Large colored circles and boxes (total 12 characters) were added to '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''. (U+1F7E0-U+1F7EB)
* (total 31 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F90D-U+1F90F, U+1F93F, U+1F971, U+1F97B, U+1F9A5-U+1F9AA, U+1F9AE-U+1F9AF, U+1F9BA-U+1F9BF, U+1F9C3-U+1F9CA and U+1F9CD-U+1F9CF)
* Heterodox chess symbols (total 84 characters) were added to '''Chess Symbols'''. (U+1FA00-U+1FA53)

=== Glyph Changes ===
Here is a table with glyph changes:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
!Block Name
!Code Points
!Count
|-
|Spacing Modifier Letters
|02EA, 02EB
|2
|-
|Vedic Extensions
|1CF2..1CF3
|2
|-
|Currency Symbols
|20A9
|1
|-
|CJK Symbols and Punctuation
|3001, 3002
|2
|-
|Bopomofo
|3105..312F
|43
|-
|Bopomofo Extended
|31A0..31BA
|27
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A
|37C3, 3B9D, 3CFD, 3FE0, 44EC, 4A76
|6
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs
|5344, 55B9, 6ABC, 6FF9, 809E, 80BC, 80E9, 8132, 8159, 841C, 891D, 8C6C, 915E, 9FD4
|14
|-
|Phags-pa
|A840..A877
|56
|-
|Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms
|FF01, FF0C, FF0E, FF1A, FF1B, FF1F
|6
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B
|200DD, 20164, 20BBF, 20C02, 20CED, 21D4C, 2278B, 23AB8, 2459B, 24A7D, 24FB9, 25ED7, 2677C, 26B4C, 26C21, 26CBE, 26E3D, 28834, 289A1, 289C0, 28A0F, 28B46
|22
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C
|2A8FB, 2A917, 2AA30
|3
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension E
|2BA52, 2BD77, 2C494, 2C72F, 2C734, 2CB38
|6
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension F
|2D23B, 2E83A
|2
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Total
!192
|}

===Variation Sequences===
Here is a table with new standardized variation sequences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|-
!Character Sequence
!Context
!Description of Variation Appearance
|-
|3001 FE00
|
|corner-justified form # IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA
|-
|3001 FE01
|
|centered form # IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA
|-
|3002 FE00
|
|corner-justified form # IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP
|-
|3002 FE01
|
|centered form # IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP
|-
|FF01 FE00
|
|corner-justified form # FULLWIDTH EXCLAMATION MARK
|-
|FF01 FE01
|
|centered form # FULLWIDTH EXCLAMATION MARK
|-
|FF0C FE00
|
|corner-justified form # FULLWIDTH COMMA
|-
|FF0C FE01
|
|centered form # FULLWIDTH COMMA
|-
|FF0E FE00
|
|corner-justified form # FULLWIDTH FULL STOP
|-
|FF0E FE01
|
|centered form # FULLWIDTH FULL STOP
|-
|FF1A FE00
|
|corner-justified form # FULLWIDTH COLON
|-
|FF1A FE01
|
|centered form # FULLWIDTH COLON
|-
|FF1B FE00
|
|corner-justified form # FULLWIDTH SEMICOLON
|-
|FF1B FE01
|
|centered form # FULLWIDTH SEMICOLON
|-
|FF1F FE00
|
|corner-justified form # FULLWIDTH QUESTION MARK
|-
|FF1F FE01
|
|centered form # FULLWIDTH QUESTION MARK
|}

== Unicode 12.1 ==

Unicode 12.1 was released on May 7, 2019. It encoded 137,929 characters, adding only 1 new character.

=== Extended blocks ===
* A square era name Reiwa (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed CJK Letters and Months'''. (U+32FF)

== Unicode 13.0 ==

Unicode 13.0 was released on March 10, 2020. It encoded 143,859 characters, adding 5,930 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Yezidi''' (U+10E80-U+10EBF), containing 47 characters, was added.
* '''Chorasmian''' (U+10FB0-U+10FDF), containing 28 characters, was added.
* '''Dives Akuru''' (U+11900-U+1195F), containing 72 characters, was added.
* '''Lisu Supplement''' (U+11FB0-U+11FBF), containing 1 character, was added.
* '''Khitan Small Script''' (U+18B00-U+18CFF), containing 470 characters, was added.
* '''Tangut Supplement''' (U+18D00-U+18D08), containing 9 characters, was added.
* '''Symbols for Legacy Computing''' (U+1FB00-U+1FBFF), containing 212 characters, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension G''' (U+30000-U+3134F), containing 4939 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* Letters for African languages and Punjabi (total 10 characters) were added to '''Arabic Extended-A'''. (U+08BE-U+08C7)
* A sign Overline (total 1 character) was added to '''Oriya'''. (U+0B55)
* A Vedic Anusvara (total 1 character) was added to '''Malayalam'''. (U+0D04)
* A sign Candrabindu (total 1 character) was added to '''Sinhala'''. (U+0D81)
* Combining diacritical marks for Scottish phonology (total 2 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1ABF-U+1AC0)
* A Japanese symbol for Type A Electronics (total 1 character) was added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2B97)
* Cross patties and a Tironian sign Capita Et (total 3 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E50-U+2E52)
* Letters for Taiwan and Cantonese language (total 5 characters) were added to '''Bopomofo Extended'''. (U+31BB-U+31BF)
* Some disunified ideographs (total 10 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A'''. (U+4DB6-4DBF)
* Some ideographs for China (total 13 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''. (U+9FF0-U+9FFC)
* Letters for Gaulish (total 6 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7C7-U+A7CA and U+A7F5-U+A7F6)
* An alternate sign Nasanta (total 1 character) was added to '''Syloti Nagri'''. (U+A82C)
* Letter R With Midle Tilde and modifier letters for Scottish phonology (total 4 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB68-U+AB6B)
* A symbol Ascia (total 1 character) was added to '''Ancient Symbols'''. (U+1019C)
* A letter for Pali (total 1 character) was added to '''Chakma'''. (U+11147)
* A vowel sign Prishthamatra E and Inverted Candrabindu (total 2 characters) were added to '''Sharada'''. (U+111CE and U+111CF)
* Double comma, sign Jihvamuliya and Uphadhmaniya (total 3 characters) were added to '''Newa'''. (U+1145A and U+11460-U+11461)
* Khitan Small Script Filler and reading marks for Vietnamese (total 3 characters) were added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE4 and U+16FF0-U+16FF1)
* Some additional components (total 13 characters) were added to '''Tangut Components'''. (U+18AF3-U+18AFF)
* Creative Commons license symbols and Mask Work symbol (total 7 characters) were added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F10D-U+1F10F, U+1F16D-1F16F and U+1F1AD)
* Hut, Elevator, Pickup Truck and Roller Skate emoji (total 4 characters) were added to '''Transportation and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D6-U+1F6D7 and U+1F6FB-U+1F6FC)
* Arrows for legacy computing (total 2 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''. (U+1F8B0-U+1F8B1)
* (total 10 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F90C, U+1F972, U+1F977-U+1F978, U+1F9A3-U+1F9A4, U+1F9AB-U+1F9AD and U+1F9CB)
* (total 41 characters) were added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA74, U+1FA83-U+1FA86, U+1FA96-U+1FAA8, U+1FAB0-U+1FAB6, U+1FAC0-U+1FAC2 and U+1FAD0-U+1FAD6)
* Gongche characters for Kunqu Opera (total 7 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B'''. (U+2A6D7-U+2A6DD)

=== Glyph Changes ===
Here is a table with glyph changes:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
!Block Name
!Code Points
!Count
|-
|Tagalog
|1700..170C, 170E..1714
|20
|-
|Mongolian
|1834, 1871, 1878
|3
|-
|Sundanese
|1BAB
|1
|-
|Currency Symbols
|20BF
|1
|-
|CJK Radicals Supplement
|2E80..2E99, 2E9B..2EF3
|115
|-
|Kangxi Radicals
|2F00..2FD5
|214
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A
|3472, 38C7, 3DB8, 3FE0, 440B, 46E9
|6
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs
|53FD, 6146, 6711, 671C, 6721, 6725, 6BD2, 7B9A, 87CE, 8956, 93BF, 9B97
|12
|-
|Latin Extended-D
|A764..A765
|2
|-
|Phags-pa
|A86D
|1
|-
|Tangut
|175F6, 17F0D, 17F8A, 17FA5, 180D6, 18139, 18147, 184F1, 18736
|9
|-
|Tangut Components
|18843, 18856, 1888C, 1890A, 18915, 1893B
|6
|-
|Adlam
|1E900..1E94A, 1E950..1E959, 1E95E..1E95F
|71
|-
|Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs
|1F3B1
|1
|-
|Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs
|1F995..1F998, 1F99B..1F99E, 1F9B0..1F9B3, 1F9E7
|13
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B
|20219, 21249, 21827, 22C3A, 2327B, 23496, 2355E, 2363B, 236ED, 23839, 23FD5, 24261, 24726, 248F2, 2548E, 26657, 26C9E, 26FE1, 27334, 27C0E, 27CEF, 2A38C
|22
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C
|2AED5, 2AEF3, 2AF76, 2B09F, 2B1C3, 2B1E5
|6
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension E
|2B83C, 2B8D9..2B8DA, 2B96F, 2BBD7, 2BD61, 2BE4A, 2BF1D, 2BF9D, 2C0B8, 2C142, 2C176, 2C316, 2C3FB, 2C402, 2C7AC, 2C82C, 2C83A, 2C9A1, 2CC88, 2CD68
|21
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension F
|2DC09, 2DE4A, 2EB7E, 2EB89
|4
|-
|CJK Compatibility Ideographs Supplement
|2F83B, 2F878, 2F8D6..2F8D7, 2F8DA, 2F8F0, 2F984, 2FA02
|8
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Total
!536
|}

== Unicode 14.0 ==

Unicode 14.0 was released on September 14, 2021. It encoded 144,697 characters, adding 838 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Arabic Extended-B''' (U+0870-U+089F), containing 41 characters, was added.
* '''Vithkuqi''' (U+10570-U+105BF), containing 70 characters, was added.
* '''Latin Extended-F''' (U+10780-U+107BF), containing 57 characters, was added.
* '''Old Uyghur''' (U+10F70-U+10FAF), containing 26 characters, was added.
* '''Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Extended-A''' (U+11AB0-U+11ABF), containing 16 characters, was added.
* '''Cypro-Minoan''' (U+12F90-U+12FFF), containing 99 characters, was added.
* '''Tangsa''' (U+16A70-U+16ACF), containing 89 characters, was added.
* '''Kana Extended-B''' (U+1AFF0-U+1AFFF), containing 13 characters, was added.
* '''Znamenny Musical Notation''' (U+1CF00-U+1CFFF), containing 185 characters, was added.
* '''Latin Extended-G''' (U+1DF00-U+1DFFF), containing 31 characters, was added.
* '''Toto''' (U+1E290-U+1E2BF), containing 31 characters, was added.
* '''Ethiopic Extended-B''' (U+1E7E0-U+1E7FF), containing 28 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* An End of Text punctuation mark (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic'''. (U+061D)
* Letters for Balti and Quranic orthography (total 12 characters) were added to '''Arabic Extended-A'''. (U+08B5 and U+08C8-U+08D2)
* A sign Nukta and letter Nakaara Pollu (total 2 characters) were added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C3C and U+0C5D)
* A letter Nakaara Pollu (total 1 character) was added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CDD)
* A letter Ra, sign Pamudpod and archaic letter Ra (total 3 characters) were added to '''Tagalog'''. (U+170D, U+1715 and U+171F)
* A fourth Free variation selector (total 1 character) was added to '''Mongolian'''. (U+180F)
* Combining diacritical marks for extended IPA (total 14 characters) were added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1AC1-U+1ACE)
* An archaic ligature Jnya and punctuation marks (total 3 characters) were added to '''Balinese'''. (U+1B4C and U+1B7D-U+1B7E)
* A combining Dot Below Left (total 1 character) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement'''. (U+1DFA)
* A Kyrgyz Som sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C0)
* A letter Caudate Chrivi (total 2 characters) were added to '''Glagolitic'''. (U+2C2F and U+2C5F)
* Medieval and phonetic punctuation marks (total 11 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E53-U+2E5D)
* Some ideographs for Macao (total 3 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs'''. (U+9FFD-U+9FFF)
* Archaic European letters, modifier letters for Sokuon and Chatino orthography (total 13 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7C0-U+A7C1, U+A7D0-U+A7D1, U+A7D3, U+A7D5, U+A7D6-U+A7D9 and U+A7F2-U+A7F4)
* A modifier letter Wasla Above and honorifics (total 20 characters) were added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''. (U+FBC2, U+FD40-U+FD4F, U+FDCF and U+FDFE-U+FDFF)
* Letters for Old Tamil (total 6 characters) were added to '''Brahmi'''. (U+11070-U+11075)
* A vowel sign Vocalic R (total 1 character) was added to '''Khaiti'''. (U+110C2)
* An Abbreviation sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Takri'''. (U+116B9)
* Letters for Tai Ahom (total 7 characters) were added to '''Ahom'''. (U+11740-U+11746) The block was expanded from (U+11700-U+1173F) to (U+11700-U+1174F)
* Kana archaic letters (total 4 characters) were added to '''Kana Extended-A'''. (U+1B11F-U+1B122)
* Accidental symbols for Iranian classical music (total 2 characters) were added to '''Musical Symbols'''. (U+1D1E9-U+1D1EA)
* Playground Slide, Wheel and Ring Buoy emoji (total 3 characters) were added to '''Transportation and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6DD-U+1F6DF)
* A Heavy Equals Sign emoji (total 1 character) was added to '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''. (U+1F7F0)
* A Troll and Face Holding Back Tears emoji (total 2 characters) were added to '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs'''. (U+1F979 and U+1F9CC)
* (total 31 characters) were added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA7B-U+1FA7C, U+1FAA9-U+1FAAC, U+1FAB7-U+1FABA, U+1FAC3-U+1FAC5, U+1FAD7-U+1FAD9, U+1FAE0-U+1FAE7 and U+1FAF0-U+1FAF6)
* Some ideographs for Macao (total 2 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B'''. (U+2A6DE-U+2A6DF)
* Disunified ideographs and a G source ideograph for China, Hong Kong and Vietnam (total 4 characters) were added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C'''. (U+2B735-U+2B738)

=== Glyph Changes ===
Here is a table with glyph changes:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
!Block Name
!Code Points
!Count
|-
|Latin Extended-B
|0184..0185
|2
|-
|Arabic
|0674..0678, 06C5, 06C7, 06FE
|8
|-
|Letterlike Symbols
|210B, 2110, 2112, 211B, 212C, 2130..2131, 2133
|8
|-
|Enclosed Alphanumerics
|2460..24FF
|160
|-
|Dingbats
|2776..2793
|30
|-
|CJK Symbols and Punctuation
|3001..3029, 3030..303D, 303F
|56
|-
|CJK Strokes
|31C0..31E3
|36
|-
|Katakana Phonetic Extensions
|31F0..31FF
|16
|-
|Enclosed CJK Letters and Months
|3200..321E, 3220..32FF
|255
|-
|CJK Compatibiity
|3300..33FF
|256
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A
|3777, 3B3F
|2
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs
|5DD5, 652C, 6AC0
|3
|-
|Arabic Presentation Forms-A
|FBD7..FBD8, FBDD, FBE0..FBE1
|5
|-
|Vertical Forms
|FE10..FE19
|10
|-
|CJK Compatibiity Forms
|FE30..FE4F
|32
|-
|Small Form Variants
|FE50..FE52, FE54..FE66, FE68..FE6B
|26
|-
|Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms
|FF01..FF9F, FFA1..FFBE, FFC2..FFC7, FFCA..FFCF, FFD2..FFD7, FFDA..FFDC, FFE0..FFE6, FFE8..FFEE
|225
|-
|Egyptian Hieroglyphs
|1300A, 13017, 1302D, 13032, 13034..13035, 13037..13038, 1303A..1303E, 1304E..1304F, 13055, 13057, 13068, 1309A, 130D2, 130D5, 130F6, 130FE, 13192, 1325F, 13267, 1326A, 13281, 13297, 1329E, 132B4, 132C1, 132E6, 13304, 1331F, 13378..1337B, 1337D..1337E, 133F3, 133FA..13403, 1340D, 13417, 1342B
|55
|-
|Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols
|1D49C, 1D49E..1D49F, 1D4A2, 1D4A5..1D4A6, 1D4A9..1D4AC, 1D4AE..1D4B5
|18
|-
|Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement
|1F100..1F1AD, 1F1E6..1F1FF
|200
|-
|Enclosed Ideographic Supplement
|1F200..1F202, 1F210..1F23B, 1F240..1F248, 1F250..1F251, 1F260..1F265
|64
|-
|Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs
|1F930
|1
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B
|22ADC, 230F2, 25B27, 26F28
|4
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Total
!1472
|}

===Variation Sequences===
Here is a table with new standardized variation sequences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|-
!Character Sequence
!Context
!Description of Variation Appearance
|-
|1D49C FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL A
|-
|212C FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL B
|-
|1D49E FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL C
|-
|1D49F FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL D
|-
|2130 FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL E
|-
|2131 FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL F
|-
|1D4A2 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL G
|-
|210B FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL H
|-
|2110 FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL I
|-
|1D4A5 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL J
|-
|1D4A6 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL K
|-
|2112 FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL L
|-
|2133 FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL M
|-
|1D4A9 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL N
|-
|1D4AA FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL O
|-
|1D4AB FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL P
|-
|1D4AC FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Q
|-
|211B FE00
|
|chancery style # SCRIPT CAPITAL R
|-
|1D4AE FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL S
|-
|1D4AF FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL T
|-
|1D4B0 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL U
|-
|1D4B1 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL V
|-
|1D4B2 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL W
|-
|1D4B3 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL X
|-
|1D4B4 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Y
|-
|1D4B5 FE00
|
|chancery style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Z
|-
|1D49C FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL A
|-
|212C FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL B
|-
|1D49E FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL C
|-
|1D49F FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL D
|-
|2130 FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL E
|-
|2131 FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL F
|-
|1D4A2 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL G
|-
|210B FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL H
|-
|2110 FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL I
|-
|1D4A5 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL J
|-
|1D4A6 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL K
|-
|2112 FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL L
|-
|2133 FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL M
|-
|1D4A9 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL N
|-
|1D4AA FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL O
|-
|1D4AB FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL P
|-
|1D4AC FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Q
|-
|211B FE01
|
|roundhand style # SCRIPT CAPITAL R
|-
|1D4AE FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL S
|-
|1D4AF FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL T
|-
|1D4B0 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL U
|-
|1D4B1 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL V
|-
|1D4B2 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL W
|-
|1D4B3 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL X
|-
|1D4B4 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Y
|-
|1D4B5 FE01
|
|roundhand style # MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Z
|}

===Named Sequences===
Here is a table with new named character sequences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|-
!Character Sequence
!Name
|-
|0915 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER QA
|-
|0916 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER KHHA
|-
|0917 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER GHHA
|-
|091C 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER ZA
|-
|0921 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER DDDHA
|-
|0922 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER RHA
|-
|092B 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER FA
|-
|092F 093C
|DEVANAGARI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER YYA
|-
|09A1 09BC
|BENGALI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER RRA
|-
|09A2 09BC
|BENGALI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER RHA
|-
|09AF 09BC
|BENGALI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER YYA
|-
|0A32 0A3C
|GURMUKHI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER LLA
|-
|0A38 0A3C
|GURMUKHI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER SHA
|-
|0A16 0A3C
|GURMUKHI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER KHHA
|-
|0A17 0A3C
|GURMUKHI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER GHHA
|-
|0A1C 0A3C
|GURMUKHI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER ZA
|-
|0A2B 0A3C
|GURMUKHI SEQUENCE FOR LETTER FA
|-
|0B21 0B3C
|ORIYA SEQUENCE FOR LETTER RRA
|-
|0B22 0B3C
|ORIYA SEQUENCE FOR LETTER RHA
|}

== Unicode 15.0 ==

Unicode 15.0 was released on September 13, 2022. It encoded 149,186 characters, adding 4,489 new characters.

=== New blocks ===

* '''Arabic Extended-C''' (U+10EC0-U+10EFF), containing 3 characters, was added.
* '''Devanagari Extended-A''' (U+11B00-U+11B5F), containing 10 characters, was added.
* '''Kawi''' (U+11F00-U+11F5F), containing 86 characters, was added.
* '''Kaktovik Numerals''' (U+1D2C0-U+1D2DF), containing 20 characters, was added.
* '''Cyrillic Extended-D''' (U+1E030-U+1E08F), containing 63 characters, was added.
* '''Nag Mundari''' (U+1E4D0-U+1E4FF), containing 42 characters, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension H''' (U+31350-U+323AF), containing 4192 characters, was added.

=== Extended blocks ===

* A Yamakkan (total 1 character) was added to '''Lao'''. (U+0ECE)
* A combining Anusvara Above Right (total 1 character) was added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CF3)
* Letters Qa, Short I and Vocalic R (total 3 characters) were added to '''Khojki'''. (U+1123F-U+11241)
* An additional hieroglyph to Group V (total 1 character) was added to '''Egyptian Hieroglyphs'''
* Extended format controls (total 29 characters) were added to '''Egyptian Hieroglyph Format Controls'''. (U+13439-U+13455). The block was expanded from (U+13430-U+1343F) to (U+13430-U+1345F)
* Hiragana and Katakana Small Ko (total 2 characters) were added to '''Small Kana Extension'''. (U+1B132 and U+1B155)
* Letters for Malayalam transliteration (total 6 characters) were added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF25-U+1DF2A)
* A Wireless emoji (total 1 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6DC)
* A Nine Pointed White Star (total 1 character) was be added to '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''. (U+1F7D9)
* A Lot of Fortune, eclipse symbols and symbols for dwarf planets (total 6 characters) were added to '''Alchemical symbols'''. (U+1F774-U+1F776 and U+1F77B-U+1F77F)
* (total 20 characters) were added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA75-U+1FA77, U+1FA87-U+1FA88, U+1FAAD-U+1FAAF, U+1FABB-U+1FABF, U+1FACE-U+1FACF, U+1FADA-U+1FADB, U+1FAE8 and U+1FAF7-U+1FAF8)
* A disunified ideograph for Macao (total 1 character) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C'''. (U+2B739)

===Glyph Changes===

Here is a table with glyph changes:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
!Block Name
!Code Points
!Count
|-
|IPA Extensions
|025E, 029A
|2
|-
|United Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics
|144B, 14D1, 1506, 15C0..15C3, 15E8..15EE, 1601, 1604..1607, 160A..160D, 1614..162D, 1630..163F, 1646..1647, 165A
|66
|-
|United Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Extended
|18DB, 18EC, 18F1..18F2, 18F5
|5
|-
|Sundanese
|1BBF
|1
|-
|Optical Character Recognition
|2447
|1
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A
|34DC, 3BF6, 3C43, 48B4, 4DBE
|5
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs
|585F, 5F50, 6BC0, 7BC9, 833E
|5
|-
|Cyrillic Extended-B
|A66E
|1
|-
|Old Turkic
|10C47
|1
|-
|Egyptian Hieroglyphs
|various (new standardized variation sequences)
|94
|-
|Khitan Small Script
|18CCA
|1
|-
|Wancho (font update)
|1E2C0..1E2F9, 1E2FF
|59
|-
|Alchemical Symbols (font update)
|1F700..1F773
|116
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B
|20048, 20A1C, 2143F, 21A5F, 21C08, 21FBA, 22ACF, 23392, 238A7, 23D8F, 23F4E, 25D20, 26E30, 27B48, 27C4F, 28633, 28B02, 28E9A, 29760, 2A60F
|20
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C
|2B249
|1
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension E
|2BB37, 2BD7D, 2C151, 2C1E0, 2C2D6, 2C5CA, 2C810, 2CD34
|8
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension F
|2CF4E, 2D25D, 2D3EC, 2D6A7, 2D7BA, 2D979, 2DA74, 2DA97, 2DC13, 2DDC0, 2DF10, 2DF78, 2E05A, 2E0AE, 2E516, 2E640, 2E680, 2EA63
|18
|-
|CJK Compatibility Ideographs Supplement
|2F804, 2F805, 2F833, 2F835, 2F84C, 2F84F, 2F852, 2F855, 2F887, 2F88B, 2F899, 2F8A0, 2F8A6, 2F8A7, 2F8AD, 2F8B1, 2F8B4, 2F8B7, 2F8BA, 2F8D0, 2F8E0..2F8E2, 2F8E5, 2F8E6, 2F8FE, 2F900, 2F901, 2F907, 2F912, 2F922, 2F926, 2F936, 2F938, 2F94E, 2F959, 2F95F, 2F96C, 2F99F, 2F9B8, 2F9BA, 2F9D3, 2F9DB, 2F9DC, 2F9E8, 2F9EA, 2F9EE, 2FA00, 2FA0D, 2FA1B
|50
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension G
|302FC, 30723, 30A6D, 30CF7, 30DBF, 31006, 3105D
|7
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Total
!461
|}

===Variation Sequences===
Here is a table with new standardized variation sequences:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|-
!Character Sequence
!Context
!Description of Variation Appearance
|-
|13091 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH D027
|-
|13092 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH D027A
|-
|13093 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH D028
|-
|130A9 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH D047
|-
|1310F FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH F016
|-
|13117 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH F023
|-
|1311C FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH F028
|-
|13121 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH F032
|-
|13127 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH F037A
|-
|13139 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH F051
|-
|13139 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH F051
|-
|13183 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH H005
|-
|13187 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH H008
|-
|131A0 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH K006
|-
|131A0 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH K006
|-
|131B1 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M003
|-
|131B1 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M003
|-
|131B8 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M009
|-
|131B9 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M010
|-
|131BA FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M010A
|-
|131CB FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M017
|-
|131EE FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M044
|-
|131EE FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH M044
|-
|131F8 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH N010
|-
|131F9 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH N011
|-
|131F9 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH N011
|-
|131FA FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH N012
|-
|131FA FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH N012
|-
|13216 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH N035
|-
|13257 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH O006
|-
|1327B FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH O029
|-
|1327F FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH O031
|-
|1327F FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH O031
|-
|13285 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH O036
|-
|1328C FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH O039
|-
|132A4 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH P008
|-
|132A4 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH P008
|-
|132AA FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH Q003
|-
|132CB FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH R024
|-
|132DC FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S010
|-
|132E7 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S018
|-
|132E7 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S018
|-
|132E9 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S020
|-
|132F8 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S033
|-
|132FD FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S037
|-
|13302 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S042
|-
|13303 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH S043
|-
|13307 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T001
|-
|13308 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T002
|-
|13310 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T008
|-
|13311 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T008A
|-
|13312 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T009
|-
|13312 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T009
|-
|13313 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T009A
|-
|13313 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T009A
|-
|13314 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T010
|-
|13314 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T010
|-
|1331B FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T016
|-
|1331B FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T016
|-
|1331C FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T016A
|-
|13321 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T021
|-
|13321 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T021
|-
|13322 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T022
|-
|13322 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T022
|-
|13331 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T035
|-
|13331 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH T035
|-
|1333B FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH U007
|-
|1333C FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH U008
|-
|1334A FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH U022
|-
|13361 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH U042
|-
|13373 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH V007A
|-
|13377 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH V010
|-
|13378 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH V011
|-
|1337D FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH V012A
|-
|13385 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH V019
|-
|13399 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH V026
|-
|1339A FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH V027
|-
|133AF FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH W001
|-
|133B0 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH W002
|-
|133BF FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH W014
|-
|133D3 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH X004A
|-
|133DD FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH Y002
|-
|133F2 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH Z007
|-
|133F5 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH Z010
|-
|133F6 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH Z011
|-
|13403 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH Z015I
|-
|13416 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA008
|-
|13419 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA011
|-
|13419 FE01
|
|rotated 180 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA011
|-
|13419 FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA011
|-
|1341A FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA012
|-
|13423 FE00
|
|rotated 90 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA021
|-
|1342C FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA030
|-
|1342E FE02
|
|rotated 270 degrees # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH AA032
|-
|13443 FE00
|
|expanded # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH LOST SIGN
|-
|13444 FE00
|
|expanded # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH HALF LOST SIGN
|-
|13445 FE00
|
|expanded # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH TALL LOST SIGN
|-
|13446 FE00
|
|expanded # EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPH WIDE LOST SIGN
|}

== Unicode 15.1 ==

Unicode 15.1 was released on September 12th, 2023. It encoded 149,813 characters, adding 627 new characters.

=== New Blocks ===
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension I''' (U+2EBF0-U+2EE5F), containing 622 characters, was added.

=== Extended Blocks ===

* 4 Ideographic characters were added to '''Ideographic Description Characters'''. (U+2FFC-U+2FFF)
* An Ideographic subtraction (total 1 character) was added to '''CJK Strokes'''. (U+31EF)

=== Glyph Changes ===
Here is a table with glyph changes:
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
!Block Name
!Code Points
!Count

|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A
|357E, 358B..358E, 3599..359D, 35AF..35B0, 35B2..35B3, 35DF..35E1, 35EF, 360F, 3612, 3F94, 44D5, 48EE
|5
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs
|5098, 512D, 517A, 5391, 54DB, 551C, 551F, 55B8, 55ED, 56AB, 591E, 594A, 5B2E, 5DFC..5DFD, 5EE4, 609E, 65B0, 65B3, 65D5, 65F2, 67B2, 6AB6, 6AEC, 6C69, 6FC2, 6FD3, 7019, 7361, 74BD, 7934, 820B, 826E, 83BB, 8412, 8456, 848A, 896F, 8E34, 8FD7, 9166, 9855, 985E, 9C4D
|5
|-
|Latin Extended-D
|A798
|1
|-
|Latin Extended-E
|AB5A
|1
|-

|Tangut
|17105, 172A4, 17BD1..17BD3, 17EF9, 18136
|59
|-
|Alchemical Symbols
|1F741, 1F747, 1F74C, 1F74F, 1F756, 1F758, 1F763, 1F768, 1F76D, 1F76E
|116
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B
|20302, 2087A, 20C00, 230B7, 2339E, 236EF, 237C3, 23B87, 23CC0, 23CD9, 23E5E, 2486F, 249D6, 249E8, 24D6A, 2585E, 25D89, 26A5A..26A5B, 26A73, 26A82..26A83, 26A90, 26AA6, 26AA8, 26AD8, 27350, 279F8, 284A3, 28BBA, 29516, 29530
|20
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C
|2A741, 2AB63, 2ACD8, 2AF6F, 2B173, 2B490
|1
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension E
|2BC2E, 2BF45, 2C04C, 2C13A, 2C43C, 2C43E, 2C816
|8
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension F
|2D1CC..2D1CD, 2D1DD, 2D1E4, 2D1F7, 2D203, 2D256, 2D266, 2D2A2, 2D2AC, 2D2DA
|18
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension G
|301D4, 301D9, 301E4, 301E8, 301FF..30200, 30205, 3020C, 30211, 30215..30217, 30220, 30234..30235, 30237
|7
|-
|CJK Unified Ideographs Extension H
|314B7, 31542, 31569, 31C7F, 31D5A, 31F68
|7
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Total
!164
|}

== Unicode 16.0 ==

Unicode 16.0 was released on September 10th, 2024. It encoded 154,998 characters, adding 5185 new characters.

=== New Blocks ===
* '''Todhri''' (U+105C0-U+105FF), containing 52 characters, was added.
* '''Garay''' (U+10D40-U+10D8F), containing 69 characters, was added.
* '''Tulu-Tigalari''' (U+11380-U+113FF), containing 80 characters, was added.
* '''Myanmar Extended-C''' (U+116D0-U+116FF), containing 20 characters, was added.
* '''Sunuwar''' (U+11BC0-U+11BFF), containing 44 characters, was added.
* '''Egyptian Hieroglyphs Extended-A''' (U+13460-U+143FF), containing 3995 characters, was added.
* '''Gurung Khema''' (U+16100-U+1613F), containing 58 characters, was added.
* '''Kirat Rai''' (U+16D40-U+16D7F), containing 58 characters, was added.
* '''Symbols for Legacy Computing Supplement''' (U+1CC00-U+1CEBF), containing 686 characters, was added.
* '''Ol Onal''' (U+1E5D0-U+1E5FF), containing 44 characters, was added.

=== Extended Blocks ===
* A combining diacritical mark for Jawi (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic Extended-B'''. (U+0897)
* Inverted letters and a punctuation mark (total 3 characters) was added to '''Balinese'''. (U+1B4E-U+1B4F and U+1B7F)
* A letter Tje (total 2 characters) was added to '''Cyrillic Extended-C'''. (U+1C89-U+1C8A)
* Legacy computing symbols for Delete (total 3 characters) was added to '''Control Pictures'''. (U+2427-U+2429)
* CJK strokes HXG and SZP (total 2 characters) was added to '''CJK Strokes'''. (U+31E4-U+31E5)
* A capital Rams Horn, an S with Diagonal Stroke, Lamda Letters, and letters for Wakashan and Salishan Languages (total 6 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7CB-U+A7CD, U+A7DA-U+A7DC)
* A combining Alef overlay and letters with two dots vertically below (total 4 characters) was added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC2-U+10EC4 and U+10EFC)
* A sign Nukta (total 1 character) was added to '''Kawi'''. (U+11F5A)
* A blank character (total 1 character) was added to '''Khitan Small Script'''. (U+18CFF)
* A rightwards arrow with hook, and arrows for legacy computing and arrows for Egyptology (total 12 characters) was added to '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''. (U+1F8B2-U+1F8BB, U+1F8C0-U+1F8C1)
* A Harp, Shovel, Leafless Tree, Fingerprint, Root Vegetable, Splatter, and Face with Bags Under Eyes (total 7 characters) was added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA89, U+1FA8F, U+1FABE, U+1FAC6, U+1FADC, U+1FADF, and U+1FAE9)
* Graphic shapes for legacy computing (total 37 characters) was added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing'''. (U+1FBCB-U+1FBEF)

== Unicode 17.0 ==
Unicode 17.0 was released on September 9th, 2025. It encoded 159,801 characters, adding 4,083 new characters.

=== New Blocks ===
* '''Sidetic''' (U+10940-U+1095F), containing 26 characters, was added.
* '''Sharada Supplement''' (U+11B60-U+11B7F), containing 8 characters, was added.
* '''Tolong Siki''' (U+11DB0-U+11DEF), containing 54 characters, was added.
* '''Beria Erfe''' (U+16EA0-U+16EDF), containing 50 characters, was added.
* '''Tangut Components Supplement''' (U+18D80-U+18DFF), containing 115 characters, was added.
* '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement''' (U+1CEC0-U+1CEFF), containing 34 characters, was added.
* '''Tai Yo''' (U+1E6C0-U+1E6FF), containing 55 characters, was added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension J''' (U+323B0-U+3347F), containing 4298 characters, was added.

=== Extended Blocks ===
* A Noon with Ring Above (total 1 character) was added to '''Arabic Extended-B'''. (U+088F)
* An archaic ligature Shrii (total 1 character) was added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C5C)
* An archaic ligature Shrii (total 1 character) was added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CDC)
* Compound tone and harrington diacritics (total 26 characters) was to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1ACF-U+1ADD, U+1AE0-U+1AEB)
* Saudi Riyal Sign (total 1 character) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C1)
* Equal Sign with Infinity Above (total 1 character) was added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2B96)
* 2 capital letters for Middle English, Latin pharyngeal voiced fricative, and Modifier Letter Capital S (total 5 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7CE-U+A7CF, U+A7D2, U+A7D4, U+A7F1)
* Arabic Ligature Rahmatu Allaahi Alayh and Arabic Honorifics (total 25 characters) was added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''. (U+FBC3-U+FBD2, U+FD90, U+FD91, U+FDC8-U+FDCE)
* A Small Yeh Barree with Two Dots Below, Thin Noon, Biblical End of Verse, Yeh with Four Dots Below, Honorifics, Double Vertical Bar Below, and Small Low Noon (total 14 characters) was added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC5-U+10EC7, U+10ED0-U+10ED8, U+10EFA-U+10EFB)
* Chinese Simplified and Traditional Er and Yangqin Slow Signs Two, Three, and Four (total 5 characters) was added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FF2-U+16FF6)
* Some additional ideographs (total 8 characters) was added to '''Tangut'''. (U+187F8-U+187FF)
* Additional ideographs (total 22 characters) was added to '''Tangut Supplement'''. (U+18D09-U+18D1E)
* Nine symbols (total 9 characters) was added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing Supplement'''. (U+1CCFA-U+1CCFC, U+1CEBA-1CEBF)
* A Landslide (total 1 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D8)
* Historical asteroid symbols (total 4 characters) was added to '''Alchemical Symbols'''. (U+1F777-U+1F77A)
* Chemical symbols (total 9 characters) was added to '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''. (U+1F8D0-U+1F8D8)
* White and Black Chess Ferz and Alfil (total 4 characters) was added to '''Chess Symbols'''. (U+1FA54-U+1FA57)
* A trombone, treasure chest, hairy creature, orca, distorted face, and fight cloud (total 6 characters) was added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA8A, U+1FA8E, U+1FAC8, U+1FACD, U+1FAEA, and U+1FAEF)
* An alarm bell symbol (total 1 character) was added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing'''. (U+1FBFA)
* Additional ideographs (total 6 characters) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C'''. (U+2B73A-U+2B73F)
* Additional ideographs (total 12 characters) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension E'''. (U+2CEA2-U+2CEAD)

== Unicode 18.0 ==
Unicode 18.0 will be released on September 16, 2026.

=== New Blocks ===
*'''Bengali Supplement''' (U+11DF0-U+11DFF), containing 2 characters, will be added.
* '''Archaic Cuneiform Numerals''' (U+12550-U+1268F), containing 311 characters, will be added.
* '''Jurchen''' (U+18E00-U+1919F), containing 914 characters, will be added.
* '''Jurchen Radicals''' (U+191A0-U+191DF), containing 51 characters, will be added.
* '''Musical Symbols Supplement''' (U+1D250-U+1D28F), containing 50 characters, will be added.
* '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows Extended''' (U+1DB00-U+1DBFF), containing 29 characters, will be added.
* '''Seal Script''' (U+3D000-U+3FC3F), containing 11328 characters, will be added.

=== Extended Blocks ===
* Modifier letters Eh, Ini, and Yi (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Armenian'''. (U+0558, U+058B-U+058C)
* Hebrew Point Sheva Na Mudgash and Hebrew Point Dagesh Hazaq Mudgash (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Hebrew'''. (U+05C8-U+05C9)
* Signs for dot above and double dot above (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Oriya'''. (U+0B53-U+0B54)
* Alternate positioned IPA diacritics and diacritics for Chao and Khoe (total 7 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1ADE-U+1ADF, U+1AEC-U+1AF0)
* Latin subscript small letter w, y, and z and Modifier letter high and low vertical line (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Superscripts and Subscripts'''. (U+208F, U+209D-U+209F)
* Rufiyaa Sign, UAE Dirham Sign, and Omani Rial (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C2-U+20C4)
* Two Wiggly Exclamation Marks and Two Parenthesis with Middle Ring (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E60-U+2E63)
* Latin capital letter closed omega and Latin capital letter r with long leg and (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7DD and U+A7E2)
* Latin capital letter script r and script r with ring (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB6C-U+AB6D)
* Latin modifier letters for clicks (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-F'''. (U+107BB-U+107BF)
* Arabic Crown Letters, Quranic Characters, and Arabic Crown (total 39 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC9-U+10ECF, U+10ED9-U+10EEE, U+10EF0-U+10EF9)
* Devanagari Letter Alternate Ddda (total 1 character) will be added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0A)
* Extended Cuneiform Numeric Signs (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation'''. (U+1246F, U+12475-U+1247F)
* Jurchen Small Script characters (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Khitan Small Script'''. (U+18CD6-U+18CDA)
* Two additional ideographs (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Tangut Supplement'''. (U+18D1F-U+18D20)
* Hiragana Digraph Koto, Katakana Diagraphs Toki, Tote, and Yori, letters alternate Ne, and Wi (total 6 characters) will be added to '''Kana Extended-A'''. (U+1B123-U+1B128)
* Katakana letter small archaic Ye (total 1 character) will be added to '''Small Kana Extension'''. (U+1B168)
* Leibnizian alchemical symbols,  Leibnizian cossic characters, and Leibnizian mathematical signs and symbols (total 19 characters) will be added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1CED2-U+1CED4, U+1CEDD-U+1CEDF, U+1CEF1-U+1CEFD)
* Stein Zimmerman Symbols, Digit Slash Symbols, and other Symbols (total 23 characters) will be added to '''Musical Symbols'''. (U+1D127-U+1D128, U+1D1EB-U+1D1FF)
* Mathematical italic long s with descender s (U+1D6A6) will be added to '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols'''.
* Affricate ligatures, letters with palatal hook, barred letters, RFE letters, Initial Teaching Alphabet, English Phonotypic Alphabet, Leibnizian cossic characters, and modifier letters (total 151 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF1F-U+1DF24, U+1DF2B-U+1DF81, U+1DF90-U+1DF96, U+1DFCD-U+1DFFF)
* A Tomobiki symbol (total 1 character) will be added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F1AE)
* A lighthouse (total 1 character) will be added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D9)
* A black circle with white vertical bar, and Extended Geometric Shapes (total 17 characters) will be added to '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''. (U+1F7DA-U+1F7DB, U+1F7F1-U+1F7FF)
* A meteor, eraser, net with handle, monarch butterfly, pickle, cracking face, leftwards thumb sign, and rightwards thumb sign (total 8 characters) will be added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA8B-1FA8D, U+1FACC, U+1FADD, U+1FAEB, U+1FAF9-1FAFA)
* An additional ideograph (total 1 character) will be added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension D'''. (U+2B81E)

== Unicode 19.0==
Unicode 19.0 will be released in late 2027. There are more characters targeted for this version, but they have not been confirmed yet.

=== New Blocks ===
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Components-A''' (U+2FA20-U+2FA9F), containing 119 characters, will be added.
* '''CJK Unified Ideographs Components-B''' (U+2FAA0-U+2FC1F), containing 375 characters, will be added.

== Code Points Provisionally Assigned==
This is a section where you can add any upcoming Unicode characters that have been [https://www.unicode.org/alloc/Pipeline.html#codepoint_reservation provisionally assigned for mature proposals] (but not yet accepted) for a future update of The Unicode Standard.

=== New Blocks ===
* '''Arabic Extended-D''' (U+10D90-U+10E5F), containing 3 characters, will be added.
* '''Sirmauri''' (U+11850-U+1188F), containing 55 characters, will be added.&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* '''Leke''' (U+11B80-U+11BBF), containing 55 characters, will be added.
* '''Proto-Cuneiform''' (U+12690-U+12ECF), containing 1392 characters, will be added.&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* '''Chisoi''' (U+16D80-U+16DAF), containing 40 characters, will be added.&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* '''Mwangwego''' (U+16E00-U+16E3F), containing 64 characters, will be added.
* '''Shaaldaa''' (U+1C800-U+1CB2F), containing 804 characters, will be added.
* '''Leibnizian Ambiguous Signs''' (U+1DC00-U+1DC3F), containing 54 characters, will be added.)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;

=== Extended Blocks ===
* Telugu Sign Spacing Candrabindu (total 1 character) will be added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C70)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Kannada Signs Ardhanusvara and Combining Anusvara Above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CF0 and U+0CF4)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Mongolian Letter Manchu Alternative Ue (total 1 character) will be added to '''Mongolian'''. (U+1879)
* Combining Grave-Acute-Macron, Combining inverted lazy s Above, and Combining comma Above and acute (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1AF1-U+1AF3)
* Cyrillic small letter Yeru with connecting bar (total 1 character) will be added to '''Cyrillic Extended-C'''. (U+1C8B)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Belarusian Ruble sign and Ruble sign with double vertical stem (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C5, U+20CF)&lt;!--20C5 target: 19.0--&gt;
* Combining Long Triple Solidus Overlay and Combining Saltire Overlay (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''. (U+20F1-U+20F2)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Latin capital and small letter i with oblique stroke (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7DE-U+A7DF)
* Latin capital letter u with left hook (total 1 character) will be added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB6E)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Arabic Dotless Half-Yeh, Half-Yeh, Dotless Half-Jeem and Astronomical Kaf (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC0-U+10EC1, U+10EC8, U+10EEF)&lt;!--10EC0-10EC1 target: 19.0--&gt;
* Brahmi minimizing virama (total 1 character) will be added to '''Brahmi'''. (U+1107E)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Tulu-Tigalari letter combining anusvara above, signs om pushpika with tail and shrii pushpika, and letter archaic II (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Tulu-Tigalari'''. (U+113CB, U+113D9-U+113DB)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Newa Letter Heavy Ya (total 1 character) will be added to '''Newa'''. (U+11462)
* Dogra Signs Candrabindu and Avaragha (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Dogra'''. (U+1183C-U+1183D)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Devanagari Jivamuliya and Upadhmaniya (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0B-U+11B0C)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* White Ideographic Comma and Double Ideographic Full Stop (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE5-U+16FE6)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Alchemical Symbol for Calx-2 and Alchemical Symbol for Retort-2 (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1CED1, U+1CED5)&lt;!--target: 19.0--&gt;
* Musical Symbol down arrowhead breath mark (total 1 character) will be added to '''Musical Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1D282)
* Small w with palatal hook, small n and r with double middle tilde, small capital i with retroflex hook, small open q, x with stroke, small wavy y, schwa with right hook, Romance dialectology symbols, zh ligature, Albanian letter edhe, Albanian Frashëri letters, Modifier letter capital y, and modifier letter accents (total 26 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF82-U+1DF8F, U+1DF97-U+1DFA3, U+1DFC4-U+1DFCC)&lt;!--1DF82-1DF8A, 1DFC5-1DFCC target: 19.0--&gt;
*Arabic Astronomical zero and five astronomical symbols (total 6 characters) will be added to Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols (U+1EEE0-U+1EEE5)

==Roadmap Blocks==
This is a section where proportional maps of proposed allocations to Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 are presented. Italic indicates scripts for which detailed proposals have not yet been written.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unicode.org/roadmaps/smp/]&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''Northern Palaeohispanic''' (U+10200-U+1023F)
* '''Southern Palaeohispanic''' (U+10240-U+1027F)
* '''''Shavian Quikscript''' (U+103E0-U+103FF)''
* '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended-A''' (U+107C0-U+107FF)
* '''Proto-Sinaitic''' (U+108B0-U+108DF)
* '''''Numidian''' (U+10960-U+1097F)''
* '''Balti''' (U+10AA0-U+10ABF)
* '''Book Pahlavi''' (U+10BB0-U+10BDF)
* '''Baburi''' (U+10BE0-U+10BFF)
* '''Arabic Extended-D''' (U+10D90-U+10E5F)
* '''Landa''' (U+11250-U+1127F)
* '''Tani Lipi''' (U+114E0-U+114FF)
* '''Ranjana''' (U+11500-U+1157F)
* '''Zou''' (U+11750-U+117AF)
* '''Pyu''' (U+117B0-U+117FF)
* '''Vateluttu''' (U+11960-U+1199F)
* '''Balti-B''' (U+11CC0-U+11CFF)
* '''Tocharian''' (U+11E00-U+11E6F)
* '''Khotanese''' (U+11E70-U+11ECF)
* '''Pallava''' (U+11F60-U+11FAF)
* '''''Egyptian Hieroglyphs Extended-B''' (U+14680-U+151FF)''
* '''Mayan Hieroglyphs''' (U+15500-U+15AFF)
* '''Kore Sebeli''' (U+15B00-U+15B6F)
* '''Mandombe''' (U+15B80-U+15FFF)
* '''Wei Rma''' (U+16000-U+1604F)
* '''Wagindara''' (U+16050-U+1607F)
* '''Kurukh Banna''' (U+16140-U+1618F)
* '''Moon''' (U+161A0-U+161FF)
* '''Blissymbols''' (U+16200-U+167FF)
* '''Woleai''' (U+16B90-U+16BFF)
* '''Kpelle''' (U+16C00-U+16C7F)
* '''Tikamuli''' (U+16C80-U+16CBF)
* '''Tangsa (Khimhun)''' (U+16CD0-U+16CFF)
* '''Afaka''' (U+16D00-U+16D3F)
* '''Kulitan''' (U+16DD0-U+16DFF)
* '''''Bopomofo Extended-A''' (U+16FA0-U+16FAF)''
* '''Kanbun Extended-A''' (U+16FB0-U+16FDF)
* '''Khitan Large Script''' (U+19200-U+199FF)
* '''Pau Cin Hau Syllabary''' (U+19E00-U+1A2FF)
* '''Eskaya''' (U+1A300-U+1A75F)
* '''Rejang Extended''' (U+1A760-U+1A77F)
* '''''Kaida''''' (U+1A780-U+1A7FF)
* '''Naxi Dongba''' (U+1A800-U+1ACFF)
* '''''Naxi Geba''' (U+1AD00-U+1AFCF)''
* '''''Kana Extended-C''' (U+1AFD0-U+1AFEF)''
* '''Shuishu Logograms''' (U+1B300-U+1B5FF)
* '''Lisu Syllabic Script''' (U+1B600-U+1B9FF)
* '''Indus''' (U+1BA00-U+1BB8F)
* '''Pitman Shorthand''' (U+1BCB0-U+1BCFF)
* '''Proto-Elamite''' (U+1BE00-U+1C37F)
* '''Linear Elamite''' (U+1C380-U+1C4FF)
* '''Ndiko Jonam''' (U+1CB30-U+1CB7F)
* '''N&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;ti''' (U+1CB80-U+1CBAF)
* '''Old Chinese Musical Symbols (Flute and Pipa)''' (U+1D290-U+1D2BF)
* '''''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols Supplement''' (U+1D380-U+1D3FF)''
* '''Jianzi Format Controls''' (U+1DAE0-U+1DAFF)
* '''Eebee Hmong''' (U+1E150-U+1E1FF)
* '''Western Cham''' (U+1E200-U+1E26F)
* '''Loma''' (U+1E300-U+1E41F)
* '''Bagam''' (U+1E420-U+1E4CF)
* '''Pungchen''' (U+1E500-U+1E52F)
* '''''Pungchung''' (U+1E530-U+1E55F)''
* '''''Marchung''' (U+1E560-U+1E59F)''
* '''Brusha''' (U+1E5A0-U+1E5CF)
* '''''Chola''' (U+1E600-U+1E65F)''
* '''Box-Headed''' (U+1E660-U+1E6BF)
* '''Lampung''' (U+1E700-U+1E73F)
* '''Kerinci''' (U+1E740-U+1E76F)
* '''Buginese Supplement''' (U+1E770-U+1E7BF)
* '''''Lontara Bilang-Bilang''' (U+1E7C0-U+1E7DF)''
* '''N'Ko Supplement''' (U+1E960-1E97F)
* '''''Byblos''''' (U+1EB90-U+1EBFF)
* '''Persian Siyaq Numbers''' (U+1EC00-U+1EC7F)
* '''Diwani Siyaq Numbers''' (U+1ECC0-U+1ECFF)
* '''''Extended Pictographic Characters''' (U+1FC00-U+1FFFF)''

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>AQA A-Level Physics/Particles and Anti-particles</title>
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      <text bytes="4222" sha1="dwa081442a3yob4jvb0isvgitwp2f1m" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Albert Einstein Head.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Albert Einstein -- the man who changed the world, but sadly not his hair stylist]]

== The idea of mass and energy ==
Einstein's most famous equation is &lt;math&gt;E = mc^2&lt;/math&gt;.  Although this equation is quite well known, not many people really understand what it means.  To truly understand the significance of Einstein's work, we have to understand a few things about the history of Physics.

Before Einstein wrote down his equation, our understanding of the world was based mainly on ideas from the theories of motion and gravitation that were written down by Sir Isaac Newton.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.newton.ac.uk/newtlife.html&lt;/ref&gt;  These ideas, along with theories on heat and light that were worked out in 19th century, make up what we call Classical Physics.

Newton's theory was a powerful tool for making predictions about the positions of the planets and the trajectories of cannon balls.  In Newton's theory the motion of objects could be measured with reference to a universal reference frame that was the same for everyone, irrespective of their relative motion.  Also, time was assumed to pass at the same rate for everyone everywhere.  In addition to this, energy was thought of as something that was passed from one object to another but the mass of any particular object had nothing to do with its motion or how much energy it had.

In Einstein's theory the mass of an object is intimately connected with its energy.  In fact, mass and energy turn out to be different ways of looking at the same thing.  In Einstein's universe mass can change into energy and energy can change into mass.  Just how much energy we can get from a certain amount of mass is given by Einstein's famous formula &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt;.

[[Image:Dirac 3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Paul Dirac -- the father of anti-matter, who predicted antimatter.]]

=== The Play Dough Idea ===
Imagine that something like a car, is made of play dough. Now, when you have play dough you can rip bits off and make other things out of it. Now, imagine that when the play dough is made into something, it goes hard and you have a solid object, but when it's soft, it's easy to model into other things. That's kind of like how energy works when you're talking about particles.

Basically, energy and mass are interchangeable, and anything that has mass has an energy amount, which is larger, associated with that mass. This broke free of the Newtonian ideas, as he said objects at rest have no energy associated with them.

== Particles ==

Now, you may be thinking about why particles are so important. Who cares if something super-small exists and does x, y and z ? Well, lots of people—and you too will find it important because it describes something which is interesting because it's happening millions of times around you in a split second!

Now, if you remember the original things were the proton, the neutron and the electron, which are what the majority of all atoms (except anti-hydrogen) are made out of. Now, you think of these being the only particles there are, but, unfortunately, there's lots of other kinds of particles which are smaller and do all kinds of crazy things! In this bit, we've got a lot to go into, but it's all very easy stuff, and if you remember one key rule, you'll be fine.

:'''These concepts were created by humans, and are understood by them.'''

== Anti-particles ==
These lovely things sound like they're straight out of ''Star Trek'', but they're nowhere near as complicated when you think about it. They're basically the '''reverse image''' of the normal particle, and have similar properties and have a similar structure, but they're the mirror image.

Have you ever heard in maths where if you do +1 and add it with -1? Well, that's how it happens with particles and antiparticles. Now.. are you ready to get into the nitty-gritty of the particles? It's not hard, i promise you.

==References==
{{reflist}}
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;font-size:22px; padding:8px; border:1px #000 solid; background-color:#DDDDDD;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;[[AQA A-Level Physics/Particles and Anti-particles/Page 2|Next page]]&lt;/p&gt;

==See also==

{{Wikipedia|Classical physics}}

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    <title>CCNA Certification/The OSI Model</title>
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{| class=&quot;infobox&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ccccff;{{text default color}};&quot; | '''OSI Model'''
|-
| 7 || [[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer_7:_Application_layer|Application layer]]
|-
| 6 || [[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer_6:_Presentation_layer|Presentation layer]]
|-
| 5 || [[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 5: Session layer|Session layer]]
|-
| 4 || [[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 4: Transport layer|Transport layer]]
|-
| 3 || [[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 3: Network layer|Network layer]]
|-
| 2 || [[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 2: Data Link layer|Data link layer]]
&lt;!--
* [[Logical Link Control|LLC sublayer]]
* [[Media Access Control|MAC sublayer]]
---&gt;
|-
| 1 || [[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 1: Physical layer|Physical layer]]
|}
The '''Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model''' (''OSI Reference Model'' or ''OSI Model'' for short) is a layered, abstract description for communications and computer network protocol design, developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection initiative. It is also called the '''OSI seven layer model'''.

==History==
In 1977, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), began to develop its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concrete protocols. The standard documents that describe OSI are for sale and not currently available online.

Parts of OSI have influenced Internet protocol development, but none more than the abstract model itself, documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system is divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provides facilities for use by the layer above it. Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in a remote host.

==Description of OSI layers==

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | OSI Model
|-
!
!Data unit
!Layer
!style=&quot;width:9em;&quot;|Function
|-
!rowspan=&quot;4&quot;|Host&lt;br /&gt;layers
|rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|Data
|[[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer_7:_Application_layer|Application]]
|&lt;small&gt;Network process to application&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer_6:_Presentation_layer|Presentation]]
|&lt;small&gt;Data representation and encryption&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 5: Session layer|Session]]
|&lt;small&gt;Interhost communication&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|Segments
|[[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 4: Transport layer|Transport]]
|&lt;small&gt;End-to-end connections and reliability (TCP)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|Media&lt;br /&gt;layers
|Packets
|[[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 3: Network layer|Network]]
|&lt;small&gt;Path determination and logical addressing (IP)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|Frames
|[[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 2: Data Link layer|Data link]]
|&lt;small&gt;Physical addressing (MAC &amp; LLC)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|Bits
|[[CCNA_Certification/The_OSI_Model#Layer 1: Physical layer|Physical]]
|&lt;small&gt;Media, signal and binary transmission&lt;/small&gt;
|}


===Layer 7: Application layer===

The '''Application layer''' is the seventh level of the seven-layer OSI model. It interfaces directly to and performs common application services for the application processes; it also issues requests to the presentation layer.

The common application layer services provide semantic conversion between associated application processes. Note: Examples of common application services of general interest include the virtual file, virtual terminal, and job transfer and manipulation protocols.

The application layer of the TCP/IP models corresponds to a mixing of the application, presentation, and session layers in the OSI models.

The user always interacts with the application layer. This layer provides protocol and services for the user.

===Layer 6: Presentation layer===
The '''Presentation layer''' transforms data to provide a standard interface for the Application layer. [ MIME] encoding, data encryption and similar manipulation of the presentation is done at this layer to present the data as a service or protocol developer sees fit. Examples of this layer are converting an EBCDIC- text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serializing object and other data structures into and out of XML.
http protocol works in the presentation layer.

===Layer 5: Session layer=== 
The '''Session layer''' controls the dialogues/connections (sessions) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for either full-duplex or half-duplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for &quot;graceful close&quot; of sessions, and also for session checkpointing and recovery. 

In the TCP/IP model, &quot;graceful close&quot;, and other connection related parts, are part of the Transport layer.

===Layer 4: Transport layer===
The '''Transport layer''' provides transparent transfer of data between end users, thus relieving the upper layers from any concern while providing reliable data transfer. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. 

The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The transport layer is the layer that converts messages into TCP segments or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc.

===Layer 3: Network layer===
The '''Network layer''' provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform segmentation/desegmentation, and report delivery errors.  Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical.

The best known example of a layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). Perhaps it's easier to visualize this layer as the actual Air Mail or Consolidated Carrier that transfers the mail from Point A to Point B.
 
The network layer is responsible for getting the packets to the remote host.

===Layer 2: Data Link layer===
The '''Data Link layer''' provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer.  The best known example of this is Ethernet. Other examples of data link protocols are HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point or packet-switched networks and Aloha for local area networks. On IEEE 802 local area networks, and some non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI, this layer may be split into a Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. It arranges bits from physical layer into logical chunks of data, known as frames. The Data Link Layer's job is to move the data to the next hop.

This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate.  Connectivity is provided only among locally attached network nodes forming layer 2 domains for unicast or broadcast forwarding.

===Layer 1: Physical layer===
The '''Physical layer''' defines all the electrical and physical specifications for devices. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Ethernet hubs, repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters.  The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:

*Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
*Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.
*Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.

Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer.  Various physical-layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data-link layer.  The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI), and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

== Interfaces ==

In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission, there are also interface standards for different layers to talk to the ones above or below (usually operating-system–specific). For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layers 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) and Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).

==External links==

{{wikipedia|OSI model}}
* [http://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/s020269_ISO_IEC_7498-1_1994(E).zip ISO standard 7498-1:1994] (ZIP file format)
* [http://www.cybertelecom.org/broadband/layers.htm Cybertelecom — Layered Model of Regulation]
* [http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/50_journals/pdf/RightsManagement_eid=136833.pdf OSI Reference Model — The ISO Model of Architecture for Open Systems Interconnection], Hubert Zimmermann, IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. 28, no. 4, April 1980, pp. 425 - 432.
* [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/Intro-to-Internet.html Internetworking Basics]</text>
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    <title>Microprocessor Design/Photolithography</title>
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[[File:Photolithography lab in the LCN cleanroom.jpg|thumb|A Photolithography lab.]]

The current state-of-the-art process for manufacturing processors and small ICs in general is to use '''photolithography'''. Photolithography is a complicated multi-step process.

== Wafers ==

A '''wafer''' is a large circular disk, typically made of doped silicon. Each wafer can hold multiple chips arranged like tiles. The number of chips per wafer is known as the '''yield'''. 

== Basic Photolithography ==
[[File:Photolithography etching process.svg|thumb|upright|Diagram of Photolithography process.]]
In photolithography, there are typically two important chemicals: an acid and a resist. A photo-negative of the design is exposed to light, and the pattern is projected onto the wafer. Resist is applied to the wafer, and it sticks to the portions of the wafer that are exposed to light. Once the resist is applied to the wafer, it is dipped in the acid. The acid eats away a layer of everything that is not covered in resist. &lt;s&gt;After the top layer has been dissolved, the wafer is washed (to remove any remaining acid and resist), and a new layer of doped silicon is applied to the top of the wafer. Once the new layer of silicon has been applied, the process is repeated again.&lt;/s&gt;

The first two applications of resist are used to convert thin, carefully shaped regions of the base silicon wafer into n-type and p-type [[w:doping (semiconductor)]] (no net material is added or taken away after these steps).
''Wait up -- I thought doping occurred after the polysilicon was added? Is that an additional doping stage, or is doping not really the first 2 stages?''

After that, layers of polysilicon, silicon oxide, and metal are added, coating the entire wafer.
After each layer of desired material is added, resist and acid are used to &quot;pattern&quot; the layer, keeping the desired regions and removing the undesired regions of that layer.

== Packaging ==

After all the layers specified by the design have been applied, the wafer is &quot;diced&quot; into individual rectangular &quot;die&quot;.
Then each die packaged.

''... does testing happen before the wafer is diced? Before and after? ...''


== further reading ==
{{wikipedia|semiconductor fabrication plant|Integrated circuit packaging|MOSIS}}
{{wikipediapar||semiconductor device fabrication}}
* MOSIS ([https://themosisservice.com/ Metal Oxide Semiconductor Implementation Service]) is probably the oldest (1981) integrated circuit (IC) foundry service. Many VLSI students have sent their chips to MOSIS for fabrication.</text>
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&lt;big&gt;'''Management of Breast Regional Lymphatics'''&lt;/big&gt;


==PET staging==
*'''Netherlands Cancer Institute; 2010''' (2007-ongoing) {{PMID|20719497}} -- &quot;Detection of extra-axillary lymph node involvement with FDG PET/CT in patients with stage II-III breast cancer.&quot; (Aukema TS, Eur J Cancer. 2010 Aug 16. [Epub ahead of print])
**Prospective. 60 patients, invasive BCA, T &gt;3cm or pN+ (75%). Baseline U/S of ICV/SCV, followed by PET, before neoadjuvant chemotherapy. All visually PET+ nodes or SUVmax 2.5 were regarded as metastatic. Standard RT included IM and SCV lymph node coverage
**Outcome: Extra-axillary LN+ 28% (breast 1%, pectoral 7%, IM 13%, IFC 7%, contralateral 5%. U/S found extra-axillary LN in 12% (vs PET 28%). RT treatment altered in 12% 
**Conclusion: PET may be usefula additional staging tool, with impact on adjuvant RT management


==Axilla==
===Overview===
*Historically, the axilla was managed with a full axillary lymph node dissection (ALND), either as part of modified/radical mastectomy, or as part of breast conservation surgery. Axillary dissection provides both treatment and information on nodal staging
*Two Japanese randomized trials showed that Level III dissection is not necessary, as it doesn't improve outcome and may result in worse side effects
*Adequate lymph node dissection is considered to be &gt;=10 LNs
**For [[Radiation_Oncology/Breast/Post_mastectomy|PMRT trials]], median # of nodes removed in Danish trial was 7, while median # of nodes removed in British Columbia trial was 11
*Sentinel lymph node biopsy has been developed as a means of axillary staging patients with early breast cancer, since their risk of positive axillary lymph nodes is low, in order to decrease morbidity associated with full ALND
**Several smaller trials have shown SLN to be safe and effective. Clinical failure rate in axilla was essentially 0%
**A large NSABP B-32 trial (5611 patients) showed 97% technical success rate, and a 10% false negative rate. In these patients (98% T1-T2, all cN0), 26% had positive SLN, and of these, 38% had additional positive lymph nodes on completion dissection. Thus, 74% had negative axilla and additional 16% only had one sentinel lymph node positive 
**The ALMANAC trial showed significantly better rates of lymphedema (5% vs. 13%) arm numbness (11% vs 31%), and overall quality of life scores for SLN the groups
*to be continued ...

===Extent of Axillary Dissection===
*'''Kyoto''' (Japan)(1995-1997) -- ALND Level I vs. Level III
**Randomized. 522 patients. T1-3N0-1b. BCS or mastectomy. Randomized to Level I vs. Level III dissection. All oral 5-FU day 1 and tamoxifen x2 years
**'''10-years; 2006''' &quot;Ten-year follow-up results of a randomised controlled study comparing level-I vs level-III axillary lymph node dissection for primary breast cancer.&quot; (Kodama H, Br J Cancer. 2006 Oct 9;95(7):811-6.)
***10-year outcome: OS 77% vs. 74% (NS); DFS 90% vs. 88% (NS)
***Toxicity: shorter surgery, less blood loss, no difference in edema or shoulder problems
***Conclusion: Level III dissection not recommended

*'''Showa University, 2004''' (Japan)(1991-1993) -- ALND Level II vs. Level III
**Randomized. 1209 women with Stage II BCA. Mastectomy + Level II vs. Level III dissection. 
**'''10-years; 2004''' {{PMID|14716791}} -- &quot;Randomized clinical trial comparing level II and level III axillary node dissection in addition to mastectomy for breast cancer.&quot; (Tominaga T, Br J Surg. 2004 Jan;91(1):38-43.) F/U 10 years
***10-year outcome: OS 87% vs. 86% (NS); DFS 73% vs. 78% (NS)
***Toxicity: Level II surgery shorter with less blood loss. No difference in patients' symptoms
***Conclusion: Level III resection does not improve OS or DFS

===SLB vs ALND===
*'''NSABP B-32''' (1999-2004) -- SLN + ALND vs. SLN alone
**Randomized. 5611 women with operable invasive breast cancer and clinically negative axillary LNs (T1 80%, T2 18%; lumpectomy 86%). Arm 1) SLN followed by immediate completion ALND vs. Arm 2) SLN alone, if SLN-; full ALND if no SLN identified or if SLN+. Identification included technetium scan, blue dye, and clinically suspicious lymph nodes
***3989 had SLN-
**'''Technical Outcomes; 2007''' {{PMID|17851130}} -- &quot;Technical outcomes of sentinel-lymph-node resection and conventional axillary-lymph-node dissection in patients with clinically node-negative breast cancer: results from the NSABP B-32 randomised phase III trial.&quot; (Krag DN, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Oct;8(10):881-8.)
***Technical outcome: Technical success in 97%. Location in Level I/II in 99% (Level I 83%, Level II 16%, Level III 0.5%, IM 0.5%, SCV 0.1%. Mean number removed 2.1
***Clinical outcome: SLN+ in both groups 26% (NS). If SLN- (74%), ALND- 96% and ALND+ 4% (false negative rate 10%). Overall accuracy 97%. If only one SLN removed, false negative rate 18%. In the 26% of SLN+ patients, 61% had no further LN disease on completion ALND
***Conclusion: Success of SLN resection is high
**'''Morbidity; 2010''' {{PMID|20648579}} -- &quot;Morbidity results from the NSABP B-32 trial comparing sentinel lymph node dissection versus axillary dissection.&quot;  (Ashikaga T, J Surg Oncol. 2010 Aug 1;102(2):111-8.)
***Shoulder range of motion: deficit of 10% or more in 75% (ALND) vs 41% (SLND), peak at 1 week. 
***Arm volume: increase of 10% or more at 36 months in 14% vs 8%. 
***Sensory: numbness or tingling - peaked at 6 months - 49/23% (ALND) vs 15/10% (SLND)
***Conclusion: Less morbidity for SLND
**'''Survival; 2010''' {{PMID|20863759}} -- &quot;Sentinel-lymph-node resection compared with conventional axillary-lymph-node dissection in clinically node-negative patients with breast cancer: overall survival findings from the NSABP B-32 randomised phase 3 trial.&quot; (Krag DN, Lancet Oncol. [Epub ahead of print 2010 Sep 20])
***OS, DFS, and regional control were statistically similar between groups.
***Conclusion: SLND with no further ALND is appropriate therapy when SLN is negative

*'''Sentinella/GIVOM''' (Italy)(1999-2004) -- SLN vs. ALND
**Randomized. ''Stopped early due to increasing preference for SLN''. 697/1498 patients, breast cancer &lt;=3 cm, clinically negative axilla. Arm 1) SLN + ALND vs. Arm 2) SLN alone, if SLN+ completion ALND. Radioactive tracer used. ALND was at least Level I-II. If BCS, adjuvant RT 50 Gy.
**'''5-years; 2008''' {{PMID|18216523}} -- &quot;A Randomized clinical trial on sentinel lymph node biopsy versus axillary lymph node dissection in breast cancer: results of the Sentinella/GIVOM trial.&quot; (Zavagno G, Ann Surg. 2008 Feb;247(2):207-13.) Median F/U 4.7 years
***Technical outcome: SLN identified in 95%. SLN+ in ALND 27% vs SLN 30%. False negative rate 17% (1 LN+ in 78%, 2 LN+ in 11%)
***Clinical outcome: LR ALND 1% vs. SLN 5%. Axilla recurrence 0 patients vs. 1 patient. SCV recurrence 0 patients vs. 3 patients. 5-year DFS 90% vs. 88% (NS)
***Toxicity: SLN group significantly less lymphedema, restrictions of shoulder mobility, and numbness. No impact on psychologic well-being 
***Conclusion: SLN is effective and well tolerated. Safety should be confirmed in larger randomized trials
**Comment: Small size due to early stoppage, no formal training required for SLN, inclusion of small hospitals, which may explain high false positive rate, but may also be true of clinical practice

*'''ALMANAC''' (UK)(1999-2003) -- SLN vs. ALND
**Randomized. ''Stopped early due to perceived loss of equipoise, with better QoL in SLN arm.'' 991/1260 patients, operable breast cancer, no size restriction, multicentric disease excluded. Arm 1) SLN, if SLN+ then delayed axillary surgery or axillary RT (depending on institutional practice) vs. Arm 2) standard axillary surgery (either full Level I-III ALND (75%) or 4 node sampling (25%), depending on institutional practice). Radioactive tracer and blue dye used. Primary outcome arm/shoulder morbidity and QoL
**'''2006''' {{PMID|16670385}} -- &quot;Randomized multicenter trial of sentinel node biopsy versus standard axillary treatment in operable breast cancer: the ALMANAC Trial.&quot; (Mansel RE, J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006 May 3;98(9):599-609.)
***Technical outcome: SLN identified in 98%. SLN+ in ALND 23% vs. SLN 26%. If SLN+, delayed axillary clearance 69%, axillary RT 27%
***Clinical outcome: Lymphedema SLN 5% vs. ALND 13% (SS), numbness 11% vs. 31% (SS). QoL and arm functioning scores significantly better for SLN group. No increase in anxiety level. 1-year axillary failure SLN 1 patient vs. ALND 4 patients
***Conclusion: SLN is associated with reduced arm morbidity and better quality of life

*'''Milan SLN''' (Italy)(1998-1999) -- SLN + ALND vs. SLN alone
**Randomized. 516/532 patients, T1-T2, breast conserving surgery. Multicentric cancer excluded. Arm 1) SLN + ALND vs. Arm 2) SLN alone, if SLN+ completion ALND; if no SLN identified, patient not eligible. ALND included Levels I-III. Radioactive tracer used. Adjuvant RT to ipsilateral breast 50 Gy + boost 10 Gy. Adjuvant chemotherapy as per institutional protocol (50% hormones, 7% chemotherapy, 40% chemotherapy + hormones, 3% none)
**'''4-years; 2003''' {{PMID|12904519}} -- &quot;A randomized comparison of sentinel-node biopsy with routine axillary dissection in breast cancer.&quot; (Veronesi U, N Engl J Med. 2003 Aug 7;349(6):546-53. Median F/U 3.8 years
***Technical outcome: SLN+ in ALND 32% vs. SLN 35% (NS). If SLN- (68%), ALND- 95% and ALND+ 5% (false negative rate 9%). Overall accuracy 97%. If LVI+, 70% had SLN+
***Clinical outcome: Events ALND 8% vs. SLN 5% (NS). Axillary failure both groups 0%, SCV failure 1% vs. 0%, IBTR 0.5%, DM 4% vs. 2%
***Toxicity: SLN patients less pain, numbness, better arm mobility, and less swelling
***Conclusion: SLN is safe and accurate in women with a small breast cancer
**'''7-years; 2006''' {{PMID|17138219}} -- &quot;Sentinel-lymph-node biopsy as a staging procedure in breast cancer: update of a randomised controlled study.&quot; (Veronesi U, Lancet Oncol. 2006 Dec;7(12):983-90.) Median F/U 6.6 years
***Clinical outcome: Axillary failure ALND 0% vs SLN 0.004% (1 patient), SCV failure 0.008% (2 patients) vs. 0%, DM 5% vs. 4%. 5-year OS 96% vs. 98% (NS)
***Conclusion: SLND allows patients with SLN- to avoid ALND, while reducing morbidity and cost of hospital stay


'''''Predictive models:'''''
*'''Mayo; 2010''' (1997-2004) {{PMID|20429038}} -- &quot;Predicting four or more metastatic axillary lymph nodes in patients with sentinel node-positive breast cancer: assessment of existent risk scores.&quot; (Zendjas B, Ann Surg Oncol. 2010 Nov;17(11):2884-91. Epub 2010 Apr 29.)
**Model evaluation. 3 models (Rivers, Chagpar, Katz) evaluated on 454 patients with N1 and cLDN
**Outcome: 4+ LN+ in 19%. Discrimination score Rivers AUC 0.81, Chagpar AUC 0.73, Katz AUC 0.81 (SS)
**Conclusion: Rivers and Katz models performed well

*'''Louisville; 2007''' {{PMID|17096055}} -- &quot;Predicting patients at low probability of requiring postmastectomy radiation therapy.&quot; (Chagpar AB, Ann Surg Oncol. 2007 Feb;14(2):670-7. Epub 2006 Nov 10.)
**Model. Prospective multicenter database (Breast Sentinel Lymph Node Study) 1133 patients. Predictive factors: tumor size, number of SLN+, proportion of SLN+. Points assigned: T2 = 1, #SLN+ = 1, 2, 3, proportion of SLN+ &gt;50% = 1, H&amp;E stain diagnosis (vs IHC) = 1, total = 6. Non-predictive variables histology, palpable primary
**Conclusion: Patients with 1-2 point have low probability of &amp;ge; 4LN+
**Comment: Did not include ECE or LVI

*'''Michigan/MD Anderson''' (1995-2002) {{PMID|16378156}} -- &quot;Clinicopathologic features associated with having four or more metastatic axillary nodes in breast cancer patients with a positive sentinel lymph node.&quot; (Rivers AK, Ann Surg Oncol. 2006 Jan;13(1):36-44. Epub 2006 Jan 1.)
**Model. 285 patients from 2 institutions. pN2+ disease in 14%. Predictors: tumor size, number of SLN+ (out of 3 total; if more removed, a proportion of SLN+ would be used), LVI+, ECE+. Non-predictive variable: size of metastatic focus, age, histology, grade, ER status
**Outcome: Lookup table constructed with predicted probability (p=0.0-1.0). SLN micromets extremely low probability (1.3%) of extensive nodal disease
**Conclusion: Predictive model developed

*'''Harvard''' 
**'''Nomogram; 2008''' {{PMID|18445838}} -- &quot;Nomogram for the prediction of having four or more involved nodes for sentinel lymph node-positive breast cancer.&quot; (Katz A, J Clin Oncol. 2008 May 1;26(13):2093-8.)
***Model. 402 patients, 1-3SLN+. N2+ disease in 22%. Predictors: histology, tumor size, number of SLN+, number uninvolved SLN+, LVI+, ECE+, met size. Validated on 206 patients previously published
***Outcome: Nomogram developed
***Conclusion: Patients with low probability of &amp;ge; 4 positive LN can be identified
**'''Retrospective; 2006''' (1998-2003) - {{PMID|16488555}} &amp;mdash; &quot;Factors associated with involvement of four or more axillary nodes for sentinel lymph node-positive patients.&quot; Katz A et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006 May 1;65(1):40-4. 
***Retrospective. 1133 patients, 224 of whom had completion axillary dissection for node-positive. 
***Factors associated with 4 or more involved axillary nodes were: lobular histology, LVI, increased number of involved sentinel LNs, increased size of SLN metastases.
***Conclusion: pts with 1 or more involved SLN or LVI should be treated to the SCLV fossa if they do not undergo completion axillary dissection.


'''''Comparison with complete ALND'''''
*'''Nijmegen; 2007''' (Netherlands)(1989-2002) {{PMID|17197151}} -- &quot;Survival after negative sentinel lymph node biopsy in breast cancer at least equivalent to after negative extensive axillary dissection.&quot; (Kuijt GP, Eur J Surg Oncol. 2007 Sep;33(7):832-7. Epub 2006 Dec 29.)
**Registry study. 2561 patients (880 SLNB-, 1681 ALND-); Median F/U 3.6 years and 7.7 years
**Outcome: 5-year OS SLNB 89% vs. ALND 85% (SS)
**Conclusion: Survival after SLNB at least equivalent (if not better) to extensive ALND in N0 patients


'''''Timing of SLND'''''
*'''ACOSOG Z0010 and Z0011''' {{PMID|18640934}} -- &quot;Impact of immediate versus delayed axillary node dissection on surgical outcomes in breast cancer patients with positive sentinel nodes: results from American College of Surgeons Oncology Group Trials Z0010 and Z0011.&quot; (Olson JA Jr, J Clin Oncol. 2008 Jul 20;26(21):3530-5.)
**Retrospective. 1003 patients with SLN+ on 2 ACOSOG trials. Immediate ALND in 42%, delayed (second procedure) in 58%.
**Outcome: median # of SLN and axillary LNs removed same. Immediate group worse axillary paresthesia, serom, and impaired extremity range early, no difference late; no difference in lymphedema
**Conclusion: No significant difference in LN recovery or long-term complications between immediate and delayed completion ALND

===SLN+: completion ALND vs no further dissection===
*'''IBCSG 23-01''' (2001-2010)  -- completion ALND vs no further dissection
**Randomized. 27 institutions. 931 patients, with tumor &amp;le; 5 cm and one or more micrometastases  or isolated tumor cells(&amp;le; 2 mm) in sentinel node, with no ECE. Arm 1) completion axillary dissection versus Arm 2) no further surgery. Primary endpoint DFS. Mastectomy 9%. In BCS group, 98% received adjuvant RT (28% intraoperative)
**'''2013''' {{PMID|23491275}} -- &quot;Axillary dissection versus no axillary dissection in patients with sentinel-node micrometastases (IBCSG 23-01): a phase 3 randomised controlled trial.&quot; (Galimberti V, Lancet Oncol. 2013 Apr;14(4):297-305. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70035-4. Epub 2013 Mar 11.). Median F/U 5 years
***Outcome: Local recurrence ALND 2.1% vs OBS 1.7%, regional recurrence 0.2% vs 1%, distant recurrence 7% vs 5%. 5-year DFS 88% vs 84% (NS)
***Toxicity: ALND: one grade 3 neuropathy, three grade 3-4 lymphedema, three grade 3 motor neuropathy vs OBS one grade 3 motor neuropathy
***Conclusion: Axillary dissection can be avoided in patients with limited sentinel node involvement

*'''ACOSOG Z0011''' (1999-2004) -- completion ALND vs no further dissection
**Randomized. ''Closed prematurely due to low accrual and low rate of events.'' Non-inferiority trial. 856 of expected 1900 patients, T1-T2, clinically N0, SNB+ (1 or 2 SNB+ on H&amp;E, frozen section or touch prep; patients SNB+ by IHC were not eligible but ultimately 41% were micromets or ITCs). All underwent lumpectomy with SM- and tangents RT, but no dedicated axillary RT. Adjuvant systemic therapy 97% (hormones 46%, chemotherapy 58%). Arm 1) completion ALND (median 17 LN removed) vs Arm 2) no further dissection (median 2 LN removed).
**'''2010''' {{PMID|20739842}} [http://www.cinj.org/documents/LocoregionalRecurrence.pdf Full text PDF] -- &quot;Locoregional recurrence after sentinel lymph node dissection with or without axillary dissection in patients with sentinel lymph node metastases: the American College of Surgeons Oncology Group Z0011 randomized trial.&quot; (Giuliano AE, Ann Surg. 2010 Sep;252(3):426-32; discussion 432-3.) Median F/U 6.3 years
***Outcome: Further involved nodes with cALND 27%. 5-year breast recurrence ALND 3.1% vs SNB 1.6% (NS); 5-year axilla recurrence 0.5% vs 0.9% (NS); 5-year OS 92% vs 92% (NS). No difference in LRR based on systemic therapy
***Conclusion: No difference; SLND without completion ALND may be a reasonable management options with tangent RT and systemic therapy
**'''2011''' {{PMID|21304082}} -- &quot;Axillary Dissection vs No Axillary Dissection in Women With Invasive Breast Cancer and Sentinel Node Metastasis: A Randomized Clinical Trial.&quot; (Giuliano AE, JAMA. 2011 Feb 9;305(6):569-75.) Median F/U 6.3 years
***5-yr OS 91.8% (ALND) vs 92.5% (SLND). 5-yr DFS 82.2% vs 83.9%. 
***Median # of nodes removed: 17 for ALND and 2 for SLND. Number of positive nodes (not including micromets) - median: 1 (ALND) vs 1 (SLND). However, 21% of ALND had &amp;ge; 3 positive LN.  Sentinel lymph node biopsy contained micromets: 37.5% (ALND group) and 44.8% (SLND). In ALND group, axillary dissection revealed additional metastases in 27.3%; 10% of ALND pts with micromets in SLN had additional positive (non-micromet) non-SLN lymph nodes.
***Conclusion: among pts with limited positive SLN disease, treated with breast conservation +/- systemic therapy, the use of SLND alone compared with ALND did not result in inferior survival.
**'''2014''' [http://www.sabcs.org/ProgramSchedule/PosterSessions.asp?SessionGroupID=137 Link - SABCS] (no abst.) [http://www.abstracts2view.com/sabcs13/view.php?nu=SABCS13L_3005&amp;terms= Abstract] &quot;Radiation field design on the ACOSOG Z0011 trial&quot; (Jagsi R, San Antonio Breast Conference 2013, Poster Session: P5-14-19)
**::See also: slides at [http://www.anco-online.org/Horst2014.pdf link] &quot;SABCS Highlights 2013 Radiation Oncology&quot; (Horst K, Powerpoint)  -- see slides 31-36
***Among 605 pts completed adjuvant RT, 89% were noted to receive whole breast RT. Of these, 89 patients (15%) were recorded as also receiving treatment to the supraclavicular region. 
***Detailed RT records available on 228 patients: 104/389 (26.7%) and 124/404 (30.7%) on the ALND and SLND arms, respectively. 
***185 patients (81.1%) received tangent-only treatment: High tangent RT fields (with cranial tangent border within 2 cm of the humeral head) were used in 52.6% (40/76) patients randomized to the ALND arm and 50% (33/66) patients randomized to the SLND arm. 
***Of the 228 patients with records reviewed, 43 (18.9%) received directed regional nodal RT using ≥3 fields: 22 in the ALND and 21 in the SLND arm. 
***Those receiving directed nodal RT tended to have greater nodal involvement (p&lt;0.001).

'''''Review'''''
*'''NSABP; 2010''' {{PMID|20957459}} -- &quot;The Need for Axillary Dissection in Patients with Positive Axillary Sentinel Lymph Nodes.&quot; (Croshaw RL, Curr Oncol Rep. 2010 Oct 19. [Epub ahead of print])

&lt;br&gt;
'''''SLN micrometastases:'''''
*'''ICBSG 23-01''' (2001-2010) -- randomized to +/- axillary dissection
**931 pts eligible if T&lt;=5 cm + cN0, SLN Bx with 1 or more micrometastatic (2 mm or less) lymph nodes with no ECE. Non-inferiority trial design.
**'''2013''' {{PMID|23491275}} -- &quot;Axillary dissection versus no axillary dissection in patients with sentinel-node micrometastases (IBCSG 23-01): a phase 3 randomised controlled trial.&quot; (Galimberti V, Lancet Oncol. 2013 Apr;14(4):297-305.)
***Median f/u 5 yrs. 5-yr DFS 87.8% (no LND) vs 84.4% (LND); non inferior.
***91% were treated with BCS + RT.
***Conclusion: &quot;Axillary dissection could be avoided in patients with early breast cancer and limited sentinel-node involvement, thus eliminating complications of axillary surgery with no adverse effect on survival.&quot;

===Rate of positive lymph nodes===
'''''Microinvasive or DCIS:'''''
*'''MGH, 2006''' (1998-2003)
**{{PMID|16720145}} &amp;mdash; &quot;Sentinel lymph node positivity of patients with ductal carcinoma in situ or microinvasive breast cancer.&quot; Katz A et al. Am J Surg. 2006 Jun;191(6):761-6.
**Sentinel lymph node. 109 pts w/ DCIS, 21 pts w/ microinvasive (MIC).
**DCIS: 3.6% pts positive on routine H&amp;E, plus 3.6% positive only by IHC = 7.2% total positive
**MIC: 4.8% (1/21) pts positive on H&amp;E, plus 4.8% only by IHC = 9.6% total. 
**Conclusion: modest risk of nodal positivity

===Tumor Burden in Axilla===
*'''Karolinska University, Sweden; 2010''' (2000-2004) {{PMID|20458033}} -- &quot;Breast Cancer Survival in Relation to the Metastatic Tumor Burden in Axillary Lymph Nodes.&quot; (Andersson Y, J Clin Oncol. 2010 May 10. [Epub ahead of print])
**Prospective cohort. 3,369 women, pN0 2383 (71%), ITC 107 (3%), pN1mi 123 (4%), macromets 756 (22%). Median F/U 4.3 years
**Outcome: 5-year CSS pN0 96.9% vs pN1mi 94.1% (SS). No difference between pN0 and ITC
**Conclusion: Worse prognosis for patients with micrometastases, no difference if isolated tumor cells

===Surgery vs Radiotherapy=== 
*There are two randomized trials: NSABP B-04 and a French study, which did not evaluate axillary status.
*AMAROS clinical trial showed comparable control in axilla but lower lymphedema with radiation over completion dissection
:''See also:'' [[Radiation_Oncology/Breast/Post_mastectomy#Meta-analysis|Cuzick meta-analysis]]. 


*'''EORTC Trial 10981-22023 (AMAROS)''' (&quot;After Mapping of the Axilla, Radiotherapy Or Surgery&quot;) (2001 - ONGOING) -- SLN+, ALND vs RT
**Randomized. [http://research.nki.nl/amaros/ Ongoing].  Surgery, T1-T2 (&lt;3cm), if SLN+ then Arm 1) completion ALND vs Arm 2) axillary RT 50/25. If ALND with 4+ lymph nodes, axillary RT allowed per institutional protocol
**'''RT Quality Assurance; 2003''' {{PMID|13129630}} -- &quot;Quality assurance of axillary radiotherapy in the EORTC AMAROS trial 10981/22023: the dummy run.&quot; (Hurkmans CW, Radiother Oncol. 2003 Sep;68(3):233-40.)
**'''Chemo rates; 2010''' {{PMID|20038733}} -- &quot;Role of axillary clearance after a tumor-positive sentinel node in the administration of adjuvant therapy in early breast cancer.&quot; (Straver ME, J Clin Oncol. 2010 Feb 10;28(5):731-7. Epub 2009 Dec 28.)
***Subset analysis. First 2000 patients, 566 with SLN+. Patterns of adjuvant chemo use
***Outcome: Chemotherapy ALND 58% vs ART 61% (NS); hormones 78% vs 76% (NS)
***Conclusion: Absence of knowledge about extent of LN involvement doesn't impact administration of adjuvant chemo
**'''SLN Outcomes; 2010''' {{PMID|20300966}} -- &quot;Sentinel Node Identification Rate and Nodal Involvement in the EORTC 10981-22023 AMAROS Trial.&quot; (Straver ME, Ann Surg Oncol. 2010 Mar 19. [Epub ahead of print])
***Subset analysis. First 2000 patients. SLN identification rate 97%
***Outcome: SLN- in 65%; SLN+ in 34% (macromets 63%, micromets 25%, ITCs 12%). Further nodal involvement if macromet 41%, if micromet 18%, if ITC 18%
***Conclusion: SLN procedure highly effective; further nodal involvement in patients with micromets and ITCs was 18%
**'''5-years; 2014''' {{PMID|25439688}} -- &quot;Radiotherapy or surgery of the axilla after a positive sentinel node in breast cancer (EORTC 10981-22023 AMAROS): a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3 non-inferiority trial.&quot; (Donker M, Lancet Oncol. 2014 November;15(12):1303-1310.)
*** Outcome: 5-year axillary recurrence ALND 0.43% vs RT 1.19%, underpowered to show non-inferiority (assumed 2% vs 4% with non-inferiority HR margin of 2). 5-year DFS ALND 87% vs 83% RT (NS). 5-year OS ALND 93% vs RT 93% (NS).
*** Morbidity: More lymphedema with ALND at 1, 3, and 5 years (5-year 23% vs 11%) (SS). Increased arm circumference at 5-year with ALND (13% vs 6%) (SS). But no difference in arm range of motion nor overall QoL.
*** RT: target all three levels of axilla and medial part of supraclavicular fossa to 50 Gy in 25 fractions
*** Conclusion: ALND and RT after SLN+ provide excellent and comparable control for T1-2, cN0. RT results in significantly less morbidity.
**'''10 years; 2022''' {{PMID|36383926}} -- &quot;Radiotherapy or Surgery of the Axilla After a Positive Sentinel Node in Breast Cancer: 10-Year Results of the Randomized Controlled EORTC 10981-22023 AMAROS Trial&quot; (Bartels SA, J Clin Oncol. 2022 Nov 16;JCO2201565. doi: 10.1200/JCO.22.01565. Online ahead of print.)
***Outcome: 10-year axillary recurrence ALND 0.9% vs RT 1.8% (NS). No difference in DFS or OS.
***Toxicity: 5-year updated lymphedema ALND 24% vs RT 12% (SS). No difference in QOL scales
***Second primary cancers: ALND 8% vs RT 12%
***Conclusion: Low axillary recurrence, less morbidity with radiation over ALND

*'''NSABP B-04''' (Fisher), 1977 (1971-4) - radical mastectomy (including axillary dissection) vs total mastectomy (no axillary dissection) + XRT to chest wall and lymphatics.  
**1665 pts, operable, potentially curable cancer confined to the breast and axilla; nodes not fixed.  
**For clinically N+ pts, randomized to radical mastectomy vs total mastectomy + RT.  
**For clinically N- pts, randomized to radical mastectomy vs total mastectomy vs total mastectomy + RT.  Pts treated without axillary dissection or regional RT who later developed biopsy-proven axillary disease then went on to axillary dissection. These pts were not considered to have a LR (unless the nodes were unresectable, only in 1 pt).
**RT technique - dose was 50 Gy / 25 fx to chest wall, 45 Gy to SCLV and IM nodes (both @ 3cm), mid axilla boosted to 50 Gy with PAB; for LN+ pts, axilla boosted to additional 10-20 Gy by direct appositional field.
**No systemic therapy was given.
**Statistics: DFS, RFS, DDFS, OS. Local recurrence: in chest wall or scar. Regional recurrence: SCLV, subclavicular, IMN; or in ipsilateral axilla (in pts treated with RM or TM+RT). Pts who had TM alone and developed axillary recurrence that required axillary dissection were not considered to have a recurrence unless the nodes were unresectable (only in 1 pt). 
***DFS events: local, regional, or distant recurrence; contralateral breast ca, or any second primary tumor (other than a tumor in the breast); death.
***RFS events: local / regional / distant recurrence; contralateral breast event that was judged a recurrence.
***DDFS events: &quot;distant recurrences that occurred either as the first recurrence or after a local or regional recurrence, contralateral breast cancers, and other second primary cancers&quot;
**{{PMID|3883168}} &amp;mdash; &quot;Ten-year results of a randomized clinical trial comparing radical mastectomy and total mastectomy with or without radiation.&quot; Fisher B et al. N Engl J Med. 1985 Mar 14;312(11):674-81.
**No difference in 10 year survival or axillary failure.
**25-year update (2002): {{PMID|12192016}} [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/347/8/567 Full text] &amp;mdash; &quot;Twenty-five-year follow-up of a randomized trial comparing radical mastectomy, total mastectomy, and total mastectomy followed by irradiation.&quot; Fisher B et al. N Engl J Med. 2002 Aug 22;347(8):567-75.
***82% of pts had a event. Most common event was recurrence (57% LN+, 37% LN-) followed by death without evidence of cancer (25%) followed by second primary cancer (6%) and contralateral breast cancer (6%). Most recurrences (74%) were distant. 30% of LN- pts had a distant recurrence and 42% of LN+.  5% had local recurrence, and 4% had regional recurrence.  Note the continued relapses even after 10 years.
***''Clinically negative axilla'':
****Axillary failure rate: 18.6% of LN- pts undergoing TM without RT eventually required nodal dissection for axillary recurrence. Median time to axillary failure was 14 months.
****40% of pts treated with radical mastectomy had occult positive lymph nodes.
****Nodal recurrence as first recurrence event: 4% axillary dissection, 4% axillary RT, 6% no axillary tx
{|border=0
|-
|width=40|&amp;nbsp;
|
{|border=1
|+'''5 years'''
!|&amp;nbsp;||DFS||DDFS||OS
|-
|RM||60||68||75
|-
|TM+RT||65||71||75
|-
|TM alone||56||65||74
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||p=0.08||p=0.3||p=0.9
|}
|width=20|&amp;nbsp;
|
{|border=1
|+'''10 years'''
!|&amp;nbsp;||DFS||DDFS||OS
|-
|RM||47||58||58
|-
|TM+RT||48||57||59
|-
|TM alone||42||55||54
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||p=0.2||p=0.6||p=0.5
|}
|width=20|&amp;nbsp;
|
{|border=1
|+'''25 years'''
!|&amp;nbsp;||DFS||RFS||DDFS||OS
|-
|RM||19||53||46||25
|-
|TM+RT||13||52||38||19
|-
|TM alone||19||50||43||26
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|}
|}
***''Clinically positive axilla'':
{|border=0
|-
|width=40|&amp;nbsp;
|
{|border=1
|+'''5 years'''
!|&amp;nbsp;||DFS||DDFS||OS
|-
|RM||45||53||62
|-
|TM+RT||40||51||58
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||p=0.2||p=0.8||p=0.3
|}
|width=20|&amp;nbsp;
|
{|border=1
|+'''10 years'''
!|&amp;nbsp;||DFS||DDFS||OS
|-
|RM||29||39||38
|-
|TM+RT||25||40||39
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||p=0.2||p=0.4||p=0.4
|}
|width=20|&amp;nbsp;
|
{|border=1
|+'''25 years'''
!|&amp;nbsp;||DFS||RFS||DDFS||OS
|-
|RM||11||36||32||14
|-
|TM+RT||10||33||29||14
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|}
|}
**Summary: No difference in DFS or RFS among the three LN- groups or among the two LN+ groups. 
**''Additional publications'':
***Original results (1977): {{PMID|326381}} [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112679744/ABSTRACT Full text] &amp;mdash; &quot;Comparison of radical mastectomy with alternative treatments for primary breast cancer. A first report of results from a prospective randomized clinical trial.&quot; Fisher B et al. Cancer. 1977 Jun;39(6 Suppl):2827-39.
***Radiation compliance (1980): {{PMID|6992972}}  [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112670740/ABSTRACT Full text] &amp;mdash; &quot;Findings from NSABP Protocol No. B-04-comparison of radical mastectomy with alternative treatments for primary breast cancer. I. Radiation compliance and its relation to treatment outcome.&quot; Fisher B et al. Cancer. 1980 Jul 1;46(1):1-13.
***Medial-central breast cancers (1981): {{PMID|7284980}} [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112673442/ABSTRACT Full text] &amp;mdash; &quot;Findings from NSABP Protocol No. B-04: comparison of radical mastectomy with alternative treatments. II. The clinical and biologic significance of medial-central breast cancers.&quot; Fisher B et al. Cancer. 1981 Oct 15;48(8):1863-72.
****Need for treatment of internal mammary nodes: no higher risk of distant metastases in pts with medial-central tumors (which have untreated IM nodes potentially harboring cancer cells). No evidence of beneficial effect of irradiating IM nodes.

**Conclusion: Failed to show a benefit of axillary dissection for clinically node-negative pts (compared with a wait-and-watch approach). 

*'''Institut Curie''' (France)(1982-1987) - lumpectomy + axillary surgery vs lumpectomy + axillary XRT
**Randomized. 658 pts. Clinically N0, T &lt; 3cm, randomized to axillary dissection or axillary XRT.  All patients received lumpectomy + XRT to the breast, 55 Gy + 10-15 Gy boost (total 65-70 Gy).  
***Pts randomized to axillary surgery had axillary dissection (level I and lower level II nodes inferior to axillary vein) and had XRT to SCLV and IM nodes if they had positive axillary nodes, and IM node XRT if they had a central or medially located tumor.  
***Pts randomized to axillary XRT received RT to axilla and IMN. Dose to axilla was 50 Gy; dose to SCLV and IM nodes was 45 Gy. 
***21% of the surgery group had LN+. Pts with more than one positive LN were allowed either hormonal therapy or CMF chemotherapy; some pts in XRT group received chemo. Chemotherapy in ~5% of surgery group, 3% of XRT group. Tamoxifen was allowed. Hormonal therapy given in 3-5% of patients (more in surgery group).
**'''5-years, 1999''' {{PMID|1349666}}  &amp;mdash; &quot;Value of axillary dissection in addition to lumpectomy and radiotherapy in early breast cancer. The Breast Carcinoma Collaborative Group of the Institut Curie&quot; (Cabanes PA et al. Lancet. 1992 May 23;339(8804):1245-8.)
***Survival (89% vs. 87%) and DFS (97% vs. 93%) benefit  for axillary dissection
**'''15-years, 2004''' {{PMID|14701770}} [http://www.jco.org/cgi/content/full/22/1/97 Full text] &amp;mdash; &quot;Axillary treatment in conservative management of operable breast cancer: dissection or radiotherapy? Results of a randomized study with 15 years of follow-up.&quot; (Louis-Sylvestre C et al. J Clin Oncol. 2004 Jan 1;22(1):97-101.)
***No difference in OS or DFS. 10-year OS 86% vs 83%; 15-year OS 75% vs 75%.  5-year DFS 83%; 10-year 72%; 15-year 64%.  5-year distant mets, 10-12%; 10-year DM 18-21%; 15-year DM 25%.  Ipsilateral breast recurrence at 5-years 7%, at 10 years 12%, at 15 years 17%.  Isolated axillary recurrence (without breast recurrence) 1% vs 3% at 15 years (p=0.04).  
**Summary: with longer followup, no difference. Data agree with results from B-04

===Surgery vs. Observation===
*'''International Breast Cancer Study Group Trial 10-93''', 2006 (1993-2002) - {{PMID|16344321}} &amp;mdash; &quot;Randomized Trial Comparing Axillary Clearance Versus No Axillary Clearance in Older Patients With Breast Cancer: First Results of International Breast Cancer Study Group Trial 10-93.&quot; IBCSG (Rudenstam CM). J Clin Oncol. 2006 Jan 20;24(3):337-44.
**473 pts. Women &gt;= 60 yrs, clinically node negative, operable, eligible for tamoxifen. Randomized to primary surgery + axillary clearance vs surgery without axillary clearance. Both groups received tamoxifen. Primary end point was quality of life.  Axillary staging was clinical; no sentinel lymph node biopsy was performed. RT was tangents, no axillary RT.
**Median f/u 6.6 yrs. 42% had 2 cm or larger tumors. 20% of pts (of those dissected) had 1-3 LN, 8% had 4 or more LN. Largest difference in QOL was before first post-op visit. Differences disappeared by 6-12 months. At median f/u, similar DFS and OS. 2% axillary recurrence rate (same in both arms). 
**Avoiding axillary clearance leads to similar efficacy and better early QOL.


===RT vs. Observation===
*'''Maastrichtt, Netherlands; 2009''' (1998-2005) [http://meetinglibrary.asco.org/content/32586-65] -- &quot;Impact of omission of completion axillary lymph node dissection (cALND) or axillary radiotherapy (ax RT) in breast cancer patients with micrometastases (pN1mi) or isolated tumor cells (pN0[i+]) in the sentinel lymph node (SN): Results from the MIRROR study.&quot; (Tjan-Heijnen, J Clin Oncol 27:18s, 2009 (suppl; abstr CRA506))
**Retrospective. Subset analysis of MIRROR trial, SN biopsy without macrometastases. 835 patients with pN0(i-), 799 patients with pN0(i+), and 958 patients with N1(mi). Median F/U 4.7 years
**Outcome: 5-year axillary recurrence pN0(i-) ~2%, pN0(i+) ~1.5%, pN1(mi) CLND or RT 1.2%, pN1(mi) SN only 6.2% (SS)
**Conclusion: Omission of cALND or RT in patients with pN1(mi) resulted in significantly higher axillary recurrence rate


==Predictors of regional failure==
===General===
*'''MD Anderson; 2005''' {{PMID|16169678}} -- &quot;Clinical investigation: regional nodal failure patterns in breast cancer patients treated with mastectomy without radiotherapy.&quot; (Strom EA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Dec 1;63(5):1508-13. Epub 2005 Sep 19.)
**Retrospective. 1031 patients, mastectomy + Level I-II ALND, chemotherapy, no PMRT. Median F/U 9.7 years
**Outcome: 10-year low axilla failure rate 3%, regardless of risk factors. 10-year high axilla/SCV failure rate 8% (5% as only site). Predictors for ICV/SCV failure &gt;=4 LN+ (15%), &gt;20% LN+ (14%), gross ECE (19%). Extent of axillary LND not predictive
**Conclusion: Failure in Level I-II uncommon after MRM/chemo. Patients with specified risk factors should receive adjuvant RT to Level III/SCV

===1-3N+===
*'''Harvard; 2009''' (1990-2004) {{PMID|19327896}} -- &quot;Chest wall radiotherapy: middle ground for treatment of patients with one to three positive lymph nodes after mastectomy.&quot; (Macdonald SM, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 Dec 1;75(5):1297-303. Epub 2009 Mar 26.)
**Retrospective. 238 patients, mastectomy, pT1-T2N1
**Outcome: 10-year LRR without PMRT 11% vs with PMRT 0% (SS); 10-year DFS 75% vs 93% (SS). Similar benefit in patients treated to chest wall alone, LRR 0%, DFS 96%, OS 95%
**Conclusion: Adjuvant PMRT to chest wall alone provides excellent disease control for patients with breast cancer &lt;5cm and 1-3 positive lymph nodes

*'''MD Anderson; 2009''' (1980-2007) [http://www.asco.org/ASCOv2/Meetings/Abstracts?&amp;vmview=abst_detail_view&amp;confID=65&amp;abstractID=35398 ASCO Abstract] -- &quot;Value of adjuvant radiation therapy in breast cancer patients with one to three positive lymph nodes undergoing a modified radical mastectomy and systemic therapy.&quot; (Dawood S, J Clin Oncol 27:15s, 2009 (suppl; abstr 507))
**Retrospective. 4.240 patients, T1-2N0-1 (T1N0 19%, T2N0 26%, T1N1 23%, T2N1 19%), treated with mastectomy without RT or with lumpectomy with RT. All received systemic treatment. Median F/U 4.5 years
**Outcome: 5-year distant mets DFS mastectomy-RT 81% vs. lumpectomy+RT 86% (SS). No difference in N0 patients. In N1 patients, mastectomy-RT significantly higher risk of DM compared with lumpectomy+RT (HR 1.6, SS)
**Conclusion: Provocative evidence for benefit of RT

*'''British Columbia; 2009''' (1989-1999) {{PMID|18676091}} -- &quot;Patients with t1 to t2 breast cancer with one to three positive nodes have higher local and regional recurrence risks compared with node-negative patients after breast-conserving surgery and whole-breast radiotherapy.&quot; (Truong PT, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 Feb 1;73(2):357-64.)
**Retrospective. 5,699 patients, BCT (partial mastectomy + ALND), pT1-T2 0-3N+ SM-. Chemo N0 41%, N+ 97%. Regional RT in 35% of 1-3N+. Median F/U 8.6 years
**Outcome: 10-year LR N0 5.1% vs. 1-3N+ 5.8% (SS); RR 2.3% vs. 6.1% (SS), LRR 6.7% vs. 10.1% (SS). In 1-3N+, 10-year LRR age &lt;50 14%, Grade III 20%, ER- 23%.
**Pattern of regional failure: N0: axillary 1.0% vs supra/infraclav 0.7% vs. IM 0.1%; 1-3N+ axillary 3.2% vs. supra/infraclav 2.2% vs. IM 0.1%
**Conclusion: Patients with 1-3N+, who are young, Grade III, or ER- have high LRR risk (15-20%) despite BCS, whole breast RT and systemic therapy

*'''SEER Analysis; 2008''' {{PMID|18234447}} -- &quot;Radiation use and long-term survival in breast cancer patients with T1, T2 primary tumors and one to three positive axillary lymph nodes.&quot; (Buchholz TA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008 Jul 15;71(4):1022-7. Epub 2008 Jan 30.)
**SEER database. Comparison of 12,693 BCS+RT vs. 18,902 mastectomy without RT patients, Stage II with 1-3N+. BCS+RT patients younger, more recent, T1, fewer involved LNS (all SS)
**Outcome: 15-year CSS BCS+RT 80% vs. M alone 72% (SS). M alone associated with +19% risk of breast cancer death and 20% risk of overall death
**Conclusion: RT independently associated with improved survival in patients with one to three positive lymph nodes

===Number of excised LNs===
*'''Quebec; 2006''' (1972-97) - {{PMID|16542789}} &amp;mdash; &quot;The impact of the number of excised axillary nodes and of the percentage of involved nodes on regional nodal failure in patients treated by breast-conserving surgery with or without regional irradiation.&quot; (Fortin A et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006 May 1;65(1):33-39.) Median F/U 5 years
**Retrospective. 1372 pts. T1-T2 node-positive, treated with breast conservation. Analysis of the 904 pts who did not receive RT to the axilla. 
**Outcome: Negative hormonal status and LF were the only factors associated with axillary failure. Trend for increased failures with extracapsular extension. Median # of nodes excised was 11 (interquartile range: 8-14). 
***''Number of nodes removed:'' No difference in axillary control for pts with complete (&gt;10 nodes removed) vs incomplete axillary dissection. 
***''Percentage of positive nodes:'' Median was 25%. For pts with 1-3 positive nodes, the median percentage was 14%, versus 60% for pts with &gt;3 positive nodes. Higher risk of axillary failure for pts with &gt;40% involvement (if 1-3 nodes are positive) or &gt;50% involvement (if &gt;3 nodes are positive). 
***''Effect of regional RT:'' axillary RT is associated with increased axillary control for pts with higher percentage of involved nodes but not for those pts with a low percentage of involved nodes. Regional control rate (includes axilla and SCLV) improved even in pts with low percentage of positive nodes. 
**Conclusion: irradiation of the axilla should be reserved for pts with &gt;40% involved nodes if there are 1-3 positive nodes and &gt;= 50% involved nodes if more than 3 nodes are positive.  Recommend irradiation of SCLV and level III of axilla for all node-positive pts.

===Extracapsular extension===
*'''Harvard; 2024''' (2000-2020) {{PMID|37967296}} -- &quot;Pathologic Exploration of the Axillary Soft Tissue Microenvironment and Its Impact on Axillary Management and Breast Cancer Outcomes&quot; (Naoum GE, J Clin Oncol. 2024 Jan 10;42(2):157-169. doi: 10.1200/JCO.23.01009. Epub 2023 Nov 15.)
**Retrospective. 2,162 LN+ patients, divided to 1) LN+, 2) LN+/ECE+, 3) LN+/AXT+ (axillary soft tissue deposits), 4) LN+/ECE+/AXT+. Median F/U 9.4 years
**Outcome: 10-year axillary failure: 1.6% vs 0.8% vs 4.6% vs 4.5%. 10-year LRF 6% vs 6% vs 10% vs 14%. Distant mets 13% vs 23% vs 23% vs 42%
**Regional nodal radiation improved LRC if AXT+ or ECE+ or AXT+/ECE+; dose &lt;50 Gy increased axillary failure (HR 3.0, SS). If RNI, no difference between SNB and dissection for LRF or axillary failure
**Conclusion: Axillary tissue involvement increases axillary/LRF, regional nodal radiation important

*'''Graz, Austria; 2006''' (1994-2003) {{PMID|17013571}} -- &quot;Postoperative irradiation in breast cancer patients with one to three positive axillary lymph nodes. Is there an impact of axillary extranodal tumor extension on locoregional and distant control?&quot; (Stranzl H, Strahlenther Onkol. 2006 Oct;182(10):583-8.)
**Retrospective. 274 patients with 1-3N+. Mean 11 LN dissected. ECE in 33%. All patients tangents, 9% of ECE patients SCV field. Median F/U 3.6 years
**Outcome: Local failure 4.7%, regional failure 2.9%. LRF number too small for ECE analysis. However, ECE negative indicator for DM (HR 2.7, SS) and 5-year DFS (81% vs. 69%, SS)
**Conclusion: LRC low regardless of ECE and tangent are sufficient, however, considerable risk for distant failure

*'''MD Anderson; 2005''' {{PMID|16169678}} -- &quot;Clinical investigation: regional nodal failure patterns in breast cancer patients treated with mastectomy without radiotherapy.&quot; (Strom EA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Dec 1;63(5):1508-13. Epub 2005 Sep 19.)
**Retrospective. 1031 patients, mastectomy + Level I-II ALND, chemotherapy, no PMRT. Median F/U 9.7 years
**Outcome: 10-year low axilla failure rate 3%. 10-year high axilla/SCV failure rate 8% (5% as only site). Predictors for ICV/SCV failure &gt;=4 LN+ (15%), &gt;20% LN+ (14%), gross ECE (19%). Extent of axillary LND not predictive
**Conclusion: Failure in Level I-II uncommon after MRM/chemo. Patients with specified risk factors (including gross ECE) should receive adjuvant RT to Level III/SCV

===Review===
*'''Tufts; 2008''' {{PMID|18525310}} -- &quot;Management of the axilla after the finding of a positive sentinel lymph node: a proposal for an evidence-based risk-adapted algorithm.&quot; (Evans SB, Am J Clin Oncol. 2008 Jun;31(3):293-9.)
**Management algorithm proposed for patients with positive SLN, using [http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/15938.cfm MSKCC axilla nomogram]
**Based on likelihood of further disease: &lt;5% then standard tangents; if 5-10% then high tangents; if 10-20% then comprehensive axillary RT; if &gt;20% then axillary lymph node dissection

*'''2007''' {{PMID|17395107}} -- &quot;Management of the axilla in women with breast cancer.&quot; (Benson JR, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Apr;8(4):331-48.)

==Supraclavicular/Internal Mammary==
*In patients with N1 disease (1-3 nodes positive)
**Overall SCV failure without SCR RT may be 6-9%, but isolated SCV failure without concurrent DM is only 2-3%
**Several factors appear to predict for &gt;10-15% risk of overall SCV failure: LVI+, ECE+, 2-3 involved LNs (vs 1 involved), involved Level II/III LNs (vs Level I only), &gt;20% LN+, age &lt;50, Grade III, and ER- disease
**Given that SCV recurrence salvage is challenging, it may be reasonable to offer SCV RT to these patients
**Please also see general studies in N1 section below
*NCCN Guideline (v2.2010): 
**Negative axillary nodes: whole breast RT only
**1-3 positive axillary nodes: &quot;strongly consider&quot; RT to infraclavicular and supraclavicular region (category 2B). Consider internal mammary RT (category 3)
**&amp;ge; 4 positive axillary nodes: whole breast, infraclavicular/supraclavicular RT, consider internal mammary RT (category 3)


*'''Samsung Medical Center, Korea; 2010''' (1994-2003) {{PMID|20231065}} -- &quot;Determining Which Patients Require Irradiation of the Supraclavicular Nodal Area After Surgery for N1 Breast Cancer.&quot; (Yu JI, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010 Mar 13. [Epub ahead of print])
**Retrospective. 448 pN1 breast cancer, mastectomy without RT (67%) or BCT without SCV RT. Median LN dissected 17. LVI+ 20%, ECE+ 5%, &gt;20% LN+ in 22%. Systemic chemotherapy 99%. Median F/U 7.3 years
**Outcome: LRR 14%. SCV recurrence 8.9%, but SCV recurrence without DM 2.7% (isolated SCV 1.8%, SCV + regional recurrence 0.7%, SCV + LR 0.2%).
**Predictors for SCV recurrence: LVI+ (5-year SCV-RFS 83% vs 95%), ECE+ (55% vs 95%), 2-3 involved axillary LNs (86% vs 98%), involved Level II/III LN (75% vs 94%), &gt;20% positive (82% vs 95%, p=0.051). If 2+ RFs, SCV-RFS 73% vs 97% (SS)
**Conclusion: Prognostic factors associated with SCV recurrence in N1 patients were LVI+, ECE+, &gt;1 LN+ and level II/III of involved LNs. Patients with 2+ risk factors might benefit from SCV RT

*'''University of Florence; 2010''' {{PMID|19540052}} -- &quot;Outcome after conservative surgery and breast irradiation in 5,717 patients with breast cancer: implications for supraclavicular nodal irradiation.&quot; (Livi L, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010 Mar 15;76(4):978-83. Epub 2009 Jun 18.)
**Retrospective. 5171 patients, pT1-T4 BCA. Median number removed LNs 16. Per protocol, SCV not irradiated. WBRT 50/25, boost at discretion. Adjuvant chemo 27%, adjuvant TAM 52%. Patient stratified based on number of positive nodes: P1 negative, P2 1-3 LN+, P3 &gt;3 LN+. Median F/U 6.8 years
**Outcome: isolated SCV fossa recurrence (first site of recurrence and no DM within 8 months) P1 0.9% vs P2 2.1% vs P3 5.5% (SS); breast recurrence 4.9% vs 3.0% vs 2.7%; DM 6.1% vs 12.0% vs 27.2% (SS); OS 93% vs 87% vs 71% (SS)
**Conclusion: Main problem for patients with multiple (+) LNs was distant metastases. Isolated SCV recurrence is infrequent despite no RT

*'''MDACC; 2009''' (2006-2007) {{PMID|18676090}} -- &quot;Effects of variable placement of superior tangential/supraclavicular match line on dosimetric coverage of level III axilla/axillary apex in patients treated with breast and supraclavicular radiotherapy.&quot; (Garg AK, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 Feb 1;73(2):370-4.)
**Mean volume of Level III/axillary apex covered by 90% isodose line / 45 Gy: 100% (match line caudal to clavicular head), 92% (intermediate), 68% (cranial).
**Conclusion: &quot;Placement of the superior tangential/supraclavicular match line caudal to the clavicular head results in statistically improved dosimetric coverage of the Level III axilla/axillary apex in breast cancer patients undergoing tangential/supraclavicular radiotherapy.&quot;

*'''MDACC; 2008''' (2005) {{PMID|18164831}} -- &quot;Risk of subclinical micrometastatic disease in the supraclavicular nodal bed according to the anatomic distribution in patients with advanced breast cancer.&quot; (Reed VK, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008 Jun 1;71(2):435-40.)
**33 pts with SCLV node recurrence with advanced or metastatic breast cancer. Plotted location of SCLV node by PET scan; compared to standard SCLV fields.
**Conclusion: &quot;in patients with locally advanced disease, increased coverage of the supraclavicular fossa medially and posteriorly may be warranted.&quot;


===Randomized trials===
*'''EORTC 22922/10925''' (1996-2004)
**Randomized. 4004 women, 46 institutions. BCT 76%, mastectomy 24%, Stage I-III with central/medial tumor location or lateral tumor with axillary involvement. Full axillary dissection or SNB followed by ALND if positive. pN0 44%; pN1 43%; pN2 10%. Standard RT (breast/chest wall, boost) as per institutional preference. RT randomized: Internal mammary and medial supraclavicular 50/25 vs. no RT. Boost in 85% of whole breast.
**'''Quality assurance; 2007''' {{PMID|17240136}} -- &quot;Quality assurance in breast cancer: EORTC experiences in the phase III trial on irradiation of the internal mammary nodes.&quot; (Musat E, Eur J Cancer. 2007 Mar;43(4):718-24.)
**'''Toxicity; 2010''' {{PMID|20100142}} -- &quot;Toxicity at three years with and without irradiation of the internal mammary and medial supraclavicular lymph node chain in stage I to III breast cancer (EORTC trial 22922/10925)&quot; (Matzinger O, Acta Oncol. 2010;49(1):24-34.)
***Toxicity: Any lung toxicity standard RT 1.3% vs IM-MS RT 4.3% (SS); cardiac toxicity 0.3% vs 0.4% (NS). No difference in performance status
***Outcome: Well tolerated at 3 years
**'''10-years; 2015''' {{PMID|26200978}} -- &quot;Internal Mammary and Medial Supraclavicular Irradiation in Breast Cancer.&quot; (Poortmans PM, N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 23;373(4):317-327.) -- Median F/U 10.9 years
***Outcome: 10 year OS RNI 82% vs control 80.7% (0.06); DFS 72.1% vs 69.1% (0.04); distant mets-free survival 78% vs 75% (0.02); breast cancer mortality 12.5% vs 14.4% (0.02)
***Toxicity: pulmonary fibrosis 4.4% vs 1.7% (SS); cardiac disease 6.5% vs 5.6% (NS). No difference in other toxicity
***Conclusion: Irradiation of regional nodes marginal effect on overall survival; DFS and distant mets-free survival improved, and breast cancer mortality reduced

*'''Intergroup / NCIC-CTG MA.20''' (2000-2007) - Whole breast RT +/- regional nodal irradiation
**Randomized. Multicenter (Canada-86%; US, Australia). 1832 patients, high risk node-negative (pT3, or pT2 and &lt;10 LN removed and &gt;= 1 of the following: grade 3, ER-, LVI+) or node-positive (pN1), treated with BCS and adjuvant chemo +/- endocrine therapy. All had level 1-2 axillary dissection. Randomized to whole breast RT (50 Gy / 25 fx +/- boost (33%) or whole breast RT + regional nodal irradiation (45 Gy / 25 fx) to internal mammary, SCLV, and axillary apex. 
**'''2011''' -- &quot;NCIC-CTG MA.20: An intergroup trial of regional nodal irradiation in early breast cancer.&quot; (Whelan T, J Clin Oncol 29: 2011 (suppl; abstr LBA1003) -- Median F/U 62 mo
***Mean age 53 yr. 85% had 1-3+ LN, 10% node-negative, &amp;ge;4 LN 5%. Adjuvant chemo 91%, endocrine therapy 71%.
***WBI+RNI associated with improved isolated locoregional DFS: 5-yr 96.8% vs 94.5% (HR=0.59, SS), distant DFS: 92.4% vs 87.0% (HR=0.64, SS), DFS: 89.7% vs 84.0% (HR=0.68, SS), and OS: 92.3% vs 90.7% (HR=0.76, trend p=0.07). 
***Increased gr2 or greater pneumonitis: 1.3% vs 0.2% (SS) and lymphedema (7.3% vs 4.1%, SS).
***Conclusion: additional RNI reduces the risk of locoregional and distant recurrence, and improves DFS with a trend in improved OS.
***[http://meetinglibrary.asco.org/content/59105?media=vm ASCO Lecture video (16 minutes).]
**'''10 years; 2015''' {{PMID|26200977}} -- &quot;Regional Nodal Irradiation in Early-Stage Breast Cancer.&quot; (Whelan TJ, N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 23;373(4):307-316.) -- Median F/U 9.5 years
***Outcome: 10-year OS RNI 82.8% vs WB 81.8% (NS); breast cancer survival 89.7% vs. 87.7% (NS); DFS 82% vs 77% (SS). Incidence of distant mets 13.4% vs 17.3% (0.02); isolated locoregional recurrence 4.5% vs 7.2% (0.02) 
***Toxicity: acute pneumonitis G2+ 1.2% vs 0.2% (SS); lymphedema 8.4% vs 4.5% (SS)
***Conclusion: Addition of regional nodal irradiation does not improve overall survival but reduces rate of breast cancer recurrence

==Internal mammary==
:''See also:'' [[Radiation Oncology/Breast/Post mastectomy#Internal mammary irradiation|Internal mammary irradiation after mastectomy]]

===Editorials===
*'''Harvard; 2024''' {{PMID|3849880}}4 -- &quot;Internal Mammary Node Irradiation Debate: Case Closed? Not Yet, and Maybe Never&quot; (Recht A, J Clin Oncol. 2024 Jun 1;42(16):1871-1874. doi: 10.1200/JCO.23.02480. Epub 2024 Mar 18.)
**IMN debate still open. Benefit of RNI and IMN varies in relation to clinical and tumor factors. Debate may never be closed because of continuing evolution of systemic therapy 

===Randomized trials===
*'''Intergroup NCIC-CTG MA.20''' - whole breast RT +/- regional nodal irradiation
**Node-positive or high-risk node-negative
**See details at [[#Supraclavicular]]

*'''French 2013''' (1991-97) - Post-mastectomy RT + SCF +/- IMN RT
**1334 women with positive axillary LN or medial tumors (LN negative) were randomized to CW + SCF (50 Gy) +/- IMN irradiation (50 Gy to first 5 IC spaces at 3cm depth).
**'''2013''' {{PMID|23664327}} -- &quot;Ten-year survival results of a randomized trial of irradiation of internal mammary nodes after mastectomy.&quot; (Hennequin C, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2013 Aug 1;86(5):860-6.)
***Median Followup of 8.6 years, 25% of patients node negative on LN evaluation (SLN or ALND).
***No difference in DFS 53.2% (IMN irradiated) vs 49.9% (IMN not irradiated) (P=0.35) or OS 62.8% (IMN irradiated) vs 59.3% (IMN not irradiated) (P=0.8)
***Powered for a 10% improvement in DFS or OS (3% DFS and OS were observed in the MA20 and EORTC 22922-10925)
***Subset analysis revealed 5-10% detriment to OS in Node Negative women who received IMN radiation.


*'''Finland, 1995''' (1989-91) - {{PMID|8532902}} &amp;mdash; &quot;Tangential breast irradiation with or without internal mammary chain irradiation: results of a randomized trial.&quot; Kaija H et al. Radiother Oncol. 1995 Sep;36(3):172-6.
**Randomized. 263/270 patients. Stage I-II treated with BCS. RT 2 field tangent technique, randomized to include the IMN in the tangent fields or not. RT dose: 50 Gy + 10 Gy boost (71 patients), 54 Gy no boost (44 patients), 50 Gy no boost (146). Median F/U 2.7 years
**No difference in pneumonitis (18% vs. 14%). No difference in recurrence rates
**Conclusion: No difference in toxicity. Follow-up too short to comment on recurrences

*'''NSABP B-04''' (see details at [[Radiation Oncology/Breast/Early breast/Axilla#Surgery vs Radiotherapy|Early breast/Axilla]])
**No difference in risk of distant metastasis in pts treated with total mastectomy only (no treatment to IM nodes) compared with total mastectomy + RT (treated IM nodes)

===Prospective (non-randomized) studies===
*'''DBCG-IMN (Danish) (2003-2007) - Cohort study.'''
**Early stage, node-positive breast cancer. 3089 pts, 60% had pN1 (1-3 LN+). Pts with right-sided disease were assigned to IMN RT, 1st-4th intercostal space. Pts with left-sided, no IMN RT. All groups received RT to SCLV and axillary apex, 48 Gy in 24 fractions.
**Patients did not receive taxane-based chemotherapy. Chemo was given in premenopausal pts (all), postmenopausal (only if ER-). ~53% received chemo, 47% endocrine therapy only.
**'''Primary outcome, 2015''' {{PMID|26598752}} -- &quot;DBCG-IMN: A Population-Based Cohort Study on the Effect of Internal Mammary Node Irradiation in Early Node-Positive Breast Cancer&quot; (Thorsen LB, J Clin Oncol. 2016 Feb 1;34(4):314-20.) 
***Median f/u 8.9 yr. 8-yr OS 75.9% with IMN RT vs 72.2% without IMN RT (SS, HR = 0.82). Breast cancer mortality 20.9% vs 23.4% (SS). Distant recurrence 27.4% vs 29.7%. The effect of IMNI was more pronounced in patients at high risk of internal mammary node metastasis. Equal numbers in each group died of ischemic heart disease.
***Conclusion: In this naturally allocated, population-based cohort study, IMNI increased overall survival in patients with early-stage node-positive breast cancer.
**'''IM dose evaluation; 2014''' {{PMID|24957557}} -- &quot;CT-planned internal mammary node radiotherapy in the DBCG-IMN study: benefit versus potentially harmful effects.&quot; (Thorsen LB, Acta Oncol. 2014 Aug;53(8):1027-34. doi: 10.3109/0284186X.2014.925579. Epub 2014 Jun 24.)
***Methods: 10% selected randomly; IMN and OAR contoured in 68 scans, and dose recalculated
***Outcome: IMN V90 = 73% right (planned coverage) vs 35% left (incidental covereage)
***Organ at risk dose: Heart MHD right side 1.1 Gy vs left side 4.0 Gy. With re-planned IMN coverage on the left, MHD would have increased by average 4.8 Gy. Lung V20 right 31% vs left 26%. Number need to treat outweighed number needed to harm from ischemic heart disease perspective
***Conclusion: The benefit of IMN outweigh costs in terms of ischemic heart disease (accepting 4.8 Gy MHD increase)

===Non-randomized studies===
*'''Centre Antoine-Lacassagne, Nice, France; 2013''' (1975-2008) {{PMID|23891092}} -- &quot;Influence of internal mammary node irradiation on long-term outcome and contralateral breast cancer incidence in node-negative breast cancer patients.&quot; (Courdi A, Radiother Oncol. 2013 Jul 25. pii: S0167-8140(13)00307-1. doi: 10.1016/j.radonc.2013.06.028. [Epub ahead of print])
**Retrospective. 1630 breast cancer patients, pN0, breast conservation surgery, ALND/SLN, treated with adjuvant RT. IMN-RT at discretion, more frequent in inner/central tumors.
**Outcome: 10-year OS IMN+ 85% vs 86% IMN- (NS); however for inner/central tumors 10-year OS 92% vs 87% (SS). No difference in DFS
**Toxicity: 20-year contralateral BCA development IMN+ 7.2% vs IMN- 5.3% (SS)
**Conclusion: IMN RT in node-negative patients associated with improved OS for patient with inner/central tumors. Possibly increased risk in contralateral breast cancer

*'''Linz, Austria; 2009''' (1984-1995) {{PMID|19806331}} -- &quot;Medial tumor localization in breast cancer--an unappreciated risk factor?&quot; (Brautigam E, Strahlenther Onkol. 2009 Oct;185(10):663-8. Epub 2009 Oct 6.)
**Retrospective. 1,100 T1-T2 invasive cancers, lateral quadrants 64%, central 9%, medial quadrants 27%. If N+ (26%) received chemotherapy. Median F/U 8.1 years
**Outcome: 10-year OS medial tumors 71% vs lateral tumors 82% (SS), DSS 80% vs 89% (SS). No difference in DFS in N+, only N0. No difference in local control.
**Conclusion: Medial tumor location lower OS but same local control. Likely unidentified internal mammary chain nodal metastases

*'''Milan; 2008''' (1998-2006) {{PMID|18467318}} -- &quot;The value of radiotherapy on metastatic internal mammary nodes in breast cancer. Results on a large series.&quot; (Veronesi U, Ann Oncol. 2008 Sep;19(9):1553-60. Epub 2008 May 7.)
**Retrospective. 663 patients, primarily inner quadrants, biopsy of IM nodes. If N+, RT given to IM node chain (1st-3rd intercostal spaces, anterior angled electrons/photons or IMRT 50/25) and systemic treatment given.
**Outcome: positive IM node 10%. 5-year OS 95%
**Conclusion: Propose IM exploration should be part of staging

*'''Israel; 2003''' {{PMID|12860949}} -- &quot;The role of irradiation of the internal mammary lymph nodes in high-risk stage II to IIIA breast cancer patients after high-dose chemotherapy: a prospective sequential nonrandomized study.&quot; (Stemmer SM, J Clin Oncol. 2003 Jul 15;21(14):2713-8.)
**Phase II, non-randomized. 100 patients with high risk Stage II-III BCA, treated with adjuvant chemo -&gt; high-dose chemo -&gt; stem cell support, and loco-regional RT. 67 patients received IM RT with electrons, 33 patients did not due to machine unavailability in the middle of the protocol. Median F/U 6.4 years
**Outcome: DFS IM RT 73% vs. no RT 52% (SS), OS 78% vs. 64% (p=0.08). No treatment-related mortality
**Conclusion: In high risk, IM RT associated with improved DFS and borderline better OS
**Comment: Prescription depth 1cm below sternum with 9-12MEV beam may not be sufficient

*'''Fox Chase / U. Pennsylvania; 2000''' (1979-1994) {{PMID|10863056}} &amp;mdash; &quot;Internal mammary node irradiation neither decreases distant metastases nor improves survival in stage I and II breast cancer.&quot; Fowble B et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000 Jul 1;47(4):883-94.
**Retrospective. 1383 pts, Stage I-II, treated with lumpectomy + ALND (&gt;=10 nodes removed) + XRT. 114 pts had radiation to the IMN with deep tangents. The rest did not have IMN treated.
**Median f/u 6 yrs. No difference in 5 or 10 yr IBTR, nodal recurrence, DM, OS, or CSS in the two groups. 
**No evidence of a benefit for IMN RT for stage I-II pts in this retrospective review.

===Review===
*'''Harvard; 2008''' {{PMID|18711171}} -- &quot;Internal mammary nodes in breast cancer: diagnosis and implications for patient management -- a systematic review.&quot; (Chen RC, J Clin Oncol. 2008 Oct 20;26(30):4981-9. Epub 2008 Aug 18.)

==RT Technique==
*''Please see the [[Radiation_Oncology/Breast/RT_technique|breast RT technique]] section''</text>
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|'''1'''
|'''2'''
|'''3'''
|'''4'''
|'''5'''
|'''6'''
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|colspan=&quot;20&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
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|'''1'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|1&lt;br /&gt;[[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Hydrogen|'''H''']]
|colspan=&quot;16&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|2&lt;br /&gt;'''He'''
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|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|4&lt;br /&gt;'''Be'''
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|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|5&lt;br /&gt;'''B'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|6&lt;br /&gt;'''C'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|7&lt;br /&gt;'''N'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|8&lt;br /&gt;'''O'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|9&lt;br /&gt;'''F'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|10&lt;br /&gt;'''Ne'''
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|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|11&lt;br /&gt;'''Na'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|12&lt;br /&gt;'''Mg'''
|colspan=&quot;10&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|13&lt;br /&gt;'''Al'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|14&lt;br /&gt;'''Si'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|15&lt;br /&gt;[[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Phosphorus|'''P''']]
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|16&lt;br /&gt;[[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Sulfur|'''S''']]
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|17&lt;br /&gt;'''Cl'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|18&lt;br /&gt;'''Ar'''
|-
|'''4'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|19&lt;br /&gt;'''K'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|20&lt;br /&gt;'''Ca'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|21&lt;br /&gt;'''Sc'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|22&lt;br /&gt;'''Ti'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|23&lt;br /&gt;'''V'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|24&lt;br /&gt;'''Cr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|25&lt;br /&gt;'''Mn'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|26&lt;br /&gt;'''Fe'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|27&lt;br /&gt;'''Co'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|28&lt;br /&gt;'''Ni'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|29&lt;br /&gt;'''Cu'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|30&lt;br /&gt;'''Zn'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|31&lt;br /&gt;'''Ga'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|32&lt;br /&gt;'''Ge'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|33&lt;br /&gt;'''As'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|34&lt;br /&gt;'''Se'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|35&lt;br /&gt;'''Br'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|36&lt;br /&gt;'''Kr'''
|-
|'''5'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|37&lt;br /&gt;'''Rb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|38&lt;br /&gt;'''Sr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|39&lt;br /&gt;'''Y'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|40&lt;br /&gt;'''Zr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|41&lt;br /&gt;'''Nb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|42&lt;br /&gt;'''Mo'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|43&lt;br /&gt;'''Tc'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|44&lt;br /&gt;'''Ru'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|45&lt;br /&gt;'''Rh'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|46&lt;br /&gt;'''Pd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|47&lt;br /&gt;'''Ag'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|48&lt;br /&gt;'''Cd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|49&lt;br /&gt;'''In'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|50&lt;br /&gt;'''Sn'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|51&lt;br /&gt;'''Sb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|52&lt;br /&gt;'''Te'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|53&lt;br /&gt;'''I'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|54&lt;br /&gt;'''Xe'''
|-
|'''6'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|55&lt;br /&gt;'''Cs'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|56&lt;br /&gt;'''Ba'''
|style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;1px;{{Text default color}};&quot;|*&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|72&lt;br /&gt;'''Hf'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|73&lt;br /&gt;'''Ta'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|74&lt;br /&gt;'''W'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|75&lt;br /&gt;'''Re'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|76&lt;br /&gt;'''Os'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|77&lt;br /&gt;'''Ir'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|78&lt;br /&gt;'''Pt'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|79&lt;br /&gt;'''Au'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|80&lt;br /&gt;'''Hg'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|81&lt;br /&gt;'''Tl'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|82&lt;br /&gt;'''Pb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|83&lt;br /&gt;'''Bi'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|84&lt;br /&gt;'''Po'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|85&lt;br /&gt;'''At'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|86&lt;br /&gt;'''Rn'''
|-
|'''7'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|87&lt;br /&gt;'''Fr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|88&lt;br /&gt;'''Ra'''
|style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;{{Text default color}};1px;&quot;|**&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|104&lt;br /&gt;'''Rf'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|105&lt;br /&gt;'''Db'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|106&lt;br /&gt;'''Sg'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|107&lt;br /&gt;'''Bh'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|108&lt;br /&gt;'''Hs'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|109&lt;br /&gt;'''Mt'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|110&lt;br /&gt;'''Ds'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|111&lt;br /&gt;'''Rg'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|112&lt;br /&gt;'''Cn'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|113&lt;br /&gt;'''Nh'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|114&lt;br /&gt;'''Fl'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|115&lt;br /&gt;'''Mc'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|116&lt;br /&gt;'''Lv'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|117&lt;br /&gt;'''Ts'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|118&lt;br /&gt;'''Og'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;21&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|* '''Lanthanides'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|57&lt;br /&gt;'''La'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|58&lt;br /&gt;'''Ce'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|59&lt;br /&gt;'''Pr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|60&lt;br /&gt;'''Nd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|61&lt;br /&gt;'''Pm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|62&lt;br /&gt;'''Sm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|63&lt;br /&gt;'''Eu'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|64&lt;br /&gt;'''Gd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|65&lt;br /&gt;'''Tb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|66&lt;br /&gt;'''Dy'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|67&lt;br /&gt;'''Ho'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|68&lt;br /&gt;'''Er'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|69&lt;br /&gt;'''Tm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|70&lt;br /&gt;'''Yb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|71&lt;br /&gt;'''Lu'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|** '''Actinides'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;{{text default color}}'color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|89&lt;br /&gt;'''Ac'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|90&lt;br /&gt;'''Th'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|91&lt;br /&gt;'''Pa'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|92&lt;br /&gt;'''U'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|93&lt;br /&gt;'''Np'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|94&lt;br /&gt;'''Pu'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|95&lt;br /&gt;'''Am'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|96&lt;br /&gt;'''Cm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|97&lt;br /&gt;'''Bk'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|98&lt;br /&gt;'''Cf'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|99&lt;br /&gt;'''Es'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|100&lt;br /&gt;'''Fm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|101&lt;br /&gt;'''Md'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|102&lt;br /&gt;'''No'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|103&lt;br /&gt;'''Lr'''
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|-
| '''Block''' || '''Background'''
|-
| s block || bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;| red
|-
| p block || bgcolor=&quot;#FFA07A&quot;| orange
|-
| d block || bgcolor=&quot;#ffff99&quot;| yellow
|-
| f block ||  bgcolor=&quot;#a0ffa0&quot;| green
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'''Radioactivity'''
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:solid 1px black;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements with solid borders have stable isotopes&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:dashed 1px black;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements with dashed borders have only radioactive naturally occurring isotopes&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:dotted 1px black;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements with dotted borders do not occur naturally&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:none;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements without borders are too radioactive to have been discovered yet&lt;/div&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Belarusian</title>
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      <text bytes="3764" sha1="s68foeloxpkhfkaqbcwzf8yd7razb9p" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Idioma bielorruso.png|thumb|Majority and minority regions of the Belarusian language]]
'''Belarusian''' is an East Slavic language spoken by over 9 million people as a first language in Belarus and in other countries. The languages most similar to Belarusian are Russian, Ukrainian and Polish. At first, Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian were considered during the Kievan Rus era (c. 862- c. 1240) as one common language known as Old Russian or Old East Slavic. Slowly, the languages evolved due to subjugation from Polish-Lithuania as well as the Austrian empire, which is marked by a large number of Polish (and other loan words) words in Ukrainian and Belarusian.
[[File:Flag of Belarus.svg|thumb|300x300px|The flag of Belarus]]
Belarusian exists in two forms, official and classical. This is due to the 1933 reform of the Belarusian language, which was not recognized by all Belarusians. The official (post-reform) language is dominant in Belarus while the classical (pre-reform) variety is maintained mainly by Belarusian emigrants in European and American countries. The official language is often referred to as наркамаўка &quot;narkamauka&quot; (i.e. the language of the narkam - narodnyi kamisaryiat, the soviet executive body that carried out the 1933 reform) while the classical variant is called тарашкевiца &quot;tarashkevitsa&quot; (the language of Bronislav Tarashkevich, who adopted the classical grammar and spelling of the language).

Belarusian historically had three alphabets: Cyrillic, almost identical to Russian, which is the official alphabet; Latin, similar to Polish or Lithuanian, which used to dominate in Polish-dominated Belarus during the interwar era, was never popular among Belarusians and is very rarely used even today; and Arabic, which was used by Muslim people during the Mongolian era (1240-1480) and by Muslims now as a kind of curiosity.

This book is based on Cyrillic &quot;narkamauka&quot; modern spelling reform of 1933, though we shall pay attention to spelling and grammar peculiarities of the classical variant.

Belarusian (sometimes obsoletely called Byelorussian or Belorussian, meaning &quot;White Russian&quot;) can be a very tricky language to learn, especially if you don't have at least a basic knowledge of either Russian or Ukrainian. However, if you do know some Russian or Ukrainian, you'll be surprised how similar they are as they share the same alphabet (with a few cosmetic differences among themselves), the same grammatical rules, pitfalls, and a common history among them.

== Table of Contents ==
{{Book search}}

[[/Lesson 1|Lesson 1 - The Alphabet]]

[[/Lesson 2|Lesson 2 - This is ...]]

[[/Lesson 3|Lesson 3 - Pronouns; Who/What is this?]]

[[/Lesson 4|Lesson 4 - Adjectives]]

[[/Lesson 5|Lesson 5 - Noun Gender and Number]]

[[/Lesson 6|Lesson 6 - Soft Consonants]]

[[/Lesson 7|Lesson 7 - Yes and No; This and That]]

[[/Lesson 8|Lesson 8 - Possessives; Asking for Definitions, Descriptions and Possession]]

[[/Lesson 9|Lesson 9 - Verbs Conjugation; You - Polite and Familiar]]

[[/Lesson 10|Lesson 10 - Adverbs; Short Answers; Nouns in ''ок''; Verbs in ''аваць'']]

[[/Lesson 11|Lesson 11 - Nouns Singular Genitive]]

[[/Lesson 12|Lesson 12 - Nouns Plural Genitive; Numbers from 1 to 10]]

[[/Lesson 13|Lesson 13 - Genitive of Adjectives and Other Words; Indefinite Words]]

[[/Lesson 14|Lesson 14 - Translating Proper Names; Deriving Adjectives from Nouns; the Second Conjugation of Verbs]]

[[/Lesson 15|Lesson 15 - Personal Names; Nouns Accusative; Likes and Dislikes]]

[[/Lesson 16/|Lesson 16 - Countries and Nationalities]]

[[/Lesson 17|Lesson 17 - Past and future tenses]]

[[/Appendix A|Appendix A: Common phrases]]

{{Shelves|Languages of Europe}}
{{alphabetical|B}}
{{status|75%}}</text>
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'''Note''': You must be using Cherokee Unicode Supported Fonts to view this site. Information on obtaining and installing Cherokee Unicode Fonts for Windows 2000 and Windows XP is available on the Cherokee [[w:chr:Unicode|Unicode page]]. Mac OS X from version 10.3 (Panther), Windows Vista and some Linux Operating System's include default support for displaying the Cherokee Language in syllabary.
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&lt;br&gt;
==Lesson 1: Basic Greeting==

'''Perhaps this lesson should be expanded.'''

===Dialogue===

:Jane: ᎣᏏᏲ, ᏙᎯᏧ? ''o-si-yo, to-hi-tsu?'' (English: hello, how are you?)
:John: ᎣᏍᏓ, ᏂᎯᎾ? ''o-s-da, ni-hi-na?'' (English: good, and you?)
:Jane: ᎣᏍᏓᏛ ''o-s-da-dv'' (English: good)
:John: ᎰᏩ! ''ho-wa!'' (English: alright!)
:Jane: ᎦᏙ ᏕᏣᏙᎠ? ''Ga-do de-tsa-do-a?'' (English: What is your name?)
:John: ᏣᏂ ᏓᏆᏙᎠ ''tsa-ni da-gwa-do-a'' (English: I am called John)
:Jane: ᎭᏢ ᎯᏁᎳ? ''ha-tlv hi-ne-la?'' (English: Where do you live?)
:John: ᏓᎵᏆ ᏥᏁᎳ. ''da-li-gwa tsi-ne-la'' (English: I live in Tahlequa)

===Exercise===

Unless you have printed this out, get a clean piece of paper. Without looking at the top, fill in the Cherokee words. (In syllabary as far as you remember, and in Latin)

:Jane: (1)_______________ (hello, how are you?)
:John: (2)_________________ (good, and you?)
:Jane: (3)________ (fine) (in reply to the second person)
:John: (4)_______ (alright!)

Answers: Here are the answers for questions 1-4: &lt;small&gt; (1) ᎣᏏᏲ, ᏙᎯᏧ?  ''o-si-yo, to-hi-tsu'' (2) ᎣᏍᏓ, ᏂᎯᎾ? ''o-s-da, ni-hi-na?'' (3) ᎣᏍᏓᏛ ''o-s-da-dv'' (4)ᎰᏩ! ''ho-wa!'' &lt;/small&gt;

==Notes for those who correct the book==
*ᎣᏏᏧ (O-si-tsu) mean &quot;I am fine&quot;
*ᏂᎾ (ni-na) or ᏂᎯᎾ (ni-hi-na) for ''And You?''
*ᏓᏆᏙᎠ ''da-gwa-to-a'' or ᏓᏆᏙ ''da-gwa-do''  {{BookCat}}</text>
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      <text bytes="25368" sha1="dgrzx87lxc7u4ta589zszuj4nypelsu" xml:space="preserve">Welcome, {{PAGENAME}}!

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== [[Mirad Version 2]] ==

Please respond to the question [[Talk:Mirad Version 2|on the book's talk page]].  The situation needs clarification.  I pinged you there, but it seems the notification may have gotten misplaced. --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 23:38, 21 June 2020 (UTC)

== Mirad ==
Hi, how are you. I have just found your article about Mirad and I think it is very interesting. Do you speak the language? --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 08:33, 20 July 2022 (UTC)
: Would it be possible for you to help me learn the language? --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 10:27, 22 July 2022 (UTC)
::Hi! I am trying to contact you, as you have stated in your User page (''If you are interested in Mirad, you can contact me on my discussion page and then we can exchange email addresses.''). I think I found you on LinkedIn and also sent you a message there. I have also sent you and email to Shoetack@... (which I think it is yours). However, I haven't received any answer neither here, nor on LinkedIn nor by email. I would like to learn Mirad and would like to ask for some pieces of advice. If you prefer not to be contacted please let me know. Kind regards [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:21, 1 August 2022 (UTC)
::: Hi, sorry to bother you again, I would like to ask you wheter [https://mirad.miraheze.org/wiki/Albanam this] and [https://mirad.miraheze.org/wiki/Mirad this] is correct? I have started a [https://mirad.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page wiki] in Mirad in order to practise the language while translating shorts texts. It would be great if you could help out there. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 06:09, 2 August 2022 (UTC)
::::: The Czech Republic is now called ''Czechia'' and is translated as '''Cekyam''' in Mirad.  
::::: When you want to say ''in Europe, in Paris, or in Czechia'', it is better to use the all-purpose locative preposition '''be''', such as '''be Europa'''....''in Europe''.  The word '''yeb''' is an adverb meaning ''inside, in''.  It takes a preposition like '''be'''....''at'', '''bi'''...''of'', or '''bu''' to make a prepositional phrase.  For example:  
::::::* '''Iyt se &lt;u&gt;yeb be&lt;/u&gt; ha tam.'''....''She is &lt;u&gt;in/inside&lt;/u&gt; the house.''
::::::* '''At peye &lt;u&gt;yeb bu&lt;/u&gt; ha dyesnexam.'''....''I am going &lt;u&gt;into (=inside to)&lt;/u&gt; the library.''
::::::* '''Yay yeyfe zoyper &lt;u&gt;yeb bi&lt;/u&gt; ha om.'''....''We should come back &lt;u&gt;in from&lt;/u&gt; the cold.''
::::: The preposition '''be''' is used for general locative and idiomatic situations:
::::::* '''be ha domep'''....''on the street''
::::::* '''be yaniv'''....''at a party''
::::::* '''be bak ay be bok'''....''in health and in sickness''
::::::* '''be abem bi ha tam'''....'' on top of the house''
::::::* '''be yibsinibar'''....''on television''
::::::* '''be 1983'''....''in 1983''
::::::* '''be Meur'''....''on Mars''
::::[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 18:59, 17 August 2022 (UTC)
:::::{{ping|Caro de Segeda}}, you may be interested in the reply. -&lt;span style=&quot;background:yellow;&quot;&gt;[[User:Slava Ukraini Heroyam Slava 123|🇺🇦&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue;&quot;&gt;Слава🇺🇦Україні&lt;/span&gt;🇺🇦&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue;&quot;&gt;Героям🇺🇦Слава🇺🇦&lt;/span&gt;]]([[User talk:Slava Ukraini Heroyam Slava 123|talk]])🇺🇦&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 3 September 2022 (UTC)
::::::Thanks for telling me, somehow I haven't got any notification about @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]'s reply.
::::::@[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] thanks for your answer, if you would like to add texts to the wiki, please feel free to do so. Unfortunately, now I am quite busy and I don't know when I will be able to keep learning Mirad or helping out on the wiki. All the best. [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 19:06, 3 September 2022 (UTC)

== Dundyes ==
Hay! Duhayen et se? I am writing just to inform you that these Asian countries don't have a translation on the dictionary: Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, East Timor, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan.

Also, if the Dominican Republic is called &quot;Dominikam&quot;, how is it called &quot;Dominica&quot; (another Caribbean country)?

I have also created [https://mirad.miraheze.org/wiki/Yesu this] article.

Hoy! --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 06:57, 4 August 2022 (UTC)

:I will add these countries to the list.  Thanks for noting their absence, plus the confusion with Dominican Republic. [[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 16:55, 17 August 2022 (UTC)

== Translation ==
Hi! Could you please translate this to Mirad?
* Philosophy is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language.
* Hello, Jonathan! &gt; Hay, Jonathan! (are names translated or they remain the same?)
* Aristotle (384 BC – 7 March 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher. He was one of the most important philosophers in the history of Western civilization. He tutored Alexander the Great when Alexander was a child.

Thanks for your help. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 13:10, 18 September 2022 (UTC)

:Textun se ha vyayabxwa tix bi zyasauna ay obyema didi, gel husi ayv esen, vyatex, ten, nazi, tep, ay dalzeyn.
:Aristotelis (348 JK - 7 jiib 322 JK) sa Helena textut.  It sa awat bi ha gwa tesaga textuti be ha ajdin bi umera dotyen.  It tuuxa Aleksandros ha Agala haj hu Aleksandros sa tud.
:This is the translation you requested. I have not decided how to handle foreign names, expect I think it would be best to stick to the original name of someone as close as possible, using whatever letters in Mirad reflect the pronunciation closest.  Also, I may organize world country names to reflect the ISO standard.  More about this later...   [[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 20:42, 29 September 2022 (UTC)
::Thank you so much for your translation. I have add the articles to the Wiki.
::Could you please translate this as well, whenever you have time?
::* First chapter
::* First May (1st May)
::* A man stands in a city. The man writes a journal. The man sees a city.
::* Does the man stand in a city? Yes, he stands in a city.
::* Does the man stand on... a man? No, he does not stand on a man. He stands in a city.
::Thanks for your help. [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 10:01, 1 October 2022 (UTC)
:::::* Aa dyesgon (or: Anapa dyesgon)
:::::* Aa jub bi Jiyob.
:::::* Tob kyose be dom.  Ha tob dre jubdyes.  Ha tob tease dom.
:::::* Duven ha tob kyose be dom?  Va, it kyose be dom.
:::::* Duven ha tob kyose ab...tob?  Vo, it voy kyose ab tob.  It kyose be dom.
:::Better is English would be &quot;A man IS STANDING in a city.&quot; (the progressive present tense = kyoseye).  In either case, I think you may mean &quot;The man LIVES or IS in a city.&quot;..... [[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 17:27, 1 October 2022 (UTC)
::::Thanks for the translation. Yes, I meant &quot;is standing&quot;, sorry. [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 18:16, 6 October 2022 (UTC)


== New translation ==
Hi, how are you?

Could you please translate this to Mirad?
* Film directors, screenwriters and actors
* Family and relationships
* Business and economics
* International organizations
* War and military
* Social issues
* Alexander III of Macedon (Greek: Αλέξανδρος, Aléxandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC) commonly known as Alexander the Great, was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon from 336 BC until his death in 323 BC. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. He was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia.

Thanks for your help. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 15:55, 11 October 2022 (UTC)

:::* Dyezebi, dyezdruti, ay dyezuti
:::* Tod ay todati
:::* Ebkyax ay dobnastun
:::* Ebdooba xobi
:::* Dropek ay dop
:::* Dota soni
:::* Aleksandros III bi Mikim (Elid: Αλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 jiyeb 356 JaK - 10/11 jiyab 323 JaK) yansanay trawa gel Aleksandros ha Agala, sa edeb bi ha Ajoba Geroma Edebam bi Mikim bi 336 JaK ju ita toj bi 323 JaK.  It sa awat bi ha agala dopa debi bi hya job.  It tija be 356 JaK be Pella, ha ajoba debdom bi Mikim.
:[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 21:03, 14 October 2022 (UTC)
::Thanks, could you please translate this?
::Does the man stand on a train? No, he does not stand on train. He stands in a city. The man stands in a city.
::Does the man write a journal? Yes, he writes a journal.
::Does the journal write the man? No, the journal does not write the man. A journal does not write. A man writes. The man writes the journal.
::Does the city see the man? No, the city does not see the man. A city does not see. A man sees. Does the man see the city? Yes, the man sees the city.
::Where is the man? He stands on a city. What does the man write? He writes a journal. What does the man see? He sees a city. He stands in a city, and he writes a journal, and he sees a city.
::Thank you. [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 13:22, 22 October 2022 (UTC)
:::I'm glad you are interested in Mirad.  Why don't you try to translate your sentences yourself?  [[Mirad_Grammar|Mirad Grammar]] has all the information you need to do the job.  You can use the Mirad-English dictionary at the end to find words and expressions.  I must tell you that I don't have time to do the work for you.  By the way, in English, we translate Sp. &quot;estar&quot; with &quot;to be, is, are, am, etc.&quot;, not &quot;stand&quot;.  So we say &quot;&lt;u&gt;Is&lt;/u&gt; the man on a train? He &lt;u&gt;is&lt;/u&gt; in a city, etc.&quot; So, in Mirad, the former sentence would be '''Duven ha tob &lt;u&gt;se&lt;/u&gt; be bixpur?''' [[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 17:42, 23 October 2022 (UTC)
::::Hi, just to let you know, I have moved all the articles from the Mirad Wiki [https://plu-artificia-lingua.fandom.com/wiki/Category:Mirad here]. That wiki we created is going to be deleted so, in order to keep those articles, I have put them in the other one. [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 09:08, 27 April 2023 (UTC)

== Mirad ==
Hi, how are you? I have just found about your language and I wanted to ask you whether it is related to Kotava in any way and what is your opinion on Kotava compared to Mirad. Thanks. --[[User:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[User talk:Jon Gua|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jon Gua|contribs]]) 08:49, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

:Kotava has no relationship to Mirad.  I like Kotava as an attractive language, but the vocabulary is completely random.  All the words in Mirad relate to one another schematically, a bit like how a thesaurus groups words and their opposites. Once you learn '''zia''' (right), you automatically know '''zua''' (left) because the stem vowels are opposite.  This saves a lot of studying.  All words having to do with books, such as &quot;library&quot;, &quot;reader&quot;, &quot;bookbinder&quot;, and &quot;literate&quot; contain the root &quot;dye-&quot; meaning &quot;read&quot;. [[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 March 2024 (UTC)
::Thank you for your answer. Do you have any suggestions on how to learn the language? [[User:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[User talk:Jon Gua|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jon Gua|contribs]]) 15:16, 3 June 2024 (UTC)
:::In the book &quot;Mirad Grammar&quot;, there are some lessons toward the end with mini-quizzes.  It would help to learn the language by starting there.  I will be adding lessons as I find the time.  But just these few lessons will give you and idea how the language works and you can then study the grammar. [[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 20:48, 5 June 2024 (UTC)

==[[:Hay, Jonathan!]]==
{{tmbox|type=delete|text='''Tyoyafud, please [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Salute, Jonathan! and its translations|share your thoughts]] about whether to [[WB:WIW|keep]] or [[WB:DP|delete]] &quot;[[:Hay, Jonathan!|Hay, Jonathan!]]&quot;.'''&lt;br /&gt;You are being notified because you have contributed to this work. [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 10:48, 29 June 2025 (UTC)}}

== interested in Mirad!!! ==

I found this out from the Wikipedia page for conlangs and would LOVE to exchange emails to discuss this more with you.

also I for sci-fi purposes I think ''terira'' could work as a word for robot, it depends on the setting but a sapient android or robot would fit being called a thinking machine I'd imagine. [[User:Unluckyeight|Unluckyeight]] ([[User talk:Unluckyeight|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Unluckyeight|contribs]]) 03:18, 25 May 2026 (UTC)

:Better yet: '''texir''' (a thinking machine).  Thanks! [[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]] ([[User talk:Tyoyafud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tyoyafud|contribs]]) 18:22, 2 June 2026 (UTC)

== 10,000+ words ==

Hey Jamie,


I have added your Mirad to the FrathWiki article &quot;Conlangs with over 10,000 words&quot; Check it out! Mirad appears to have the largest lexicon of any known conlang. Congratulations! [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-45466-95|&amp;#126;2026-45466-95]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-45466-95|talk]]) 23:11, 20 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>dgrzx87lxc7u4ta589zszuj4nypelsu</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animal Behavior/Modeling</title>
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      <text bytes="24115" sha1="0jl94gfe36scabnyehkgwteqn9xxuwm" xml:space="preserve">==Modeling Adaptive Behavior==
It is a daunting (or impossible) task to study behavior by simultaneously considering all significant factors and interactions that may impact it. An alternative method attempts to reduce the associated complexities by wrapping ones expectations into a set of mathematical abstractions based on a reduced number of significant variables. Resulting quantitative predictions are necessarily incomplete but are often less ambiguous and easier to test. The goal is to model an animals rational decisions of what action to take, given some information about the world. The player then faces consequences for the decision as a function of the action, the actions of others (if applicable), and the state of the surrounding environment. The player is expected to be rational by maximizing the expected utility.

===Optimality Models===
Optimality models quantitatively predict the consequences for a particular animal to behave in a certain way when pitted against the environment. It assumes that animals should behave so as to maximize their fitness. Optimality models consider separate, dependent, fitness benefits (B) and fitness costs (C) over a given range of values in a decision variable (i.e., the variable of interest). The solution to an optimality model attempts to find the point where the net benefits (i.e., B-C) are maximized. Individual solutions consider the consequences for a focal animal regardless of what strategies other individuals are relying on.

The main advantages of optimality models are in that they:
*help us clarify our assumptions
*force us to think about the information the animal has
*tie many different ideas together in one place
*generate testable predictions

Consequences of behavioral decisions are described as equations where the success of decisions of one individual do not depend on what decisions other animals make.
*'''Decision Variable''' is the variable that we aim to optimize (e.g., optimize speed to obtain the best mileage when driving from here to there)
*'''Currency''' refers to the criterion used to examine the outcome for different values of the decision variable (mileage)
*'''Constraints''' are factors that limit the relationship between decision variable and currency (e.g., speed limits)

Optimality models use calculus and logic to solve for a minimum or a maximum in a specific function f(x). This can be achieved by taking the derivative of the function df[x)/dt (i.e., to obtain the slope of the function) and setting it to 0. Such an approach can also be used to explore sensitivity to changes in values of the decision variable and to determine what types of information are relevant for the relationship. Precise predictions can be formalized for empirical testing

====Predator - Prey Population Cycles====

In order to study predation and population oscillations, Huffaker used mite species, one being the predator and the other being the prey.&lt;ref&gt;Huffaker CB. 1958. Experimental Studies on Predation: Dispersion factors and predator-prey oscillations. Hilgardia 27: 83&lt;/ref&gt; By modifying the spatial structure of the habitat, he could manipulate the population dynamics and allow the overall survival rate for both species to increase. He did this by altering the distance between the prey and oranges (their food), establishing barriers to predator movement, and creating corridors for the prey to disperse. These changes increased habitat patches and in turn provided more areas for the prey to seek temporary protection. When the prey would go extinct locally at one habitat patch, they were able to reestablish by migrating to new patches before being attacked by predators. This habitat spatial structure of patches allowed for coexistence between the predator and prey species and promoted a stable population oscillation model.&lt;ref&gt;Kareiva  P. 1987. Habitat Fragmentation and the Stability of Predator-Prey Interactions. Nature 326: 388&lt;/ref&gt; Predator-prey interactions that in turn influence population dynamics have been described in detail&lt;ref&gt;Janssen A. et al. 1997. Metapopulation Dynamics of a Persisting Predator-Prey system&lt;/ref&gt;

====Optimal Foraging Theory====
OFT examines the choice of food items. Such '''prey models''' (even though the prey doesn’t necessarily have to be another animal) look at decisions of basic diet selection. The animal searches for food, and finds potential prey items one at a time. It has to decide whether it should stop searching and eat the food it has found, or whether to ignore the food and keep searching. We assume that the animal is trying to maximize its '''currency''' (i.e., rate of energy intake measured in calories) in a particular time period. Each type of food takes a different amount of time to handle it during consumption. For instance, a Northwestern crow searches along the water line during low tide for large molluscs called whelks. When it finds one, it flies upward and drops it on the rocks to break it open.
Smaller whelks are harder to break, and need to be dropped from a greater height, so they may be ignored. Also the content of certain kinds of nuts is more difficult to access than that of others.

E&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and E&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; refer to the caloric energy that is contained within a prey of type 1 or 2 respectively. The handling time needed to access the caloric content for such prey items  is h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. If the net energy gained per unit of time (or the rate of energy gain) for type 1 exceeds that for item 2

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;E&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;/h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; E&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

then you would do well to eat prey of type 1 whenever you find it. If you find an item of type 2 you may consider rejecting it and to keep searching if the energy lost in searching for item 1 added to its handling time is less than what is gained from eating item 2 outright.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;E&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; E&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;/(S&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;/div&gt;

Depending on the relationships of this equation the predator should eat just prey 1 (and be a specialist) or it should eat both prey 1 and prey 2 (and be a generalist). This decision to specialize depends on the quality and abundance of S1, regardless of S2.

=====Marginal Value Theorem=====
The MVT considers an optimally foraging creature that exploits patchy resources as it must decide when to move on to the next patch. As it attempts to optimize a cost/benefit ratio, individuals will stay longer as the distance between patches increases, or when the environment as a whole is less profitable.

=====Central Place Foragers=====

=====Risk-sensitivity=====

====Ideal Free Distribution====

An ideal free distribution describes the way in which animals distribute themselves among several patches of resources - ideally (with full complement of information about the distribution of the resource) and freely (without barriers to placing oneself at the preferred location). The theory states that individual animals will aggregate in various patches proportionately to the amount of resources available in each. So for example, if patch A contains twice as much food as patch B, there will be twice as many individuals foraging in patch A as in patch B.&lt;ref&gt;Fretwell SD &amp; Lucas HL. 1970. On territorial behavior and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. I. Theoretical Development. Acta Biotheoretica 19: 16-36&lt;/ref&gt;

===Game Theory Models===
A more comprehensive prediction of an animal's most profitable behavior may well require us to also consider what others are doing. A behavior may well be quite rewarding when it is rare in a population (e.g., deception) but may not be nearly as advantageous to its actor when it becomes common. Game theory models thus consider the value of frequency-dependent fitness benefits. Originally developed as a tool to predict rational human economic behavior, its application to many evolutionary problems has improved our understanding of situations where fitness consequences of a behavior depend on types and frequencies of behaviors exhibited by other animals within the population.

It is assumed that individuals represent players of a game in which all parties are aware of the rules, are consciously attempting to maximize their payoffs, and are attempting to predict the moves of their opponents. Players move simultaneously or at least do not observe the other player's move before making their own.

====Pay-off Matrix====
{| align=left border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; align=bottom |A Pay-off matrix for a hypothetical, normal form game that pits two individuals against each other. Player Red (rows) may choose strategy R1 or R2 when dealing with  player Blue (columns), while the latter may either use strategy B1 or B2. The payoff matrix lists the color-coded consequences that each individual receives for any particular combination of strategies played.
|-
|
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #009;width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy B1''
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #009;width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy B2''
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy R1''
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;[-1]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy R2''
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;[-1]&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;
|}

A '''Payoff Matrix''' is used to formally represent a game that includes all conceivable strategies, along with each strategy's corresponding payoff against any other strategy. The matrix of a game specified the payoffs that each player receives for the combinations of actions played. For example, if player 1 plays top and player 2 plays left, player 1 receives 4 and player 2 receives 3. In each cell, the first number represents the payoff to the row player (in this case player 1), and the second number represents the payoff to the column player (in this case player 2).
{| align=right border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; align=bottom |The simplified Pay-off matrix rewritten for a hypothetical, symmetrical, normal form game that pits two individuals against each other. As both player may choose strategy A or B, the payoff matrix lists the consequences that the row individual receives for all possible combinations.
|-
|
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy 1''
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy 2''
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy 1''
|align=center|3
|align=center|2
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''strategy 2''
|align=center|-1
|align=center|2
|}

A case of a symmetric game exists if the payoffs do not depend on which player chooses each action. In the example above, this is the case if strategy R1 (strategy 1 of player 1) is the same strategy as B1 (strategy 1 of player 2) and strategy R2 is the same as strategy B2. The game can then be represented with a single payoff per cell, i.e., the payoff representing the payoff for the row player. For example, the payoff matrices on the right represents the same game as the matrix above, if R1 = B1 and R2 = B2..

====Evolutionary stable strategy====
Game theory aims to identify behavioral rules that form an '''Evolutionary stable strategy''' (or ESS). Such a strategy, when adopted by a population of players, cannot be invaded by any mutant strategy. Thus once the stratgey is fixed in a population, natural selection alone is sufficient to prevent alternative strategies from invading the population as long as there are no new selective forces brought to bear. First published as a specific term in the 1972 book by John Maynard Smith,&lt;ref name=&quot;OEJMS&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Maynard Smith, J. |authorlink=John Maynard Smith |chapter=Game Theory and The Evolution of Fighting |title=On Evolution |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1972 |isbn=0-85224-223-9 }}&lt;/ref&gt; the ESS is widely used in behavioural ecology and economics, and has been used in anthropology, evolutionary psychology, philosophy, and political science.

====Prisoner's dilemma====
{| align=right border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; align=bottom |Payoff matrix for the classic example of a Prisoner's Dilemma in which two men (A and B) are accused of a crime and interrogated individually about their willingness to provide evidence for their partner's involvement|-
|
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|B does not testify
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|B testifies
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|A does not testify
|align=center|-1, -1
|align=center|-12, 0
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|A testifies
|align=center|0, 12
|align=center|-3, -3
|}
The Prisoner's Dilemma uses Game Theory to explore why individuals may cooperate in a given situation or why they may not. In this case the basic situation is adversarial but they may find common ground for working together anyway. This is the scenario ...

''&quot;Two men are arrested for committing a crime together, but there is insufficient evidence for a conviction. Following the separation of the two men, the police offer both the same deal - if he testifies against his partner and provides evidence for involvement in the crime (i.e., defects) he will derive a benefit at the other's expense. If the other remains silent (i.e., cooperates), the betrayer goes free while the cooperator receives the full sentence. If each player 'rats out' the other, both receive a somewhat reduced version of the full sentence. If both remain silent, however, both are sentenced to minimal jail time as they can only be prosecuted on a minor charge. Each prisoner must choose either to defect the partner (i.e., rat him out) or cooperate with him (i.e., remain silent). What should they do?&quot;''

As they are trying to limit their negative consequences (i.e., reducing their jail time) the logical decision leads each individual to betray the other as this decision offers the better one-off benefit regardless of what player B decides (i.e., in both columns does the second row value list a preferred payoff over the first row value). If faced with a single instance of this decision, both players can thus reasonably be expected to defect on their partner, resulting in the second worst possible outcome for both players. The greatest individual combined benefit (1 month of jail time on a lesser charge for both) would have come about, however, had they both cooperated. In scenarios where the individuals are facing this decision repeatedly, trust and cooperation will thus offer significant benefits to both players over a simple egoistic solution. The most successful strategy in repeated Prisoner's dilemma scenarios is a strategy of '''Tit-for-Tat''' where the players maximize their benefit by cooperating on the first round and subsequently play the strategy the other player used on the previous round.

====Hawks and Doves Game====
Game models have greatly increased our understanding of conditions under which ritualized displays may take the place of aggressive interactions. Maynard-Smith's approach involves resource-centered conflict between members of a group which will follow either a strategy of unrestrained use of weapons (hawk) or reliance on highly ritualized elements of fighting (dove):
{| align=left border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; align=bottom |Payoff matrix for the Hawk-Dove game. '''Hawk''' is a strategy where the individual fights until either it sustains an injury or the opponent retreats. The losing hawks suffers a cost for such injury (C). A '''Dove''' contests the interaction with displays but will retreat immediately if the opponent escalates with a use of its weapons. The winner of the encounter obtains the resource in question and gains control over its value (V). Interactions between two hawks result in the term 1/2(V-C) as hawks against hawks will win half of the time and lose half of the time. Moreover, hawks will also sustain an injury half of the time. In interactions with another dove, a dove will win half of the time and retreat without cost the other half of the time.
|-
|
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|''Hawk''
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|''Dove''
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|''Hawk''
|align=center|(V−C)/2
|align=center|V
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 120px;&quot;|''Dove''
|align=center|0
|align=center|V/2
|}
The different cells of the payoff matrix represent combinations of strategies for the two players, where each would prefer to win, prefer to tie rather than lose, and prefer to lose over injury. Game theory can be used to address the conditions under which such strategies are evolutionarily stable (i.e., an ESS). First we ask if a population playing one strategy can be invaded by a few animals playing the other strategy. To examine whether dove is an ESS we examine whether a population of doves can be invaded by a hawk? Specifically we cask whether  the utility (u) of a hawk in a population of doves exceeds that of a dove in this scenario.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;υ[H,D] &gt; υ[D,D]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;V &gt; V/2&lt;/div&gt;

As long as the benefit of winning the resource (V) is greater than zero, a hawk will always trump a dove when pitted against other doves (V/2). Dove thus cannot be an ESS. Hawks will be able to invade a population of doves until instances in which a hawk encounters another hawk becomes a common event. To examine whether a dove can invade a population of hawks, we test whether its payoff is greater than that of a hawk when faced with a population of hawks. Formally this evaluates whether ...

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;υ[D,H] &gt; υ[H,H]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0 &gt; (V-C)/2&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0 &gt; V/2-C/2&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0 &gt; V-C&lt;/div&gt;

The conclusion on whether a dove will be able to invade a population of hawks will thus depend on whether V &gt; C. If the resource value exceeds the cost of injury, the benefit to hawks will be positive (i.e., greater than 0), and a population of hawks cannot be invaded. Hawk thus represents an ESS under conditions where a valuable resource is at stake. However if V&lt;C then payoff to hawks will be negative and doves can invade. Doves become increasingly good at invading a population of hawks as opportunities for damage increase. In fact a population of hawks would go extinct in situations where the cost of injury exceeds the resource's value. To obtain the proportion of hawk and dove strategies that stably coexist when C&gt;V we examine at what proportion of Hawks (p) and Doves (1-p) the fitness of individuals playing either of the two strategies is equal

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;W[H] = p*((V-C)/2) + (1-p)*(V) equals W[D] = p*0 + (1-p)*(V/2)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;p*(V/2-C/2) + (1-p)*(V) = (1-p)*(V/2)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;p(V/2) - p(C/2) + V - pV = (V/2) - p(V/2)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;p(V/2) + p(V/2) - pV - p(C/2) = (V/2) - V&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;- p(C/2) = -(V/2)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;pC = V&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;p = V/C&lt;/div&gt;

Game theory thus provides a theoretical underpinning for why animals tend to only fight with great ferocity when a resource of great value is at stake. Fighting, for instance, is particularly intense in elephant seals where victorious males are able to monopolize a large area of beach which contains many females. In the great majority of instances, however, resources are rarely worth being injured over and competing individuals will resolve most conflict with ritualized displays.

====Sequential Assessment Games====

[[Image:LobsterFight.ogg|left|frame|Fighting in juvenile American lobsters (''Homarus americanus'') begins with a series of threat displays. If opponents are evenly matched, the encounter progressively escalates through ritualized components of fighting, restrained forms of physical combat, and finally brief periods of unrestrained fighting where opponents may even inflict injuries on each other (Huber &amp; Kravitz, 1995).]]

====War of Attrition====
In this model aggression two contestants compete for a resource of value V by persisting while constantly accumulating costs over the time t that the contest lasts. In '''War of attrition''' scenarios fighters attempt to grind down the opponent's defenses. There is no fixed cost associated with losing or contesting, but as the encounter wears on, each player accumulates incremental costs. A decision to give up arises when one individual backs down, relinquishing access to the contested resource, rather than continuing to sustain further insults.

====The Game of &quot;Chicken&quot;, Brinkmanship, and Nuclear War====
{| align=right border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ align=bottom |Payoff matrix for a game of chicken.
|-
|
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''swerve''
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''straight''
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''swerve''
|align=center|0
|align=center|-1
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900; width: 100px;&quot;|''straight''
|align=center|1
|align=center|-50
|}
The game '''Chicken''' is a variant of the Hawks and Doves game. In it each player prefers not to yield to the other, but the outcome where neither player yields is by far the worst possible one for both players. It has its origins in the situation where two drivers head towards each other on a collision course: one must swerve, or both may die in the crash. The driver who does swerve is called a &quot;chicken&quot;. The game's most important feature is an assured, and significant cost to the situation where both individuals chose conflict over conciliation. &quot;Losing&quot; by deciding to swerve is so trivial compared to the crash that occurs if nobody swerves, the reasonable strategy would be to swerve. Yet, knowing this one may well decide not to swerve, gambling that the opponent will be reasonable.

Insights gained on the predictability of behavior based on the presence of overwhelming punitive consequences have formed a central component of the cold war military doctrine of '''Mutual assured destruction''', where the use of nuclear weapons by either side would assure the destruction of the aggressor along with its target. This theory of deterrence states that the deployment of strong weapons as a threat to the enemy is essential in order to prevent the use of the very same weapons. Success in discouraging either side from resorting to these weapons is only effective as it is credible to both sides that a chosing conflict would result in the worst possible outcome for all - nuclear annihilation of the aggressor resulting from a credible second strike capability.

==References==
{{reflist}}

&lt;&lt;[[Animal Behavior|Return to Contents Page]] | &lt;&lt;[[../Ch4|Chapter 4]]

{{BookCat}}


{{Animal Behavior/stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/World Manufacturer Identifier (WMI)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136763" sha1="kp2h90r01qjrxmdy893hg98dfj9kauc" xml:space="preserve">==World Manufacturer Identifier==
The first three characters uniquely identify the manufacturer of the vehicle using the '''World Manufacturer Identifier''' or '''WMI''' code. A manufacturer that builds fewer than 1000 vehicles per year uses a 9 as the third digit and the 12th, 13th and 14th position of the VIN for a second part of the identification. Some manufacturers use the third character as a code for a vehicle category (e.g., bus or truck), a division within a manufacturer, or both. For example, within 1G (assigned to General Motors in the United States), 1G1 represents Chevrolet passenger cars; 1G2, Pontiac passenger cars; and 1GC, Chevrolet trucks. 

===WMI Regions===
The first character of the WMI is the region in which the manufacturer is located. In practice, each is assigned to a country of manufacture. Common auto-manufacturing countries are noted. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
| url=https://standards.iso.org/iso/3780/
| title=ISO Standards Maintenance Portal: ISO 3780
| publisher=[[wikipedia:International Organization for Standardization]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
! WMI
! Region
! Notes
|-
| A-C
| Africa
| AA-AH = South Africa&lt;br /&gt;BF-BG = Kenya&lt;br /&gt;BU = Uganda&lt;br /&gt;CA-CB = Egypt&lt;br /&gt;DF-DK = Morocco
|-
| E, H-R
| Asia
| E=Russia&lt;br /&gt;H = China&lt;br /&gt;J = Japan&lt;br /&gt;KF-KH = Israel&lt;br /&gt;KL-KR = South Korea&lt;br /&gt;L = China&lt;br /&gt;MA-ME = India&lt;br /&gt;MF-MK = Indonesia&lt;br /&gt;ML-MR = Thailand&lt;br /&gt;MS = Myanmar&lt;br /&gt;MX = Kazakhstan&lt;br /&gt;MY-M0 = India&lt;br /&gt;NF-NG = Pakistan&lt;br /&gt;NL-NR = Turkey&lt;br /&gt;NS-NT = Uzbekistan&lt;br /&gt;PA-PC = Philippines&lt;br /&gt;PF-PG = Singapore&lt;br /&gt;PL-PR = Malaysia&lt;br /&gt;PS-PT = Bangladesh&lt;br /&gt;PV=Cambodia&lt;br /&gt;RA-RB = United Arab Emirates&lt;br /&gt;RF-RK = Taiwan&lt;br /&gt;RL-RN = Vietnam&lt;br /&gt;RS-RT = Saudi Arabia&lt;br /&gt;RU-RW = Russia&lt;br /&gt;R1-R7 = Hong Kong

|-
| S-Z
| Europe
| SA-SM = United Kingdom&lt;br /&gt;SN-ST = Germany (formerly East Germany)&lt;br /&gt;SU-SZ = Poland&lt;br /&gt;TA-TH = Switzerland&lt;br /&gt;TJ-TP = Czech Republic&lt;br /&gt;TR-TV = Hungary&lt;br /&gt;TW-T2 = Portugal&lt;br /&gt;UH-UM = Denmark&lt;br /&gt;UN-UR = Ireland&lt;br /&gt;UU-UX = Romania&lt;br /&gt;U1-U2 = North Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;U5-U7 = Slovakia&lt;br /&gt;VA-VE = Austria&lt;br /&gt;VF-VR = France&lt;br /&gt;VS-VW = Spain&lt;br /&gt;VX-V2 = France (formerly Serbia/Yugoslavia)&lt;br /&gt;V3-V5 = Croatia&lt;br /&gt;V6-V8 = Estonia&lt;br /&gt; W = Germany (formerly West Germany)&lt;br /&gt;XA-XC = Bulgaria&lt;br /&gt;XF-XH = Greece&lt;br /&gt;XL-XR = The Netherlands&lt;br /&gt;XS-XW = Russia (formerly USSR)&lt;br /&gt;XX-XY = Luxembourg&lt;br /&gt;XZ-X0 = Russia&lt;br /&gt;YA-YE = Belgium&lt;br /&gt;YF-YK = Finland&lt;br /&gt;YS-YW = Sweden&lt;br /&gt;YX-Y2 = Norway&lt;br /&gt;Y3-Y5 = Belarus&lt;br /&gt;Y6-Y8 = Ukraine&lt;br /&gt;ZA-ZU = Italy&lt;br /&gt;ZX-ZZ = Slovenia&lt;br /&gt;Z3-Z5 = Lithuania&lt;br /&gt;Z6-Z0 = Russia
|-
| 1-5
| North America
| 1, 4, 5 = United States&lt;br /&gt;2 = Canada&lt;br /&gt;3 = Mexico&lt;br /&gt;7F-70 = United States
|-
| 6-7
| Oceania
| 6A-6W = Australia&lt;br /&gt;7A-7E = New Zealand&lt;br /&gt;Revised: 6A-6X = Australia&lt;br /&gt;6Y-61 = New Zealand
|-
| 8-9
| South America
| 8A-8E = Argentina&lt;br /&gt;8F-8G = Chile&lt;br /&gt;8L-8N = Ecuador&lt;br /&gt;8S-8T = Peru&lt;br /&gt;8X-8Z = Venezuela&lt;br /&gt;82 = Bolivia&lt;br /&gt;84 = Costa Rica&lt;br /&gt;9A-9E, 91-90 = Brazil&lt;br /&gt;9F-9G = Colombia&lt;br /&gt;9S-9V = Uruguay
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
! &amp;nbsp;
! A
! B
! C
! D
! E
! F
! G
! H
! J
! K
! L
! M
! N
! P
! R
! S
! T
! U
! V
! W
! X
! Y
! Z
! 1
! 2
! 3

! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 0
|-
| '''A''' || colspan=&quot;8&quot; | South Africa || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Ivory Coast || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Lesotho || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Botswana || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Namibia || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Madagascar || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Mauritius || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Tunisia || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Cyprus || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Zimbabwe || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Mozambique || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Africa''
|-
| '''B''' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Angola || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Ethiopia || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Africa'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Kenya || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Rwanda || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Africa'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Nigeria || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Africa'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Algeria || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Africa'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Swaziland || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Uganda || colspan=&quot;7&quot; | ''Africa''|| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Libya || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Africa''
|-
| '''C''' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Egypt || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Africa'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Morocco || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Africa'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Zambia || colspan=&quot;21&quot; | ''Africa''
|-
| '''D''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | 
|-
| '''E''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; | Russia
|-
| '''F''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
|-
| '''G'''
|-
| '''H''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; | China
|-
| '''J''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; | Japan
|-
| '''K''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Israel || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | South Korea || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Jordan || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | South Korea || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Kyrgyzstan || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''Asia'' 
|-
| '''L''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; | China
|-
| '''M''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | India || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Indonesia || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Thailand || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Myanmar || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Mongolia || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Kazakhstan || colspan=&quot;12&quot; | India
|-
| '''N''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Iran || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Pakistan || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Iraq || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Turkey || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Uzbekistan || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Azerbaijan || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Tajikistan || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Armenia || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Iran || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Turkey || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Asia''
|-
| '''P''' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Philippines || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Singapore || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Malaysia || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Bangladesh || colspan=&quot;10&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | India 
|-
| '''R''' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | UAE || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Taiwan || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Vietnam || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Laos || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Saudi Arabia || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Russia || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Asia'' || colspan=&quot;7&quot; | Hong Kong || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''Asia''
|-
! &amp;nbsp;
! A
! B
! C
! D
! E
! F
! G
! H
! J
! K
! L
! M
! N
! P
! R
! S
! T
! U
! V
! W
! X
! Y
! Z
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 0
|-
| '''S''' || colspan=&quot;12&quot; | United Kingdom || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Germany &lt;small&gt;(formerly East Germany)&lt;/small&gt; || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Poland || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Latvia || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Georgia || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Iceland || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''Europe''
|-
| '''T''' || colspan=&quot;8&quot; | Switzerland || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Czech Republic || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Hungary || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Portugal || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Serbia || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Andorra || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Netherlands || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe''
|-
| '''U''' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Spain || colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''Europe'' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Denmark || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Ireland || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe'' || colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Romania || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | North Macedonia || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe'' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Slovakia || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Bosnia &amp; Herzogovina
|-
| '''V''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Austria || colspan=&quot;10&quot; | France || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Spain || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | France &lt;small&gt;(formerly Yugoslavia &amp; Serbia)&lt;/small&gt; || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Croatia || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Estonia || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe''
|-
| '''W''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; | Germany
|-
| '''X''' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Bulgaria || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Russia || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Greece || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Russia || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Netherlands || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Russia &lt;small&gt;(formerly USSR)&lt;/small&gt; || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Luxembourg || colspan=&quot;11&quot; | Russia
|-
| '''Y''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Belgium || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Finland || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Malta || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe'' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Sweden || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Norway || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Belarus || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Ukraine || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe''
|-
| '''Z''' || colspan=&quot;18&quot; | Italy || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''Europe'' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Slovenia || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | San Marino|| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Europe''|| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lithuania || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Russia
|-
| '''1''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; | United States
|-
| '''2''' || colspan=&quot;28&quot; | Canada || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''North America'' 
|-
| '''3''' || colspan=&quot;21&quot; | Mexico || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | ''North America'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Nicaragua || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Dom. Rep. || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Honduras || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Panama || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Puerto Rico || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''North America'' 
|-
| '''4''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | United States
|-
| '''5''' 
|-
| '''6''' || colspan=&quot;21&quot; | Australia || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | New Zealand || colspan=&quot;9&quot; | ''Oceania''
|-
| '''7''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | New Zealand || colspan=&quot;28&quot; | United States
|-
| '''8''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Argentina || colspan=2 | Chile || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''South America'' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Ecuador || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''South America'' || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Peru || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''South America'' || colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Venezuela || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''SA'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Bolivia || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''SA'' || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Costa Rica || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | ''South America'' 
|-
| '''9''' || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Brazil || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Colombia || colspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''South America''  || colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Uruguay || colspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''South America'' || colspan=&quot;10&quot; | Brazil 
|-
| '''0''' || colspan=&quot;33&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | 
|}

===List of Many WMIs===
The [[w:Society of Automotive Engineers|Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE) in the US assigns WMIs to countries and manufacturers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
| url=https://www.iso.org/standard/45844.html
| title=ISO 3780:2009 - Road vehicles — World manufacturer identifier (WMI) code
| date=October 2009
| publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}&lt;/ref&gt; The following table contains a list of mainly commonly used WMIs, although there are many others assigned.

{| class=&quot;wikitable x&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
! WMI !! Manufacturer
|-
| AAA|| Audi South Africa made by Volkswagen of South Africa
|-
| AAK|| FAW Vehicle Manufacturers SA (PTY) Ltd.
|-
| AAM|| MAN Automotive (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd. (includes VW Truck &amp; Bus)
|-
|AAP || VIN restamped by South African Police Service (so-called SAPVIN or AAPV number)
|-
| AAV || Volkswagen South Africa
|-
| AAW || Challenger Trailer Pty Ltd. (South Africa)
|-
| AA9/CN1 || TR-Tec Pty Ltd. (South Africa)
|-
| ABJ || Mitsubishi Colt &amp; Triton pickups made by Mercedes-Benz South Africa 1994–2011
|-
| ABJ || Mitsubishi Fuso made by Daimler Trucks &amp; Buses Southern Africa
|-
| ABM || BMW Southern Africa
|-
| ACV || Isuzu Motors South Africa 2018-
|-
| AC5 || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Automotive South Africa 
|-
| AC9/BM1 || Beamish Beach Buggies (South Africa)
|-
| ADB || Mercedes-Benz South Africa car
|-
| ADD || UD Trucks Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd.
|-
| ADM || General Motors South Africa (includes Isuzu through 2018)
|-
| ADN || Nissan South Africa (Pty) Ltd.
|-
| ADR || Renault Sandero made by Nissan South Africa (Pty) Ltd.
|-
| ADX || Tata Automobile Corporation (SA) Ltd.
|-
| AE9/MT1 || Backdraft Racing (South Africa)
|-
| AFA || Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa &amp; Samcor
|-
| AFB || Mazda BT-50 made by Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa
|-
| AFD || BAIC Automotive South Africa
|-
| AFZ || Fiat Auto South Africa
|-
| AHH || Hino South Africa
|-
| AHM || Honda Ballade made by Mercedes-Benz South Africa 1982–2000
|-
| AHT || Toyota South Africa Motors (Pty.) Ltd.
|-
| BF9/|| KIBO Motorcycles, Kenya
|-
| BUK || Kiira Motors Corporation, Uganda
|-
| BR1 || Mercedes-Benz Algeria (SAFAV MB)
|-
| BRY || FIAT Algeria
|-
| CA3 || MCV bus (Egypt)
|-
| DDY || Geyushi Motors (bus) (Egypt)
|-
| DF9/|| Laraki (Morocco)
|-
| EAA || Aurus Motors (Russia)
|-
| EAN || Evolute (Russia)
|-
| EAU || Elektromobili Manufacturing Rus - EVM (Russia)
|-
| EBE || Sollers-Auto (Russia)
|-
| EBZ || Nizhekotrans bus (Russia)
|-
| ECE || XCITE (Russia)
|-
| ECW || Trans-Alfa bus (Russia)
|-
| HAC || GAC Motor (Aion)
|-
| HA0 || Wuxi Sundiro Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd. (Palla, Parray)
|-
| HA6 || Jiangsu Niu Electric Technology Co., Ltd. (Niu)
|-
| HA7 || Jinan Qingqi KR Motors Co., Ltd.
|-
| HES || smart Automobile Co., Ltd. (Mercedes-Geely joint venture) 
|-
| HGL ||  Farizon Auto van (Geely)
|-
| HGX ||  Wuling Motors commercial vehicle (Geely)
|-
| HHZ || Huazi Automobile
|-
| HJN || Nio, Firefly 
|-
| HJR || Chery Commercial Vehicle (Anhui) Co., Ltd. Jetour made by Chery Commercial Vehicle
|-
| HJZ || Juzhen Chengshi van
|-
| HJ4 || BAW car
|-
| HLX || Li Auto
|-
| HL4 || Zhejiang Morini Vehicle Co., Ltd. &lt;br /&gt;(Moto Morini subsidiary of Taizhou Zhongneng Motorcycle Co., Ltd.)
|-
| HRV || Beijing Henrey Automobile Technology Co., Ltd.
|-
| HT5 || Zhejiang Jianying Locomotive Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| HVW || Volkswagen Anhui
|-
| HWM || WM Motor Technology Co., Ltd. (Weltmeister)
|-
| HXM || Xiaomi
|-
| HZ2 || Taizhou Zhilong Technology Co., Ltd (motorcycle)
|-
| H0D || Taizhou Qianxin Vehicle Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| H0G || Wisdom (Fujian) Motor Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| JAA || Isuzu truck, Holden Rodeo TF, Opel Campo, Bedford/Vauxhall Brava pickup made by Isuzu in Japan
|-
| JAB || Isuzu car
|-
| JAC || Isuzu SUV, Opel/Vauxhall Monterey &amp; Holden Jackaroo/Monterey made by Isuzu in Japan
|-
| JAE || Acura SLX made by Isuzu
|-
| JAL || Isuzu commercial trucks &amp; &lt;br /&gt; Chevrolet commercial trucks made by Isuzu 2016+ &amp; &lt;br /&gt; Hino S-series truck made by Isuzu (Incomplete Vehicle - medium duty)
|-
| JAM || Isuzu commercial trucks (Incomplete Vehicle - light duty)
|-
| JA3 || Mitsubishi car (for North America)
|-
| JA4 || Mitsubishi MPV/SUV (for North America) &amp; Nissan Rogue PHEV '26
|-
| JA7 || Mitsubishi truck (for North America)
|-
| JB3 || Dodge car made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JB4 || Dodge MPV/SUV made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JB7 || Dodge truck made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JC0 || Ford brand cars made by Mazda
|-
| JC1 || Fiat 124 Spider made by Mazda
|-
| JC2 || Ford Courier made by Mazda
|-
| JDA || Daihatsu, Subaru Justy made by Daihatsu
|-
| JD1 || Daihatsu car
|-
| JD2 || Daihatsu SUV
|-
| JD4 || Daihatsu truck
|-
| JE3 || Eagle car made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JE4 || Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JF1 || ([[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]]) car
|-
| JF2 || ([[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]]) SUV
|-
| JF3 || ([[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]]) truck
|-
| JF4 || Saab 9-2X made by Subaru
|-
| JG1 || Chevrolet/Geo car made by Suzuki
|-
| JG2 || Pontiac car made by Suzuki
|-
| JG7 || Pontiac/Asuna car made by Suzuki for GM Canada
|-
| JGC || Chevrolet/Geo SUV made by Suzuki (classified as a truck)
|-
| JGT || GMC SUV made by Suzuki for GM Canada (classified as a truck)
|-
| JHA || Hino truck
|-
| JHB || Hino incomplete vehicle
|-
| JHD || Hino
|-
| JHF || Hino
|-
| JHH || Hino incomplete vehicle
|-
| JHF-JHG, JHL-JHN, JHZ,&lt;br/&gt;JH1-JH5 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]]
|-
| JHL || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] MPV/SUV
|-
| JHM || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car
|-
| JH1 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] truck
|-
| JH2 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] motorcycle/ATV
|-
| JH3 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] ATV
|-
| JH4 || Acura car
|-
| JH6 || Hino incomplete vehicle
|-
| JJ3 || Chrysler brand car made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JKA || Kawasaki (motorcycles)
|-
| JKB || Kawasaki (motorcycles)
|-
| JKM || Mitsuoka
|-
| JKS || Suzuki Marauder 1600/Boulevard M95 motorcycle made by Kawasaki
|-
| JK8 || Suzuki QUV620F UTV made by Kawasaki
|-
| JLB || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck &amp; Bus Corp.
|-
| JLF || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck &amp; Bus Corp.
|-
| JLS || Sterling Truck 360 made by Mitsubishi Fuso Truck &amp; Bus Corp.
|-
| JL5 || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck &amp; Bus Corp.
|-
| JL6 || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck &amp; Bus Corp.
|-
| JL7 || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck &amp; Bus Corp.
|-
| JMA || Mitsubishi Motors (right-hand drive) for Europe
|-
| JMB || Mitsubishi Motors (left-hand drive) for Europe
|-
| JMF || Mitsubishi Motors for Australia (including Mitsubishi Express made by Renault)
|-
| JMP || Mitsubishi Motors (left-hand drive)
|-
| JMR || Mitsubishi Motors (right-hand drive)
|-
| JMY || Mitsubishi Motors (left-hand drive) for South America &amp; Middle East
|-
| JMZ || Mazda for Europe export &amp; Mazda 2 made by Ford Spain &amp; Mazda 2 Hybrid made by Toyota Motor Manufacturing France
|-
| JM0 || Mazda for Oceania export
|-
| JM1 || Mazda car
|-
| JM2 || Mazda truck
|-
| JM3 || Mazda MPV/SUV
|-
| JM4 || Mazda
|-
| JM6 || Mazda
|-
| JM7 || Mazda
|-
| JNA || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| JNC || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks
|-
| JNE || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks (truck)
|-
| JNK || Infiniti car
|-
| JNR || Infiniti SUV
|-
| JNX || Infiniti incomplete vehicle
|-
| JN1 || Nissan car &amp; Infiniti car
|-
| JN3 || Nissan incomplete vehicle
|-
| JN6 || Nissan truck/van &amp; Mitsubishi Fuso Canter Van
|-
| JN8 || Nissan MPV/SUV &amp; Infiniti SUV
|-
| JPA || International Trucks made by Nissan Diesel (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| JPB || International Trucks made by Nissan Diesel (tractor truck)
|-
| JPC || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks
|-
| JPE || International Trucks made by Nissan Diesel (truck)
|-
| JP3 || Plymouth car made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JP4 || Plymouth MPV/SUV made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JP7 || Plymouth truck made by Mitsubishi Motors
|-
| JR2 || Isuzu Oasis made by Honda
|-
| JSA || Suzuki ATV &amp; '03 Kawasaki KFX400 ATV made by Suzuki, Suzuki car/SUV (outside N. America), Holden Cruze YG made by Suzuki
|-
| JSK || Kawasaki KLX125/KLX125L motorcycle made by Suzuki
|-
| JSL || '04-'06 Kawasaki KFX400 ATV made by Suzuki
|-
| JST || Suzuki Across SUV made by Toyota
|-
| JS1 || Suzuki motorcycle &amp; Kawasaki KLX400S/KLX400SR motorcycle made by Suzuki
|-
| JS2 || Suzuki car
|-
| JS3 || Suzuki SUV
|-
| JS4 || Suzuki truck
|-
| JTB || Toyota bus
|-
| JTD || Toyota car
|-
| JTE || Toyota MPV/SUV
|-
| JTF || Toyota van/truck
|-
| JTG || Toyota MPV/bus
|-
| JTH || Lexus car
|-
| JTJ || Lexus SUV
|-
| JTK || Toyota car
|-
| JTL || Toyota SUV
|-
| JTM || Toyota SUV, Subaru Solterra made by Toyota
|-
| JTN || Toyota car
|-
| JTP || Toyota SUV
|-
| JT1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] van
|-
| JT2 || Toyota car
|-
| JT3 || Toyota MPV/SUV
|-
| JT4 || Toyota truck/van
|-
| JT5 || Toyota incomplete vehicle
|-
| JT6 || Lexus SUV
|-
| JT7 || Toyota bus/van
|-
| JT8 || Lexus car
|-
| JW6 || Mitsubishi Fuso division of Mitsubishi Motors (through mid-2003)
|-
| JYA || Yamaha motorcycles
|-
| JYE || Yamaha snowmobile
|-
| JY3 || Yamaha 3-wheel ATV
|-
| JY4 || Yamaha 4-wheel ATV
|-
| J81 || Chevrolet/Geo car made by Isuzu
|-
| J87 || Pontiac/Asüna car made by Isuzu for GM Canada
|-
| J8B || Chevrolet commercial trucks made by Isuzu (incomplete vehicle - medium duty)
|-
| J8C || Chevrolet commercial trucks made by Isuzu (truck)
|-
| J8D || GMC commercial trucks made by Isuzu (incomplete vehicle - medium duty)
|-
| J8T || GMC commercial trucks made by Isuzu (truck)
|-
| J8Z || Chevrolet LUV pickup truck made by Isuzu (truck)
|-
| KF3 || Merkavim (Israel)
|-
| KF6 || Automotive Industries, Ltd. (Israel)
|-
| KF9/004 || Tomcar (Israel)
|-
| KG9/002 || Charash Ashdod (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/004 || H. Klein (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/007 || Agam Trailers (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/009 || Merkavey Noa (trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/010 || Weingold Trailers (trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/011 || Netzer Sereni (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/015 || Merkaz Hagrorim (trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/035 || BEL Technologies (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/091 || Jansteel (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/101 || Bassamco (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KG9/104 || Global Handasa (truck trailer) (Israel)
|-
| KL || Daewoo [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] South Korea
|-
| KLA || Daewoo/GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet/Alpheon)&lt;br /&gt; from Bupyeong &amp; Kunsan plants
|-
| KLP || CT&amp;T United (battery electric low-speed vehicles)
|-
| KLT || Tata Daewoo
|-
| KLU || Tata Daewoo
|-
| KLY || Daewoo/GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet) from Changwon plant (Tico/Matiz/Matiz Creative/Spark/Damas/Labo)
|-
| KL1 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet car)
|-
| KL2 || Daewoo/GM Daewoo (Pontiac car)
|-
| KL3 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Holden)
|-
| KL4 || GM Korea (Buick MPV/SUV)
|-
| KL5 || GM Daewoo (Suzuki car) US: 2004-2008, Canada: 2004-2011
|-
| KL5 || Daewoo Bus Corp./Zyle Daewoo Bus 2004-2017
|-
| KL6 || GM Daewoo (GMC MPV/SUV)
|-
| KL7 || Daewoo (GM Canada brands: Passport car, Asuna car (Pre-2000))
|-
| KL7 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet MPV/SUV (Post-2000))
|-
| KL8 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet car from Changwon plant (Spark))
|-
| KM || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]]
|-
| KMC || Hyundai commercial truck
|-
| KME || Hyundai commercial truck (semi-tractor)
|-
| KMF || Hyundai van &amp; commercial truck &amp; Bering Truck
|-
| KMH || Hyundai car &amp; Mexican market Dodges made by Hyundai
|-
| KMJ || Hyundai minibus/bus
|-
| KMT || Genesis Motor car
|-
| KMU || Genesis Motor SUV
|-
| KMX || Hyundai Galloper SUV
|-
| KMY || Daelim Motor Company, Ltd/DNA Motors Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| KM1 || Hyosung Motors (motorcycles)
|-
| KM4 || Hyosung Motors/S&amp;T Motors/KR Motors (motorcycles)
|-
| KM8 || Hyundai SUV
|-
| KNA || Kia car
|-
| KNC || Kia truck
|-
| KND || Kia MPV/SUV &amp; Hyundai Entourage
|-
| KNE || Kia for Europe export
|-
| KNF || Kia, special vehicles
|-
| KNG || Kia minibus/bus
|-
| KNJ || Ford Festiva &amp; Aspire made by Kia
|-
| KNL || Kia Elan/Vigato made by Kia Motech
|-
| KNM || Renault Samsung Motors, Nissan Rogue made by Renault Samsung, Nissan Sunny made by Renault Samsung
|-
| KNM || Renault Korea Co., Ltd.
|-
| KN1 || Asia Motors
|-
| KN2 || Asia Motors
|-
| KPA || SsangYong/KG Mobility (KGM) pickup
|-
| KPB || SsangYong car
|-
| KPD || SsangYong TransStar (bus)
|-
| KPH || Mitsubishi Precis
|-
| KPT || SsangYong/KG Mobility (KGM) SUV/MPV
|-
| LAA || Shanghai Jialing Vehicle Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LAE || Jinan Qingqi Motorcycle
|-
| LAL || Sundiro [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Motorcycle
|-
| LAN || Changzhou Yamasaki Motorcycle
|-
| LAP || Chongqing Jianshe Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LAP || Zhuzhou Nanfang Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LAT || Luoyang Northern Ek Chor Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (Dayang)
|-
| LA6 || Xiamen King Long United Automotive Industry Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LA7 || Radar Auto (Geely)
|-
| LA8 || Anhui Ankai
|-
| LA9/AYS || Jiangsu Alfa Bus Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LA9/BFC || Beijing North Huade Neoplan Bus Co., Ltd.
|-
| LA9/FBC || Xiamen Fengtai Bus &amp; Coach International Co., Ltd. (FTBCI) (bus)
|-
| LA9/HFF || Anhui Huaxia Vehicle Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LA9/JXK || CHTC Bonluck Bus Co., Ltd.
|-
| LA9/LC0 || BYD
|-
| LA9/LFJ || Xinlongma Automobile
|-
| LA9/LM6 || SRM Shineray
|-
| LBB || Zhejiang Qianjiang Motorcycle (QJ Motor/Keeway/Benelli)
|-
| LBE || Beijing [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] (Hyundai, Shouwang)
|-
| LBM || Zongshen Piaggio
|-
| LBP || Chongqing Jianshe Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| LBV || BMW Brilliance (BMW, Zinoro)
|-
| LBX || Jiangsu Kinroad Xintian Motorcycle Manufacture Co. Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| LBZ || Yantai Shuchi Vehicle Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LB1 || Fujian Benz
|-
| LB2 || Geely Motorcycles
|-
| LB3 || Zhejiang Geely Holding Group (Geely, Galaxy, Geometry, Kandi)
|-
| LB4 || Chongqing Yinxiang Motorcycle Group Co., Ltd.
|-
| LB5 || Foshan City Fosti Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LB7 || Tibet New Summit Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LCE || Hangzhou Chunfeng Motorcycles (CFMOTO)
|-
| LCR || Gonow
|-
| LC0 || BYD Auto (BYD, Denza)
|-
| LC2 || Changzhou Kwang Yang Motor Co., Ltd. (Kymco)
|-
| LC6 || Changzhou Haojue Suzuki Motorcycle Co. Ltd.
|-
| LDB || Dadi Auto
|-
| LDC || Dongfeng Peugeot Citroen Automobile Co., Ltd. (DPCA), Dongfeng Fengshen (Aeolus) L60
|-
| LDD || Dandong Huanghai Automobile
|-
| LDF || Dezhou Fulu Vehicle Co., Ltd. (motorcycles), BAW Yuanbao electric car (Ace P1 in Norway)
|-
| LDK || FAW Bus (Dalian) Co., Ltd.
|-
| LDN || Soueast (South East (Fujian) Motor Co., Ltd.) including Mitsubishi made by Soueast
|-
| LDP || Dongfeng, Dongfeng Fengshen (Aeolus), Voyah, Renault City K-ZE/Venucia e30 made by eGT New Energy Automotive
|-
| LDY || Zhongtong Bus Holding Co. Ltd.
|-
| LD3 || Guangdong Tayo Motorcycle Technology Co. (Zontes) (motorcycle)
|-
| LD5 || Benzhou Vehicle Industry Group Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LD9/L3A || SiTech (FAW)
|-
| LEC || Tianjin Qingyuan Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LEF || Jiangling Motors Corporation Ltd. (JMC)
|-
| LEH || Zhejiang Riya Motorcycle Co. Ltd.
|-
| LET || Jiangling-Isuzu Motors, China
|- 
| LEW || Dongfeng commercial vehicle
|- 
| LE4 || Beijing Benz &amp; Beijing Benz-Daimler Chrysler Automotive Co. (Chrysler, Jeep, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz) &amp; Beijing Jeep Corp.
|-
| LE8 || Guangzhou Huaye Electric Vehicle Technology Co., Ltd. (Formerly Guangzhou Panyu Huanan Motors Group Co., Ltd.) (motorcycles)
|-
| LFB || FAW Group (Bestune, Hongqi) &amp; Mazda made under license by FAW (Mazda 8, CX-7)
|-
| LFF || Zhejiang Taizhou Wangye Power Co., Ltd.
|-
| LFG || Taizhou Chuanl Motorcycle Manufacturing
|-
| LFJ || Fujian Motors Group (Keyton)
|-
| LFM || FAW Toyota Motor (Toyota, Ranz)
|-
| LFN || FAW Bus (Wuxi) Co., Ltd. (truck, bus)
|-
| LFP || FAW Car, Bestune, Hongqi (passenger vehicles) &amp; Mazda made under license by FAW (Mazda 6, CX-4)
|-
| LFT || FAW (trailers)
|-
| LFU || Lifeng Group Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| LFV || FAW-Volkswagen (VW, Audi, Jetta, Kaili)
|-
| LFW || FAW JieFang (truck)
|-
| LFX || Sany Heavy Industry (truck)
|-
| LFY || Changshu Light Motorcycle Factory
|-
| LFZ || Leapmotor
|-
| LF3 || Lifan Motorcycle 
|-
| LGA || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. trucks
|-
| LGB || Dongfeng Nissan (Nissan, Infiniti, Venucia)
|-
| LGB || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. 
|-
| LGC || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. bus chassis
|-
| LGD || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. 
|-
| LGF || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. bus chassis
|-
| LGG || Dongfeng Liuzhou Motor (Forthing/Fengxing)
|-
| LGJ || Dongfeng Fengshen (Aeolus)
|-
| LGL || Guilin Daewoo
|-
| LGV || Heshan Guoji Nanlian Motorcycle Industry Co., Ltd.
|-
| LGW || Great Wall Motor (GWM, Haval, Ora, Tank, Wey)
|-
| LGX || BYD Auto (BYD, Fangchengbao)
|-
| LGZ || Guangzhou Denway Bus
|-
| LG6 || Dayun Group
|-
| LHA || Shuanghuan Auto
|-
| LHB || Beijing Automotive Industry Holding
|-
| LHG || GAC Honda (Honda, Everus, Acura)
|-
| LHJ || Chongqing Astronautic Bashan Motorcycle Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
|-
| LHM || Dongfeng Renault Automobile Co.
|-
| LHW || CRRC Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LH0 || WM Motor Technology Co., Ltd. (Weltmeister)
|-
| LH1 || FAW-Haima, China
|-
| LJC || Jincheng Corporation
|-
| LJD || Yueda Kia (previously Dongfeng Yueda Kia) (Kia, Horki) &amp; Human Horizons - HiPhi (made under contract by Yueda Kia)
|-
| LJM || Sunlong (bus)
|-
| LJN || Zhengzhou Nissan
|-
| LJR || CIMC Vehicles Group (truck trailer)
|-
| LJS || Yaxing Coach, Asiastar Bus
|-
| LJU || Shanghai Maple Automobile &amp; Kandi &amp; Zhidou
|-
| LJU || Lotus Technology (Wuhan Lotus Cars Co., Ltd.)
|-
| LJV || Sinotruk Chengdu Wangpai Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LJW || JMC Landwind
|-
| LJX || JMC Ford
|-
| LJ1 || JAC (JAC, Sehol)
|-
| LJ1 || Nio, Inc.
|-
| LJ4 || Shanghai Jmstar Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LJ5 || Cixi Kingring Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (Jinlun)
|-
| LJ8 || Zotye Auto made by Jiangnan Automobile
|-
| LKC || BAIC commercial vehicles, previously Changhe
|-
| LKG || Youngman Lotus Automobile Co., Ltd.
|-
| LKH || Hafei Motor
|-
| LKL || Higer Bus
|-
| LKT || Yunnan Lifan Junma Vehicle Co., Ltd. commercial vehicles
|-
| LK2 || Anhui JAC Bus
|-
| LK6 || SAIC-GM-Wuling (Wuling, Baojun) microcars and other vehicles
|-
| LK8 || Zhejiang Yule New Energy Automobile Technology Co., Ltd. (ATV)
|-
| LLC || Loncin Motor Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LLJ || Jiangsu Xinling Motorcycle Fabricate Co., Ltd.
|-
| LLN || Qoros 
|-
| LLP || Zhejiang Jiajue Motorcycle Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
|-
| LLU || Dongfeng Fengxing Jingyi
|-
| LLV || Lifan, Maple (owned by Geely), Livan Automotive
|-
| LLX || Yudo Auto
|-
| LL0 || Sanmen County Yongfu Machine Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| LL2 || WM Motor Technology Co., Ltd. (Weltmeister)
|-
| LL3 || Xiamen Golden Dragon Bus Co. Ltd.
|-
| LL6 || GAC Mitsubishi Motors Co., Ltd. (formerly Hunan Changfeng)
|-
| LL8 || Jiangsu Linhai Yamaha Motor Co., Ltd.
|-
| LMC || Suzuki Hong Kong (motorcycles)
|-
| LME || Skyworth (formerly Skywell), Elaris Beo
|-
| LMF || Jiangmen Zhongyu Motor Co., Ltd.
|-
| LMG || GAC Motor, Trumpchi, [[w:Dodge Attitude#Fourth generation (2025)|Dodge Attitude made by GAC]]
|-
| LMH || Jiangsu Guowei Motor Co., Ltd. (Motoleader)
|-
| LMP || Geely Sichuan Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LMV || Haima Car Co., Ltd.
|-
| LMV || XPeng Motors G3 (not G3i) made by Haima
|-
| LMW || GAC Group, [[w:Trumpchi GS5#Dodge Journey|Dodge Journey made by GAC]]
|-
| LMX || Forthing (Dongfeng Fengxing)
|-
| LM0 || Wangye Holdings Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| LM6 || SWM (automobiles)
|-
| LM8 || Seres (formerly SF Motors), AITO
|-
| LNA || GAC Aion New Energy Automobile Co., Ltd., Hycan
|-
| LNB || BAIC Motor (Senova, Weiwang, Huansu) &amp; Arcfox &amp; Xiaomi SU7 built by BAIC
|-
| LND || JMEV (Jiangxi Jiangling Group New Energy Vehicle Co., Ltd.), Eveasy/Mobilize Limo
|-
| LNE || Zhejiang CRRC Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LNP || NAC MG UK Limited &amp; Nanjing Fiat Automobile
|-
| LNN || Chery Automobile, Omoda, Jaecoo
|-
| LNV || Naveco (Nanjing Iveco Automobile Co. Ltd.)
|-
| LNX || Dongfeng Liuzhou Motor (Chenglong trucks)
|-
| LNY || Yuejin
|-
| LPA || Changan PSA (DS Automobiles)
|-
| LPE || BYD Auto
|-
| LPS || Polestar
|-
| LP6 || Guangzhou Panyu Haojian Motorcycle Industry Co., Ltd.
|-
| LRB || SAIC-General Motors (Buick for export)
|-
| LRD || Beijing Foton Daimler Automotive Co., Ltd. Auman trucks
|-
| LRE || SAIC-General Motors (Cadillac for export)
|-
| LRP || Chongqing Rato Power Co. Ltd. (Asus)
|-
| LRR || Ningbo Longjia Power Technology Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| LRW || Tesla, Inc. (Gigafactory Shanghai)
|-
| LR4 || Yadi Technology Group
|-
| LR6 || Guangzhou Dayun Vehicle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LSC || Changan Automobile (light truck)
|-
| LSF || SAIC Maxus or LDV pickup/SUV &amp; Chevrolet S10 Max &amp; Shanghai Sunwin Bus Corporation
|-
| LSG || SAIC-General Motors (For China: Chevrolet, Buick, Cadillac, Sail Springo, For export: Chevrolet)
|-
| LSH || SAIC Maxus van or LDV van &amp; Chevrolet Express Max
|-
| LSJ || SAIC MG &amp; SAIC Roewe &amp; IM Motors &amp; Rising Auto
|-
| LSK || SAIC Maxus or LDV van
|-
| LSV || SAIC-Volkswagen (VW, Skoda, Audi, Tantus)
|-
| LSY || Brilliance (Jinbei, Zhonghua) &amp; Jinbei GM
|-
| LS3 || Hejia New Energy Vehicle Co., Ltd
|-
| LS4 || Changan Automobile (MPV/SUV)
|-
| LS5 || Changan Automobile (car) &amp; Changan Suzuki
|-
| LS6 || Changan Automobile &amp; Deepal Automobile &amp; Avatr
|-
| LS7 || JMC Heavy Duty Truck Co., Ltd.
|-
| LS8 ||Henan Shaolin Auto Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LTA || ZX Auto
|-
| LTN || Soueast-built Chrysler &amp; Dodge vehicles
|-
| LTP || National Electric Vehicle Sweden AB (NEVS)
|-
| LTV || FAW [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] (Tianjin)
|-
| LTW || Zhejiang Dianka Automobile Technology Co. Ltd. (Enovate) 
|-
| LT1 || Yangzhou Tonghua Semi-Trailer Co., Ltd. (truck trailer)
|-
| LUC || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Automobile (China)
|-
| LUD || Dongfeng Nissan Diesel Motor Co Ltd.
|-
| LUG || Qiantu Motor
|-
| LUJ || Zhejiang Shanqi Tianying Vehicle Industry Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| LUR || Chery Automobile, iCar
|-
| LUX || Dongfeng Yulon Motor Co. Ltd.
|-
| LUZ || Hozon Auto New Energy Automobile Co., Ltd. (Neta)
|-
| LVA || Foton Motor
|-
| LVB || Foton Motor truck
|-
| LVC || Foton Motor bus
|-
| LVF || Changhe Suzuki
|-
| LVG || GAC Toyota (Toyota, Leahead)
|-
| LVH || Dongfeng Honda (Honda, Ciimo)
|-
| LVM || Chery Commercial Vehicle
|-
| LVP || Dongfeng Sokon Motor Company (DFSK)
|-
| LVR || Changan Mazda
|-
| LVS || Changan [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] (Ford, Lincoln) &amp; Changan Ford Mazda &amp; Volvo S40 and S80L made by Changan Ford Mazda
|-
| LVT || Chery Automobile, Exeed, Jetour, Soueast
|-
| LVU || Chery Automobile, Jetour
|-
| LVV || Chery Automobile, Omoda, Jaecoo
|-
| LVX || Landwind, JMC (discontinued in 2021)
|-
| LVX || Aiways Automobiles Company Ltd
|-
| LVY || Volvo Cars Daqing factory
|-
| LVZ || Dongfeng Sokon Motor Company (DFSK)
|-
| LV3 || Hengchi Automobile (Evergrande Group)
|-
| LV7 || Jinan Qingqi Motorcycle
|-
| LWB || Wuyang Honda Motorcycle (Guangzhou) Co., Ltd.
|-
| LWE || Yangtse Motor Group (bus)
|-
| LWG || Chongqing Huansong Industries (Group) Co., Ltd.
|-
| LWL || Qingling Isuzu
|-
| LWM || Chongqing Wonjan Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LWV || GAC Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (Fiat, Jeep)
|-
| LWX || Shanghai Wanxiang Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LW4 || Li Auto
|-
| LXA || Jiangmen Qipai Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LXD || Ningbo Dongfang Lingyun Vehicle Made Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LXG || Xuzhou Construction Machinery Group Co., Ltd. (XCMG)
|-
| LXK || Shanghai Meitian Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LXM || Xiamen Xiashing Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (SYM)
|-
| LXN || Link Tour
|-
| LXV || Beijing Borgward Automotive Co., Ltd.
|-
| LXW || JMC - Ford
|-
| LXY || Chongqing Shineray Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LX6 || Jiangmen City Huari Group Co. Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LX8 || Chongqing Xgjao (Xinganjue) Motorcycle Co Ltd.
|-
| LYB || Weichai (Yangzhou) Yaxing Automobile Co., Ltd.
|-
| LYD || Taizhou City Kaitong Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LYJ || Beijing ZhongdaYanjing Auto Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| LYM || Zhuzhou Jianshe Yamaha Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| LYS || Nanjing Vmoto Manufacturing Co. Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LYU || Huansu (BAIC Motor &amp; Yinxiang Group)
|-
| LYV || Volvo Cars Chengdu factory &amp; Taizhou, Luqiao District factory
|-
| LY4 || Chongqing Yingang Science &amp; Technology Group Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| LZE || Isuzu Guangzhou, China
|-
| LZF || SAIC Iveco Hongyan (-2021), SAIC Hongyan (2021-)
|-
| LZG || Shaanxi Automobile Group (Shacman)
|-
| LZK || Sinotruk (CNHTC) Huanghe bus
|-
| LZL || Zengcheng Haili Motorcycle Ltd.
|-
| LZM || MAN China
|-
| LZP || Zhongshan Guochi Motorcycle (Baotian)
|-
| LZS || Zongshen, Electra Meccanica Vehicles Corp. (Solo) made by Zongshen
|-
| LZU || Guangzhou Isuzu Bus
|-
| LZW || SAIC-GM-Wuling (Wuling, Baojun, Chevrolet [for export])
|-
| LZY || Yutong Bus Co., Ltd.
|-
| LZZ || Sinotruk (CNHTC) (Howo, Sitrak)
|-
| LZ0 || Shandong Wuzheng Group Co., Ltd.
|-
| LZ4 || Jiangsu Linzhi Shangyang Group Co Ltd.
|-
| LZ9/LZX || Raysince
|-
| L0N || Ezytrail (camper trailers)
|-
| L08 || Zhejiang Apollo Sports Technology Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| L1K || Chongqing Hengtong Bus Co., Ltd.
|-
| L1N || XPeng Motors
|-
| L10 || Geely Emgrand
|-
| L2B || Jiangsu Baodiao Locomotive Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| L2C || Chery Jaguar Land Rover
|-
| L3H || Shanxi Victory Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
|-
| L37 || Huzhou Daixi Zhenhua Technology Trade Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| L4B || Xingyue Group (motorcycles)
|-
| L4F || Suzhou Eagle Electric Vehicle Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
|-
| L4H || Ningbo Longjia Motorcycle Co., Ltd.
|-
| L4S || Zhejiang Xingyue Vehicle Co Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| L4Y || Qingqi Group Ningbo Rhon Motorcycle / Ningbo Dalong Smooth Locomotive Industry Co., Ltd.
|-
| L5C || Zhejiang Kangdi Vehicles Co., Ltd. (motorcycles, ATVs)
|-
| L5E || Zoomlion Heavy Industry Science &amp; Technology Co., Ltd.
|-
| L5K || Zhejiang Yongkang Easy Vehicle
|-
| L5N || Zhejiang Taotao (ATV &amp; motorcycles)
|-
| L5R || Jiangsu Dafier Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (motorcycles)
|-
| L5Y || Taizhou Zhongneng Motorcycle Co. Ltd. (Znen)
|-
| L6F || Shandong Liangzi Power Co. Ltd.
|-
| L6J || Zhejiang Kayo Motor Co. Ltd. (ATV)
|-
| L6K || Shanghai Howhit Machinery Manufacture Co. Ltd.
|-
| L6T || Geely, Lynk &amp; Co, Zeekr
|-
| L66 || Zhuhai Granton Bus and Coach Co. Ltd. 
|-
| L82 || Baotian
|-
| L85 || Zhejiang Yongkang Huabao Electric Appliance
|-
| L8A || Jinhua Youngman Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
|-
| L8X || Zhejiang Summit Huawin Motorcycle
|-
| L8Y || Zhejiang Jonway Motorcycle Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
|-
| L9G || Zhuhai Guangtong Automobile Co., Ltd. (bus)
|-
| L9N || Zhejiang Taotao Vehicles Co., Ltd.
|-
| MAA || India Kawasaki Motors Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| MAB || Mahindra &amp; Mahindra
|-
| MAC || Mahindra &amp; Mahindra
|-
| MAH || Fiat India Automobiles Pvt. Ltd
|-
| MAJ || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] India
|-
| MAK || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Cars India
|-
| MAL || Hyundai Motor India
|- 
| MAN || Eicher Polaris Multix
|- 
| MAT || Tata Motors, Rover CityRover
|-
| MA1 || Mahindra &amp; Mahindra
|-
| MA3 || Maruti Suzuki India (domestic &amp; export)
|-
| MA6 || GM India
|-
| MA7 || Hindustan Motors Ltd. &amp; Mitsubishi Motors &amp; Isuzu models made by Hindustan Motors
|-
| MA8 || Daewoo Motor India
|-
| MBF || Royal Enfield
|- 
| MBH || Suzuki (for export) &amp; Nissan Pixo made by Maruti Suzuki India Limited
|-
| MBJ || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Kirloskar Motor Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| MBK || MAN Trucks India Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| MBL || Hero MotoCorp
|-
| MBR || Mercedes-Benz India
|-
| MBU || Swaraj Vehicles Limited
|-
| MBV || Premier Automobiles Ltd.
|-
| MBX || Piaggio India (Piaggio Ape)
|-
| MBY || Asia Motor Works Ltd.
|-
| MB1 || Ashok Leyland
|-
| MB2 || Hyundai Motor India (SUV)
|-
| MB7 || Reva Electric Car Company/Mahindra Reva Electric Vehicles Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| MB8 || Suzuki Motorcycle India Limited
|-
| MCA || FCA India Automobiles Pvt. Ltd. (Fiat, Jeep)
|-
| MCB || GM India
|-
| MCD || Mahindra Two Wheelers
|-
| MCG || Atul Auto Ltd.
|-
| MCL || International Cars And Motors Ltd.
|-
| MC1 || Force Motors Ltd.
|-
| MC2 || Eicher Motors Ltd./Volvo Eicher Commercial Vehicles Ltd.
|-
| MC4 || Dilip Chhabria Design Pvt Ltd.
|-
| MC9/RE1 || Reva Electric Car Company (Reva G-Wiz)
|-
| MDE || Kinetic Engineering Limited
|-
| MDH || Nissan Motor India Pvt Ltd. (including Datsun)
|-
| MDT || Kerala Automobiles Limited
|-
| MD2 || Bajaj Auto Ltd. &amp; KTM and Husqvarna motorcycles built by Bajaj &amp; Indian-market Triumph motorcycles built by Bajaj
|-
| MD6 || TVS Motor Company
|-
| MD7 || LML Ltd including Genuine Scooter Company Stella
|-
| MD9 || Shuttle Cars India
|-
| MEC || Daimler India Commercial Vehicles (BharatBenz)
|-
| MEE || Renault India Private Limited
|-
| MEG || Harley-Davidson India
|-
| MER || Benelli India
|-
| MES || Mahindra Navistar
|-
| MET || Piaggio India (Vespa, Indian-market Aprilia)
|-
| MEX || Škoda Auto Volkswagen India Pvt. Ltd. 2015 on
|-
| ME1 || India Yamaha Motor Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| ME3 || Royal Enfield
|-
| ME4 || Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India
|-
| MYH || Ather Energy
|-
| MZB || Kia India Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| MZD || Classic Legends Private Limited – Jawa
|-
| MZZ || Citroen India (PCA Automobiles India Private Limited)
|-
| MZ7 || MG Motor India Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| M3G || Isuzu Motors India
|-
| M6F || UM Lohia Two Wheelers Private Limited
|-
| ME9/ || BUYMYEV TECHNOLOGY PVT. LTD. (Indibike)
|-
| MF3 || PT Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Indonesia
|-
| MHB || PT Nissan Motor Indonesia
|-
| MHD || PT Indomobil Suzuki International
|-
| MHF || PT [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing Indonesia
|-
| MHK || PT Astra Daihatsu Motor (includes Toyotas made by Astra Daihatsu)
|-
| MHL || PT Mercedes-Benz Indonesia
|-
| MHR || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Indonesia (PT Honda Prospect Motor) (car)
|-
| MHY || PT Suzuki Indomobil Motor (car, MPV, van)
|-
| MH1 || PT Astra Honda Motor (motorcycle)
|-
| MH3 || PT Yamaha Indonesia Motor Mfg.
|-
| MH4 || PT Kawasaki Motor Indonesia
|-
| MH8 || PT Suzuki Indomobil Motor (motorcycle)
|-
| MJB || GM Indonesia
|-
| MKF || PT Sokonindo Automobile (DFSK)
|-
| MK2 || PT Mitsubishi Motors Krama Yudha Indonesia
|-
| MK3 || PT SGMW Motor Indonesia (Wuling)
|-
| MLB || Siam Yamaha Co Ltd.
|-
| MLC || Thai Suzuki Motor Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| MLE || Thai Yamaha Motor Co., Ltd.
|-
| MLH || Thai [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| MLW || Sco Motor Co., Ltd. (motorcycle)
|-
| MLY || Harley-Davidson Thailand
|-
| ML0 || Ducati Motor (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
|-
| ML3 || Mitsubishi Motors, Dodge Colt 100 [Canada], [[w:Dodge Attitude#Third generation (A10; 2015)|Dodge Attitude]] [Mexico] made by Mitsubishi (Thailand)
|-
| ML5 || Kawasaki Motors Enterprise Co. Ltd. (Thailand)
|-
| MMA || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand)
|-
| MMB || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand)
|-
| MMC || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand)
|-
| MMD || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand)
|-
| MME || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand)
|-
| MMF || BMW Manufacturing (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
|-
| MML || MG Thailand (SAIC-CP)
|-
| MMM || Chevrolet Thailand, Holden Colorado RC pickup
|-
| MMR || Subaru/Tan Chong Subaru Automotive (Thailand) Co. Ltd.
|-
| MMS || Suzuki Motor (Thailand) Co., Ltd. (passenger car)
|-
| MMT || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand)
|-
| MMU || Holden Thailand (Colorado RG, Colorado 7, &amp; Trailblazer)
|-
| MM0, MM6, MM7, MM8 || Mazda Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant)
|-
| MNA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant) for Australia/New Zealand export
|-
| MNB || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant) for other right-hand drive markets
|-
| MNC || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant) for left-hand drive markets
|-
| MNK || Hino Motors Manufacturing Thailand Co Ltd.
|-
| MNT || Nissan Motor (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
|-
| MNU || Great Wall Motor Manufacturing (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
|-
| MN3 || Eagle Vista [Canada] made by Mitsubishi (Thailand)
|-
| MPA || Isuzu Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd. &amp; Holden Rodeo RA pickup made by Isuzu in Thailand
|-
| MPB || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford Thailand Manufacturing plant)
|-
| MP1 || Isuzu Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
|-
| MP2 || Mazda BT-50 pickup built by Isuzu Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
|-
| MP3 || Plymouth Colt 100 [Canada] made by Mitsubishi (Thailand)
|-
| MP5 || Foton Motor Thailand
|-
| MRH || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Thailand (car)
|-
| MRT || Neta (Hozon Auto) made by Bangchan General Assembly Co., Ltd. 
|-
| MR0 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand (pickups &amp; Fortuner SUV)
|-
| MR1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand
|-
| MR2 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand (Gateway plant) (passenger cars &amp; CUVs)
|-
| MR3 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand (Hilux Champ chassis cab)
|-
| MS0 || [[../SUPER SEVEN STARS MOTORS INDUSTRY CO.,LTD/VIN Codes|Super Seven Stars Motors]] Myanmar
|-
| MS1 || [[../SUPER SEVEN STARS AUTOMOTIVE CO.,LTD/VIN Codes|Super Seven Stars Automotive]] Myanmar
|-
| MS3 || Suzuki Myanmar Motor Co., Ltd.
|-
| MXB || Saryarka AvtoProm bus (Kazakhstan)
|-
| MXL || Yutong bus made by Qaz Tehna (Kazakhstan)
|-
| MXV || IMZ-Ural Ural Motorcycles (Kazakhstan)
|-
| MX3 || Hyundai Trans Auto (Kazakhstan)
|-
| NAA || Iran Khodro (Peugeot Iran)
|-
| NAC || Mammut (truck trailers)
|-
| NAD || Škoda
|-
| NAL || Maral Sanat Jarvid (truck trailers)
|-
| NAP || Pars Khodro
|-
| NAS || SAIPA
|-
| NC0 || Oghab Afshan (bus)
|-
| NC9/ || VIRA Diesel
|-
| ND9/345 || Oghab Afshan (bus)
|-
| NFB || Honda Atlas Cars Pakistan Ltd.
|-
| NG3 || Lucky Motor Corporation
|-
| NLA || Honda Turkiye A.S. cars
|-
| NLC || Askam Kamyon Imalat Ve Ticaret A.S.
|-
| NLE || Mercedes-Benz Türk A.S. Truck
|-
| NLF || Koluman Otomotiv Endustri A.S. (truck trailer)
|-
| NLH || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Assan Otomotiv car/SUV
|-
| NLJ || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Assan Otomotiv van
|-
| NLN || Karsan
|-
| NLR || Otokar
|-
| NLT || Temsa
|-
| NLZ || Tezeller
|-
| NL1 || TOGG
|-
| NL2 || HABAS/HBS (bus)
|-
| NMA || MAN Türkiye A.Ş.
|-
| NMB || Mercedes-Benz Türk A.S. Buses
|-
| NMC || BMC Otomotiv Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş.
|-
| NMH || Honda Anadolu motorcycle
|-
| NMS || Otoyol San. A.Ş.
|-
| NMT || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing Turkey
|-
| NM0 || Ford Otosan
|-
| NM1 || Oyak Renault Otomobil Fabrikaları A.Ş.
|-
| NM4 || Tofaş (Turk Otomobil Fabrikasi AS)
|-
| NNA || Anadolu Isuzu
|-
| NNN || Gépébus Oréos 4X (based on Otokar Vectio)
|-
| NNY || Yeksan (truck trailer)
|-
| NPM || Seyit Usta Treyler (truck trailer)
|-
| NPR || Oztreyler (truck trailer)
|-
| NPS || Nursan (truck trailer)
|-
| NP8|| ÖZGÜL TREYLER (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/002 || OKT Trailer (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/003 || Aksoylu Trailer (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/011 || Güleryüz (bus)
|-
| NP9/021 || Dogumak (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/022 || Alim (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/042 || Ali Rıza Usta (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/066 || Makinsan (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/093 || BRF Trailer (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/103 || Türkkar (bus)
|-
| NP9/106 || Çarsan Treyler (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/107 || Arbus Perfect (bus)
|-
| NP9/108 || Guven Makina (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/117 || Katmerciler (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/300 || TCV (bus) 
|-
| NP9/258 || Ceytrayler (truck trailer) 
|-
| NP9/306 || Cryocan (truck trailer) 
|-
| NRE || Bozankaya
|-
| NRX || Musoshi
|-
| NRY || Pilotcar Otomotiv
|-
| NR9/012 || Doğan Yıldız (truck trailer)
|-
| NR9/028 || Micansan (truck trailer)
|-
| NR9/029 || Yilteks (truck trailer)
|-
| NR9/034 || Akia (bus)
|-
| NR9/084 || Harsan (truck trailer)
|-
| NR9/257 || Vega Trailer (truck trailer)
|-
| NSA || SamAvto / SAZ (Uzbekistan)
|-
| NS2 || JV MAN Auto - Uzbekistan
|-
| NVA || Khazar (IKCO Dena made in Azerbaijan)
|- 
| PAB || Isuzu Philippines Corporation
|-
| PAD || Honda Cars Philippines
|-
| PE1 || Ford Motor Company Philippines
|-
| PE3 || Mazda Philippines made by Ford Motor Company Philippines
|-
| PFD || Hyundai Motor Group Innovation Center in Singapore (HMGICS)
|-
| PL1 || Proton, Malaysia
|-
| PL8 || Inokom-Hyundai
|-
| PLP || Subaru/Tan Chong Motor Assemblies, Malaysia
|-
| PLZ || Isuzu Malaysia
|-
| PMA || MAN Truck &amp; Bus Malaysia
|-
| PMH || Honda Malaysia (car)
|-
| PMK || Honda Boon Siew (motorcycle)
|-
| PML || Hicom 
|-
| PMN || Modenas
|-
| PMS || Suzuki Assemblers Malaysia (motorcycle)
|-
| PMV || Hong Leong Yamaha Motor Sdn. Bhd.
|-
| PMY || Hong Leong Yamaha Motor Sdn. Bhd.
|-
| PM1 || BMW &amp; Mini/Inokom
|-
| PM2 || Perodua
|-
| PM9/ || Bufori
|-
| PNA || Naza/Kia/Peugeot
|-
| PNA || Stellantis Gurun (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. (Peugeot)
|-
| PNS || SKSBUS Malaysia (bus)
|-
| PNS || TMSBUS Malaysia (bus)
|-
| PNV || Volvo Car Manufacturing Malaysia
|-
| PN1 || UMW Toyota Motor - Assembly Services Sdn. Bhd. (ASSB)
|-
| PN2 || UMW Toyota Motor - Assembly Services Sdn. Bhd. (ASSB)
|-
| PN8 || Nissan/Tan Chong Motor Assemblies, Malaysia
|-
| PPP || Suzuki
|-
| PPV || Volkswagen/HICOM Automotive Manufacturers (Malaysia)
|-
| PP1 || Mazda/Inokom
|-
| PP3 || Hyundai/Inokom
|-
| PRA || Sinotruk
|-
| PRH || Chery (by Chery Alado Holdings [joint venture] at Oriental Assemblers plant)
|-
| PRX || Kia/Inokom
|-
| PR8 || Ford
|-
| PRN || GAC Trumpchi made by Warisan Tan Chong Automotif Malaysia
|-
| PV3 || Ford made by RMA Automotive Cambodia
|-
| RA1 || Steyr Trucks International FZE, UAE
|-
| RA9/015 || Al-Assri Industries (Trailers), UAE
|-
| LES || Isuzu MPV made by Sanfu Motor Industrial Co., Ltd. (Trooper '87-'91) (Taiwan)
|-
| LFA || Ford Lio Ho Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Taiwan)
|-
| LM1 || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Suzuki motorcycle made by Tai Ling) (Taiwan)
|-
| LM4 || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Suzuki ATV made by Tai Ling) (Taiwan)
|-
| LM5 || Isuzu Truck (Light Duty) made by Sanfu Motor Industrial Co., Ltd. (Trooper '87-'88) (Taiwan)
|-
| LN1 || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Suzuki motorcycle made by Tai Ling) (Taiwan)
|-
| LPR || Yamaha Motor Taiwan Co. Ltd. old designation (Taiwan)
|-
| RFB || Kwang Yang Motor Co., Ltd. (Kymco), Taiwan
|-
| RFC || Taiwan Golden Bee
|-
| RFD || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. new designation (Taiwan)
|-
| RFG || Sanyang Motor Co., Ltd. (SYM) Taiwan
|-
| RFL || Her Chee Industrial Co., Ltd. (Adly), Taiwan
|-
| RFT || CPI Motor Company, Taiwan
|-
| RFV || Motive Power Industry Co., Ltd. (PGO Scooters including Genuine Scooter Company models made by PGO) (Taiwan)
|-
| RF3 || Aeon Motor Co., Ltd., Taiwan
|-
| RF5 || Yulon Motor Co. Ltd., Taiwan (Luxgen)
|-
| RF8 || EVT Technology Co., Ltd (motorcycle)
|-
| RGS || Kawasaki made by Kymco (Taiwan)
|-
| RHA || Ford Lio Ho Motor Co Ltd. new designation (Taiwan)
|-
| RKJ || Prince Motors Taiwan
|-
| RKL || Kuozui Motors (Toyota) (Taiwan)
|-
| RKM || China Motor Corporation (Taiwan)
|-
| RKR || Yamaha Motor Taiwan Co. Ltd. new designation
|-
| RKT || Access Motor Co., Ltd. (Taiwan)
|-
| RK3 || E-Ton Power Tech Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) (Taiwan)
|-
| RK3 || Honda Taiwan
|-
| RK7 || Kawasaki ATV made by Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd (rebadged Suzuki ATV) new designation (Taiwan)
|-
| RLA || Vina Star Motors Corp. – Mitsubishi (Vietnam)
|-
| RLC || Yamaha Motor Vietnam Co. Ltd.
|-
| RLE || Isuzu Vietnam Co.
|-
| RLH || Honda Vietnam Co. Ltd.
|-
| RLL || VinFast SUV
|-
| RLM || Mercedes-Benz Vietnam
|-
| RLN || VinFast
|-
| RLV || Vietnam Precision Industrial CO., Ltd. (Can-Am DS 70 &amp; DS 90)
|-
| RL0 || Ford Vietnam
|-
| RL4 || Toyota Motor Vietnam
|-
| RP8 || Piaggio Vietnam Co. Ltd.
|-
| RUN || Sollets-Auto ST6 (Russia)
|-
| R1J || Jiayuan Power (Hong Kong) Ltd. (Electric Low-Speed Vehicles) (Hong Kong)
|-
| R1N || Niu Technologies Group Ltd. (Hong Kong)
|-
| R10 || ZAP (HK) Co. Ltd.
|-
| R19/003 || GMI (bus) (Hong Kong)
|-
| R2P || Evoke Electric Motorcycles (Hong Kong)
|-
| R3M || Mangosteen Technology Co., Ltd. (Hong Kong)
|-
| R36 || HK Shansu Technology Co., Ltd. (Hong Kong)
|-
| R4N || Elyx Smart Technology Holdings (Hong Kong) Ltd.
|-
| R82 || Hangzhou Lantu Technology Co., Ltd. (Hong Kong)
|-
| SAA || Austin
|-
| SAB || Optare (1985-2020), Switch Mobility (2021-)
|-
| SAD || Daimler Company Limited (until April 1987)
|-
| SAD || Jaguar SUV (E-Pace, F-Pace, I-Pace)
|-
| SAF || ERF trucks
|-
| SAH || Honda made by Austin Rover Group
|-
| SAJ || Jaguar passenger car &amp; Daimler passenger car (after April 1987)
|-
| SAL || [[../Land Rover/VIN Codes|Land Rover]]
|-
| SAM || Morris
|-
| SAR || Rover &amp; MG Rover Group
|-
| SAT || Triumph car
|-
| SAX || Austin-Rover Group including Sterling Cars
|-
| SAY || Norton Motorcycles (UK) Ltd. (Donington Park/Donington Hall)
|-
| SAZ || Freight Rover
|-
| SA3 || Ginetta Cars
|-
| SA9/ || OX Global
|-
| SA9/A11 || Morgan Roadster (V6) (USA)
|-
| SA9/J00 || Morgan Aero 8 (USA)
|-
| SA9/004 || Morgan (4-wheel passenger cars)
|-
| SA9/005 || Panther
|-
| SA9/010 || Invicta S1
|-
| SA9/011 || Midas Cars
|-
| SA9/019 || TVR
|-
| SA9/022 || Triking Sports Cars
|-
| SA9/026 || Fleur de Lys
|-
| SA9/036 || Ginetta Cars
|-
| SA9/038 || DAX Cars
|-
| SA9/039 || Westfield Sportscars
|-
| SA9/048 || McLaren F1
|-
| SA9/050 || Marcos Engineering
|-
| SA9/062 || AC Cars (Brooklands Ace)
|-
| SA9/068 || Johnston Sweepers
|-
| SA9/073 || Tomita Auto UK (Tommykaira ZZ)
|-
| SA9/074 || Ascari 
|-
| SA9/088 || Spectre Angel 
|-
| SA9/105 || Mosler Europe Ltd.
|-
| SA9/113 || Noble
|-
| SA9/130 || MG Sport and Racing
|-
| SA9/141 || Wrightbus
|-
| SA9/202 || Morgan 3-Wheeler, Super 3
|-
| SA9/207 || Radical Sportscars
|-
| SA9/211 || BAC (Briggs Automotive Company Ltd.)
|-
| SA9/225 || Paneltex (truck trailer)
|-
| SA9/231 || Peel Engineering
|-
| SA9/337 || Ariel
|-
| SA9/341 || Zenos
|-
| SA9/438 || Charge Cars
|-
| SA9/458 || Gordon Murray Automotive
|-
| SA9/474 || Mellor (bus)
|-
| SA9/612 || Tiger Racing (kit car)
|-
| SA9/621 || AC Cars (Ace)
|-
| SBB || Leyland Vehicles
|-
| SBC || Iveco Ford Truck
|-
| SBF || Nugent (trailer)
|-
| SBJ || Leyland Bus
|-
| SBL || Leyland Motors &amp; Leyland DAF
|-
| SBM || McLaren
|-
| SBS || Scammell
|-
| SBU || United Trailers (truck trailer)
|-
| SBV || Kenworth &amp; Peterbilt [incomplete vehicle] made by Leyland Trucks
|-
| SBW || Weightlifter Bodies (truck trailer)
|-
| SB1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing UK
|-
| SCA || Rolls Royce passenger car
|-
| SCB || Bentley passenger car
|-
| SCC || Lotus Cars &amp; Opel Lotus Omega/Vauxhall Lotus Carlton
|-
| SCD || Reliant Motors
|-
| SCE || DeLorean Motor Cars N. Ireland (UK)
|-
| SCF || Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd. passenger car &amp; '21 DBX SUV
|-
| SCG || Triumph Engineering Co. Ltd. (original Triumph Motorcycle company)
|-
| SCK || Ifor Williams Trailers
|-
| SCM || Manitowoc Cranes - Grove
|-
| SCR || London Electric Vehicle Company &amp; London Taxi Company &amp; London Taxis International
|-
| SCV || Volvo Truck &amp; Bus Scotland
|-
| SC5 || Wrightbus (from ~2020)
|-
| SC6 || INEOS Automotive SUV
|-
| SDB || Talbot
|-
| SDC || SDC Trailers Ltd. (truck trailer)
|-
| SDF || Dodge Trucks – UK 1981–1984
|-
| SDG || Renault Trucks Industries 1985–1992
|-
| SDK || Caterham Cars
|-
| SDL || TVR
|-
| SDP || NAC MG UK &amp; MG Motor UK Ltd.
|-
| SDU || Utility (truck trailer)
|-
| SD7 || Aston Martin SUV
|-
| SD8 || Moke International Ltd.
|-
| SED || IBC Vehicles (General Motors Luton Plant) (Opel/Vauxhall, 1st gen. Holden Frontera, Isuzu Midi)
|-
| SEG || Dennis Eagle Ltd., including Renault Trucks Access and D Access
|-
| SEP || Don-Bur (truck trailer)
|-
| SEY || LDV Group Ltd.
|-
| SFA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] UK
|-
| SFD || Dennis UK / Alexander Dennis
|-
| SFE || Alexander Dennis UK
|-
| SFR || Fruehauf (truck trailer)
|-
| SFN || Foden Trucks &amp; Kenworth [truck] made by Foden Trucks
|-
| SFZ || Tesla Roadster made by Lotus
|-
| SGA || Avondale (caravans)
|-
| SGB || Bailey (caravans)
|-
| SGD || Swift Group Ltd. (caravans)
|-
| SGE || Elddis (caravans)
|-
| SGL || Lunar Caravans Ltd.
|-
| SG4 || Coachman Caravan Co. Ltd.
|-
| SG7 || ABI Caravans Ltd.
|-
| SHH || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] UK passenger car
|-
| SHS || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] UK SUV
|-
| SH2 || The Norton Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (TVS Motor Co. subsidiary)
|-
| SH7 || INEOS Automotive truck
|-
| SJA || Bentley SUV
|-
| SJB || Brian James Trailers Ltd
|-
| SJK || Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK - Infiniti
|-
| SJN || Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK - Nissan
|-
| SJ1 || Ree Automotive
|-
| SKA || Vauxhall
|-
| SKB || Kel-Berg Trailers &amp; Trucks
|-
| SKF || Bedford Vehicles
|-
| SKL || Anaig (UK) Technology Ltd
|-
| SKM || King Military Engineering Ltd.
|-
| SLA || Rolls Royce SUV
|-
| SLC || Thwaites Dumpers
|-
| SLG || McMurtry Automotive
|-
| SLN || Niftylift
|-
| SLP || JC Bamford Excavators Ltd.
|-
| SLV || Volvo bus
|-
| SMR || Montracon (truck trailer)
|-
| SMT || Triumph Motorcycles Ltd. (current Triumph Motorcycle company)
|-
| SMW || Cartwright (truck trailer)
|-
| SMX || Gray &amp; Adams (truck trailer)
|-
| SNE || Barkas (East Germany)
|-
| SNE || Wartburg (East Germany)
|-
| SNT || Trabant (East Germany)
|-
| SNZ || MZ (motorcycle) (Germany)
|-
| SPE || B-ON GmbH (Germany)
|-
| ST3 || Calabrese (truck trailer)
|-
| SUA || Autosan (bus)
|-
| SUB || Tramp Trail (trailer)
|-
| SUC || Wiola (trailer)
|-
| SUD || Wielton (truck trailers)
|-
| SUF || FSM/Fiat Auto Poland (Polski Fiat)
|-
| SUG || Mega Trailers (truck trailer) (Poland)
|-
| SUJ || Jelcz (Poland)
|-
| SUL || FSC (Poland)
|-
| SUM || Novatrail (truck trailers)
|-
| SUP || FSO/Daewoo-FSO (Poland)
|-
| SUU || Solaris Bus &amp; Coach (Poland)
|-
| SU9/AR1 || Emtech (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/BU1 || BODEX (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/DE2 || Demarco (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/EB1 || Elbo (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/EZ1 || Enerco (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/NC5 || Zasta (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/NJ1 || Janmil (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/PL1 || Plandex (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/PN1 || Solaris Bus &amp; Coach (Poland) - until 2004
|-
| SU9/RE1 || Redos (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/RE2 || Gromex (trailer)
|-
| SU9/TR1 || Plavec (truck trailer)
|-
| SU9/YV1 || Pilea bus/ARP E-Vehicles (Poland)
|-
| SU9/ZC1 || Wolf (truck trailer)
|-
| SVH || ZASŁAW (truck trailer)
|-
| SVM || Inter Cars (truck trailer)
|-
| SVS || BODEX (truck trailer)
|-
| SV9/BC2 || BC-LDS (truck trailer)
|-
| SV9/DR1 || Dromech (truck trailer)
|-
| SV9/RN1 || Prod-Rent (truck trailer)
|-
| SWH || Temared (trailers)
|-
| SWR || Weekend Trailers (trailers)
|-
| SWV || TA-NO (Poland)
|-
| SWZ || Zremb (trailers)
|-
| SW9/BA1 || Solbus
|-
| SW9/WG3 || Grew / Opalenica (trailer)
|-
| SXE || Neptun Trailers
|-
| SXK || Konar (truck trailer)
|-
| SXM || MELEX Sp. z o.o.
|-
| SXY || Wecon (truck trailer)
|-
| SXX || Martz (trailer)
|-
| SX7 || Arthur Bus
|-
| SX9/GR0 || GRAS (truck trailer)
|-
| SX9/KT1 || AMZ - Kutno (bus)
|-
| SX9/PN1 || Polkon (truck trailer)
|-
| SX9/SP1 || SOMMER Polska (truck trailer)
|-
| SYB || Rydwan (trailer)
|-
| SYG || Gniotpol, GT Trailers Sp. z o. o. (truck trailer)
|-
| SY1 || Neso Bus (PAK-PCE Polski Autobus Wodorowy)
|-
| SY9/FR1 || Feber (truck trailer)
|-
| SY9/PF1 || KEMPF (truck trailer)
|-
| SZA || Scania Poland
|-
| SZC || Vectrix (motorcycle)
|-
| SZL || Boro Trailers
|-
| SZN || Przyczepy Głowacz (trailer) 
|-
| SZR || Niewiadów (trailer) 
|-
| SZ9/AE6 || Gewe (trailer) 
|-
| SZ9/BG1 || GALA Syriusz (trailer) 
|-
| SZ9/PW1 || PRO-WAM (truck trailer)
|-
| SZ9/TU1 || Ovibos (truck trailer)
|-
| S19/AM0 || AMO Plant (bus) (Latvia)
|-
| S19/EF1 || Electrify (minibus) (Latvia)
|-
| S19/MT0 || Mono-Transserviss (truck trailer) (Latvia)
|-
| TAW || NAW Nutzfahrzeuggesellschaft Arbon &amp; Wetzikon AG (Switzerland)
|-
| TBS || Boschung AG (Switzerland)
|-
| TCC || Micro Compact Car AG (smart 1998-1999) (Switzerland)
|-
| TDM || QUANTYA Swiss Electric Movement (Switzerland)
|-
| TEB || Bucher Municipal AG (includes Johnston Sweepers) (Switzerland)
|-
| TEM || Twike (SwissLEM AG) (Switzerland)
|-
| TFH || FHS Frech-Hoch AG (truck trailer) (Switzerland)
|-
| TH9/512 || Hess AG (bus, trolleybus) (Switzerland)
|-
| TJ5 || Vezeko (trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TKP || Panav a.s.  (truck trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TKX || Agados s.r.o. (trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TKY || Metaco (truck trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TK9/AH3 || Atmos Chrást s.r.o. (Czech Republic)
|-
| TK9/AP3 || Agados, spol. s.r.o. (trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TK9/HP1 || Hipocar (truck trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TK9/PP7 || Paragan Trucks (truck trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TK9/SL5 || SOR Libchavy buses (Czech Republic)
|-
| TK9/SS5 || SVAN Chrudim (truck trailer) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TLJ || Jawa Moto (Czech Republic)
|-
| TMA || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Motor Manufacturing Czech
|-
| TMB || Škoda Auto|Škoda (Czech Republic)
|-
| TMC || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Motor Manufacturing Czech (SUV)
|-
| TMK || Karosa (Czech Republic)
|-
| TMP || Škoda trolleybuses (Czech Republic)
|-
| TMT || Tatra passenger car (Czech Republic)
|-
| TM9/CA2 || Oasa bus (Oprava a stavba automobilů) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TM9/SE3 || Škoda Transportation trolleybuses (Czech Republic)
|-
| TM9/SE4 || Škoda Transportation trolleybuses (Czech Republic)
|-
| TM9/TE6 || TEDOM bus (Czech Republic)
|-
| TNA || Avia/Daewoo Avia
|-
| TNE || TAZ
|-
| TNG || LIAZ (Liberecké Automobilové Závody)
|-
| TNT || Tatra trucks
|-
| TNU || Tatra trucks
|-
| TN9/EE7 || Ekova (bus) (Czech Republic)
|-
| TN9/VP5 || VPS (truck trailer)
|-
| TRA || Ikarus Bus
|-
| TRC || Csepel bus
|-
| TRE || Rákos bus
|-
| TRK || Credo bus/Kravtex (Hungary)
|-
| TRR || Rába Bus (Hungary)
|-
| TRU || Audi Hungary (TT/TTS, '12-'13 TT RS)
|-
| TSB || Ikarus Bus
|-
| TSC || VIN assigned by the National Transport Authority of Hungary
|-
| TSE || Ikarus Egyedi Autobuszgyar (EAG) (Hungary)
|-
| TSF || Alfabusz (Hungary)
|-
| TSM || Suzuki Hungary (Magyar Suzuki),&lt;br&gt; Fiat Sedici made by Suzuki, Subaru Justy G3X made by Suzuki, Suzuki Swace made by Toyota UK (TMUK)
|-
| TSY || Keeway Motorcycles (Hungary)
|-
| TS9/111 || NABI Autóbuszipari (bus) (Hungary)
|-
| TS9/130 || Enterprise Bus (Hungary)
|-
| TS9/131 || MJT bus (Hungary)
|-
| TS9/156 || Ikarus / ARC (Auto Rad Controlle Kft.) bus (Hungary)
|-
| TS9/167 || Hungarian Bus Kft. (Hungary)
|-
| TS9/170 || Csaba Metál bus (Hungary)
|-
| TT9/117 || Ikarus Egyedi Autobusz Gyarto Kft. / Magyar Autóbuszgyártó Kft. / MABI (Hungary)
|-
| TT9/123 || Ikarus Global Zrt. (Hungary)
|-
| TWG || CaetanoBus (Portugal)
|-
| TW0 || CaetanoBus (Portugal)
|-
| TW1 || Toyota Caetano Portugal, S.A. (Toyota Coaster, Dyna, Optimo, Land Cruiser 70 Series)
|-
| TW2 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Lusitana (Portugal)
|-
| TW4 || UMM (Portugal)
|-
| TW6 || Citroën (Portugal)
|-
| TW7 || Mini Moke made by British Leyland &amp; Austin Rover Portugal
|-
| TX5 || Mini Moke made by Cagiva (Moke Automobili)
|-
| TX9/046 || Riotrailer (truck trailer) (Portugal)
|-
| TYA || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corp. Portugal (right-hand drive)
|-
| TYB || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corp. Portugal (left-hand drive)
|-
| T3C || Lohr Backa Topola (truck trailer) (Serbia)
|-
| T49/BG7 || FAP (Serbia)
|-
| T49/BH8 || Megabus (bus) (Serbia)
|-
| T49/BM2 || Feniksbus (minibus) (Serbia)
|-
| T49/V16 || MAZ made by BIK (bus) (Serbia)
|-
| T7A || Ebusco (Netherlands)
|-
| UA1 || AUSA Center (Spain)
|-
| UA2 || Iveco Massif &amp; Campagnola made by Santana Motors in Spain
|-
| UA4 || Irizar e-mobility (Spain)
|-
| UCY || Silence Urban Ecomobility (Spain)
|-
| UD3 || Granalu truck trailers (Belgium)
|-
| UHE || Scanvogn (trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UHL || Camp-let (recreational vehicle) (Denmark)
|-
| UH2 || Brenderup (trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UH2 || De Forenede Trailerfabrikke (trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/DA3 || DAB - Danish Automobile Building (acquired by Scania) (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/EM1 || Egholm (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/FK1 || Dapa Trailer (truck trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/HF1 || HFR Trailer A/S (truck trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/HM1 || HMK Bilcon A/S (truck trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/NS1 || Nopa (truck trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/NT1 || Nordic Trailer (truck trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UH9/VM2 || VM Tarm a/s (truck trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UJG || Garia ApS - Club Car (Denmark)
|-
| UKR || Hero Camper (Denmark)
|-
| UMT || MTDK a/s (truck trailer) (Denmark)
|-
| UN1 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Ireland
|-
| UN9/089 || Brian Noone Ltd. bus (Ireland)
|-
| UU1 || Dacia (Romania)
|-
| UU2 || Oltcit
|-
| UU3 || ARO
|-
| UU4 || Roman/Grivbuz
|-
| UU5 || Rocar
|-
| UU6 || Daewoo Romania
|-
| UU7 || Euro Bus Diamond
|-
| UU9 || Astra Bus
|-
| UVW || UMM (truck trailer)
|-
| UV9/AT1 || ATP Trucks, ATP Bus
|-
| UWR || Robus Reșița
|-
| UZT || UTB (Uzina de Tractoare Brașov)
|-
| U1A || Sanos (North Macedonia)
|-
| U1V || VDL Van Hool Macedonia (North Macedonia)
|-
| U5Y || Kia Motors Slovakia
|-
| U59/AS0 || ASKO (truck trailer)
|-
| U6A || Granus (bus) (Slovakia)
|-
| U6Y || Kia Motors Slovakia
|-
| U69/NL1 || Novoplan (bus) (Slovakia)
|-
| U69/SB1 || SlovBus (bus)
|-
| U69/TR8 || Troliga Bus (Slovakia)
|-
| VAG || Steyr-Daimler-Puch Puch G &amp; Steyr-Puch Pinzgauer
|-
| VAH || Hangler (truck trailer)
|-
| VAK || Kässbohrer Transport Technik
|-
| VAN || MAN Austria/Steyr-Daimler-Puch Steyr Trucks
|-
| VAV || Schwarzmüller
|-
| VAX || Schwingenschlogel (truck trailer)
|-
| VA0 || ÖAF, Gräf &amp; Stift
|-
| VA4 || KSR Group (motorcycle)
|-
| VA9/GS0 || Gsodam Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer)
|-
| VA9/RB1 || Rosenbauer International AG (truck)
|-
| VA9/ZT0 || Berger Fahrzeugtechnik (truck trailer)
|-
| VBF || Fit-Zel (trailer)
|-
| VBK || KTM 
|-
| VBK || Husqvarna Motorcycles &amp; Gas Gas under KTM ownership
|-
| VCF || Fisker Inc. (Fisker Ocean) made by Magna Steyr
|-
| VFA || Alpine (A310, A610, A110, A390), Renault Alpine GTA
|-
| VFG || Caravelair (caravans)
|-
| VFK || Fruehauf (truck trailers)
|-
| VFN || Trailor, General Trailers (truck trailers)
|-
| VF1 || Renault, Renault GTA '87-'90 (UK market Alpine GTA), Mobilize Duo, Eagle Medallion made by Renault,&lt;br&gt; Opel/Vauxhall Arena made by Renault, Mitsubishi ASX, Colt, Grandis, &amp; Eclipse Cross EV made by Renault
|-
| VF2 || Renault Trucks
|-
| VF3 || Peugeot
|-
| VF4 || Talbot
|-
| VF5 || Iveco Unic
|-
| VF6 || Renault Trucks including vans made by Renault S.A. &amp; Maxity truck made by Nissan Motor Ibérica S.A.
|-
| VF7 || Citroën
|-
| VF8 || Matra Automobiles (Talbot-Matra Murena, Rancho made by Matra, Renault Espace I/II/III, Avantime made by Matra)
|-
| VF9/024 || Legras Industries (truck trailer)
|-
| VF9/045 || Nardeau SAS (truck trailer)
|-
| VF9/049 || G. Magyar (truck trailer)
|-
| VF9/063 || Maisonneuve (truck trailer)
|-
| VF9/132 || Jean CHEREAU S.A.S. (truck trailer)
|-
| VF9/300 || EvoBus France
|-
| VF9/435 || Merceron (truck trailer)
|-
| VF9/519 || Hommell 
|-
| VF9/607 || Mathieu (sweeper)
|-
| VF9/673 || Venturi Automobiles
|-
| VF9/795 || [[../Bugatti/VIN Codes|Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.]]
|-
| VF9/848 || G. Magyar (truck trailer)
|-
| VF9/880 || Bolloré Bluebus
|-
| VF9/938 || SAFRA (bus)
|-
| VGA || Peugeot Motocycles
|-
| VGT || ASCA (truck trailers)
|-
| VGU || Trouillet (truck trailers)
|-
| VGW || BSLT (truck trailers)
|-
| VGX || Coder (truck trailers)
|-
| VGY || Lohr (truck trailers)
|-
| VG5 || MBK (motorcycles) &amp; Yamaha Motor
|-
| VG6 || Renault Trucks &amp; Mack Trucks medium duty trucks made by Renault Trucks
|-
| VG7 || Renault Trucks
|-
| VG8 || Renault Trucks
|-
| VG9/019 || Naya (autonomous vehicle)
|-
| VG9/061 || Alstom-NTL Aptis (bus)
|-
| VHR || Robuste (truck trailer)
|-
| VHX || Manitowoc Cranes - Potain
|-
| VH1 || Benalu SAS (truck trailer)
|-
| VH8 || Microcar
|-
| VJR || Ligier
|-
| VJY || Gruau
|-
| VJ1 || Heuliez Bus
|-
| VJ2 || Mia Electric
|-
| VJ4 || Gruau
|-
| VKD || Cheval Liberté (horse trailer)
|-
| VK1 || SEG (truck trailer)
|-
| VK2 || Grandin Automobiles
|-
| VK8 || Venturi Automobiles
|-
| VLG || Aixam-Mega
|-
| VLU || Scania France
|-
| VL4 || Bluecar, Citroen E-Mehari
|-
| VMK || Renault Sport Spider
|-
| VMS || Automobiles Chatenet
|-
| VMT || SECMA
|-
| VMW || Gépébus Oréos 55
|-
| VM3 || Lamberet (trailer)
|-
| VM3 || Chereau (truck trailer)
|-
| VN1 || Renault SOVAB (France), Opel/Vauxhall Movano A made at SOVAB
|-
| VN4 || Voxan
|-
| VNB || Sherco Motorcycles SARL
|-
| VNE || Iveco Bus/Irisbus (France)
|-
| VNK || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing France &amp; '11-'13 Daihatsu Charade (XP90) made by TMMF
|-
| VNV || Nissan made in France by Renault
|-
| VPG || MPM Motors 
|-
| VPL || Nosmoke S.A.S
|-
| VP3 || G. Magyar (truck trailers)
|-
| VRW || Goupil
|-
| VR1 || DS Automobiles
|-
| VR3 || Peugeot (under Stellantis)
|-
| VR7 || Citroën (under Stellantis)
|-
| VSA || Mercedes-Benz Spain
|-
| VSC || Talbot
|-
| VSE || Santana Motors (Land Rover Series-based models) &amp; Suzuki SJ/Samurai, Jimny, &amp; Vitara made by Santana Motors in Spain
|-
| VSF || Santana Motors (Anibal/PS-10, 300/350)
|-
| VSK || Nissan Motor Iberica SA, Nissan passenger car/MPV/van/SUV/pickup &amp; Ford Maverick 1993–1999
|-
| VSR || Leciñena (truck trailers)
|-
| VSS || SEAT/Cupra
|-
| VSX || Opel Spain
|-
| VSY || Renault V.I. Spain (bus)
|-
| VS1 || Pegaso
|-
| VS5 || Renault Spain
|-
| VS6 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Spain
|-
| VS7 || Citroën Spain
|-
| VS8 || Peugeot Spain
|-
| VS9/001 || Setra Seida (Spain)
|-
| VS9/011 || Advanced Design Tramontana
|-
| VS9/013 || Mirofret (truck trailer) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/016 || Irizar bus (Spain)
|-
| VS9/019 || Cobos Hermanos (truck trailer) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/031 || Carrocerias Ayats (Spain)
|-
| VS9/032 || Parcisa (truck trailer) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/044 || Beulas bus (Spain) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/047 || Indox (truck trailers) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/052 || Montull (truck trailer) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/057 || SOR Ibérica (truck trailers) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/072 || Mecanicas Silva (truck trailer) (Spain)
|-
| VS9/098 || Sunsundegui bus (Spain)
|-
| VS9/172 || EvoBus Iberica 
|-
| VS9/917 || Nogebus (Spain)
|-
| VTD || Montesa Honda (Honda Montesa motorcycle models)
|-
| VTH || Derbi (motorcycles)
|-
| VTL || Yamaha Spain (motorcycles)
|-
| VTM || Montesa Honda (Honda motorcycle models)
|-
| VTP || Rieju S.A. (motorcycles)
|-
| VTR || Gas Gas
|-
| VTT || Suzuki Spain (motorcycles)
|-
| VVC || SOR Ibérica (truck trailers)
|-
| VVG || Tisvol (truck trailers)
|-
| VV1 || Lecitrailer Group (truck trailers)
|-
| VV5 || Prim-Ball (truck trailers)
|-
| VV9/ || [[wikipedia:Tauro Sport Auto|TAURO]] Sport Auto Spain
|-
| VV9/010 || Castrosúa bus (Spain)
|-
| VV9/125 || Indetruck (truck trailers)
|-
| VV9/130 || Vectia Mobility bus (Spain)
|-
| VV9/130 || UNVI bus (Spain)
|-
| VV9/359|| Hispano-Suiza
|-
| VWA || Nissan Vehiculos Industriales SA, Nissan Commercial Vehicles
|-
| VWF || Guillén Group (truck trailers)
|-
| VWL || Indox (truck trailers)
|-
| VWV || Volkswagen Spain
|-
| VXE || Opel Automobile Gmbh/Vauxhall van
|-
| VXF || Fiat van (Fiat Scudo, Ulysse '22-)
|-
| VXK || Opel Automobile Gmbh/Vauxhall car/SUV
|-
| VXY || Neobus a.d. (Serbia)
|-
| VX1 || [[w:Zastava Automobiles|Zastava Automobiles]] / [[w:Yugo|Yugo]] (Yugoslavia/Serbia)
|-
| VYC || Lancia Ypsilon (4th gen.)
|-
| VYE || Jeep Compass (3rd gen. - EU market '26-)
|-
| VYF || Fiat Doblo '23- &amp; Fiat Topolino '23- &amp; Fiat Grande Panda '25-
|-
| VYJ || Ram 1200 '25- (sold in Mexico)
|-
| VYS || Renault &amp; Alpine made by Ampere (Renault 5 E-Tech, Renault 4 E-Tech, Alpine A290)
|-
| VZ2 || Avtomontaža (bus) (Slovenia)
|-
| V1Y || FAS Sanos bus (Yugoslavia/North Macedonia)
|-
| V2X || Ikarbus a.d. (Serbia)
|-
| V31 || Tvornica Autobusa Zagreb (TAZ) (Croatia)
|-
| V34 || Crobus bus (Croatia)
|-
| V39/AB8 || Rimac Automobili (Croatia)
|-
| V39/CB3 || Eurobus (Croatia)
|-
| V39/WB4 || Rasco (machinery) (Croatia)
|-
| V6A || Bestnet AS; Tiki trailers (Estonia)
|-
| V6B || Brentex-Trailer (Estonia)
|-
| V6T || Verge Motorcycles (Estonia)
|-
| V61 || Respo Trailers (Estonia)
|-
| WAC || Arge Audi Porsche (Audi/Porsche RS2 Avant)
|-
| WAF || Ackermann (truck trailer)
|-
| WAG || Neoplan
|-
| WAP || Alpina
|-
| WAU || Audi car
|-
| WA1 || Audi SUV
|-
| WBA || BMW car
|-
| WBC || Boom Trikes
|-
| WBJ || Bitter Cars
|-
| WBK || Böcker Maschinenwerke GmbH 
|-
| WBL || Blumhardt (truck trailers)
|-
| WBS || BMW M car
|-
| WBU || Bürstner (caravans)
|-
| WBX || BMW SUV
|-
| WBY || BMW i car
|-
| WB0 || Böckmann Fahrzeugwerke GmbH (trailers)
|-
| WB1 || BMW Motorrad 
|-
| WB2 || Blyss (trailer)
|-
| WB3 || BMW Motorrad Motorcycles made in India by TVS
|-
| WB4 || BMW Motorrad Motorscooters made in China by Loncin
|-
| WB5 || BMW i SUV
|-
| WCD || Freightliner Sprinter &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 2008–2019
|-
| WCM || Wilcox (truck trailer)
|-
| WDA || Mercedes-Benz incomplete vehicle (North America)
|-
| WDB || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] &amp; Maybach
|-
| WDC || Mercedes-Benz SUV
|-
| WDD || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] car
|-
| WDF || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] van/pickup (French &amp; Spanish built models – Citan &amp; Vito &amp; X-Class)
|-
| WDP || Freightliner Sprinter incomplete vehicle 2005–2019
|-
| WDR || Freightliner Sprinter MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) 2005–2019
|-
| WDT || Dethleffs (caravans)
|-
| WDW || Dodge Sprinter &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 2008–2009
|-
| WDX || Dodge Sprinter incomplete vehicle 2005–2009
|-
| WDY || Freightliner Sprinter truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) 2005–2019
|-
| WDZ || Mercedes-Benz &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) (North America)
|-
| WD0 || Dodge Sprinter truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) 2005–2009
|-
| WD1 || Freightliner Sprinter 2002 &amp; Sprinter (Dodge or Freightliner) 2003–2005 incomplete vehicle
|-
| WD2 || Freightliner Sprinter 2002 &amp; Sprinter (Dodge or Freightliner) 2003–2005 truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats)
|-
| WD3 || Mercedes-Benz truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) (North America)
|-
| WD4 || Mercedes-Benz MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) (North America)
|-
| WD5 || Freightliner Sprinter 2002 &amp; Sprinter (Dodge or Freightliner) 2003–2005 MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats)
|-
| WD6 || Freightliner Unimog truck
|-
| WD7 || Freightliner Unimog incomplete vehicle
|-
| WD8 || Dodge Sprinter MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) 2005–2009
|-
| WEB || Evobus GmbH (Mercedes-Benz buses)
|-
| WEG || Ablinger  (trailer)
|-
| WEL || e.GO Mobile AG
|-
| WFB || Feldbinder Spezialfahrzeugwerke GmbH
|-
| WFC || Fendt (caravans)
|-
| WFD || Fliegl Trailer
|-
| WFN || Tadano Faun GmbH
|-
| WF0 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Germany
|-
| WF1 || Merkur
|-
| WGB || Göppel Bus GmbH
|-
| WG0 || Goldhofer AG (truck trailer)
|-
| WHB || Hobby - Wohnwagenwerk, Ing. H. Striewski GmbH (recreational vehicles)
|-
| WHD || Humbaur GmbH (truck trailer)
|-
| WHL || Hulco (trailer)
|-
| WHW || Hako GmbH
|-
| WHY || Hymer GmbH &amp; Co. KG (recreational vehicles)
|-
| WH7 || Hüfferman (truck trailer)
|-
| WJM || Iveco/Iveco Magirus
|-
| WJR || Irmscher
|-
| WKE || Krone (truck trailers)
|-
| WKK || Setra (Evobus GmbH; formerly Kässbohrer)
|-
| WKN || Knaus, Weinsberg (caravans)
|-
| WKV || Kässbohrer Fahrzeugwerke Gmbh (truck trailers)
|-
| WK0 || Kögel (truck trailers)
|-
| WLA || Langendorf semi-trailers
|-
| WLF || Liebherr (mobile crane)
|-
| WMA || MAN Truck &amp; Bus 
|-
| WME || smart (from 5/99)
|-
| WMG || Demag Cranes
|-
| WMM || Karl Müller GmbH &amp; Co. KG (truck trailers)
|-
| WMP || M &amp; V GmbH (truck trailers)
|-
| WMU || Hako GmbH (Multicar)
|-
| WMW || MINI car
|-
| WMX || Mercedes-AMG used for Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG &amp; Mercedes-AMG GT &amp; Mercedes-AMG One (not used in North America)
|-
| WMZ || MINI SUV
|-
| WNA || Next.e.GO Mobile SE
|-
| WP0 || Porsche car
|-
| WP1 || Porsche SUV
|-
| WRA || Renders (truck trailers)
|-
| WRJ || Riese &amp; Müller (bicycle)
|-
| WSE || STEMA Metalleichtbau GmbH (trailers)
|-
| WSJ || STERK Trailers (truck trailers)
|-
| WSK || Schmitz-Cargobull Gotha (truck trailers)
|-
| WSM || Schmitz-Cargobull (truck trailers)
|-
| WSP || Spitzer (truck trailers)
|-
| WSV || Aebi Schmidt Group
|-
| WS5 || StreetScooter
|-
| WS7 || Sono Motors
|-
| WTA || Tabbert (caravans)
|-
| WUA || Audi Sport GmbH (formerly quattro GmbH) car &lt;br&gt; (includes '04-'09 S4 Cabriolet &amp; '06 S4 25quattro Special Edition sedan &amp; '16-'18 S8 Plus &amp; non-North American mkt. Q7 V12 TDI)
|-
| WU1 || Audi Sport GmbH (formerly quattro GmbH) SUV
|-
| WVG || Volkswagen SUV &amp; Touran &amp; N. American mkt. ID Buzz '25
|-
| WVM || Arbeitsgemeinschaft VW-MAN
|-
| WVP || Viseon Bus
|-
| WVW || Volkswagen passenger car, Sharan, Golf Plus, Golf Sportsvan
|-
| WV1 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (cargo van or 1st gen. Amarok)
|-
| WV2 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (passenger van or minibus)
|-
| WV3 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (incomplete vehicle: chassis cab/cutaway)&lt;br&gt; [includes Winnebago Rialta ('97-'04), Winnebago Vista ('02-'04), Itasca Sunstar ('02-'04)]
|-
| WV4 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (2nd gen. Amarok &amp; T7 Transporter made by Ford)
|-
| WV5 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (T7 Caravelle made by Ford)
|-
| WWA || Wachenhut (truck trailer)
|-
| WWC || WM Meyer (truck trailer)
|-
| WZ1 || Toyota Supra (Fifth generation for North America)
|-
| W0D || Obermaier (truck trailer)
|-
| W0L || Adam Opel AG/Vauxhall &amp; Holden
|-
| W0L || Holden Zafira &amp; Subaru Traviq made by GM Thailand
|-
| W0V || Opel Automobile Gmbh/Vauxhall &amp; Holden (since 2017)
|-
| W04 || Buick Regal &amp; Buick Cascada
|-
| W06 || Cadillac Catera
|-
| W08 || Saturn Astra
|-
| W09/A55 || Artega Automobile
|-
| W09/A71 || Apollo
|-
| W09/B09 || Bitter Cars
|-
| W09/B16 || Brabus
|-
| W09/B48 || Bultmann (trailer)
|-
| W09/B91 || Boerner (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/C09 || Carnehl Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/D04 || DOLL (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/D05 || Drögmöller (bus)
|-
| W09/D17 || Dinkel (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/E04 || Eder (trailer)
|-
| W09/E27 || Esterer (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/E32 || ES-GE (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/E45 || Eurotank (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/F46 || FSN Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/F57 || Twike
|-
| W09/G10 || GOFA (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/G64 || Gumpert
|-
| W09/H10 || Heitling Fahrzeugbau
|-
| W09/H21|| Dietrich Hisle GmbH (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/H46 || Hendricks (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/H49 || H&amp;W Nutzfahrzeugtechnik GmbH (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/J02 || Isdera
|-
| W09/K27 || Krupp
|-
| W09/K27 || Kotschenreuther (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/L05 || Liebherr
|-
| W09/L06 || LMC Caravan (recreational vehicles)
|-
| W09/M08 || MEILLER Kipper (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/M09 || Meierling (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/M29 || MAFA (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/M40 || Franz Mersch (trailer)
|-
| W09/M79 || MKF Matallbau (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/N22 || NFP-Eurotrailer (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/P13 || Pagenkopf (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/P72 || De Tomaso Automobili (Capricorn)
|-
| W09/R06 || RUF
|-
| W09/R14 || Rancke (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/R27 || Gebr. Recker Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/R30 || Reisch (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/R38 || Rewaco
|-
| W09/SG0 || Sileo (bus)
|-
| W09/SG1 || SEKA (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/S24 || Sommer (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/S25 || Spermann (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/S27 || Schröder (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W11 || Wilken (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W14 || Weka (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W16 || Wellmeyer (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W20 || Kurt Willig GmbH &amp; Co. KG  (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W29 || Wiese (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W35 || Wecon GmbH  (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W46 || WT-Metall (trailer)
|-
| W09/W59 || Wiesmann
|-
| W09/W70 || Wüllhorst (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/W86 || Web Trailer GmbH  (truck trailer)
|-
| W09/004 || ORTEN Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer)
|-
| W1A || smart
|-
| W1H || Freightliner Econic
|-
| W1K || Mercedes-Benz car
|-
| W1N || Mercedes-Benz SUV
|-
| W1T || Mercedes-Benz truck
|-
| W1V || Mercedes-Benz van
|-
| W1W || Mercedes-Benz MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) (North America)
|-
| W1X || Mercedes-Benz incomplete vehicle (North America)
|-
| W1Y || Mercedes-Benz truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) (North America)
|-
| W1Z || Mercedes-Benz &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) (North America)
|-
| W2W || Freightliner Sprinter MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats)
|-
| W2X || Freightliner Sprinter incomplete vehicle
|-
| W2Y || Freightliner Sprinter truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats)
|-
| W2Z || Freightliner Sprinter &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats)
|-
| XDN || Mercedes Sprinter Classic made by GAZ (Russia)
|-
| XD2 || CTTM Cargoline (truck trailer) (Russia)
|-
| XEA || AmberAvto (Avtotor) (Russia)
|-
| XE2 || AMKAR Automaster (truck trailer) (Russia)
|-
| XF9/B24 || NK Trailers (truck trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XF9/D44 || Militsis (trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XF9/J03 || Christos Nezis (truck trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XF9/J63 || Kaoussis (truck trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XG3 || Petros Petropoulos Group - Ecoshift NOOS electric motorscooters (Greece)
|-
| XG4|| Mpitis (trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XG5 || Stavropoulos trailers (Greece)
|-
| XG6 || MGK Hellenic Motor motorcycles (Greece)
|-
| XG8 || Gorgolis SA motorcycles (Greece)
|-
| XG9/B01 || Sfakianakis bus Greece
|-
| XG9/H33 || Rappas Trailer (Greece)
|-
| XG9/H51 || Eurotrailer Tourlakopoulos (trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XG9/H92 || Diamantis N. &amp; Co. (trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XΗ9/B21 || Hellenic Vehicle Industry - ELVO bus Greece
|-
| XH9/H08 || Poseidonas Litsakis (trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XH9/H34 || Flexi-Wheels (trailer) (Greece)
|-
| XJY || Bonum (truck trailer) (Russia)
|-
| XJ4 || PKTS (PK Transportnye Sistemy) bus (Russia)
|-
| XKM || Volgabus (Russia)
|-
| XLA || DAF Bus International
|-
| XLB || Volvo Car B.V./NedCar B.V. (Volvo Cars)
|-
| XLC || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Netherlands
|-
| XLD || Pacton Trailers B.V.
|-
| XLE || Scania Netherlands
|-
| XLH || Hapert (trailer)
|-
| XLJ || Anssems (trailer)
|-
| XLK || Burg Trailer Service BV (truck trailer)
|-
| XLR || DAF Trucks &amp; Leyland DAF
|-
| XLU || Henra (trailer)
|-
| XLV || DAF Bus
|-
| XLW || Terberg Benschop BV
|-
| XL3 || Ebusco
|-
| XL4 ||Lightyear
|-
| XL9/001 || ESVE BV (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/002 || Jumbo Groenewegen (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/003 || Autobusfabriek Bova BV
|-
| XL9/004 || G.S. Meppel (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/007|| Broshuis BV (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/010|| Ginaf Trucks
|-
| XL9/014 || Contar (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/017 || Van Eck (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/021 || Donkervoort Cars
|-
| XL9/033 || Wijer (trailer)
|-
| XL9/039 || Talson (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/042 || Den Oudsten Bussen
|-
| XL9/052 || Witteveen (trailer)
|-
| XL9/055 || Fripaan (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/067 || HTF (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/068 || Vogelzang (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/069 || Kraker (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/070 || Veldhuizen (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/073 || Zwalve (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/074 || Draco (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/081 || EBO van Weel (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/084 || Vocol (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/089 || Meijvo (trailers)
|-
| XL9/092 || Bulthuis (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/103 || D-TEC (truck trailers)
|-
| XL9/109|| Groenewold Carrosseriefabriek B.V. (car transporter)
|-
| XL9/150 || Univan (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/251 || Spierings Mobile Cranes
|-
| XL9/320 || VDL Bova bus
|-
| XL9/348 || HOKA (trailer)
|-
| XL9/355 || Berdex (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/363 || Spyker
|-
| XL9/423 || Tijhof (trailer)
|-
| XL9/461 || BK Market Trailers (trailer)
|-
| XL9/495 || BE-Combi (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/508 || Talson (truck trailer)
|-
| XL9/527 || GINAF
|-
| XL9/530 || Ebusco
|-
| XL9/611 || Zocon (trailer)
|-
| XMC || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors (LHD)
|-
| XMD || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors (RHD)
|-
| XMG || VDL Bus International
|-
| XMR || Nooteboom Trailers 
|-
| XM4 || RAVO Holding B.V. (sweeper)
|-
| XNB || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors made by Pininfarina (Colt CZC convertible - RHD)
|-
| XNC || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors made by Pininfarina (Colt CZC convertible - LHD)
|-
| XNJ || Broshuis (truck trailer)
|-
| XNL || VDL Bus &amp; Coach
|-
| XNT || Pacton Trailers B.V. (truck trailer)
|-
| XN1 || Kraker Trailers Axel B.V. (truck trailer)
|-
| XPN || Knapen Trailers
|-
| XPP || Atec Trailers
|-
| XP7 || Tesla Europe (based in the Netherlands) (Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg)
|-
| XRP || Proline (trailer)
|-
| XRY || D-TEC (truck trailer)
|-
| XR7 || Qarry
|-
| XTA || Lada / AvtoVAZ (Russia)
|-
| XTB || Moskvitch / AZLK (Russia)
|-
| XTC || KAMAZ (Russia)
|-
| XTD || LuAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| XTE || ZAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| XTF || GolAZ (Russia) 
|-
| XTH || GAZ (Russia)
|-
| XTJ || Lada Oka made by SeAZ (Russia)
|-
| XTK || IzhAvto (Russia)
|-
| XTM || MAZ (Belarus); used until 1997
|-
| XTP || Ural (Russia)
|-
| XTS || ChMZAP (truck trailer)
|-
| XTT || UAZ / Sollers (Russia)
|-
| XTU || Trolza, previously ZiU (Russia)
|-
| XTW || LAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| XTY || LiAZ (Russia)
|-
| XTZ || ZiL (Russia)
|-
| XUF || General Motors Russia
|-
| XUS || Nizhegorodets (minibus) (Russia)
|-
| XUU || Avtotor (Russia, Chevrolet SKD, Kaiyi Auto)
|-
| XUV || Avtotor (DFSK, SWM)
|-
| XUZ || InterPipeVAN (truck trailer)
|-
| XU6 || Avtodom (minibus) (Russia)
|-
| XVG || MARZ (bus) (Russia)
|-
| XVU || Start (truck trailer)
|-
| XW7 || Toyota Motor Manufacturing Russia
|-
| XW8 || Volkswagen Group Russia (VW, Skoda)
|-
| XWB || UZ-Daewoo/GM Uzbekistan/Ravon/UzAuto Motors (Uzbekistan)
|-
| XWB || Avtotor (Russia, BAIC SKD)
|-
| XWE || Avtotor (Russia, Hyundai-Kia SKD)
|-
| XWF || Avtotor (Russia, Chevrolet Tahoe/Opel/Cadillac/Hummer SKD)
|-
| XX3 || Ujet Manufacturing (Luxembourg)
|-
| XZB || SIMAZ (bus) (Russia)
|-
| XZE || Specpricep (truck trailer)
|-
| XZG || Great Wall Motor (Haval Motor Rus)
|-
| XZP || Gut Trailer (truck trailer)
|-
| XZT || FoxBus (minibus) (Russia)
|-
| X1D || RAF (Rīgas Autobusu Fabrika) (Latvia)
|-
| X1E || KAvZ (Russia)
|-
| X1F || NefAZ (Russia)
|-
| X1M || PAZ (Russia)
|-
| X1P || Ural (Russia)
|-
| X2L || Fox Trailer (truck trailer) (Russia)
|-
| X21 || Diesel-S (truck trailer) (Russia)
|-
| X4K || Volgabus (Volzhanin) (Russia)
|-
| X4T || Sommer (truck trailer) (Russia)
|-
| X4X || Avtotor (Russia, BMW SKD)
|-
| X5A || UralSpetzTrans (trailer) (Russia)
|-
| X6D || VIS-AVTO (Russia)
|-
| X6S || TZA (truck trailer) (Russia)
|-
| X7L || Renault AvtoFramos (1998-2014), Renault Russia (2014-2022), Moskvitch (2022-) (Russia)
|-
| X7M || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] &amp; Vortex (rebadged Chery) made by TagAZ (Russia)
|-
| X89/AD4 || ВМЗ (VMZ) bus
|-
| X89/BF8 || Rosvan bus
|-
| X89/CU2 || EvoBus Russland (bus)
|-
| X89/DJ2 || VMK (bus)
|-
| X89/EY4 || Brabill (minibus)
|-
| X89/FF6 || Lotos (bus)
|-
| X89/FY1 || Sherp 
|-
| X8J || IMZ-Ural Ural Motorcycles
|-
| X8U || Scania Russia
|-
| X9F || Ford Motor Company ZAO
|-
| X9L || GM-AvtoVAZ
|-
| X9N || Samoltor (minibus)
|-
| X9P || Volvo Vostok ZAO (Volvo Trucks)
|-
| X9W || Brilliance, Lifan made by Derways
|-
| X9X || Great Wall Motors 
|-
| X96 || GAZ
|-
| X99/000 || Marussia
|-
| X90 || GRAZ (truck trailer)
|-
| X0T || Tonar (truck trailer)
|-
| YAF || Faymonville (special transport trailers)
|-
| YAG || Syma aanhangwagenbouw BV (trailers)
|-
| YAM || MAX Trailer (truck trailers)
|-
| YAR || Toyota Motor Europe (based in Belgium) used for Toyota ProAce, Toyota ProAce City and Toyota ProAce Max made by PSA/Stellantis
|-
| YA2 || Atlas Copco Group
|-
| YA5 || Renders (truck trailers)
|-
| YA9/ || Lambrecht Constructie NV (truck trailers)
|-
| YA9/111 || OVA (truck trailer)
|-
| YA9/121 || Atcomex (truck trailer)
|-
| YA9/128 || EOS (bus)
|-
| YA9/139 || ATM Maaseik (truck trailer)
|-
| YA9/168 || Forthomme s.a. (truck trailer)
|-
| YA9/169 || Automobiles Gillet
|-
| YA9/180 || EOS (bus)
|-
| YA9/191 || Stokota (truck trailers)
|-
| YA9/195 || Denolf &amp; Depla (minibus)
|-
| YBC || Toyota Supra (Fifth generation for Europe)
|-
| YBD || Addax Motors
|-
| YBW || Volkswagen Belgium
|-
| YB1 || Volvo Trucks Belgium (truck)
|-
| YB2 || Volvo Trucks Belgium (bus chassis)
|-
| YB3 || Volvo Trucks Belgium (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| YB4 || LAG Trailers N.V. (truck trailer)
|-
| YB6 || Jonckheere (VDL Belgium)
|-
| YCM || Mazda Motor Logistics Europe (based in Belgium) used for European-market Mazda 121 made by Ford in UK
|-
| YC1 || Honda Belgium NV (motorcycle)
|-
| YC3 || Eduard Trailers
|-
| YD3 || Chateau Caravans (Belgium)
|-
| YE1 || Van Hool (trailers) (Belgium)
|-
| YE2 || Van Hool (buses) (Belgium)
|-
| YE6 || STAS (truck trailer)
|-
| YE7 || Turbo's Hoet (truck trailer)
|-
| YF1 || Närko (truck trailer) (Finland)
|-
| YF3 || NTM (truck trailer) (Finland)
|-
| YF9/050 || JYKI (truck trailer) (Finland)
|-
| YGU || JJ-Trailer (trailer) (Finland)
|-
|YG6
|Majava Group Oy; Majava trailers (Finland)
|-
| YH1 || Solifer (caravans)
|-
| YH2 || BRP Finland (Lynx snowmobiles)
|-
| YH4 || Fisker Automotive (Fisker Karma) built by Valmet Automotive
|-
| YK1 || Saab-Valmet Finland
|-
| YK2, YK7 || Sisu Auto
|-
| YK9/003 || Kabus (bus)
|-
| YK9/008 || Lahden Autokori (-2013), SOE Busproduction Finland (2014-2024) (bus)
|-
| YK9/016 || Linkker (bus)
|-
| YSC || Cadillac BLS (made by Saab)
|-
| YSM || Polestar cars 
|-
| YSP || Volta Trucks AB
|-
| YSR || Polestar SUV
|-
| YS2 || Scania commercial vehicles (Södertälje factory) 
|-
| YS3 || Saab cars
|-
| YS4 || Scania buses and bus chassis until 2002 (Katrineholm factory)
|-
| YS5 || OmniNova (minibus)
|-
| YS7 || Solifer (recreational vehicles)
|-
| YS9/KV1 || Backaryd (minibus)
|-
| YTN || Saab made by NEVS
|-
| YT7 || Kabe (recreational vehicles)
|-
| YT9/007 || Koenigsegg
|-
| YT9/034 || Carvia
|-
| YU1 || Fogelsta, Brenderup Group (trailer)
|-
| YU7 || Husaberg (motorcycles)
|-
| YVV || WiMa 442 EV
|-
| YV1 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] cars
|-
| YV2 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] trucks
|-
| YV3 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] buses and bus chassis
|-
| YV4 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] SUV
|-
| YV5 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo Trucks]] incomplete vehicle
|-
| YYB || Tysse (trailer) (Norway)
|-
| YYC || Think Nordic (Norway)
|-
| YY9/017 || Skala Fabrikk (truck trailer) (Norway)
|-
| Y29/005 || Buddy Electric (Norway)
|-
| Y3D || MTM (truck trailer) (Belarus)
|-
| Y3F || Lida Buses Neman (Belarus)
|-
| Y3J || Belkommunmash (Belarus)
|-
| Y3K || Neman Bus (Belarus)
|-
| Y3M || MAZ (Belarus)
|-
| Y3W || VFV built by Unison (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/047 || Altant-M (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/051 || Bus-Master (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/052 || Aktriya (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/072 || Klassikbus (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/074 || Alterra (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/135 || EuroDjet (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/240 || Alizana (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/241 || RSBUS (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y39/323 || KF-AVTO (minibus) (Belarus)
|-
| Y4F || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Belarus
|-
| Y4K || Geely / BelGee (Belarus)
|-
| Y6B || Iveco (Ukraine)
|-
| Y6D || ZAZ / AvtoZAZ, Chevrolet Lanos made by ZAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y6E || LAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y6J || Bogdan group (Ukraine)
|-
| Y6L || Bogdan group including buses, Lada, &amp; Hyundai made by Bogdan (Ukraine)
|-
| Y6U || Škoda Auto made by Eurocar (Ukraine)
|-
| Y6W || PGFM (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y6Y || LEV (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y69/B19 || Stryi Avto (bus) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y69/B98 || VESTT (truck trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y69/C49 || TAD (truck trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y69/D75 || Barrel Dash (truck trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7A || KrAZ trucks (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7B || Bogdan group (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7C || Great Wall Motors, Geely made by KrASZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7D || GAZ made by KrymAvtoGAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7F || Boryspil Bus Factory (BAZ) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7S || Korida-Tech (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7W || Geely made by KrASZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y7X || ChRZ - Ruta (minibus) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y79/A23 || OdAZ (truck trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y79/B21 || Everlast (truck trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y79/B65 || Avtoban (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y8A || LAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y8H || UNV Leader (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y8S || Alekseevka Ximmash (truck trailer) 
|-
| Y8X || GAZ Gazelle made by KrASZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y89/A98 || VARZ (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y89/B75 || Knott (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y89/C65 || Electron (Ukraine)
|-
| Y9A || PAVAM (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y9H || LAZ (Ukraine)
|-
| Y9M || AMS (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y9T || Dnipro (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y9W || Pragmatec (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y9Z || Lada, Renault made in Ukraine
|-
| Y99/B32 || Santey (trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y99/E21 || Zmiev-Trans (truck trailer) (Ukraine)
|-
| Y99/C79 || Electron (bus) (Ukraine)
|-
| ZAA || Autobianchi
|-
| ZAA || Alfa Romeo Junior 2024-
|-
| ZAC || Jeep, Dodge Hornet
|-
| ZAH || Rolfo SpA (car transporter)
|-
| ZAJ || Trigano SpA; Roller Team recreational vehicles
|-
| ZAM || [[../Maserati/VIN Codes|Maserati]]
|-
| ZAP || Piaggio/Vespa/Gilera
|-
| ZAR || Alfa Romeo car
|-
| ZAS || Alfa Romeo Alfasud &amp; Sprint through 1989
|-
| ZAS || Alfa Romeo SUV 2018-
|-
| ZAX || Zorzi (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA4 || Omar (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/A12 || [[../Lamborghini/VIN Codes|Lamborghini]] through mid-2003 (including LM002)
|-
| ZA9/A17 || Carrozzeria Luigi Dalla Via (bus)
|-
| ZA9/A18 || De Simon (bus)
|-
| ZA9/A33 || Bucher Schörling Italia (sweeper)
|-
| ZA9/A47 || Silver Car (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/B09 || Mauri Bus System
|-
| ZA9/B34 || Mistrall Siloveicoli (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/B45 || Bolgan (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/B49 || OMSP Macola (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/B95 || Carrozzeria Autodromo Modena (bus)
|-
| ZA9/C38 || Dulevo (sweeper)
|-
| ZA9/D38 || Cizeta Automobili SRL
|-
| ZA9/D39 || [[../Bugatti/VIN Codes|Bugatti Automobili S.p.A]]
|-
| ZA9/D50 || Italdesign Giugiaro
|-
| ZA9/E15 || Tecnobus Industries S.r.l.
|-
| ZA9/E73 || Sitcar (bus)
|-
| ZA9/E88 || Cacciamali (bus)
|-
| ZA9/F16 || OMT (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/F21 || FGM (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/F48 || Rampini Carlo S.p.A. (bus)
|-
| ZA9/F76 || Pagani Automobili S.p.A.
|-
| ZA9/G97 || EPT Horus (bus)
|-
| ZA9/H02 || O.ME.P.S. (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/H44|| Green-technik by Green Produzione s.r.l. (machine trailer)
|-
| ZA9/J21 || VRV (truck trailer)
|-
| ZA9/J93 || Barbi (bus)
|-
| ZA9/K98 || Esagono Energia S.r.l.
|-
| ZA9/M09 || Italdesign Automobili Speciali
|-
| ZA9/M27 || Dallara Stradale
|-
| ZA9/M91 || Automobili Pininfarina
|-
| ZA9/180 || De Simon (bus)
|-
| ZA0 || Acerbi (truck trailer)
|-
| ZBA || Piacenza (truck trailer)
|-
| ZBB || Bertone
|-
| ZBD || InBus
|-
| ZBN || Benelli
|-
| ZBW || Rayton-Fissore Magnum
|-
| ZB3 || Cardi (truck trailer)
|-
| ZCB || E. Bartoletti SpA (truck trailer)
|-
| ZCF || Iveco / Irisbus (Italy)
|-
| ZCG || Cagiva SpA / MV Agusta
|-
| ZCG || Husqvarna Motorcycles Under MV Agusta ownership
|-
| ZCM || BredaMenarinibus / Menarinibus / IIA (Industria Italiana Autobus)
|-
| ZCN || Astra Veicoli Industriali S.p.A.
|-
| ZCV || Vibreti (truck trailer)
|-
| ZCZ || BredaBus
|-
| ZC1 || AnsaldoBreda S.p.A.
|-
| ZC2 || Chrysler TC by Maserati
|-
| ZDC || Honda Italia Industriale SpA
|-
| ZDF || [[../Ferrari/VIN Codes|Ferrari]] Dino
|-
| ZDJ || ACM Biagini
|-
| ZDM || Ducati Motor Holdings SpA
|-
| ZDT || De Tomaso Modena SpA
|-
| ZDY || Cacciamali
|-
| ZD0 || Yamaha Motor Italia SpA &amp; Belgarda SpA
|-
| ZD3 || Beta Motor
|-
| ZD4 || Aprilia
|-
| ZD5 || Casalini
|-
| ZEB || Ellebi (trailer)
|-
| ZEH || Trigano SpA (former SEA Group); McLouis &amp; Mobilvetta recreational vehicles
|-
| ZES || Bimota
|-
| ZEX || TM Racing (motorcycle)
|-
| ZE5 || Carmosino (truck trailer)
|-
| ZFA || Fiat
|-
| ZFB || Fiat MPV/SUV &amp; Ram Promaster City
|-
| ZFC || Fiat truck (Fiat Ducato for Mexico, Ram 1200)
|-
| ZFE || KL Motorcycle
|-
| ZFF || [[../Ferrari/VIN Codes|Ferrari]]
|-
| ZFJ || Carrozzeria Pezzaioli (truck trailer)
|-
| ZFM || Fantic Motor
|-
| ZFR || Pininfarina
|-
| ZF4 || Qvale
|-
| ZGA || Iveco Bus
|-
| ZGP || Merker (truck trailer)
|-
| ZGU || Moto Guzzi
|-
| ZG2 || FAAM (commercial vehicle)
|-
| ZHU || Husqvarna Motorcycles Under Cagiva ownership
|-
| ZHW || [[../Lamborghini/VIN Codes|Lamborghini]] (Mid-2003 – )
|-
| ZHZ || Menci SpA (truck trailer)
|-
| ZH5 || FB Mondial (motorcycle)
|-
| ZJM || Malaguti
|-
| ZJN || Innocenti
|-
| ZJT || Italjet
|-
| ZKC || Ducati Energia Free Duck (electric quadricycle)
|-
| ZKH || Husqvarna Motorcycles Srl Under BMW ownership
|-
| ZLA || Lancia
|-
| ZLF || Tazzari GL SpA
|-
| ZLM || Moto Morini srl
|-
| ZLV || Laverda
|-
| ZNN || Energica
|-
| ZN0 || SWM Motorcycles S.r.l.
|-
| ZN3 || Iveco Defence
|-
| ZN6 || Maserati SUV
|-
| ZPB || [[../Lamborghini/VIN Codes|Lamborghini]] SUV
|-
| ZPY || DR Automobiles
|-
| ZP6 || XEV
|-
| ZP8 || Regis Motors
|-
| ZRG || Tazzari GL Imola SpA
|-
| ZR1 || Microlino
|-
| ZSG || [[../Ferrari/VIN Codes|Ferrari]] SUV
|-
| ZX1 || TAM (Tovarna Avtomobilov Maribor) bus (Slovenia)
|-
| ZX9/KU0 || K-Bus / Kutsenits (bus) (Slovenia)
|-
| ZX9/DUR || TAM bus (Slovenia)
|-
| ZX9/TV0 || TAM (Tovarna Vozil Maribor) bus (Slovenia)
|-
| ZY1 || Adria (recreational vehicles) (Slovenia)
|-
| ZY9/002 || Gorica (truck trailer) (Slovenia)
|-
| ZZ1 || Tomos motorcycle (Slovenia)
|-
| Z29/555 || Vozila FLuid (truck trailer) (Slovenia)
|-
| Z3D || Tauriga UAB; Tauras trailers (Lithuania)
|-
| Z39/008 || Autogalantas (truck trailer) (Lithuania)
|-
| Z39/009 || Patikima Linija / Rimo (truck trailer) (Lithuania)
|-
| Z6F || Ford Sollers (Russia)
|-
| Z7C || Luidor (bus) (Russia)
|-
| Z7N || KAvZ (bus) (Russia)
|-
| Z7T || RoAZ (bus) (Russia)
|-
| Z7X || Isuzu Rus (Russia)
|-
| Z76 || SEMAZ (Kazakhstan)
|-
| Z8M || Marussia (Russia)
|-
| Z8N || Nissan Manufacturing Rus (Russia)
|-
| Z8T || PCMA Rus (Peugeot, Citroen, Mitsubishi) (Russia)
|-
| Z8U || [[w:SsangYong Korando#Third generation (C200; 2010)|Ssangyong Actyon]] made by Sollers (Russia)
|-
| Z8Y || Nasteviya (bus) (Russia)
|-
| Z9B || KuzbassAvto (Hyundai bus) (Russia)
|-
| Z9M || Mercedes-Benz Manufacturing Rus / Mercedes-Benz Trucks Vostok (Russia)
|-
| Z9N || Samotlor-NN (Iveco) (Russia)
|-
| Z94 || Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Rus (Hyundai, Kia) (2008-2023), Solaris Auto - AGR Automotive (2023-) (Russia)
|-
| Z07 || Volgabus (Russia)
|-
| 1A4 1A8 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2006–2009 only
|-
| 1A9/007 || Advance Mixer Inc.
|-
| 1A9/111 || Amerisport Inc. (federalized late model DeTomaso Pantera)
|-
| 1A9/398 || Ameritech (federalized McLaren F1 &amp; Bugatti EB110)
|-
| 1A9/569 || American Custom Golf Cars Inc. (AGC)
|-
| 1AC || American Motors Corporation MPV
|-
| 1AF || American LaFrance truck
|-
| 1AJ || Ajax Manufacturing (truck trailer)
|-
| 1AM || American Motors Corporation car &amp; Renault Alliance 1983 only
|-
| 1BN || Beall Trailers (truck trailer)
|-
| 1B3 || Dodge car 1981–2011
|-
| 1B4 || Dodge MPV/SUV 1981–2002
|-
| 1B6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 1981–2002
|-
| 1B7 || Dodge truck 1981–2002
|-
| 1B9/133 || Buell Motorcycle Company through mid-1995
|-
| 1B9/274 || Brooks Brothers Trailers
|-
| 1B9/275 || Boydstun Metal Works (truck trailer)
|-
| 1B9/285 || Boss Hoss Cycles
|-
| 1B9/374 || Big Dog Custom Motorcycles through mid-2002
|-
| 1B9/975 || Motus Motorcycles
|-
| 1BA || Blue Bird Corporation bus
|-
| 1BB || Blue Bird Wanderlodge MPV
|-
| 1BD || Blue Bird Corporation incomplete vehicle
|-
| 1BL || Balko, Inc.
|-
| 1C3 || Chrysler brand car 1981–2011
|-
| 1C3 || Chrysler Group (all brands) car (including Lancia) 2012-
|-
| 1C4 || Chrysler brand MPV 1990–2005
|-
| 1C4 || Chrysler Group (all brands) MPV 2012–
|-
| 1C6 || Chrysler Group (all brands) truck 2012–
|-
| 1C8 || Chrysler brand MPV 2001–2005
|-
| 1C9/257 || CEI Equipment Company (truck trailer)
|-
| 1C9/291 || CX Automotive
|-
| 1C9/496 || Carlinville Truck Equipment (truck trailer)
|-
| 1C9/535 || Chance Coach (bus)
|-
| 1C9/737 || Corbin Motors, Inc.
|-
| 1C9/772 || Cozad (truck trailer)
|-
| 1C9/971 || Cool Amphibious Manufacturers International
|-
| 1CM || Checker Motors Corporation
|-
| 1CU || Cushman Haulster (Cushman division of Outboard Marine Corporation)
|-
| 1CY || Crane Carrier Company
|-
| 1CY || Battle Motors, Inc.
|-
| 1D3 || Dodge truck 2002–2009
|-
| 1D4 || Dodge MPV/SUV 2003–2011 only
|-
| 1D7 || Dodge truck 2002–2011
|-
| 1D8 || Dodge MPV/SUV 2003–2009 only
|-
| 1D9/008 || KME Fire Apparatus
|-
| 1D9/628 || Dymac Vehicle Group (low-speed vehicle)
|-
| 1D9/791 || Dennis Eagle, Inc.
|-
| 1DW || Stoughton Trailers (truck trailer)
|-
| 1E9/007 || E.D. Etnyre &amp; Co. (truck trailer)
|-
| 1E9/190 || Electric Transit Inc. (trolleybus)
|-
| 1E9/363 || E-SUV LLC (E-Ride Industries)
|-
| 1E9/456 || Electric Motorsport (GPR-S electric motorcycle)
|-
| 1E9/526 || Epic TORQ
|-
| 1E9/581 || Vetter Razor
|-
| 1EU || Eagle Coach Corporation (bus)
|-
| 1FA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] car
|-
| 1FB || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats)
|-
| 1FC || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] stripped chassis made by Ford
|-
| 1FD || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] incomplete vehicle
|-
| 1FM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] MPV/SUV
|-
| 1FT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] truck
|- 
| 1FU || Freightliner (truck)
|-
| 1FV || Freightliner (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1F1 || Ford SUV - Limousine (through 2009)
|-
| 1F6 || Ford stripped chassis made by Detroit Chassis LLC
|-
| 1F9/037 || Federal Motors Inc. 
|-
| 1F9/140 || Ferrara Fire Apparatus (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1F9/458 || Faraday Future prototypes
|- 
| 1F9/FT1 || FWD Corp.
|-
| 1F9/ST1 || Seagrave Fire Apparatus
|-
| 1F9/ST2 || Seagrave Fire Apparatus
|-
| 1G || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] USA
|-
| 1G0 || GMC &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–1986
|-
| 1G0 || GMC Rapid Transit Series (RTS) bus 1981–1984
|-
| 1G0 || Opel/Vauxhall car 2007–2017
|-
| 1G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] car
|-
| 1G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] car
|-
| 1G3 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Oldsmobile]] car
|-
| 1G4 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] car
|-
| 1G5 || GMC MPV/SUV 1981–1986
|-
| 1G5 || Pontiac incomplete vehicle 1989-1990, 2003-2006
|-
| 1G6 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Cadillac]] car
|-
| 1G7 || Pontiac car only sold by GM Canada
|-
| 1G8 || Chevrolet MPV/SUV 1981–1986
|-
| 1G8 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Saturn]] car 1991–2010
|-
| 1G9/492 || GreenPower Motor Company incomplete vehicle 
|-
| 1G9/495 || Google &amp; Waymo
|-
| 1GA || Chevrolet &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats)
|-
| 1GB || Chevrolet incomplete vehicle
|-
| 1GC || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] truck 
|-
| 1GD || GMC incomplete vehicle
|-
| 1GE || Cadillac incomplete vehicle
|-
| 1GF || Flxible bus
|-
| 1GG || Isuzu pickup trucks made by GM
|-
| 1GH || GMC Rapid Transit Series (RTS) bus 1985–1986
|-
| 1GH || Oldsmobile MPV/SUV 1990–2004
|-
| 1GH || Holden Acadia 2019–2020
|-
| 1GJ || GMC &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1987–
|-
| 1GK || GMC MPV/SUV 1987–
|-
| 1GM || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] MPV
|-
| 1GN || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] MPV/SUV 1987-
|-
| 1GR || Great Dane Trailers (truck trailer)
|-
| 1GT || [[../GM/VIN Codes|GMC]] Truck 
|-
| 1GW || Grumman Olson Kubvan (truck)
|-
| 1GY || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Cadillac]] SUV
|-
| 1HA || Chevrolet incomplete vehicles (Express cutaway) made by Navistar International/International Motors
|-
| 1HD || Harley-Davidson &amp; LiveWire
|-
| 1HF || Honda motorcycle/ATV/UTV
|-
| 1HG || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio
|-
| 1HP || International Trucks (complete vehicle - straight truck)
|-
| 1HS || International Trucks &amp; Caterpillar Trucks (complete vehicle - truck tractor)
|-
| 1HT || International Trucks &amp; Caterpillar Trucks &amp; Chevrolet Silverado 4500HD, 5500HD, 6500HD (incomplete vehicle - straight truck)
|-
| 1HV || International or IC Bus (incomplete vehicle - bus) 
|-
| 1H9/484 || Hughes Trailers (Based in Canyon, TX) (trailer)
|-
| 1H9/674 || Hines Specialty Vehicle Group
|-
| 1JC || Jeep SUV 1981–1988 (using AMC-style VIN structure)
|-
| 1JJ || Wabash (truck trailer)
|-
| 1JT || Jeep truck 1981–1988 (using AMC-style VIN structure)
|-
| 1JU || Marmon Motor Company (truck)
|-
| 1J4 || Jeep SUV 1989–2011 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure)
|-
| 1J7 || Jeep truck 1989–1992 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure)
|-
| 1J8 || Jeep SUV 2002–2011 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure)
|-
| 1KB || Holiday Rambler Corp. 1981-2010 (trailer)
|-
| 1K9/058 || Kovatech Mobile Equipment (fire engine)
|-
| 1LH || Landoll (truck trailer)
|-
| 1LJ || Lincoln incomplete vehicle
|-
| 1LN || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] car
|-
| 1LV || Lectra Motors
|-
| 1L0 || Lufkin Trailers
|-
| 1L1 || Lincoln car – limousine
|-
| 1L9/155 || LA Exotics
|-
| 1L9/234 || Laforza
|-
| 1MB || Mercedes-Benz Truck Co.
|-
| 1ME || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] car
|-
| 1MR || Continental Mark VI &amp; VII 1981–1985 &amp; Continental sedan 1982–1985
|-
| 1M0 || John Deere Gator
|-
| 1M1 || Mack Truck USA (truck)
|-
| 1M2 || Mack Truck USA (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1M3 || Mack Truck USA (glider)
|-
| 1M8 || Motor Coach Industries (bus)
|-
| 1M9/089 || Mauck Special Vehicles (bus)
|-
| 1M9/682 || Mosler Automotive
|-
| 1M9/816 || Proterra Through mid-2019
|-
| 1N4 || Nissan car
|-
| 1N6 || Nissan truck
|-
| 1N9/019 || Neoplan USA
|-
| 1N9/084 || Eldorado National (California)
|-
| 1N9/140 || North American Bus Industries (bus)
|-
| 1N9/393 || Nikola Corporation (truck)
|-
| 1NK || Kenworth (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1NL || Gulf Stream Coach (recreational vehicles)
|-
| 1NN || Monon made by Evans Products Co. (truck trailer)
|-
| 1NP || Peterbilt (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1NX || Toyota car made by NUMMI
|-
| 1P3 || Plymouth car
|-
| 1P4 || Plymouth MPV/SUV
|-
| 1P7 || Plymouth Scamp
|-
| 1P9/038 || Hawk Vehicles, Inc. (Trihawk motorcycles)
|-
| 1P9/213 || Panoz
|-
| 1P9/255 || Pinson Truck Equipment Company (truck trailer)
|-
| 1PM || Polar Tank Trailer (truck trailer)
|-
| 1PT || Trailmobile Trailer Corporation (truck trailer)
|-
| 1PY || John Deere USA
|-
| 1RF || Roadmaster, Monaco Coach Corporation (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1RN || Reitnouer (truck trailer)
|-
| 1R9/956 || Reede Fabrication and Design (motorcycles)
|-
| 1ST || Airstream (recreational vehicles)
|-
| 1S1 || Strick Trailers (truck trailer)
|-
| 1S9/003 || Sutphen Corporation (fire engines - truck)
|-
| 1S9/009|| Superior Trailer Works (truck trailer)
|-
| 1S9/098 || Scania AB (Scania CN112 bus made in Orange, CT)
|-
| 1S9/842 || Saleen S7
|-
| 1S9/260 || Stairs Welding RL (truck trailer)
|-
| 1S9/901 || Suckerpunch Sallys, LLC
|-
| 1S9/944 || SSC North America
|-
| 1TD || Timpte (truck trailer)
|-
| 1TK || Trail King (truck trailer)
|-
| 1TD || Transcraft Corporation (truck trailer)
|-
| 1T7 || Thomas Built Buses
|-
| 1T8 || Thomas Built Buses
|-
| 1T9/072 || The Trailer Co. (truck trailer)
|-
| 1T9/717 || Thunder Mountain Custom Cycles
|-
| 1T9/825 || TICO Manufacturing Company (truck)
|-
| 1T9/899 || Tomcar USA
|-
| 1T9/970 || Three Two Chopper
|-
| 1TC || Coachmen Recreational Vehicle Co., LLC
|-
| 1TU || Transportation Manufacturing Corporation
|-
| 1UJ || Jayco, Inc.
|-
| 1UT || AM General military trucks, Jeep DJ made by AM General
|-
| 1UY || Utility Trailer (truck trailer)
|-
| 1VH || Orion Bus Industries
|-
| 1VW || Volkswagen car
|-
| 1V1 || Volkswagen truck
|-
| 1V2 || Volkswagen SUV
|-
| 1V9/048 || Vector Aeromotive
|-
| 1V9/113 || Vantage Vehicle International Inc (low-speed vehicle)
|-
| 1V9/190 || Vanderhall Motor Works
|-
| 1WA || White Motor Company (Autocar brand truck)
|-
| 1WB || White Motor Company (Autocar brand incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1WD || White Motor Company (Autocar brand glider)
|-
| 1WT || Winnebago Industries: Winnebago M.P.V.
|-
| 1WU || White Motor Company (White brand truck)
|-
| 1WV || Winnebago Industries: Winnebago M.P.V. - Class C Motorhome built on VW chassis &amp; front cab [Winnebago Rialta ('95-'96)]
|-
| 1WW || Winnebago Industries: Winnebago M.P.V. - Class B Motorhome built on Renault chassis [Winnebago LeSharo, Centauri, Itasca Phasar]
|-
| 1WX || White Motor Company (White brand incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 1WY || White Motor Company (White brand glider)
|-
| 1W1 || Wilson Trailer Co. (truck trailer)
|-
| 1W5 || Western Recreational Vehicles (Alpenlite)
|-
| 1W8 || Witzco (truck trailer)
|-
| 1W9/010 || Weld-It Company (truck trailer)
|-
| 1W9/485 || Wheego Electric Cars
|-
| 1W9/488 || Certified Stainless Services Inc. DBA West-Mark (truck trailer) (2010 &amp; later)
|-
| 1XA || Excalibur Automobile Corporation
|-
| 1XK || Kenworth (truck)
|-
| 1XM || Renault Alliance/GTA/Encore 1984–1987
|-
| 1XP || Peterbilt (truck)
|-
| 1Y1 || Chevrolet/Geo car made by NUMMI
|-
| 1YJ || Rokon International, Inc.
|-
| 1YV || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mazda made by Mazda Motor Manufacturing USA/AutoAlliance International]]
|-
| 1ZV || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford made by Mazda Motor Manufacturing USA/AutoAlliance International]]
|-
| 1ZW || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury made by AutoAlliance International]]
|-
| 1Z3 1Z7 || Mitsubishi Raider
|-
| 1Z9/170 || [[w:Orange County Choppers|Orange County Choppers]]
|-
| 10B || Brenner Tank (truck trailer)
|-
| 10R || E-Z-GO
|-
| 10T || Oshkosh Corporation 
|-
| 11H || Hendrickson Mobile Equipment, Inc. (fire engines - incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 11V || Kalmar Solutions (Truck - Terminal Tractor)
|-
| 12A || Avanti
|-
| 137 || AM General Hummer &amp; Hummer H1
|-
| 13N || Fontaine (truck trailer)
|-
| 15G || Gillig bus
|-
| 16C || Clenet Coachworks
|-
| 16W || Certified Stainless Services Inc. DBA West-Mark (truck trailer) (prior to 2010)
|-
| 16X || Vixen 21 motorhome
|-
| 17N || John Deere incomplete vehicle (RV chassis)
|-
| 18X || Western Recreational Vehicles
|-
| 19U || Acura car made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio
|-
| 19V || Acura car made by Honda Manufacturing of Indiana
|-
| 19X || Honda car made by Honda Manufacturing of Indiana
|-
| 2A3 || Imperial
|-
| 2A4 2A8 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2006–2011 only
|-
| 2AY 2AZ || Hino
|-
| 2BC || Jeep Wrangler (YJ) 1987–1988 (using AMC-style VIN structure)
|-
| 2BP || Ski-Doo
|-
| 2BV || Can-Am &amp; Bombardier ATV
|-
| 2BW || Can-Am Commander E LSV
|-
| 2BX || Can-Am Spyder &amp; Canyon 3-wheelers
|-
| 2BZ || Can-Am Freedom Trailer for Can-Am Spyder &amp; Canyon
|-
| 2B1 || Orion Bus Industries
|-
| 2B3 || Dodge car 1981–2011
|-
| 2B4 || Dodge MPV 1981–2002
|-
| 2B5 || Dodge &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–2002
|-
| 2B6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 1981–2002
|-
| 2B7 || Dodge truck 1981–2002
|-
| 2B9/001 || BWS Manufacturing (truck trailer)
|-
| 2C1 || Geo/Chevrolet car made by CAMI Automotive
|-
| 2C3 || Chrysler brand car 1981–2011
|-
| 2C3 || Chrysler Group (all brands) car (including Lancia) 2012-
|-
| 2C4 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2000–2005
|-
| 2C4 || Chrysler Group (all brands) MPV (including Lancia Voyager &amp; Volkswagen Routan) 2012-
|-
| 2C7 || Pontiac car made by CAMI Automotive only sold by GM Canada
|-
| 2C8 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2001–2005
|-
| 2C9/145 || Campagna Motors
|-
| 2C9/197 || Canadian Electric Vehicles
|-
| 2CC || American Motors Corporation MPV
|-
| 2CG || Asüna/Pontiac SUV made by CAMI Automotive only sold by GM Canada
|-
| 2CK || GMC Tracker SUV made by CAMI Automotive only sold by GM Canada 1990–1991 only
|-
| 2CK || Pontiac Torrent SUV made by CAMI Automotive 2006–2009 only
|-
| 2CM || American Motors Corporation car
|-
| 2CN || Geo/Chevrolet SUV made by CAMI Automotive 1990–2011 only
|-
| 2CT || GMC Terrain SUV made by CAMI Automotive 2010–2011 only
|-
| 2D4 || Dodge MPV 2003–2011 only
|-
| 2D6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 2003
|-
| 2D7 || Dodge truck 2003
|-
| 2D8 || Dodge MPV 2003–2011 only
|-
| 2DG || Ontario Drive &amp; Gear
|-
| 2DM || Di-Mond Trailers (truck trailer)
|-
| 2DN || Dynasty Electric Car Corporation
|-
| 2EZ || Electra Meccanica Vehicles Corp. (Solo)
|-
| 2E3 || Eagle car 1989–1997 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure)
|-
| 2E4 || 2011 Lancia MPV (Voyager)
|-
| 2E9/080 || Electra Meccanica Vehicles Corp. (Solo)
|-
| 2FA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] car
|-
| 2FH || Zenn Motor Co., Ltd. (low-speed vehicle)
|-
| 2FM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] MPV/SUV
|-
| 2FT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] truck
|-
| 2FU || Freightliner (truck)
|-
| 2FV || Freightliner (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 2FW || Sterling Trucks (truck-complete vehicle)
|-
| 2FY || New Flyer
|-
| 2FZ || Sterling Trucks (incomplete vehicle)
|- 
| 2Gx || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] Canada
|-
| 2G0 || GMC &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–1986
|-
| 2G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] car
|-
| 2G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] car
|-
| 2G3 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Oldsmobile]] car
|-
| 2G4 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] car
|-
| 2G5 ||  GMC MPV 1981–1986
|-
| 2G5 ||  Chevrolet BrightDrop / BrightDrop Zevo truck 2023-2026
|-
| 2G6 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Cadillac]] car
|-
| 2G7 ||  Pontiac car only sold by GM Canada
|-
| 2G8 ||  Chevrolet MPV 1981–1986
|-
| 2GA || Chevrolet &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 
|-
| 2GB || Chevrolet incomplete vehicle
|-
| 2GC || Chevrolet truck 
|-
| 2GD || GMC incomplete vehicle
|-
| 2GE || Cadillac incomplete vehicle 
|-
| 2GH || GMC GM New Look bus &amp; GM Classic series bus 
|-
| 2GJ || GMC &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1987– 
|-
| 2GK || GMC MPV/SUV 1987– 
|-
| 2GN || Chevrolet MPV/SUV 1987- 
|-
| 2GT || GMC truck 
|-
| 2HG || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing
|-
| 2HH || Acura car made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing
|-
| 2HJ || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] truck made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing
|-
| 2HK || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] MPV/SUV made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing
|-
| 2HM || Hyundai Canada
|-
| 2HN || Acura SUV made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing
|-
| 2HP || International Trucks (complete vehicle - straight truck)
|-
| 2HS || International Trucks (complete vehicle - truck tractor)
|-
| 2HT || International Trucks (incomplete vehicle - straight truck)
|-
| 2HV || International or IC Bus (incomplete vehicle - bus) 
|-
| 2J4 || Jeep Wrangler (YJ) 1989–1992 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure)
|-
| 2L1 || Lincoln incomplete vehicle – limo
|-
| 2LD || Triple E Canada Ltd.
|-
| 2LJ || Lincoln incomplete vehicle – hearse
|-
| 2LM || Lincoln SUV
|-
| 2LN || Lincoln car
|-
| 2M1 || Mack Trucks Canada (truck)
|-
| 2M2 || Mack Trucks Canada (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 2M3 || Mack Truck Canada (glider)
|-
| 2ME || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] car
|-
| 2MG || Motor Coach Industries (Produced from Sept. 1, 2008 on)
|-
| 2MH || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] incomplete vehicle
|-
| 2MR || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] MPV
|-
| 2M9/044 || Westward Industries
|-
| 2M9/058 || Motor Coach Industries
|-
| 2NK || Kenworth incomplete vehicle
|-
| 2NP || Peterbilt incomplete vehicle
|-
| 2NV || Nova Bus 
|-
| 2P3 || Plymouth car
|-
| 2P4 || Plymouth MPV 1981–2000
|-
| 2P5 || Plymouth &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–1983
|-
| 2P9/001 || Prevost 1981–1995
|-
| 2PC || Prevost 1996-
|-
| 2S2 || Suzuki car made by CAMI Automotive
|-
| 2S3 || Suzuki SUV made by CAMI Automotive
|-
| 2TU || Tri-Star Industries Limited
|-
| 2T1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] car made by TMMC
|-
| 2T2 || Lexus SUV made by TMMC
|-
| 2T3 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] SUV made by TMMC
|-
| 2T9/206 || Triple E Canada Ltd.
|-
| 2V4 || Volkswagen Routan made by Chrysler Canada
|-
| 2V8 || Volkswagen Routan made by Chrysler Canada
|-
| 2W9/044 || Westward Industries
|-
| 2WK || Western Star (truck)
|-
| 2WL || Western Star (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 2WM || Western Star (glider)
|-
| 2XK || Kenworth (truck)
|-
| 2XM || Eagle Premier 1988 only (using AMC-style VIN structure)
|-
| 2XP || Peterbilt (truck)
|-
| 3A4 3A8 || Chrysler brand MPV 2006–2010 only
|-
| 3A9/050 || MARGO (truck trailer)
|-
| 3AK || Freightliner Trucks (truck)
|-
| 3AL || Freightliner Trucks (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 3AW || Fruehauf de Mexico (truck trailer)
|-
| 3AX || Scania Mexico
|-
| 3BE || Scania Mexico (buses)
|-
| 3BH || Western Star 3700 (truck) made by DINA S.A.
|-
| 3BH || Western Star (truck)
|-
| 3BJ || Western Star 3700 (incomplete vehicle) made by DINA S.A.
|-
| 3BJ || Western Star (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 3BK || Kenworth (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 3BM || Motor Coach Industries bus made by DINA S.A.
|-
| 3BP || Peterbilt  (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 3B3 || Dodge car 1981–2011
|-
| 3B4 || Dodge SUV 1986–1993
|-
| 3B6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 1981–2002
|-
| 3B7 || Dodge truck 1981–2002
|-
| 3C3 || Chrysler brand car 1981–2011
|-
| 3C3 || Chrysler Group (all brands) car (including Fiat) 2012-
|-
| 3C4 || Chrysler brand MPV 2001–2005
|-
| 3C4 || Chrysler Group (all brands) MPV (including Fiat) 2012-
|-
| 3C6 || Chrysler Group (all brands) truck 2012–
|-
| 3C7 || Chrysler Group (all brands) incomplete vehicle 2012–
|-
| 3C8 || Chrysler brand MPV 2001–2005
|-
| 3CA || Chrysler brand MPV 2001 (PT Cruiser w/serial# 232057-265662)
|-
| 3CE || Volvo Buses de Mexico
|-
| 3CG || KTMMEX S.A. de C.V.
|-
| 3CZ || Honda SUV made by Honda de Mexico
|-
| 3D2 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 2007–2009
|-
| 3D3 || Dodge truck 2006–2009
|-
| 3D4 || Dodge SUV 2009–2011
|-
| 3D6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 2003–2011
|-
| 3D7 || Dodge truck 2002–2011
|-
| 3EL || ATRO (truck trailer)
|-
| 3E4 || 2011 Fiat SUV (Freemont)
|-
| 3FA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] car
|-
| 3FC || Ford stripped chassis made by Ford &amp; IMMSA
|-
| 3FE || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Mexico
|-
| 3FM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] MPV/SUV
|-
| 3FN || Ford F-650/F-750 made by Blue Diamond Truck Co. (truck)
|-
| 3FR || Ford F-650/F-750 &amp; Ford LCF made by Blue Diamond Truck Co. (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 3FT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] truck
|-
| 3F6 || Sterling Bullet
|-
| 3G || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] Mexico
|-
| 3G0 || Saab 9-4X 2011
|-
| 3G0 || Holden Equinox 2018–2020
|-
| 3G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] car
|-
| 3G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] car
|-
| 3G4 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] car
|-
| 3G5 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] SUV
|-
| 3G7 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] SUV
|-
| 3GA || JAC models assembled by Giant Motors in Mexico
|-
| 3GC || Chevrolet truck
|-
| 3GK || GMC SUV
|-
| 3GM || Holden Suburban
|-
| 3GN || Chevrolet SUV
|-
| 3GP || Honda Prologue EV made by GM
|-
| 3GS || Saturn SUV
|-
| 3GT || GMC truck
|-
| 3GY || Cadillac SUV
|-
| 3H1 || Honda motorcycle/UTV
|-
| 3H3 || Hyundai de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. for Hyundai Translead (truck trailers)
|-
| 3HA || International Trucks (incomplete vehicle - straight truck) made by Blue Diamond Truck Co. 2011-2015
|-
| 3HA || International Trucks (incomplete vehicle - straight truck) made by Navistar Mexico/International Motors Mexico 2016-
|-
| 3HC || International Trucks (complete vehicle - truck tractor) made by Blue Diamond Truck Co. 2011-2015
|-
| 3HC || International Trucks (complete vehicle - truck tractor) made by Navistar Mexico/International Motors Mexico 2016-
|-
| 3HD || Acura SUV made by Honda de Mexico
|-
| 3HG || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car made by Honda de Mexico
|-
| 3HR || International Trucks (complete vehicle - truck)
|-
| 3HS || International Trucks &amp; Caterpillar Trucks (complete vehicle - truck tractor)
|-
| 3HT || International Trucks &amp; Caterpillar Trucks (incomplete vehicle - straight truck)
|-
| 3HV || International (incomplete vehicle - bus)  
|-
| 3JB || BRP Mexico (Can-Am ATV/UTV &amp; Can-Am Ryker 3-wheeler)
|-
| 3JC || BRP Mexico (Can-Am Origin &amp; Pulse electric 2-wheel motorcycles)
|-
| 3KM || Kia/Hyundai MPV/SUV made by KMMX
|-
| 3KP || Kia/Hyundai car made by KMMX
|-
| 3LN || Lincoln car
|-
| 3MA || Mercury car (1988-1995)
|-
| 3MD || Mazda de Mexico car (Mazda 2)
|-
| 3ME || Mercury car (1996-2011)
|-
| 3MF || BMW M car
|-
| 3MG || Isuzu Motors de Mexico
|-
| 3MJ || Mazda CX-3 (Mazda de Mexico)
|-
| 3MV || Mazda de Mexico SUV (Mazda CX-30)
|-
| 3MW || BMW car
|-
| 3MY || Toyota car made by Mazda de Mexico Vehicle Operation
|-
| 3MZ || Mazda de Mexico car (Mazda 3)
|-
| 3N1 || Nissan Mexico car
|-
| 3N6 || Nissan Mexico truck &amp; Chevrolet City Express
|-
| 3N8 || Nissan Mexico MPV
|-
| 3NS || Polaris Industries ATV
|-
| 3NE || Polaris Industries UTV
|-
| 3P3 || Plymouth car
|-
| 3PC || Infiniti SUV made by COMPAS
|-
| 3TM || Toyota truck made by TMMBC
|-
| 3TY || Toyota truck made by TMMGT
|-
| 3VV || Volkswagen Mexico SUV
|-
| 3VW || Volkswagen Mexico car
|-
| 3WK || Kenworth truck
|-
| 3WP || Peterbilt truck
|-
| 3X1 || Mack Truck Mexico (truck)
|-
| 3X2 || Mack Truck Mexico (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 4A3 || Mitsubishi Motors car
|-
| 4A4 || Mitsubishi Motors SUV
|-
| 4B3 || Dodge car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory
|-
| 4B9/038 || BYD Coach &amp; Bus LLC
|-
| 4C3 || Chrysler car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory
|-
| 4C6 || Reinke Manufacturing Company (truck trailer)
|-
| 4C9/272 || Christini Technologies (motorcycle)
|-
| 4C9/561 || Czinger
|-
| 4C9/626 || Canoo Inc.
|-
| 4CD || Oshkosh Chassis Division incomplete vehicle (RV chassis)
|-
| 4DR || IC Bus (complete vehicle - bus)
|-
| 4E3 || Eagle car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory
|-
| 4EN || E-ONE, Inc. (fire engines - truck)
|-
| 4EZ || KZ Recreational Vehicles (trailer)
|-
| 4F2 || Mazda SUV made by Ford
|-
| 4F4 || Mazda truck made by Ford
|-
| 4G1 || Chevrolet Cavalier convertible made by Genasys L.C. – a GM/ASC joint venture
|-
| 4G2 || Pontiac Sunfire convertible made by Genasys L.C. – a GM/ASC joint venture
|-
| 4G3 || Toyota Cavalier made by GM
|-
| 4G5 || General Motors EV1
|-
| 4GD || WhiteGMC Brigadier 1988–1989 made by GM
|-
| 4GD || Opel/Vauxhall Sintra
|-
| 4GL || Buick incomplete vehicle
|-
| 4GT || Isuzu incomplete vehicle built by GM
|-
| 4JG || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] SUV
|-
| 4J8 || LBT, Inc. (truck trailer)
|-
| 4KA || IC Bus (complete vehicle - truck)
|-
| 4KB || Chevrolet W-Series (gas engine only) made by GM (Incomplete Vehicle - medium duty)
|-
| 4KD || GMC W-Series (gas engine only) made by GM (Incomplete Vehicle - medium duty)
|-
| 4KL || Isuzu N-Series (gas engine only) made by GM (Incomplete Vehicle - medium duty)
|-
| 4LM || Capacity Trucks (truck) [terminal tractors]
|-
| 4M2 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] MPV/SUV
|-
| 4M9/220 || Meyers Manx, LLC (Manx 2.0 EV) [Passenger Car - Replica]
|-
| 4ML || Oshkosh Trailer Division
|-
| 4MZ || Buell Motorcycle Company (Mid-1995 – )
|-
| 4N2 || Nissan Quest made by Ford
|-
| 4NU || Isuzu Ascender made by GM
|-
| 4PR || Hughes Trailers of Jackson (trailer)
|-
| 4P1 || Pierce Manufacturing Inc. USA
|-
| 4P3 || Plymouth car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory 1990–1994
|-
| 4P3 || Mitsubishi Motors SUV made by Mitsubishi Motor Manufacturing of America 2013–2015 for export only
|-
| 4RK || Nova Bus &amp; Prevost made by Nova Bus (US) Inc.
|-
| 4S1 || Isuzu truck made by Subaru Isuzu Automotive
|-
| 4S2 || Isuzu SUV made by Subaru Isuzu Automotive &amp; 2nd gen. Holden Frontera made by SIA
|-
| 4S3 || [[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]] car
|-
| 4S4 || [[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]] SUV/MPV
|-
| 4S6 || Honda SUV made by Subaru Isuzu Automotive
|-
| 4S7 || Spartan Motors incomplete vehicle 
|-
| 4S9/197 || Smith Electric Vehicles
|-
| 4S9/345 || Satellite Suites (trailer)
|-
| 4S9/419 || Spartan Motors truck
|-
| 4S9/454 || Scuderia Cameron Glickenhaus passenger car
|-
| 4S9/520 || Signature Autosport, LLC (Osprey Custom Cars)
|-
| 4S9/542 || Scuderia Cameron Glickenhaus SCG Boot (M.P.V.)
|-
| 4S9/544 || Scuderia Cameron Glickenhaus passenger car
|-
| 4S9/559 || Spartan Fire, LLC truck (formerly Spartan ER)
|-
| 4S9/560 || Spartan Fire, LLC incomplete vehicle (formerly Spartan ER)
|-
| 4S9/569 || SC Autosports, LLC (Kandi)
|-
| 4TA || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] truck made by NUMMI
|-
| 4T1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] car made by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky
|-
| 4T3 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] MPV/SUV made by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky
|-
| 4T4 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] car made by Subaru of Indiana Automotive
|-
| 4T9/208 || Xos, Inc.
|-
| 4T9/228 || Lumen Motors
|-
| 4UF || Arctic Cat Inc.
|-
| 4US || BMW car
|-
| 4UZ || Freightliner Custom Chassis Corporation &amp; &lt;br /&gt; gas-powered Mitsubishi Fuso trucks assembled by Freightliner Custom Chassis &amp; &lt;br /&gt; Thomas Built Buses FS-65 &amp; Saf-T-Liner C2
|-
| 4V0 || Crossroads RV (recreational vehicles)
|-
| 4V1 || WhiteGMC (truck) 1988-1995
|-
| 4V2 || WhiteGMC (incomplete vehicle) 1988-1995
|-
| 4V3 || WhiteGMC (glider) 1988-1995
|-
| 4V1 || Volvo Trucks North America [low cab-over engine] (truck) 2000-2003
|-
| 4V2 || Volvo Trucks North America [low cab-over engine] (incomplete vehicle) 2000-2003
|-
| 4V4 || Volvo Trucks North America [conventional] (truck) 1996+
|-
| 4V5 || Volvo Trucks North America [conventional] (incomplete vehicle)  1996+
|-
| 4V6 || Volvo Trucks North America (glider)
|-
| 4VA || Volvo Trucks North America [conventional- Class 7 w/air brakes] (truck) 1997-1999
|-
| 4VB || Volvo Trucks North America [conventional- Class 7 w/air brakes] (incomplete vehicle) 1997-1999
|-
| 4VC || Volvo Trucks North America [conventional- Class 7 w/hydraulic brakes] (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 4VD || Volvo Trucks North America [low cab-over engine- Class 7 w/air brakes] (truck)
|-
| 4VE || Volvo Trucks North America [low cab-over engine- Class 7 w/air brakes] (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 4VG || Volvo Trucks North America [conventional- Class 8 w/air brakes] (truck) 1997-1999
|-
| 4VH || Volvo Trucks North America [conventional- Class 8 w/air brakes] (incomplete vehicle) 1997-1999
|-
| 4VJ || Volvo Trucks North America [high cab-over engine- Class 8 w/air brakes] (truck)
|-
| 4VK || Volvo Trucks North America [high cab-over engine- Class 8 w/air brakes] (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 4VL || Volvo Trucks North America [low cab-over engine- Class 8 w/air brakes] (truck)
|-
| 4VM || Volvo Trucks North America [low cab-over engine- Class 8 w/air brakes] (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 4VZ || Spartan Motors/The Shyft Group (incomplete vehicle – bare chassis only)
|-
| 4WW || Wilson Trailer Sales
|-
| 4W1 || '24+ Chevrolet Suburban HD made by GM Defense for US govt. in Concord, NC
|-
| 4W5 || Acura ZDX EV made by GM
|-
| 4XA || Polaris Inc.
|-
| 4X4 || Forest River
|-
| 4YD || KeyStone RV Company (recreational vehicle)
|-
| 4YM || Carry-On Trailer, Inc.
|-
| 4YM || Anderson Manufacturing (trailer)
|-
| 4Z3 || American LaFrance truck
|-
| 43C || Consulier
|-
| 44K || HME Inc. (fire engines - incomplete vehicle) (HME=Hendrickson Mobile Equipment)
|-
| 46G || Gillig incomplete vehicle
|-
| 46J || Federal Motors Inc
|-
| 478 || Honda ATV
|-
| 480 || Sterling Trucks (truck)
|-
| 49H || Sterling Trucks (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 5AS || Global Electric Motorcars (GEM) 1999-2011
|-
| 5AX || Armor Chassis (truck trailer)
|-
| 5A4 || Load Rite Trailers Inc.
|-
| 5BP || Solectria
|-
| 5BZ || Nissan &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats)
|-
| 5B4 || Workhorse Custom Chassis, LLC incomplete vehicle (RV chassis)
|-
| 5CD || Indian Motorcycle Company of America (Gilroy, CA)
|-
| 5CJ || Western Star Trucks (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 5CK || Western Star Trucks (truck)
|-
| 5CX || Shelby Series 1
|-
| 5DF || Thomas Dennis Company LLC
|-
| 5DG || Terex Advance Mixer, Inc. (Formerly Advance Mixer, Inc.) (truck)
|-
| 5EH || Excelsior-Henderson Motorcycle
|-
| 5EO || Cottrell (truck trailer)
|-
| 5FC || Columbia Vehicle Group (Columbia, Tomberlin) (low-speed vehicles)
|-
| 5FN || Honda MPV/SUV made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama
|-
| 5FP || Honda truck made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama
|-
| 5FR || Acura SUV made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama 
|-
| 5FT || Feeling Trailers
|-
| 5FY || New Flyer
|-
| 5GA || Buick MPV/SUV
|-
| 5GD || Daewoo G2X
|-
| 5GN || Hummer H3T
|-
| 5GR || Hummer H2
|-
| 5GT || Hummer H3
|-
| 5GZ || Saturn MPV/SUV
|-
| 5G8 || Holden Volt
|-
| 5HD || Harley-Davidson for export markets
|-
| 5HT || Heil Trailer (truck trailer)
|-
| 5J1 || Big Dog Motorcycles (Mid-2002 – )
|-
| 5J5 || Club Car (low-speed vehicle)
|-
| 5J6 || Honda SUV made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio
|-
| 5J8 || Acura SUV made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio
|-
| 5KB || Honda car made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama
|-
| 5KJ || Western Star Trucks (truck)
|-
| 5KK || Western Star Trucks (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 5KM || Vento Motorcycles
|-
| 5KT || Karavan Trailers
|-
| 5L1 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] SUV - Limousine (2004–2009)
|-
| 5L5 || American IronHorse Motorcycle
|-
| 5LD || Ford &amp; Lincoln incomplete vehicle – limousine (2010–2014)
|-
| 5LM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] SUV
|-
| 5LT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] truck
|-
| 5MZ || Buell Motorcycle Company for export markets
|-
| 5N1 || Nissan &amp; Infiniti SUV
|-
| 5N3 || Infiniti SUV
|-
| 5NH || Forest River
|-
| 5NM || Hyundai SUV made by HMMA
|-
| 5NP || Hyundai car made by HMMA
|-
| 5NT || Hyundai truck made by HMMA
|-
| 5PV || Hino incomplete vehicle made by Hino Motors Manufacturing USA
|-
| 5RJ || International MXT made by Android Industries - Springfield LLC
|-
| 5RX || Heartland Recreational Vehicles
|-
| 5S3 || Saab 9-7X
|-
| 5SA || Suzuki Manufacturing of America Corp. (ATV)
|-
| 5SX || American LaFrance incomplete vehicle (Condor)
|-
| 5TB || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] truck made by TMMI
|-
| 5TD || Toyota MPV/SUV &amp; Lexus TX made by TMMI
|-
| 5TE || Toyota truck made by NUMMI
|-
| 5TF || Toyota truck made by TMMTX
|-
| 5TU || Construction Trailer Specialist (truck trailer)
|-
| 5UM || BMW M car
|-
| 5UX || BMW SUV
|-
| 5VC || Autocar incomplete vehicle
|-
| 5VF || American Electric Vehicle Company (low-speed vehicle)
|-
| 5VK || Great Northern Trailer Works (truck trailer)
|-
| 5VP || Victory Motorcycles
|-
| 5V4 || Autocar truck
|-
| 5V8 || Vanguard National (truck trailer)
|-
| 5WE || IC Bus (incomplete vehicle - bus or truck)
|-
| 5XX || Kia car made by KMMG
|-
| 5XY || Kia/Hyundai SUV made by KMMG
|-
| 5YA || Indian Motorcycle Company (Kings Mountain, NC)
|-
| 5YF || Toyota car made by TMMMS
|-
| 5YJ || Tesla, Inc. passenger car (only used for US-built Model S and Model 3 starting from Nov, 1st 2021)
|-
| 5YM || BMW M SUV
|-
| 5YN || Cruise Car, Inc.
|-
| 5Y2 || Pontiac Vibe made by NUMMI
|-
| 5Y4 || Yamaha Motor Motor Mfg. Corp. of America (ATV, UTV)
|-
| 5ZT || Forest River (recreational vehicles)
|-
| 5ZU || Greenkraft (truck)
|-
| 5Z6 || Suzuki Equator (truck) made by Nissan
|-
| 50E || Lucid Motors passenger car
|-
| 50G || Karma Automotive
|-
| 50H || Norstar Company (truck trailers, truck beds)
|-
| 516 || Autocar truck
|-
| 51R || Brammo Motorcycles
|-
| 51T || Monaco RV LLC/Navistar RV LLC: Monaco (trailer)
|-
| 51U || Monaco RV LLC/Navistar RV LLC: Holiday Rambler 2010- (trailer)
|-
| 51V || Monaco RV LLC/Navistar RV LLC: R-Vision (trailer)
|-
| 51X || Monaco RV LLC/Navistar RV LLC: McKenzie (trailer)
|-
| 51Z || Monaco RV LLC/Navistar RV LLC: Monaco RV [Roadmaster Chassis] (incomplete vehicle) 
|-
| 522 || GreenGo Tek (low-speed vehicle)
|-
| 523 || VPG (The Vehicle Production Group)
|-
| 52C || GEM subsidiary of Polaris Inc.
|-
| 537 || Azure Dynamics Transit Connect Electric
|-
| 538 || Zero Motorcycles
|-
| 53G || Coda Automotive
|-
| 53T || Think North America in Elkhart, IN
|-
| 546 || EBR Motorcycles
|-
| 54C || Winnebago Industries travel trailer
|-
| 54D || Isuzu &amp; Chevrolet commercial trucks built by Spartan Motors/The Shyft Group
|-
| 54F || Rosenbauer Motors (incomplete vehicle)
|-
| 55S || Mercedes-Benz car
|-
| 56E || Armor Lite Trailer Mfg. (truck trailers)
|-
| 56K || Indian Motorcycle International, LLC (Polaris subsidiary)
|-
| 573 || Grand Design RV (truck trailer)
|-
| 57C || Maurer Manufacturing (truck trailer)
|-
| 57R || Oreion Motors
|-
| 57S || Lightning Motors Corp. (electric motorcycles)
|-
| 57W || Mobility Ventures
|-
| 57X || Polaris Slingshot
|-
| 58A || Lexus car made by TMMK (Lexus ES)
|-
| 6AB || MAN Australia
|-
| 6AM || Jayco Corp. (RVs)
|-
| 6F1 || Ford
|-
| 6F2 || Iveco Trucks Australia Ltd.
|-
| 6F4 || Nissan Motor Company Australia
|-
| 6F5 || Kenworth Australia
|-
| 6FM || Mack Trucks Australia
|-
| 6FP || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Australia
|-
| 6G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]]-Holden (post Nov 2002), Chevrolet 2000-2013, Vauxhall Monaro &amp; VXR8 ('08-'17), Daewoo Statesman &amp; Veritas
|-
| 6G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] made in Australia ('04-'06 GTO &amp; '08-'09 G8)
|-
| 6G3 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] Chevrolet Caprice PPV &amp; SS performance sedan 2014-2017, Middle East mkt. Chevrolet Caprice '14-'17
|-
| 6H8 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]]-Holden (pre Nov 2002)
|-
| 6KT || BCI Bus
|-
| 6MM || Mitsubishi Motors Australia 
|-
| 6MP || Mercury Capri 1991-1994
|-
| 6T1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Corporation Australia
|-
| 6T9 || Privately Imported car (VIN issued by Victoria) or Trailer in Australia
|-
| 6U9 || Privately Imported car in Australia
|-
| 6Y9/043 || Intertruck Distributors (NZ) Ltd. - International Trucks New Zealand
|-
| 6ZZ || Privately Imported car in Australia
|-
| 7AB || MAN New Zealand
|-
| 7AT || VIN assigned by the New Zealand Transport Authority Waka Kotahi from 29 November 2009
|-
| 7A1 || Mitsubishi New Zealand
|-
| 7A3 || Honda New Zealand
|-
| 7A4 || Toyota New Zealand
|-
| 7A5 || Ford New Zealand
|-
| 7A7 || Nissan New Zealand
|-
| 7A8 || VIN assigned by the New Zealand Transport Authority Waka Kotahi before 29 November 2009
|-
| 7B2 || Nissan Diesel bus New Zealand
|-
| 7FA || Honda SUV made by Honda Manufacturing of Indiana
|-
| 7FC || Rivian truck
|-
| 7F7 || Arcimoto, Inc. 
|-
| 7GZ || GMC incomplete vehicles (Savana cutaway) made by Navistar International/International Motors
|-
| 7G0 || Faraday Future
|- 
| 7G2 || Tesla, Inc. truck (used for Nevada-built Semi Trucks &amp; Texas-built Cybertruck)
|- 
| 7H4 || Hino truck
|-
| 7H8 || Cenntro Electric Group Limited low-speed vehicle
|- 
| 7JD || Volvo Cars SUV
|- 
| 7JR || Volvo Cars passenger car
|- 
| 7JS || White River Marine Group (trailer)
|- 
| 7JZ || Proterra From mid-2019 on
|- 
| 7KG || Vanderhall Motor Works
|- 
| 7KY || Dorsey (truck trailer)
|-
| 7MM || Mazda SUV made by MTMUS (Mazda-Toyota Joint Venture)
|- 
| 7MU || Toyota SUV made by MTMUS (Mazda-Toyota Joint Venture)
|-
| 7MW || Cenntro Electric Group Limited truck
|-
| 7MZ || HDK electric vehicles
|-
| 7NA || Navistar Defense/ND Defense
|- 
| 7NY || Lordstown Motors
|- 
| 7PD || Rivian SUV
|- 
| 7RZ || Electric Last Mile Solutions
|- 
| 7SA || Tesla, Inc. (US-built MPVs (e.g. Model X, Model Y))
|-
| 7SU || Blue Arc electric trucks made by The Shyft Group
|-
| 7SV || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] SUV made by TMMTX
|-
| 7SX || Global Electric Motorcars (WAEV) 2022-
|- 
| 7SY || Polestar SUV
|-
| 7TN || Canoo
|-
| 7UU || Lucid Motors MPV/SUV
|-
| 7UZ || Kaufman Trailers (trailer)
|-
| 7VV || Ree Automotive
|-
| 7WA || Scout Motors (MPV)
|-
| 7WE || Bollinger Motors incomplete vehicle
|-
| 7XB || Denago EV Corporation (Low-Speed Vehicle)
|-
| 7YA || Hyundai MPV/SUV made by HMGMA
|-
| 7ZJ || Meyers Manx, LLC (Manx EV Resorter) [Low Speed Vehicle]
|-
| 7Z0 || Zoox
|-
| 71T || Slate Auto (truck)
|-
| 71V || Slate Auto (MPV)
|-
| 722 || Isuzu North America Corp. (incomplete vehicle - medium duty)
|-
| 8AB || Mercedes Benz truck &amp; bus (Argentina)
|-
| 8AC || Mercedes Benz vans (for South America)
|-
| 8AD || Peugeot Argentina
|-
| 8AE || Peugeot van
|-
| 8AF || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Argentina
|-
| 8AG || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Argentina
|-
| 8AJ || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Argentina
|-
| 8AK || Suzuki Argentina
|-
| 8AN || Nissan Argentina
|-
| 8AP || Fiat Argentina
|-
| 8AT || Iveco Argentina
|-
| 8AW || Volkswagen Argentina
|-
| 8A1 || Renault Argentina
|-
| 8A3 || Scania Argentina
|-
| 8A7 || Minarelli S.A.
|-
| 8BB || Agrale Argentina S.A.
|-
| 8BC || Citroën Argentina
|-
| 8BN || Mercedes-Benz incomplete vehicle (North America)
|-
| 8BR || Mercedes-Benz &quot;bus&quot; (van with more than 3 rows of seats) (North America)
|-
| 8BT || Mercedes-Benz MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) (North America)
|-
| 8BU || Mercedes-Benz truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) (North America)
|-
| 8CH || Honda motorcycle
|-
| 8C3 || Honda car/SUV
|-
| 8G1 || Automotores Franco Chilena S.A. Renault
|-
| 8GD || Automotores Franco Chilena S.A. Peugeot
|-
| 8GG || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Chile
|-
| 8LD || General Motors OBB - Chevrolet Ecuador
|-
| 8LF || Maresa (Mazda)
|-
| 8LG || Aymesa (Hyundai Motor &amp; Kia)
|-
| 8L4 || Great Wall Motors made by Ciudad del Auto (Ciauto)
|-
| 8XD || Ford Motor Venezuela
|-
| 8XJ || Mack de Venezuela C.A.
|-
| 8XV || Iveco Venezuela C.A.
|-
| 8Z1 || General Motors Venezolana C.A.
|-
| 829 || Industrias Quantum Motors S.A. (Bolivia)
|-
| 9BD || Fiat Brazil &amp; Dodge, Ram made by Fiat Brasil
|-
| 9BF || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Brazil
|-
| 9BG || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Brazil
|-
| 9BH || Hyundai Motor Brasil
|-
| 9BM || Mercedes-Benz Brazil car, SUV, commercial truck &amp; bus
|-
| 9BN || Mafersa
|-
| 9BR || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Brazil
|-
| 9BS || Scania Brazil
|-
| 9BU ||Gurgel Motores S.A. (defunct Brazilian automaker)
|-
| 9BV || Volvo Trucks Brazil
|-
| 9BW || Volkswagen Brazil
|-
| 9BY || Agrale S.A.
|-
| 9C2 || Moto Honda Da Amazonia Ltda.
|-
| 9C6 || Yamaha Motor Da Amazonia Ltda.
|-
| 9CD || Suzuki (motorcycles) assembled by J. Toledo Motos do Brasil
|-
| 9DF || Puma
|-
| 9DW || Kenworth &amp; Peterbilt trucks [incomplete vehicle] made by Volkswagen do Brasil
|-
| 9EZ || homemade or handbuilt vehicles
|-
| 92H || Origem Brazil
|-
| 932 || Harley-Davidson Brazil
|-
| 935 || Citroën Brazil
|-
| 936 || Peugeot Brazil
|-
| 937 || Dodge Dakota
|-
| 93C || Chevrolet SUV [Tracker] or pickup [Tornado, Montana, S10] (sold in Mexico, made in Brazil)
|-
| 93H || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Brazil car/SUV
|-
| 93K || Volvo Trucks Brazil
|-
| 93P || Volare
|-
| 93S || Navistar International
|-
| 93R || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Brazil
|-
| 93U || Audi Brazil 1999–2006
|-
| 93W || Fiat Ducato made by Iveco 2000–2016
|-
| 93V || Navistar International
|-
| 93X || Souza Ramos – Mitsubishi Motors / Suzuki Jimny
|-
| 93Y || Renault Brazil
|-
| 93Z || Iveco
|-
| 94D || Nissan Brazil
|-
| 94N || RWM Brazil
|-
| 94T || Troller Veículos Especiais
|-
| 95P || CAOA Hyundai &amp; CAOA Chery
|-
| 95V || Dafra Motos (motorscooters from SYM) &amp; Ducati, KTM, &amp; MV Agusta assembled by Dafra
|-
| 95V || BMW motorcycles assembled by Dafra Motos 2009–2016
|-
| 95Z || Buell Motorcycle Company assembled by Harley-Davidson Brazil
|-
| 953 || VW Truck &amp; Bus / MAN Truck &amp; Bus
|-
| 96P || Kawasaki
|-
| 97N || Triumph Motorcycles Ltd.
|-
| 988 || Jeep, Ram [Rampage], and Fiat [Toro] (made at the Goiana plant)
|-
| 98M || BMW car/SUV
|-
| 98P || DAF Trucks
|-
| 98R || Chery
|-
| 99A || Audi 2016-
|-
| 99H || Shineray
|-
| 99J || Jaguar Land Rover
|-
| 99K || Haojue &amp; Kymco assembled by JTZ Indústria e Comércio de Motos
|-
| 99L || BYD
|-
| 99Z || BMW Motorrad (Motorcycle assembled by BMW 2017-)
|-
| 9FB || Renault Colombia (Sofasa)
|-
| 9FC || Compañía Colombiana Automotriz S.A. (Mazda)
|-
| 9GA || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Colombia (GM Colmotores S.A.)
|-
| 9UJ || Chery assembled by Chery Socma S.A. (Uruguay)
|-
| 9UK || Lifan (Uruguay)
|-
| 9UT || Dongfeng trucks made by Nordex S.A.
|-
| 9UW || Kia made by Nordex S.A.
|-
| 9VC || Fiat made by Nordex S.A. (Scudo, 2025 Titano)
|-
| 9V7 || Citroen made by Nordex S.A. (Jumpy)
|-
| 9V8 || Peugeot made by Nordex S.A. (Expert)
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>kp2h90r01qjrxmdy893hg98dfj9kauc</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cherokee/Lesson 2</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>142813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662733</id>
      <parentid>3235774</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T10:02:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662733</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1317" sha1="6m27y01ryfil6u6ttgkb2hibvlj40oh" xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 1px; border-color: #888888; border-style: solid&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background: #f3f4f4;{{text default color}}; padding: 8px&quot;&gt;
'''Note''': You must be using Cherokee Unicode Supported Fonts to view this site. Information on obtaining and installing Cherokee Unicode Fonts for Windows 2000 and Windows XP is available on the Cherokee [[w:chr:Unicode|Unicode page]]. Mac OS X from version 10.3 (Panther), Windows Vista and some Linux Operating System's include default support for displaying the Cherokee Language in syllabary.
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Numbers==
{|
|-
|1
|ᏌᏊᎢ
|saquui
|-
|2
|ᏔᎵ
|tali
|-
|3
|ᏦᎢ
|tsoi
|-
|4
|ᏅᎩ
|nvgi
|-
|5
|ᎯᏍᎩ
|hisgi
|-
|6
|ᏑᏓᎵ
|sudali
|-
|7
|ᎦᎵᏉᎩ
|galiquogi
|-
|8
|ᏧᏁᎳ
|tsunela
|-
|9
|ᏐᏁᎳ
|sonela
|-
|10
|ᏍᎪᎯ
|sgohi
|-
|11
|ᏌᏚᎢ
|sadui
|-
|12
|ᏔᎵᏚᎢ
|talidui
|}

==Days of the week==

{|
|-
|Monday
|ᎤᎾᏙᏓᏉᏅᎢ
|unadodaquonvi
|-
|Tuesday
|ᏔᎵᏁᎢᎦ
|talineiga
|-
|Wednesday
|ᏦᎢᏁᎢᎦ
|tsoineiga
|-
|Thursday
|ᏅᎩᏁᎢᎦ
|nvgineiga
|-
|Friday
|ᏧᏅᎩᎶᏍᏗ
|tsunvgilosdi
|-
|Saturday
|ᎤᎾᏙᏓᏈᏕᎾ
|unadodaquidena
|-
|Sunday
|ᎤᎾᏙᏓᏆᏍᎬᎢ
|unadodaquasgvi
|}

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>6m27y01ryfil6u6ttgkb2hibvlj40oh</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linear Algebra/Gauss' Method</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>151723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662555</id>
      <parentid>4412684</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:59:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-45524-14</username>
        <id>3622879</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */ Dropped ignored citation field month</comment>
      <origin>4662555</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30646" sha1="i7ixhlcyrr6fyx11f4wfkm3v1n8f3e3" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{navigation|Book=Linear Algebra
|current=Gauss' Method
|previous=Solving Linear Systems
|next=Describing the Solution Set}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

{{TextBox|1=
;Definition 1.1{{anchor|linear equation}}:
A '''linear equation''' in variables
&lt;math&gt;x_1,x_2,\ldots,x_n&lt;/math&gt; has the form

:&lt;math&gt;a_1x_1+a_2x_2+a_3x_3+\cdots+a_nx_n=d&lt;/math&gt;

where the numbers &lt;math&gt;a_1,\dots,a_n\in\R&lt;/math&gt; are the equation's
'''coefficients''' and
&lt;math&gt;d\in\R&lt;/math&gt; is the '''constant'''.
An &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-tuple &lt;math&gt;(s_1,s_2,\dots,s_n)\in\R^n &lt;/math&gt; is a 
'''solution''' 
of, or '''satisfies''', that equation if substituting the numbers
&lt;math&gt;s_1,\dots,s_n&lt;/math&gt; for the variables gives a true statement:
&lt;math&gt;a_1s_1+a_2s_2+\ldots+a_ns_n=d&lt;/math&gt;.

A '''system of linear equations'''

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
a_{1,1}x_1 &amp;+ &amp;a_{1,2}x_2 &amp;+ &amp;\cdots &amp;+ &amp;a_{1,n}x_n &amp;=  &amp;d_1  \\
a_{2,1}x_1 &amp;+ &amp;a_{2,2}x_2 &amp;+ &amp;\cdots &amp;+ &amp;a_{2,n}x_n &amp;=  &amp;d_2  \\
&amp;  &amp;            &amp;   &amp;       &amp;  &amp;           &amp;\vdots   \\
a_{m,1}x_1 &amp;+ &amp;a_{m,2}x_2 &amp;+ &amp;\cdots &amp;+ &amp;a_{m,n}x_n &amp;=  &amp;d_m
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

has the solution
&lt;math&gt;(s_1,s_2,\ldots,s_n)&lt;/math&gt; if that &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-tuple is a solution of all of the equations in the system.
}}

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.2:
The ordered pair &lt;math&gt;(-1,5)&lt;/math&gt; is a solution of this system.

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
4x_1 &amp;+ &amp;2x_2 &amp;= &amp;6  \\
-x_1 &amp;+ &amp;x_2  &amp;= &amp;6
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

In contrast, &lt;math&gt; (5,-1) &lt;/math&gt; is not a solution.
}}

Finding the set of all solutions is '''solving'''{{anchor|system of linear equations!solving}} the system. No guesswork or good fortune is needed to solve a linear system. There is an algorithm that always works. The next example introduces that algorithm, called '''Gauss' method'''{{anchor|Gauss' method}}. It transforms the system, step by step, into one with a form that is easily solved.

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.3:
To solve this system

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
&amp;   &amp;      &amp;   &amp;3x_3  &amp;=  &amp;9  \\
x_1 &amp;+  &amp;5x_2  &amp;-  &amp;2x_3  &amp;=  &amp;2  \\
\frac{1}{3}x_1 &amp;+  &amp;2x_2  &amp;   &amp;      &amp;=  &amp;3  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

we repeatedly transform it until it is in a form that is easy to solve.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
\quad
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{ \text{swap row 1 with row 3} }
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
\frac{1}{3}x_1 &amp;+  &amp;2x_2  &amp;   &amp;      &amp;=  &amp;3  \\
x_1 &amp;+  &amp;5x_2  &amp;-  &amp;2x_3  &amp;=  &amp;2  \\
&amp;   &amp;      &amp;   &amp;3x_3  &amp;=  &amp;9  
\end{array}                                         \\
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{ \text{multiply row 1 by 3} }
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x_1 &amp;+  &amp;6x_2  &amp;   &amp;      &amp;=  &amp;9  \\
x_1 &amp;+  &amp;5x_2  &amp;-  &amp;2x_3  &amp;=  &amp;2  \\
&amp;   &amp;      &amp;   &amp;3x_3  &amp;=  &amp;9  
\end{array}                                          \\
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{ \text{add }-1\text{ times row 1 to row 2} }
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x_1 &amp;+  &amp;6x_2  &amp;   &amp;      &amp;=  &amp;9  \\
&amp;   &amp;-x_2  &amp;-  &amp;2x_3  &amp;=  &amp;-7 \\
&amp;   &amp;      &amp;   &amp;3x_3  &amp;=  &amp;9  
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
The third step is the only nontrivial one. We've mentally multiplied both sides of the first row by &lt;math&gt;-1&lt;/math&gt;, mentally added that to the old second row, and written the result in as the new second row.

Now we can find the value of each variable.
The bottom equation shows that &lt;math&gt;x_3=3&lt;/math&gt;. Substituting &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;x_3&lt;/math&gt; in the middle equation shows that &lt;math&gt;x_2=1&lt;/math&gt;. Substituting those two into the top equation gives that &lt;math&gt;x_1=3&lt;/math&gt; and so the system has a unique solution: the solution set is &lt;math&gt;\{\,(3,1,3)\,\}&lt;/math&gt;.
}}

Most of this subsection and the next one consists of examples of solving linear systems by Gauss' method. We will use it throughout this book. It is fast and easy. But, before we get to those examples, we will first show that this method is also safe in that it never loses solutions or picks up extraneous solutions.

{{TextBox|1=
;Theorem 1.4 (Gauss' method) {{anchor|th:GaussMethod}}:&lt;!--\label{th:GaussMethod}--&gt;
If a linear system is changed to another by one of these operations
&lt;ol type=1 start=1&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
an equation is swapped with another
&lt;li&gt;
an equation has both sides multiplied by a nonzero constant
&lt;li&gt;
an equation is replaced by the sum of itself and a multiple of another
&lt;/ol&gt;
then the two systems have the same set of solutions.
}}

Each of those three operations has a restriction. Multiplying a row by &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not allowed because obviously that can change the solution set of the system. Similarly, adding a multiple of a row to itself is not allowed because adding &lt;math&gt;-1&lt;/math&gt; times the row to itself has the effect of multiplying the row by &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;. Finally, swapping a row with itself is disallowed to make some results in the fourth chapter easier to state and remember (and besides, self-swapping doesn't accomplish anything).

{{TextBox|1=
;Proof:
We will cover the equation swap operation here and save the other two
cases for [[#ex:ProveGaussMethod|Problem 14]]&lt;!--\ref{ex:ProveGaussMethod}--&gt;.

Consider this swap of row &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; with row &lt;math&gt;j&lt;/math&gt;.

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
a_{1,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{1,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{1,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_1  \\
&amp;   &amp;           &amp;   &amp;        &amp;   &amp;            &amp;\vdots   \\
a_{i,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{i,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{i,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_i  \\
&amp;   &amp;           &amp;   &amp;        &amp;   &amp;            &amp;\vdots   \\
a_{j,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{j,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{j,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_j  \\
&amp;   &amp;           &amp;   &amp;        &amp;   &amp;            &amp;\vdots   \\
a_{m,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{m,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{m,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_m  
\end{array}
\xrightarrow[]{}
\begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
a_{1,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{1,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{1,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_1  \\
&amp;   &amp;           &amp;   &amp;        &amp;   &amp;            &amp;\vdots   \\
a_{j,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{j,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{j,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_j  \\
&amp;   &amp;           &amp;   &amp;        &amp;   &amp;            &amp;\vdots   \\
a_{i,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{i,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{i,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_i  \\
&amp;   &amp;           &amp;   &amp;        &amp;   &amp;            &amp;\vdots   \\
a_{m,1}x_1  &amp;+  &amp;a_{m,2}x_2 &amp;+  &amp;\cdots  &amp;&amp;a_{m,n}x_n  &amp;=  &amp;d_m  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;


The &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-tuple &lt;math&gt;(s_1,\ldots,s_n)&lt;/math&gt; satisfies the system before the swap if and only if substituting the values, the &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt;'s, for the variables, the &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;'s, gives true statements:
&lt;math&gt;a_{1,1}s_1+a_{1,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{1,n}s_n=d_1&lt;/math&gt;
and ... 
&lt;math&gt;a_{i,1}s_1+a_{i,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{i,n}s_n=d_i&lt;/math&gt;
and ...  &lt;math&gt;a_{j,1}s_1+a_{j,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{j,n}s_n=d_j&lt;/math&gt;
and ...  &lt;math&gt;a_{m,1}s_1+a_{m,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{m,n}s_n=d_m&lt;/math&gt;.

In a requirement consisting of statements and-ed together we can rearrange the order of the statements, so that this requirement is met if and only if
&lt;math&gt;a_{1,1}s_1+a_{1,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{1,n}s_n=d_1&lt;/math&gt;
and ...  &lt;math&gt;a_{j,1}s_1+a_{j,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{j,n}s_n=d_j&lt;/math&gt;
and ...  &lt;math&gt;a_{i,1}s_1+a_{i,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{i,n}s_n=d_i&lt;/math&gt;
and ...  &lt;math&gt;a_{m,1}s_1+a_{m,2}s_2+\cdots+a_{m,n}s_n=d_m&lt;/math&gt;.
This is exactly the requirement that &lt;math&gt;(s_1,\ldots,s_n)&lt;/math&gt; solves the system after the row swap.
}}

{{TextBox|1=
;Definition 1.5:{{anchor|elementary operations}}
The three operations from [[#th:GaussMethod|Theorem 1.4]]&lt;!--\ref{th:GaussMethod}--&gt;
are the '''elementary reduction operations''',
or '''row operations''', or '''Gaussian operations'''.
They are '''swapping''', '''multiplying by a scalar''' or '''rescaling''', and '''pivoting'''.
}}

When writing out the calculations, we will abbreviate &quot;row &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;&quot; by &quot;&lt;math&gt;\rho_i&lt;/math&gt;&quot;. For instance, we will denote a pivot operation by &lt;math&gt;k\rho_i+\rho_j&lt;/math&gt;, with the row that is changed written second. We will also, to save writing, often list pivot steps together when they use the same &lt;math&gt;\rho_i&lt;/math&gt;.

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.6:
A typical use of Gauss' method is to solve this system.

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
2x  &amp;-  &amp;y  &amp;+  &amp;3z &amp;=  &amp;3  \\
x  &amp;-  &amp;2y &amp;-  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;3  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

The first transformation of the system involves using the first row to eliminate the &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; in the second row and the &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; in the third. To get rid of the second row's &lt;math&gt;2x&lt;/math&gt;, we multiply the entire first row by &lt;math&gt;-2&lt;/math&gt;, 
add that to the second row, and write the result in as the new second row. To get rid of the third row's &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;, we multiply the first row by &lt;math&gt;-1&lt;/math&gt;, add that to the third row, and write the result in as the new third row.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[-\rho_1+\rho_3]{-2\rho_1+\rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;-3y&amp;+  &amp;3z &amp;=  &amp;3  \\
&amp;   &amp;-3y&amp;-  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;3  
\end{array}   
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
(Note that the two &lt;math&gt;\rho_1&lt;/math&gt; steps &lt;math&gt;-2\rho_1+\rho_2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-\rho_1+\rho_3&lt;/math&gt; are written as one operation.) In this second system, the last two equations involve only two unknowns. To finish we transform the second system into a third system, where the last equation involves only one unknown. This transformation uses the second row to eliminate &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; from the third row.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-\rho_2+\rho_3}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;-3y&amp;+  &amp;3z &amp;=  &amp;3  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-4z&amp;=  &amp;0
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
Now we are set up for the solution. The third row shows that &lt;math&gt;z=0&lt;/math&gt;. {{anchor|back substitution}}Substitute that back into the second row to get &lt;math&gt;y=-1&lt;/math&gt;, and then substitute back into the first row to get &lt;math&gt; x=1 &lt;/math&gt;.
}}

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.7{{anchor|statics problem}}:
For the Physics problem from the start of this
chapter, Gauss' method gives this.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
40h  &amp;+  &amp;15c  &amp;=  &amp;100      \\
-50h &amp;+  &amp;25c  &amp;=  &amp;50         
\end{array}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{5/4\rho_1 +\rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
40h  &amp;+  &amp;15c       &amp;=  &amp;100      \\
&amp;   &amp;(175/4)c  &amp;=  &amp;175 
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
So &lt;math&gt; c=4 &lt;/math&gt;, and back-substitution gives that &lt;math&gt; h=1 &lt;/math&gt;.
(The Chemistry problem is solved later.)
}}

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.8:
The reduction

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;9  \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;4y &amp;-  &amp;3z &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
3x  &amp;+  &amp;6y &amp;-  &amp;5z &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
&amp;\xrightarrow[-3\rho_1 +\rho_3]{-2\rho_1 +\rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;9  \\
&amp;   &amp;2y &amp;-  &amp;5z &amp;=  &amp;-17\\
&amp;   &amp;3y &amp;-  &amp;8z&amp;=  &amp;-27
\end{array}                                    \\
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-(3/2)\rho_2+\rho_3}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;+  &amp;z            &amp;=  &amp;9  \\
&amp;   &amp;2y &amp;-  &amp;5z           &amp;=  &amp;-17\\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-(1/2)z      &amp;=  &amp;-(3/2) 
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
shows that &lt;math&gt; z=3 &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; y=-1 &lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt; x=7 &lt;/math&gt;.
}}

As these examples illustrate, Gauss' method uses the elementary reduction
operations to set up back-substitution.

{{TextBox|1=
;Definition 1.9{{anchor|echelon form}}:
In each row, the first variable with a nonzero coefficient is the row's
'''leading variable'''. 
A system is in '''echelon form'''
if each leading variable
is to the right of the leading variable in the row above it
(except for the leading variable in the first row).
}}

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.10: 
The only operation needed in the examples above is pivoting.
Here is a linear system that requires the operation of swapping equations. 
After the first pivot

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
\begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
x  &amp;-  &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
2x  &amp;-  &amp;2y &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;+  &amp;2w &amp;=  &amp;4  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;2z &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;5  
\end{array}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-2\rho_1 +\rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
x  &amp;-  &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;z  &amp;+  &amp;2w &amp;=  &amp;4  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;2z &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;5  
\end{array}    
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
the second equation has no leading &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.
To get one, 
we look lower down in the system for a row that has a leading &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; and 
swap it in.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{\rho_2 \leftrightarrow\rho_3}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
x  &amp;-  &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;z  &amp;+  &amp;2w &amp;=  &amp;4  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;2z &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;5  
\end{array}    
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
(Had there been more than one row below the second with a leading &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;
then we could have swapped in any one.)
The rest of Gauss' method goes as before.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-2\rho_3 +\rho_4}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
x  &amp;-  &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;z  &amp;+  &amp;2w &amp;=  &amp;4  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-3w&amp;=  &amp;-3 
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
Back-substitution gives &lt;math&gt; w=1 &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; z=2 &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; y=-1 &lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt; x=-1 &lt;/math&gt;.
}}

Strictly speaking, the operation of rescaling rows is 
not needed to solve linear systems.  
We have included it because we will use it 
later in this chapter as part of a variation on Gauss' method, 
the Gauss-Jordan method.

All of the systems seen so far have the same number of equations as unknowns.
All of them have a solution, and for all of them there is only one solution.
We finish this subsection by seeing for contrast
some other things that can happen.

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.11{{anchor|ex:MoreEqsThanUnks}}: &lt;!--\label{ex:MoreEqsThanUnks}--&gt;
Linear systems need not have the same number of equations as unknowns.
This system 

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;-3 \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;2y  &amp;=  &amp;-2 
\end{array}  
&lt;/math&gt;

has more equations than variables.
Gauss' method helps us understand this system also, since this

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[-2\rho_1 +\rho_3]{-2\rho_1 +\rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
&amp;   &amp;-5y &amp;=  &amp;-5 \\
&amp;   &amp;-4y &amp;=  &amp;-4 
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
shows that one of the equations is redundant.
Echelon form

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-(4/5)\rho_2 +\rho_3}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
&amp;   &amp;-5y &amp;=  &amp;-5 \\
&amp;   &amp;0   &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
gives &lt;math&gt; y=1 &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; x=-2 &lt;/math&gt;.
The &quot;&lt;math&gt; 0=0 &lt;/math&gt;&quot; is derived from the redundancy.
}}

That example's system has more equations than variables.
Gauss' method is also useful on systems with more variables than equations.
Many examples are in the next subsection.

Another way that linear systems can differ from the examples shown earlier 
is that some linear systems do not have a unique solution.
This can happen in two ways.

The first is that it can fail to have any solution at all.

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.12{{anchor|ex:MoreEqsThanUnksInconsis}}: &lt;!--\label{ex:MoreEqsThanUnksInconsis}--&gt;
Contrast the system in the last example with this one.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;-3 \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;2y  &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
&amp;\xrightarrow[-2\rho_1 +\rho_3]{-2\rho_1 +\rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
&amp;   &amp;-5y &amp;=  &amp;-5 \\
&amp;   &amp;-4y &amp;=  &amp;-2
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
Here the system is inconsistent: no pair of numbers satisfies 
all of the equations simultaneously.
Echelon form makes this inconsistency obvious.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-(4/5)\rho_2 +\rho_3}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
&amp;   &amp;-5y &amp;=  &amp;-5 \\
&amp;   &amp;0   &amp;=  &amp;2 
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
The solution set is empty.
}}

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.13:
The prior system has more equations than unknowns, but
that is not what causes the inconsistency&amp;mdash; 
[[#ex:MoreEqsThanUnks|Example 1.11]]&lt;!--\ref{ex:MoreEqsThanUnks}--&gt;
has more equations than unknowns and yet is consistent.
Nor is having more equations than unknowns sufficient for
inconsistency, as is illustrated by this inconsistent system with the 
same number of equations as unknowns.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;2y  &amp;=  &amp;8  \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;4y  &amp;=  &amp;8  
\end{array}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-2\rho_1 + \rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;2y  &amp;=  &amp;8  \\
&amp;   &amp;0   &amp;=  &amp;-8
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
}}

The other way that a linear system can fail to have a unique solution
is to have many solutions.

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.14:
In this system

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;4  \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;2y  &amp;=  &amp;8  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

any pair of numbers satisfying the first equation automatically
satisfies the second.
The solution set &lt;math&gt; \{ (x,y)\,\big|\, x+y=4 \} &lt;/math&gt; is infinite; some
of its members are &lt;math&gt;(0,4)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;(-1,5)&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;(2.5,1.5)&lt;/math&gt;.
The result of applying Gauss' method here contrasts with the prior example
because we do not get a contradictory equation.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-2\rho_1 + \rho_2}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;4  \\
&amp;   &amp;0   &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
}}

Don't be fooled by the &quot;&lt;math&gt; 0=0 &lt;/math&gt;&quot; equation in that example.
It is not the signal that a system has many solutions.

{{TextBox|1=
;Example 1.15{{anchor|ex:NoZerosInfManySols}}: &lt;!--\label{ex:NoZerosInfManySols}--&gt;
The absence of a &quot;&lt;math&gt; 0=0 &lt;/math&gt;&quot; does not keep a system from having
many different solutions.
This system is in echelon form

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

has no &quot;&lt;math&gt;0=0&lt;/math&gt;&quot;, and yet has infinitely many solutions.
(For instance, each of these is a solution: &lt;math&gt;(0,1,-1)&lt;/math&gt;, 
&lt;math&gt;(0,1/2,-1/2)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;(0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;(0,-\pi,\pi)&lt;/math&gt;.
There are infinitely many solutions because
any triple whose first component is &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and whose second component is the 
negative of the third is a solution.)

Nor does the presence of a &quot;&lt;math&gt; 0=0 &lt;/math&gt;&quot; mean that the system must have 
many solutions.
[[#ex:MoreEqsThanUnks|Example 1.11]]&lt;!--\ref{ex:MoreEqsThanUnks}--&gt; shows that.
So does this system, which does not have 
many solutions&amp;mdash; in fact it has none&amp;mdash; despite that 
when it is brought to echelon form it has a &quot;&lt;math&gt;0=0&lt;/math&gt;&quot; row.

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{rcl}
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-   &amp;2z  &amp;=  &amp;6  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;+   &amp;z   &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;-   &amp;z   &amp;=  &amp;7  \\
&amp;   &amp;3y &amp;+   &amp;3z  &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
&amp;\xrightarrow[]{-\rho_1 +\rho_3}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-   &amp;2z  &amp;=  &amp;6  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;+   &amp;z   &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;+   &amp;z   &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
&amp;   &amp;3y &amp;+   &amp;3z  &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}     \\
&amp;\xrightarrow[-3\rho_2 +\rho_4]{-\rho_2 +\rho_3}
&amp;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-   &amp;2z  &amp;=  &amp;6  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;+   &amp;z   &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;    &amp;0   &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
&amp;   &amp;   &amp;    &amp;0   &amp;=  &amp;-3 
\end{array}
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
}}

We will finish this subsection with a summary of
what we've seen so far about Gauss' method.

Gauss' method uses the three row operations to 
set a system up for back substitution.
If any step shows a contradictory equation then we can stop with the
conclusion that the system has no solutions.
If we reach echelon form without a contradictory equation,
and each variable is a leading variable in its
row, then the system has a unique solution and we find it by
back substitution.
Finally, if we reach echelon form without a contradictory equation,
and there is not a unique solution
(at least one variable is not a leading variable) then the system has many
solutions.

The next subsection deals with the third case&amp;mdash; 
we will see how to describe the
solution set of a system with many solutions.

== Exercises ==
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 1: 
Use Gauss' method to find the unique solution for each system.
&lt;ol type=1 start=1&gt;
&lt;li&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;13  \\
x   &amp;-  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;-1
\end{array}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;li&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x   &amp;  &amp;  &amp;-  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
3x  &amp;+ &amp;y &amp;   &amp;   &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
-x  &amp;+ &amp;y &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;4
\end{array}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 2:  
Use Gauss' method to solve each system
or conclude &quot;many solutions&quot; or &quot;no solutions&quot;.
&lt;ol type=1 start=1&gt;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;+  &amp;2y  &amp;=  &amp;5  \\
x  &amp;-  &amp;4y  &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
-x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;2  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;li&gt;  &lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x  &amp;-  &amp;3y  &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;+  &amp;2z &amp;=  &amp;14 
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;li&gt;  &lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
-x  &amp;-  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
-3x  &amp;-  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;2  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;li&gt;  &lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
&amp;   &amp;4y  &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;20 \\
2x  &amp;-  &amp;2y  &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
x  &amp;   &amp;    &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;5  \\
x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;-  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;10 
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;math&gt; \begin{array}{*{4}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;5  \\
&amp;   &amp;y  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;-1 \\
3x  &amp;   &amp;   &amp;-  &amp;z  &amp;-  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;0  \\
4x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;+  &amp;2z &amp;+  &amp;w  &amp;=  &amp;9  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 3: 
There are methods for solving linear systems other 
than Gauss' method.
One often taught in high school is to solve one of the 
equations for a variable, then substitute the resulting expression into
other equations.
That step is repeated until there is an equation with only one
variable.
From that, the first number in the solution is derived, and then 
back-substitution can be done.
This method takes longer than Gauss' method, since it involves
more arithmetic operations, and is also more
likely to lead to errors.
To illustrate how it can lead to wrong conclusions, we will use the system 

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;-3 \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;2y  &amp;=  &amp;0  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

from [[#ex:MoreEqsThanUnksInconsis|Example 1.12]]&lt;!--\ref{ex:MoreEqsThanUnksInconsis}--&gt;.
&lt;ol type=1 start=1&gt;
&lt;li&gt; Solve the first equation for &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and 
substitute that expression into the second equation.
Find the resulting &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.
&lt;li&gt; Again solve the first equation for &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;, 
but this time substitute that expression into the third equation.
Find this &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.
&lt;/ol&gt;
What extra step must a user of this method take to avoid 
erroneously concluding a system has a solution?
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 4: 
For which values of &lt;math&gt; k &lt;/math&gt; are
there no solutions, many solutions, or a unique solution
to this system?

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;-  &amp;y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
3x  &amp;-  &amp;3y &amp;=  &amp;k  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 5: 
This system is not linear, in some sense,

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
2\sin\alpha  &amp;-  &amp;\cos\beta  &amp;+  &amp;3\tan\gamma  &amp;=  &amp;3  \\
4\sin\alpha  &amp;+  &amp;2\cos\beta &amp;-  &amp;2\tan\gamma  &amp;=  &amp;10  \\
6\sin\alpha  &amp;-  &amp;3\cos\beta &amp;+  &amp;\tan\gamma   &amp;=  &amp;9  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

and yet we can nonetheless apply Gauss' method.
Do so. Does the system have a solution?
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 6: 
What conditions must the constants, the &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;'s,
satisfy so that each of these systems has a solution?
''Hint.'' 
Apply Gauss' method and see what happens to the right side {{harv|Anton|1987}}.

&lt;ol type=1 start=1&gt;
&lt;li&gt;  &lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;-  &amp;3y  &amp;=  &amp;b_1 \\
3x  &amp;+  &amp;y   &amp;=  &amp;b_2 \\
x  &amp;+  &amp;7y  &amp;=  &amp;b_3 \\
2x  &amp;+  &amp;4y  &amp;=  &amp;b_4 
\end{array}   &lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
x_1  &amp;+  &amp;2x_2  &amp;+  &amp;3x_3  &amp;=  &amp;b_1  \\
2x_1  &amp;+  &amp;5x_2  &amp;+  &amp;3x_3  &amp;=  &amp;b_2  \\
x_1  &amp;   &amp;      &amp;+  &amp;8x_3  &amp;=  &amp;b_3  
\end{array}   &lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 7: 
True or false: a system with more unknowns than equations
has at least one solution.
(As always, to say &quot;true&quot; you must prove it, while to say 
&quot;false&quot; you must produce a counterexample.)
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 8{{anchor|chemistry problem}}: 
Must any Chemistry problem like
the one that starts this subsection&amp;mdash;
a balance the reaction problem&amp;mdash; have infinitely many solutions?
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 9: 
Find the coefficients
&lt;math&gt; a &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; b &lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt; c &lt;/math&gt; so that the graph of &lt;math&gt; f(x)=ax^2+bx+c &lt;/math&gt; 
passes through the points &lt;math&gt; (1,2) &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; (-1,6) &lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt; (2,3) &lt;/math&gt;.
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 10: 
Gauss' method works by combining the equations in a system to make new
equations.
&lt;ol type=1 start=1&gt;
&lt;li&gt; Can the equation &lt;math&gt; 3x-2y=5 &lt;/math&gt; be derived, by a sequence of
Gaussian reduction steps, from the equations in this system?

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;=  &amp;1  \\
4x  &amp;-  &amp;y  &amp;=  &amp;6
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;li&gt; Can the equation &lt;math&gt; 5x-3y=2 &lt;/math&gt; be derived, by a sequence of
Gaussian reduction steps, from the equations in this system?

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;+  &amp;2y &amp;=  &amp;5  \\
3x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;=  &amp;4
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;li&gt; Can the equation &lt;math&gt; 6x-9y+5z=-2 &lt;/math&gt; be derived, 
by a sequence of
Gaussian reduction steps, from the equations in the system?

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{3}{rc}r}
2x  &amp;+  &amp;y  &amp;-  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;4  \\
6x  &amp;-  &amp;3y &amp;+  &amp;z  &amp;=  &amp;5
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;/ol&gt;
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 11: 
Prove that, where &lt;math&gt; a,b,\ldots,e &lt;/math&gt; are real numbers
and &lt;math&gt; a\neq 0 &lt;/math&gt;, if

:&lt;math&gt;
ax+by=c
&lt;/math&gt;

has the same solution set as

:&lt;math&gt;
ax+dy=e
&lt;/math&gt;

then they are the same equation.
What if &lt;math&gt; a=0 &lt;/math&gt;?
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 12: 
Show that if &lt;math&gt; ad-bc\neq 0 &lt;/math&gt; then

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
ax  &amp;+  &amp;by  &amp;=  &amp;j  \\
cx  &amp;+  &amp;dy  &amp;=  &amp;k  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

has a unique solution.
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 13: 
In the system

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{array}{*{2}{rc}r}
ax  &amp;+  &amp;by  &amp;=  &amp;c  \\
dx  &amp;+  &amp;ey  &amp;=  &amp;f  
\end{array}
&lt;/math&gt;

each of the equations describes a line in the &lt;math&gt; xy &lt;/math&gt;-plane.
By geometrical reasoning, show that there are three possibilities:
there is a unique solution, there is no solution, 
and there are infinitely many solutions.
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 14 {{anchor|ex:ProveGaussMethod}}: &lt;!--\label{ex:ProveGaussMethod}--&gt;
Finish the proof of [[#th:GaussMethod|Theorem 1.4]]&lt;!--\ref{th:GaussMethod}--&gt;.
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 15: 
Is there a two-unknowns
linear system whose solution set is all of &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{R}^2 &lt;/math&gt;?
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 16: 
Are any of the operations used in Gauss' method
redundant?
That is, can any of the operations be synthesized from the others?
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;Problem 17: 
Prove that each operation of Gauss' method is reversible.
That is, show that if two systems are related by a row operation
&lt;math&gt;S_1\rightarrow S_2&lt;/math&gt; then there is a row operation to go back
&lt;math&gt;S_2\rightarrow S_1&lt;/math&gt;.
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;? Problem 18:  
A box holding pennies, nickels and dimes contains
thirteen coins with a total value of &lt;math&gt; 83 &lt;/math&gt; cents.
How many coins of each type are in the box?
{{harv|Anton|1987}}
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;? Problem 19: 
Four positive integers are given.
Select any three of the integers, find their arithmetic average,
and add this result to the fourth integer.
Thus the numbers 29, 23, 21, and 17 are obtained.
One of the original integers is:
&lt;ol type=1 start=1&gt;
&lt;li&gt; 19
&lt;li&gt; 21
&lt;li&gt; 23
&lt;li&gt; 29
&lt;li&gt; 17
&lt;/ol&gt;
{{harv|Salkind|1975|loc=1955 problem 38}}
}}
{{Linear Algebra/Book 2/Recommended}}
{{TextBox|1=
;? Problem 20:  
Laugh at this:  &lt;math&gt; \mbox{AHAHA}+\mbox{TEHE}=\mbox{TEHAW} &lt;/math&gt;.
It resulted from substituting a code letter for each digit of a simple
example in addition, and it is required to identify the letters
and prove the solution unique {{harv|Ransom|Gupta|1935}}.
}}
{{TextBox|1=
;? Problem 21: 
The Wohascum County Board of Commissioners, which has 20 members, 
recently had to elect a President.
There were three candidates (&lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;); on each ballot
the three
candidates were to be listed in order of preference, with no abstentions.
It was found that 11 members, a majority, preferred &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
(thus the other 9 preferred &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;).
Similarly, it was found that 12 members preferred &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;.
Given these results, it was suggested that &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; should withdraw, to enable
a runoff election between &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;.
However, &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; protested, and it was then found that 14 members preferred
&lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;!
The Board has not yet recovered from the resulting confusion.
Given that every possible order of &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; appeared on at least 
one ballot, how many members voted for &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; as their first choice {{harv|Gilbert|Krusemeyer|Larson|1993|loc=Problem number 2}}?

}}
{{TextBox|1=
;? Problem 22:   
&quot;This system of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; linear equations with
&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; unknowns,&quot; said the Great Mathematician, &quot;has a curious
property.&quot;

&quot;Good heavens!&quot; said the Poor Nut,  &quot;What is it?&quot;

&quot;Note,&quot; said the Great Mathematician, &quot;that the constants are in
arithmetic progression.&quot;

&quot;It's all so clear when you explain it!&quot; said the Poor Nut.
&quot;Do you mean like &lt;math&gt; 6x+9y=12 &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; 15x+18y=21 &lt;/math&gt;?&quot;

&quot;Quite so,&quot; said the Great Mathematician, pulling out his bassoon.
&quot;Indeed, even larger systems can be solved regardless of their progression.
Can you find their solution?&quot;

&quot;Good heavens!&quot; cried the Poor Nut, &quot;I am baffled.&quot;

Are you? {{harv|Dudley|Lebow|Rothman|1963}}
}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[/Solutions/]]

==References==
* {{citation|first=Howard|last=Anton|title=Elementary Linear Algebra|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|year=1987}}.
* {{citation|first1=Underwood (proposer)|last1=Dudley|first2=Arnold (proposer)|last2=Lebow|first3=David (solver)|last3=Rothman|title=Elemantary problem 1151|journal=American Mathematical Monthly|volume=70|number=1|year=1963|pages=93}}.
* {{citation|first1=George T.|last1=Gilbert|first2=Mark|last2=Krusemeyer|first3=Loren C.|last3=Larson|title=The Wohascum County Problem Book|publisher=The Mathematical Association of America|year=1993}}.
* {{citation|first1=W. R. (proposer)|last1=Ransom|first2=Hansraj (solver)|last2=Gupta|title=Elementary problem 105|journal=American Mathematical Monthly|volume=42|number=1|year=1935|pages=47}}.
* {{citation|first=Charles T.|last=Salkind|title=Contest Problem Book No 1: Annual High School Mathematics Examinations 1950-1960|year=1975}}.

{{navigation|Book=Linear Algebra
|current=Gauss' Method
|previous=Solving Linear Systems
|next=Describing the Solution Set}}

{{BookCat}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F01x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f010;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f011;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f012;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f013;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f014;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f015;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f016;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f017;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF BAMBOOS|&amp;#x1f018;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f019;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f01a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f01b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f01c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f01d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f01e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f01f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F02x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f020;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF CIRCLES|&amp;#x1f021;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE PLUM|&amp;#x1f022;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ORCHID|&amp;#x1f023;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BAMBOO|&amp;#x1f024;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE CHRYSANTHEMUM|&amp;#x1f025;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SPRING|&amp;#x1f026;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SUMMER|&amp;#x1f027;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE AUTUMN|&amp;#x1f028;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WINTER|&amp;#x1f029;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE JOKER|&amp;#x1f02a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BACK|&amp;#x1f02b;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Domino Tiles'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F03x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL BACK|&amp;#x1f030;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-00|&amp;#x1f031;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-01|&amp;#x1f032;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-02|&amp;#x1f033;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-03|&amp;#x1f034;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-04|&amp;#x1f035;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-05|&amp;#x1f036;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-06|&amp;#x1f037;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-00|&amp;#x1f038;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-01|&amp;#x1f039;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-02|&amp;#x1f03a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-03|&amp;#x1f03b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-04|&amp;#x1f03c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-05|&amp;#x1f03d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-06|&amp;#x1f03e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-00|&amp;#x1f03f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F04x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-01|&amp;#x1f040;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-02|&amp;#x1f041;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-03|&amp;#x1f042;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-04|&amp;#x1f043;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-05|&amp;#x1f044;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-06|&amp;#x1f045;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-00|&amp;#x1f046;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-01|&amp;#x1f047;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-02|&amp;#x1f048;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-03|&amp;#x1f049;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-04|&amp;#x1f04a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-05|&amp;#x1f04b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-06|&amp;#x1f04c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-00|&amp;#x1f04d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-01|&amp;#x1f04e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-02|&amp;#x1f04f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F05x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-03|&amp;#x1f050;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-04|&amp;#x1f051;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-05|&amp;#x1f052;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-06|&amp;#x1f053;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-00|&amp;#x1f054;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-01|&amp;#x1f055;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-02|&amp;#x1f056;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-03|&amp;#x1f057;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-04|&amp;#x1f058;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-05|&amp;#x1f059;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-06|&amp;#x1f05a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-00|&amp;#x1f05b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-01|&amp;#x1f05c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-02|&amp;#x1f05d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-03|&amp;#x1f05e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-04|&amp;#x1f05f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F06x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-05|&amp;#x1f060;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-06|&amp;#x1f061;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL BACK|&amp;#x1f062;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-00|&amp;#x1f063;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-01|&amp;#x1f064;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-02|&amp;#x1f065;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-03|&amp;#x1f066;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-04|&amp;#x1f067;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-05|&amp;#x1f068;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-06|&amp;#x1f069;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-00|&amp;#x1f06a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-01|&amp;#x1f06b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-02|&amp;#x1f06c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-03|&amp;#x1f06d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-04|&amp;#x1f06e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-05|&amp;#x1f06f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F07x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-06|&amp;#x1f070;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-00|&amp;#x1f071;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-01|&amp;#x1f072;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-02|&amp;#x1f073;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-03|&amp;#x1f074;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-04|&amp;#x1f075;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-05|&amp;#x1f076;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-06|&amp;#x1f077;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-00|&amp;#x1f078;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-01|&amp;#x1f079;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-02|&amp;#x1f07a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-03|&amp;#x1f07b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-04|&amp;#x1f07c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-05|&amp;#x1f07d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-06|&amp;#x1f07e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-00|&amp;#x1f07f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F08x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-01|&amp;#x1f080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-02|&amp;#x1f081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-03|&amp;#x1f082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-04|&amp;#x1f083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-05|&amp;#x1f084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-06|&amp;#x1f085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-00|&amp;#x1f086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-01|&amp;#x1f087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-02|&amp;#x1f088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-03|&amp;#x1f089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-04|&amp;#x1f08a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-05|&amp;#x1f08b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-06|&amp;#x1f08c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-00|&amp;#x1f08d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-01|&amp;#x1f08e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-02|&amp;#x1f08f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F09x
|style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-03|&amp;#x1f090;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-04|&amp;#x1f091;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-05|&amp;#x1f092;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-06|&amp;#x1f093;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Playing Cards'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F0Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BACK|&amp;#x1f0a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF SPADES|&amp;#x1f0ae;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F0Bx
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF HEARTS|&amp;#x1f0be;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD RED JOKER|&amp;#x1f0bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F0Cx
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF DIAMONDS|&amp;#x1f0ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BLACK JOKER|&amp;#x1f0cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F0Dx
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF CLUBS|&amp;#x1f0de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD WHITE JOKER|&amp;#x1f0df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F0Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOOL|&amp;#x1f0e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-1|&amp;#x1f0e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-2|&amp;#x1f0e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-3|&amp;#x1f0e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-4|&amp;#x1f0e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-5|&amp;#x1f0e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-6|&amp;#x1f0e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-7|&amp;#x1f0e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-8|&amp;#x1f0e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-9|&amp;#x1f0e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-10|&amp;#x1f0ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-11|&amp;#x1f0eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-12|&amp;#x1f0ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-13|&amp;#x1f0ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-14|&amp;#x1f0ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-15|&amp;#x1f0ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F0Fx
|style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-16|&amp;#x1f0f0;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-17|&amp;#x1f0f1;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-18|&amp;#x1f0f2;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-19|&amp;#x1f0f3;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-20|&amp;#x1f0f4;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-21|&amp;#x1f0f5;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F10x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO FULL STOP|&amp;#x1f100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO COMMA|&amp;#x1f101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ONE COMMA|&amp;#x1f102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT TWO COMMA|&amp;#x1f103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT THREE COMMA|&amp;#x1f104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FOUR COMMA|&amp;#x1f105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FIVE COMMA|&amp;#x1f106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SIX COMMA|&amp;#x1f107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SEVEN COMMA|&amp;#x1f108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT EIGHT COMMA|&amp;#x1f109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT NINE COMMA|&amp;#x1f10a;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1f10b;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1f10c;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ZERO WITH SLASH|&amp;#x1f10d;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ANTICLOCKWISE ARROW|&amp;#x1f10e;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED DOLLAR SIGN WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&amp;#x1f10f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F11x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&amp;#x1f110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&amp;#x1f111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&amp;#x1f112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&amp;#x1f113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&amp;#x1f114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&amp;#x1f115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&amp;#x1f116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&amp;#x1f117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&amp;#x1f118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&amp;#x1f119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&amp;#x1f11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&amp;#x1f11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&amp;#x1f11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&amp;#x1f11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&amp;#x1f11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&amp;#x1f11f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F12x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&amp;#x1f120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&amp;#x1f121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&amp;#x1f122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&amp;#x1f123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&amp;#x1f124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&amp;#x1f125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&amp;#x1f126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&amp;#x1f127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&amp;#x1f128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&amp;#x1f129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&amp;#x1f12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&amp;#x1f12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&amp;#x1f12c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CD|&amp;#x1f12d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED WZ|&amp;#x1f12e;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COPYLEFT SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f12f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F13x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&amp;#x1f130;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&amp;#x1f131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&amp;#x1f132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&amp;#x1f133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&amp;#x1f134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&amp;#x1f135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&amp;#x1f136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&amp;#x1f137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&amp;#x1f138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&amp;#x1f139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&amp;#x1f13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&amp;#x1f13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&amp;#x1f13c;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&amp;#x1f13d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&amp;#x1f13e;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&amp;#x1f13f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F14x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&amp;#x1f140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&amp;#x1f141;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&amp;#x1f142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&amp;#x1f143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&amp;#x1f144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&amp;#x1f145;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&amp;#x1f146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&amp;#x1f147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&amp;#x1f148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&amp;#x1f149;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HV|&amp;#x1f14a;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED MV|&amp;#x1f14b;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SD|&amp;#x1f14c;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SS|&amp;#x1f14d;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED PPV|&amp;#x1f14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED WC|&amp;#x1f14f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F15x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&amp;#x1f150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&amp;#x1f151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&amp;#x1f152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&amp;#x1f153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&amp;#x1f154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&amp;#x1f155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&amp;#x1f156;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&amp;#x1f157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&amp;#x1f158;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&amp;#x1f159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&amp;#x1f15a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&amp;#x1f15b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&amp;#x1f15c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&amp;#x1f15d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&amp;#x1f15e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&amp;#x1f15f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F16x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&amp;#x1f160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&amp;#x1f161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&amp;#x1f162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&amp;#x1f163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&amp;#x1f164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&amp;#x1f165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&amp;#x1f166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&amp;#x1f167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&amp;#x1f168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&amp;#x1f169;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MC SIGN|&amp;#x1f16a;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MD SIGN|&amp;#x1f16b;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MR SIGN|&amp;#x1f16c;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CC|&amp;#x1f16d;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED C WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&amp;#x1f16e;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED HUMAN FIGURE|&amp;#x1f16f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F17x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&amp;#x1f170;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&amp;#x1f171;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&amp;#x1f172;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&amp;#x1f173;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&amp;#x1f174;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&amp;#x1f175;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&amp;#x1f176;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&amp;#x1f177;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&amp;#x1f178;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&amp;#x1f179;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&amp;#x1f17a;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&amp;#x1f17b;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&amp;#x1f17c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&amp;#x1f17d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&amp;#x1f17e;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&amp;#x1f17f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F18x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&amp;#x1f180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&amp;#x1f181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&amp;#x1f182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&amp;#x1f183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&amp;#x1f184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&amp;#x1f185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&amp;#x1f186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&amp;#x1f187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&amp;#x1f188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&amp;#x1f189;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSSED NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&amp;#x1f18a;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED IC|&amp;#x1f18b;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED PA|&amp;#x1f18c;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED SA|&amp;#x1f18d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED AB|&amp;#x1f18e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED WC|&amp;#x1f18f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F19x
|style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE DJ|&amp;#x1f190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CL|&amp;#x1f191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED COOL|&amp;#x1f192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FREE|&amp;#x1f193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ID|&amp;#x1f194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NEW|&amp;#x1f195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NG|&amp;#x1f196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED OK|&amp;#x1f197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SOS|&amp;#x1f198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UP WITH EXCLAMATION MARK|&amp;#x1f199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VS|&amp;#x1f19a;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED THREE D|&amp;#x1f19b;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SECOND SCREEN|&amp;#x1f19c;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWO K|&amp;#x1f19d;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FOUR K|&amp;#x1f19e;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED EIGHT K|&amp;#x1f19f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F1Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FIVE POINT ONE|&amp;#x1f1a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SEVEN POINT ONE|&amp;#x1f1a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWENTY-TWO POINT TWO|&amp;#x1f1a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SIXTY P|&amp;#x1f1a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ONE HUNDRED TWENTY P|&amp;#x1f1a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN SMALL LETTER D|&amp;#x1f1a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HC|&amp;#x1f1a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HDR|&amp;#x1f1a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HI-RES|&amp;#x1f1a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LOSSLESS|&amp;#x1f1a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SHV|&amp;#x1f1aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UHD|&amp;#x1f1ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VOD|&amp;#x1f1ac;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MASK WORK SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f1ad;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMOBIKI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f1ae;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F1Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F1Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F1Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F1Ex
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER A|&amp;#x1f1e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER B|&amp;#x1f1e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER C|&amp;#x1f1e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER D|&amp;#x1f1e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER E|&amp;#x1f1ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER F|&amp;#x1f1eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER G|&amp;#x1f1ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER H|&amp;#x1f1ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER I|&amp;#x1f1ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER J|&amp;#x1f1ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F1Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER K|&amp;#x1f1f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER L|&amp;#x1f1f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER M|&amp;#x1f1f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER N|&amp;#x1f1f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER O|&amp;#x1f1f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER P|&amp;#x1f1f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Q|&amp;#x1f1f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER R|&amp;#x1f1f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER S|&amp;#x1f1f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER T|&amp;#x1f1f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER U|&amp;#x1f1fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER V|&amp;#x1f1fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER W|&amp;#x1f1fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER X|&amp;#x1f1fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Y|&amp;#x1f1fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Z|&amp;#x1f1ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F20x
|style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE HIRAGANA HOKA|&amp;#x1f200;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA KOKO|&amp;#x1f201;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA SA|&amp;#x1f202;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F21x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-624B|&amp;#x1f210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B57|&amp;#x1f211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53CC|&amp;#x1f212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA DE|&amp;#x1f213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&amp;#x1f214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-591A|&amp;#x1f215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-89E3|&amp;#x1f216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5929|&amp;#x1f217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4EA4|&amp;#x1f218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6620|&amp;#x1f219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7121|&amp;#x1f21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6599|&amp;#x1f21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-524D|&amp;#x1f21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5F8C|&amp;#x1f21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-518D|&amp;#x1f21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-65B0|&amp;#x1f21f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F22x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-521D|&amp;#x1f220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7D42|&amp;#x1f221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-751F|&amp;#x1f222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8CA9|&amp;#x1f223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-58F0|&amp;#x1f224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5439|&amp;#x1f225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6F14|&amp;#x1f226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6295|&amp;#x1f227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6355|&amp;#x1f228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E00|&amp;#x1f229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&amp;#x1f22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-904A|&amp;#x1f22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5DE6|&amp;#x1f22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E2D|&amp;#x1f22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53F3|&amp;#x1f22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6307|&amp;#x1f22f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F23x
|style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8D70|&amp;#x1f230;}}||style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&amp;#x1f231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7981|&amp;#x1f232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7A7A|&amp;#x1f233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5408|&amp;#x1f234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6E80|&amp;#x1f235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6709|&amp;#x1f236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6708|&amp;#x1f237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7533|&amp;#x1f238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5272|&amp;#x1f239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-55B6|&amp;#x1f23a;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-914D|&amp;#x1f23b;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#78ffca&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F24x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-672C|&amp;#x1f240;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&amp;#x1f241;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&amp;#x1f242;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B89|&amp;#x1f243;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-70B9|&amp;#x1f244;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&amp;#x1f245;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-76D7|&amp;#x1f246;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-52DD|&amp;#x1f247;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6557|&amp;#x1f248;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F25x
|style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ADVANTAGE|&amp;#x1f250;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ACCEPT|&amp;#x1f251;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F26x
|style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR FU|&amp;#x1f260;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR LU|&amp;#x1f261;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHOU|&amp;#x1f262;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR XI|&amp;#x1f263;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHUANGXI|&amp;#x1f264;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR CAI|&amp;#x1f265;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F27x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F28x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F29x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F2Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F2Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F2Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F2Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F2Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F2Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F30x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CYCLONE|&amp;#x1f300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOGGY|&amp;#x1f301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED UMBRELLA|&amp;#x1f302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NIGHT WITH STARS|&amp;#x1f303;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE OVER MOUNTAINS|&amp;#x1f304;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE|&amp;#x1f305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CITYSCAPE AT DUSK|&amp;#x1f306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNSET OVER BUILDINGS|&amp;#x1f307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAINBOW|&amp;#x1f308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDGE AT NIGHT|&amp;#x1f309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER WAVE|&amp;#x1f30a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOLCANO|&amp;#x1f30b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILKY WAY|&amp;#x1f30c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE EUROPE-AFRICA|&amp;#x1f30d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE AMERICAS|&amp;#x1f30e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE ASIA-AUSTRALIA|&amp;#x1f30f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F31x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOBE WITH MERIDIANS|&amp;#x1f310;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f311;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f312;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRESCENT MOON|&amp;#x1f319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON WITH FACE|&amp;#x1f31a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&amp;#x1f31b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&amp;#x1f31c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON WITH FACE|&amp;#x1f31d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUN WITH FACE|&amp;#x1f31e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOWING STAR|&amp;#x1f31f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F32x
|style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOOTING STAR|&amp;#x1f320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THERMOMETER|&amp;#x1f321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DROPLET|&amp;#x1f322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN|&amp;#x1f323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN WITH SMALL CLOUD|&amp;#x1f324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD|&amp;#x1f325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD WITH RAIN|&amp;#x1f326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH RAIN|&amp;#x1f327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH SNOW|&amp;#x1f328;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH LIGHTNING|&amp;#x1f329;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH TORNADO|&amp;#x1f32a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOG|&amp;#x1f32b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIND BLOWING FACE|&amp;#x1f32c;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT DOG|&amp;#x1f32d;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TACO|&amp;#x1f32e;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BURRITO|&amp;#x1f32f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F33x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHESTNUT|&amp;#x1f330;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEEDLING|&amp;#x1f331;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EVERGREEN TREE|&amp;#x1f332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECIDUOUS TREE|&amp;#x1f333;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM TREE|&amp;#x1f334;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CACTUS|&amp;#x1f335;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT PEPPER|&amp;#x1f336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULIP|&amp;#x1f337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRY BLOSSOM|&amp;#x1f338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROSE|&amp;#x1f339;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIBISCUS|&amp;#x1f33a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNFLOWER|&amp;#x1f33b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOSSOM|&amp;#x1f33c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF MAIZE|&amp;#x1f33d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF RICE|&amp;#x1f33e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HERB|&amp;#x1f33f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F34x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR LEAF CLOVER|&amp;#x1f340;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAPLE LEAF|&amp;#x1f341;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALLEN LEAF|&amp;#x1f342;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAF FLUTTERING IN WIND|&amp;#x1f343;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSHROOM|&amp;#x1f344;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMATO|&amp;#x1f345;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUBERGINE|&amp;#x1f346;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRAPES|&amp;#x1f347;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MELON|&amp;#x1f348;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATERMELON|&amp;#x1f349;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGERINE|&amp;#x1f34a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEMON|&amp;#x1f34b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANANA|&amp;#x1f34c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PINEAPPLE|&amp;#x1f34d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED APPLE|&amp;#x1f34e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN APPLE|&amp;#x1f34f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F35x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PEAR|&amp;#x1f350;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEACH|&amp;#x1f351;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRIES|&amp;#x1f352;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAWBERRY|&amp;#x1f353;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMBURGER|&amp;#x1f354;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLICE OF PIZZA|&amp;#x1f355;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEAT ON BONE|&amp;#x1f356;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POULTRY LEG|&amp;#x1f357;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RICE CRACKER|&amp;#x1f358;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RICE BALL|&amp;#x1f359;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKED RICE|&amp;#x1f35a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CURRY AND RICE|&amp;#x1f35b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAMING BOWL|&amp;#x1f35c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPAGHETTI|&amp;#x1f35d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BREAD|&amp;#x1f35e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRENCH FRIES|&amp;#x1f35f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F36x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROASTED SWEET POTATO|&amp;#x1f360;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DANGO|&amp;#x1f361;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ODEN|&amp;#x1f362;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSHI|&amp;#x1f363;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRIED SHRIMP|&amp;#x1f364;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FISH CAKE WITH SWIRL DESIGN|&amp;#x1f365;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT ICE CREAM|&amp;#x1f366;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHAVED ICE|&amp;#x1f367;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE CREAM|&amp;#x1f368;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUGHNUT|&amp;#x1f369;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKIE|&amp;#x1f36a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHOCOLATE BAR|&amp;#x1f36b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDY|&amp;#x1f36c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOLLIPOP|&amp;#x1f36d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTARD|&amp;#x1f36e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HONEY POT|&amp;#x1f36f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F37x
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F47x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDE WITH VEIL|&amp;#x1f470;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH BLOND HAIR|&amp;#x1f471;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN WITH GUA PI MAO|&amp;#x1f472;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN WITH TURBAN|&amp;#x1f473;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER MAN|&amp;#x1f474;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER WOMAN|&amp;#x1f475;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY|&amp;#x1f476;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION WORKER|&amp;#x1f477;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINCESS|&amp;#x1f478;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE OGRE|&amp;#x1f479;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE GOBLIN|&amp;#x1f47a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GHOST|&amp;#x1f47b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY ANGEL|&amp;#x1f47c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTRATERRESTRIAL ALIEN|&amp;#x1f47d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALIEN MONSTER|&amp;#x1f47e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IMP|&amp;#x1f47f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F48x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SKULL|&amp;#x1f480;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INFORMATION DESK PERSON|&amp;#x1f481;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUARDSMAN|&amp;#x1f482;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DANCER|&amp;#x1f483;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPSTICK|&amp;#x1f484;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAIL POLISH|&amp;#x1f485;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE MASSAGE|&amp;#x1f486;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIRCUT|&amp;#x1f487;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BARBER POLE|&amp;#x1f488;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYRINGE|&amp;#x1f489;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PILL|&amp;#x1f48a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISS MARK|&amp;#x1f48b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOVE LETTER|&amp;#x1f48c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RING|&amp;#x1f48d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GEM STONE|&amp;#x1f48e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISS|&amp;#x1f48f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F49x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOUQUET|&amp;#x1f490;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUPLE WITH HEART|&amp;#x1f491;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEDDING|&amp;#x1f492;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEATING HEART|&amp;#x1f493;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROKEN HEART|&amp;#x1f494;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO HEARTS|&amp;#x1f495;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPARKLING HEART|&amp;#x1f496;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GROWING HEART|&amp;#x1f497;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH ARROW|&amp;#x1f498;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE HEART|&amp;#x1f499;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN HEART|&amp;#x1f49a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|YELLOW HEART|&amp;#x1f49b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PURPLE HEART|&amp;#x1f49c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH RIBBON|&amp;#x1f49d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVOLVING HEARTS|&amp;#x1f49e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART DECORATION|&amp;#x1f49f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F4Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND SHAPE WITH A DOT INSIDE|&amp;#x1f4a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC LIGHT BULB|&amp;#x1f4a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGER SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOMB|&amp;#x1f4a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COLLISION SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPLASHING SWEAT SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROPLET|&amp;#x1f4a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DASH SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PILE OF POO|&amp;#x1f4a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLEXED BICEPS|&amp;#x1f4aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEECH BALLOON|&amp;#x1f4ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THOUGHT BALLOON|&amp;#x1f4ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE FLOWER|&amp;#x1f4ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUNDRED POINTS SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F4Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY BAG|&amp;#x1f4b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CURRENCY EXCHANGE|&amp;#x1f4b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN|&amp;#x1f4b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CREDIT CARD|&amp;#x1f4b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH YEN SIGN|&amp;#x1f4b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH DOLLAR SIGN|&amp;#x1f4b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH EURO SIGN|&amp;#x1f4b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH POUND SIGN|&amp;#x1f4b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY WITH WINGS|&amp;#x1f4b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND AND YEN SIGN|&amp;#x1f4b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAT|&amp;#x1f4ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSONAL COMPUTER|&amp;#x1f4bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFCASE|&amp;#x1f4bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIDISC|&amp;#x1f4bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLOPPY DISK|&amp;#x1f4be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC|&amp;#x1f4bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F4Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|DVD|&amp;#x1f4c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE FOLDER|&amp;#x1f4c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FILE FOLDER|&amp;#x1f4c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CURL|&amp;#x1f4c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE FACING UP|&amp;#x1f4c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CALENDAR|&amp;#x1f4c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAR-OFF CALENDAR|&amp;#x1f4c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX|&amp;#x1f4c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND|&amp;#x1f4c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH DOWNWARDS TREND|&amp;#x1f4c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR CHART|&amp;#x1f4ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLIPBOARD|&amp;#x1f4cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUSHPIN|&amp;#x1f4cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND PUSHPIN|&amp;#x1f4cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAPERCLIP|&amp;#x1f4ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAIGHT RULER|&amp;#x1f4cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F4Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR RULER|&amp;#x1f4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK TABS|&amp;#x1f4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEDGER|&amp;#x1f4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK|&amp;#x1f4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK WITH DECORATIVE COVER|&amp;#x1f4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED BOOK|&amp;#x1f4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN BOOK|&amp;#x1f4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN BOOK|&amp;#x1f4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE BOOK|&amp;#x1f4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE BOOK|&amp;#x1f4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKS|&amp;#x1f4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAME BADGE|&amp;#x1f4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCROLL|&amp;#x1f4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEMO|&amp;#x1f4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&amp;#x1f4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGER|&amp;#x1f4df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F4Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX MACHINE|&amp;#x1f4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE ANTENNA|&amp;#x1f4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUBLIC ADDRESS LOUDSPEAKER|&amp;#x1f4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEERING MEGAPHONE|&amp;#x1f4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OUTBOX TRAY|&amp;#x1f4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INBOX TRAY|&amp;#x1f4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PACKAGE|&amp;#x1f4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|E-MAIL SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMING ENVELOPE|&amp;#x1f4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH DOWNWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&amp;#x1f4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&amp;#x1f4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&amp;#x1f4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&amp;#x1f4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&amp;#x1f4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTBOX|&amp;#x1f4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTAL HORN|&amp;#x1f4ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F4Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWSPAPER|&amp;#x1f4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE|&amp;#x1f4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW AT LEFT|&amp;#x1f4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIBRATION MODE|&amp;#x1f4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE OFF|&amp;#x1f4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO MOBILE PHONES|&amp;#x1f4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTENNA WITH BARS|&amp;#x1f4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA|&amp;#x1f4f7;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA WITH FLASH|&amp;#x1f4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEO CAMERA|&amp;#x1f4f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEVISION|&amp;#x1f4fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO|&amp;#x1f4fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEOCASSETTE|&amp;#x1f4fc;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FILM PROJECTOR|&amp;#x1f4fd;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PORTABLE STEREO|&amp;#x1f4fe;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PRAYER BEADS|&amp;#x1f4ff;}}
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F50x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TWISTED RIGHTWARDS ARROWS|&amp;#x1f500;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&amp;#x1f501;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS WITH CIRCLED ONE OVERLAY|&amp;#x1f502;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&amp;#x1f503;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTICLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&amp;#x1f504;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f505;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f506;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&amp;#x1f507;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER|&amp;#x1f508;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&amp;#x1f509;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&amp;#x1f50a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BATTERY|&amp;#x1f50b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC PLUG|&amp;#x1f50c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&amp;#x1f50d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&amp;#x1f50e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK WITH INK PEN|&amp;#x1f50f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F51x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED LOCK WITH KEY|&amp;#x1f510;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEY|&amp;#x1f511;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK|&amp;#x1f512;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN LOCK|&amp;#x1f513;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL|&amp;#x1f514;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&amp;#x1f515;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK|&amp;#x1f516;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINK SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f517;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO BUTTON|&amp;#x1f518;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&amp;#x1f519;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|END WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&amp;#x1f51a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ON WITH EXCLAMATION MARK WITH LEFT RIGHT ARROW ABOVE|&amp;#x1f51b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOON WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&amp;#x1f51c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP WITH UPWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&amp;#x1f51d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ONE UNDER EIGHTEEN SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f51e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYCAP TEN|&amp;#x1f51f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F52x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN CAPITAL LETTERS|&amp;#x1f520;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN SMALL LETTERS|&amp;#x1f521;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR NUMBERS|&amp;#x1f522;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR SYMBOLS|&amp;#x1f523;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN LETTERS|&amp;#x1f524;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE|&amp;#x1f525;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC TORCH|&amp;#x1f526;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRENCH|&amp;#x1f527;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER|&amp;#x1f528;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NUT AND BOLT|&amp;#x1f529;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOCHO|&amp;#x1f52a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PISTOL|&amp;#x1f52b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROSCOPE|&amp;#x1f52c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELESCOPE|&amp;#x1f52d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYSTAL BALL|&amp;#x1f52e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED STAR WITH MIDDLE DOT|&amp;#x1f52f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F53x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE SYMBOL FOR BEGINNER|&amp;#x1f530;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIDENT EMBLEM|&amp;#x1f531;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SQUARE BUTTON|&amp;#x1f532;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE BUTTON|&amp;#x1f533;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f534;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f535;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f536;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f537;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL ORANGE DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f538;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL BLUE DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f539;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f53a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f53b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f53c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f53d;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f53e;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f53f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F54x
|style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS POMMEE|&amp;#x1f540;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE WITH HALF-CIRCLE BELOW|&amp;#x1f541;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE|&amp;#x1f542;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED LEFT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&amp;#x1f543;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED RIGHT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&amp;#x1f544;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYMBOL FOR MARKS CHAPTER|&amp;#x1f545;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LATIN CROSS|&amp;#x1f546;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LATIN CROSS|&amp;#x1f547;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CELTIC CROSS|&amp;#x1f548;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OM SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f549;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOVE OF PEACE|&amp;#x1f54a;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAABA|&amp;#x1f54b;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUE|&amp;#x1f54c;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SYNAGOGUE|&amp;#x1f54d;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENORAH WITH NINE BRANCHES|&amp;#x1f54e;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL OF HYGIEIA|&amp;#x1f54f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F55x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f550;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f551;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f552;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f553;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f554;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f555;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f556;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f557;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f558;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f55a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE OCLOCK|&amp;#x1f55b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f55c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f55d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f55e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f55f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F56x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f560;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f561;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f562;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f563;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f564;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f565;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f566;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE-THIRTY|&amp;#x1f567;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER|&amp;#x1f568;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&amp;#x1f569;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&amp;#x1f56a;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN|&amp;#x1f56b;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN WITH SOUND WAVES|&amp;#x1f56c;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGING BELL|&amp;#x1f56d;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOK|&amp;#x1f56e;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDLE|&amp;#x1f56f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F57x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANTELPIECE CLOCK|&amp;#x1f570;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SKULL AND CROSSBONES|&amp;#x1f571;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PIRACY|&amp;#x1f572;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLE|&amp;#x1f573;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN BUSINESS SUIT LEVITATING|&amp;#x1f574;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEUTH OR SPY|&amp;#x1f575;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DARK SUNGLASSES|&amp;#x1f576;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER|&amp;#x1f577;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER WEB|&amp;#x1f578;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JOYSTICK|&amp;#x1f579;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN DANCING|&amp;#x1f57a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&amp;#x1f57b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER WITH PAGE|&amp;#x1f57c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&amp;#x1f57d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&amp;#x1f57e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&amp;#x1f57f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F58x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE ON TOP OF MODEM|&amp;#x1f580;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLAMSHELL MOBILE PHONE|&amp;#x1f581;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK OF ENVELOPE|&amp;#x1f582;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STAMPED ENVELOPE|&amp;#x1f583;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH LIGHTNING|&amp;#x1f584;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING ENVELOPE|&amp;#x1f585;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEN OVER STAMPED ENVELOPE|&amp;#x1f586;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINKED PAPERCLIPS|&amp;#x1f587;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK PUSHPIN|&amp;#x1f588;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PENCIL|&amp;#x1f589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BALLPOINT PEN|&amp;#x1f58a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FOUNTAIN PEN|&amp;#x1f58b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PAINTBRUSH|&amp;#x1f58c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT CRAYON|&amp;#x1f58d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT WRITING HAND|&amp;#x1f58e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED OK HAND SIGN|&amp;#x1f58f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F59x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&amp;#x1f590;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&amp;#x1f591;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS UP SIGN|&amp;#x1f592;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS DOWN SIGN|&amp;#x1f593;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED VICTORY HAND|&amp;#x1f594;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED HAND WITH MIDDLE FINGER EXTENDED|&amp;#x1f595;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH PART BETWEEN MIDDLE AND RING FINGERS|&amp;#x1f596;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DOWN POINTING LEFT HAND INDEX|&amp;#x1f597;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE LEFT POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f598;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f599;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK LEFT POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f59a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f59b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&amp;#x1f59c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&amp;#x1f59d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE UP POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f59e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE DOWN POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f59f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F5Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK UP POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f5a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK DOWN POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1f5a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&amp;#x1f5a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&amp;#x1f5a3;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HEART|&amp;#x1f5a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP COMPUTER|&amp;#x1f5a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYBOARD AND MOUSE|&amp;#x1f5a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE NETWORKED COMPUTERS|&amp;#x1f5a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER|&amp;#x1f5a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POCKET CALCULATOR|&amp;#x1f5a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&amp;#x1f5aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&amp;#x1f5ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&amp;#x1f5ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAPE CARTRIDGE|&amp;#x1f5ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRED KEYBOARD|&amp;#x1f5ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE BUTTON MOUSE|&amp;#x1f5af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F5Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO BUTTON MOUSE|&amp;#x1f5b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE BUTTON MOUSE|&amp;#x1f5b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACKBALL|&amp;#x1f5b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD PERSONAL COMPUTER|&amp;#x1f5b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HARD DISK|&amp;#x1f5b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREEN|&amp;#x1f5b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER ICON|&amp;#x1f5b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX ICON|&amp;#x1f5b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC ICON|&amp;#x1f5b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT|&amp;#x1f5b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT AND PICTURE|&amp;#x1f5ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH PICTURE|&amp;#x1f5bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH PICTURE|&amp;#x1f5bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH TILES|&amp;#x1f5bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH AN X|&amp;#x1f5be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK FOLDER|&amp;#x1f5bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F5Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDER|&amp;#x1f5c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FOLDER|&amp;#x1f5c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX DIVIDERS|&amp;#x1f5c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD FILE BOX|&amp;#x1f5c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE CABINET|&amp;#x1f5c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE|&amp;#x1f5c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAGE|&amp;#x1f5c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAD|&amp;#x1f5c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE|&amp;#x1f5c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAGE|&amp;#x1f5c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAD|&amp;#x1f5ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY DOCUMENT|&amp;#x1f5cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGE|&amp;#x1f5cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGES|&amp;#x1f5cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT|&amp;#x1f5ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE|&amp;#x1f5cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F5Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGES|&amp;#x1f5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WASTEBASKET|&amp;#x1f5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL NOTE PAD|&amp;#x1f5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL CALENDAR PAD|&amp;#x1f5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP WINDOW|&amp;#x1f5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIMIZE|&amp;#x1f5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAXIMIZE|&amp;#x1f5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERLAP|&amp;#x1f5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHT AND LEFT SEMICIRCLE ARROWS|&amp;#x1f5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANCELLATION X|&amp;#x1f5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPRESSION|&amp;#x1f5dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD KEY|&amp;#x1f5dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLED-UP NEWSPAPER|&amp;#x1f5de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CIRCLED TEXT|&amp;#x1f5df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F5Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOCK CHART|&amp;#x1f5e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DAGGER KNIFE|&amp;#x1f5e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPS|&amp;#x1f5e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKING HEAD IN SILHOUETTE|&amp;#x1f5e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS ABOVE|&amp;#x1f5e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS BELOW|&amp;#x1f5e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS LEFT|&amp;#x1f5e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS RIGHT|&amp;#x1f5e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT SPEECH BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEECH BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO SPEECH BUBBLES|&amp;#x1f5ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE SPEECH BUBBLES|&amp;#x1f5eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ANGER BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ANGER BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F5Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOD BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD BUBBLE|&amp;#x1f5f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD|&amp;#x1f5f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BALLOT|&amp;#x1f5f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT SCRIPT X|&amp;#x1f5f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH SCRIPT X|&amp;#x1f5f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOLD SCRIPT X|&amp;#x1f5f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD SCRIPT X|&amp;#x1f5f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT CHECK MARK|&amp;#x1f5f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD CHECK|&amp;#x1f5f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WORLD MAP|&amp;#x1f5fa;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNT FUJI|&amp;#x1f5fb;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOKYO TOWER|&amp;#x1f5fc;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|STATUE OF LIBERTY|&amp;#x1f5fd;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SILHOUETTE OF JAPAN|&amp;#x1f5fe;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOYAI|&amp;#x1f5ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Emoticons'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F60x
|style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE|&amp;#x1f600;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&amp;#x1f601;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&amp;#x1f602;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&amp;#x1f603;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND SMILING EYES|&amp;#x1f604;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&amp;#x1f605;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&amp;#x1f606;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HALO|&amp;#x1f607;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HORNS|&amp;#x1f608;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINKING FACE|&amp;#x1f609;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&amp;#x1f60a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SAVOURING DELICIOUS FOOD|&amp;#x1f60b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RELIEVED FACE|&amp;#x1f60c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&amp;#x1f60d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SUNGLASSES|&amp;#x1f60e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMIRKING FACE|&amp;#x1f60f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F61x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL FACE|&amp;#x1f610;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXPRESSIONLESS FACE|&amp;#x1f611;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UNAMUSED FACE|&amp;#x1f612;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COLD SWEAT|&amp;#x1f613;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PENSIVE FACE|&amp;#x1f614;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFUSED FACE|&amp;#x1f615;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFOUNDED FACE|&amp;#x1f616;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE|&amp;#x1f617;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE THROWING A KISS|&amp;#x1f618;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&amp;#x1f619;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&amp;#x1f61a;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE|&amp;#x1f61b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND WINKING EYE|&amp;#x1f61c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&amp;#x1f61d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED FACE|&amp;#x1f61e;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORRIED FACE|&amp;#x1f61f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F62x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGRY FACE|&amp;#x1f620;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING FACE|&amp;#x1f621;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING FACE|&amp;#x1f622;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSEVERING FACE|&amp;#x1f623;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH LOOK OF TRIUMPH|&amp;#x1f624;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED BUT RELIEVED FACE|&amp;#x1f625;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FROWNING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&amp;#x1f626;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGUISHED FACE|&amp;#x1f627;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FEARFUL FACE|&amp;#x1f628;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY FACE|&amp;#x1f629;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPY FACE|&amp;#x1f62a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRED FACE|&amp;#x1f62b;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRIMACING FACE|&amp;#x1f62c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOUDLY CRYING FACE|&amp;#x1f62d;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&amp;#x1f62e;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUSHED FACE|&amp;#x1f62f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F63x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&amp;#x1f630;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SCREAMING IN FEAR|&amp;#x1f631;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTONISHED FACE|&amp;#x1f632;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUSHED FACE|&amp;#x1f633;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING FACE|&amp;#x1f634;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY FACE|&amp;#x1f635;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITHOUT MOUTH|&amp;#x1f636;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MEDICAL MASK|&amp;#x1f637;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING CAT FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&amp;#x1f638;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&amp;#x1f639;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&amp;#x1f63a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&amp;#x1f63b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH WRY SMILE|&amp;#x1f63c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING CAT FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&amp;#x1f63d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING CAT FACE|&amp;#x1f63e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING CAT FACE|&amp;#x1f63f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F64x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY CAT FACE|&amp;#x1f640;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY FROWNING FACE|&amp;#x1f641;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY SMILING FACE|&amp;#x1f642;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPSIDE-DOWN FACE|&amp;#x1f643;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ROLLING EYES|&amp;#x1f644;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH NO GOOD GESTURE|&amp;#x1f645;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OK GESTURE|&amp;#x1f646;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON BOWING DEEPLY|&amp;#x1f647;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEE-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&amp;#x1f648;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAR-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&amp;#x1f649;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAK-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&amp;#x1f64a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAPPY PERSON RAISING ONE HAND|&amp;#x1f64b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON RAISING BOTH HANDS IN CELEBRATION|&amp;#x1f64c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON FROWNING|&amp;#x1f64d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH POUTING FACE|&amp;#x1f64e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH FOLDED HANDS|&amp;#x1f64f;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Ornamental Dingbats'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F65x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&amp;#x1f657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f659;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f65a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f65b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f65c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f65d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f65e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&amp;#x1f65f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F66x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&amp;#x1f667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&amp;#x1f669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f66a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&amp;#x1f66b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ROCKET|&amp;#x1f66c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ROCKET|&amp;#x1f66d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ROCKET|&amp;#x1f66e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ROCKET|&amp;#x1f66f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F67x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f670;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f671;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f672;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f673;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f674;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f675;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE TURNED COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f676;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f677;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY LOW DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f678;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f679;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f67a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&amp;#x1f67b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SOLIDUS|&amp;#x1f67c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY REVERSE SOLIDUS|&amp;#x1f67d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD|&amp;#x1f67e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE CHECKER BOARD|&amp;#x1f67f;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Transport and Map Symbols'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F68x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCKET|&amp;#x1f680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HELICOPTER|&amp;#x1f681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAM LOCOMOTIVE|&amp;#x1f682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY CAR|&amp;#x1f683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN|&amp;#x1f684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN WITH BULLET NOSE|&amp;#x1f685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAIN|&amp;#x1f686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|METRO|&amp;#x1f687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT RAIL|&amp;#x1f688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STATION|&amp;#x1f689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM|&amp;#x1f68a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM CAR|&amp;#x1f68b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS|&amp;#x1f68c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING BUS|&amp;#x1f68d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLLEYBUS|&amp;#x1f68e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS STOP|&amp;#x1f68f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F69x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIBUS|&amp;#x1f690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AMBULANCE|&amp;#x1f691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE ENGINE|&amp;#x1f692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CAR|&amp;#x1f693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING POLICE CAR|&amp;#x1f694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAXI|&amp;#x1f695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING TAXI|&amp;#x1f696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTOMOBILE|&amp;#x1f697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING AUTOMOBILE|&amp;#x1f698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECREATIONAL VEHICLE|&amp;#x1f699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DELIVERY TRUCK|&amp;#x1f69a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARTICULATED LORRY|&amp;#x1f69b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACTOR|&amp;#x1f69c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONORAIL|&amp;#x1f69d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN RAILWAY|&amp;#x1f69e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSPENSION RAILWAY|&amp;#x1f69f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F6Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN CABLEWAY|&amp;#x1f6a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AERIAL TRAMWAY|&amp;#x1f6a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIP|&amp;#x1f6a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROWBOAT|&amp;#x1f6a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEEDBOAT|&amp;#x1f6a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&amp;#x1f6a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&amp;#x1f6a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION SIGN|&amp;#x1f6a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CARS REVOLVING LIGHT|&amp;#x1f6a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR FLAG ON POST|&amp;#x1f6a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOOR|&amp;#x1f6aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ENTRY SIGN|&amp;#x1f6ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMOKING SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO SMOKING SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUT LITTER IN ITS PLACE SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DO NOT LITTER SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F6Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NON-POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLE|&amp;#x1f6b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO BICYCLES|&amp;#x1f6b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLIST|&amp;#x1f6b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN BICYCLIST|&amp;#x1f6b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEDESTRIAN|&amp;#x1f6b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PEDESTRIANS|&amp;#x1f6b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILDREN CROSSING|&amp;#x1f6b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENS SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMENS SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RESTROOM|&amp;#x1f6bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOILET|&amp;#x1f6bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER CLOSET|&amp;#x1f6be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOWER|&amp;#x1f6bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F6Cx
|style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATH|&amp;#x1f6c0;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATHTUB|&amp;#x1f6c1;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSPORT CONTROL|&amp;#x1f6c2;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTOMS|&amp;#x1f6c3;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGGAGE CLAIM|&amp;#x1f6c4;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT LUGGAGE|&amp;#x1f6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGLE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&amp;#x1f6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROHIBITED SIGN|&amp;#x1f6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED INFORMATION SOURCE|&amp;#x1f6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOYS SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRLS SYMBOL|&amp;#x1f6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUCH AND LAMP|&amp;#x1f6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING ACCOMMODATION|&amp;#x1f6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING BAGS|&amp;#x1f6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELLHOP BELL|&amp;#x1f6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BED|&amp;#x1f6cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F6Dx
|style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACE OF WORSHIP|&amp;#x1f6d0;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|OCTAGONAL SIGN|&amp;#x1f6d1;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING TROLLEY|&amp;#x1f6d2;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|STUPA|&amp;#x1f6d3;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGODA|&amp;#x1f6d4;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HINDU TEMPLE|&amp;#x1f6d5;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUT|&amp;#x1f6d6;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ELEVATOR|&amp;#x1f6d7;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LANDSLIDE|&amp;#x1f6d8;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTHOUSE|&amp;#x1f6d9;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEATBELT SIGN|&amp;#x1f6da;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NO CARS|&amp;#x1f6db;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRELESS|&amp;#x1f6dc;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYGROUND SLIDE|&amp;#x1f6dd;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHEEL|&amp;#x1f6de;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RING BUOY|&amp;#x1f6df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F6Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER AND WRENCH|&amp;#x1f6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIELD|&amp;#x1f6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OIL DRUM|&amp;#x1f6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORWAY|&amp;#x1f6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY TRACK|&amp;#x1f6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR BOAT|&amp;#x1f6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING MILITARY AIRPLANE|&amp;#x1f6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING AIRPLANE|&amp;#x1f6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL AIRPLANE|&amp;#x1f6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL AIRPLANE|&amp;#x1f6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTHEAST-POINTING AIRPLANE|&amp;#x1f6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE DEPARTURE|&amp;#x1f6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE ARRIVING|&amp;#x1f6ec;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT AIR BALLOON|&amp;#x1f6ed;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRSHIP|&amp;#x1f6ee;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAPLANE|&amp;#x1f6ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F6Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE|&amp;#x1f6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING FIRE ENGINE|&amp;#x1f6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE|&amp;#x1f6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSENGER SHIP|&amp;#x1f6f3;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCOOTER|&amp;#x1f6f4;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR SCOOTER|&amp;#x1f6f5;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANOE|&amp;#x1f6f6;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLED|&amp;#x1f6f7;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING SAUCER|&amp;#x1f6f8;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SKATEBOARD|&amp;#x1f6f9;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTO RICKSHAW|&amp;#x1f6fa;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKUP TRUCK|&amp;#x1f6fb;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLER SKATE|&amp;#x1f6fc;}}||style=&quot;background:#768b4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORKLIFT|&amp;#x1f6fd;}}||style=&quot;background:#5d7e4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXCAVATOR|&amp;#x1f6fe;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUBMARINE|&amp;#x1f6ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Alchemical Symbols'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F70x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUINTESSENCE|&amp;#x1f700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AIR|&amp;#x1f701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR FIRE|&amp;#x1f702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR EARTH|&amp;#x1f703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WATER|&amp;#x1f704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUAFORTIS|&amp;#x1f705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA|&amp;#x1f706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA-2|&amp;#x1f707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE|&amp;#x1f708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE-2|&amp;#x1f709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR|&amp;#x1f70a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-2|&amp;#x1f70b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-3|&amp;#x1f70c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SULFUR|&amp;#x1f70d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PHILOSOPHERS SULFUR|&amp;#x1f70e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BLACK SULFUR|&amp;#x1f70f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F71x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE|&amp;#x1f710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-2|&amp;#x1f711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-3|&amp;#x1f712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CINNABAR|&amp;#x1f713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT|&amp;#x1f714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NITRE|&amp;#x1f715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL|&amp;#x1f716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL-2|&amp;#x1f717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT|&amp;#x1f718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT-2|&amp;#x1f719;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GOLD|&amp;#x1f71a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SILVER|&amp;#x1f71b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE|&amp;#x1f71c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE-2|&amp;#x1f71d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF IRON|&amp;#x1f71e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF IRON|&amp;#x1f71f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F72x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ORE|&amp;#x1f720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON-COPPER ORE|&amp;#x1f721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF COPPER|&amp;#x1f722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER|&amp;#x1f723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER-2|&amp;#x1f724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&amp;#x1f725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&amp;#x1f726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF COPPER|&amp;#x1f727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VERDIGRIS|&amp;#x1f728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TIN ORE|&amp;#x1f729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LEAD ORE|&amp;#x1f72a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ANTIMONY ORE|&amp;#x1f72b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF ANTIMONY|&amp;#x1f72c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF ANTIMONY|&amp;#x1f72d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF ANTIMONY|&amp;#x1f72e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR OF ANTIMONY|&amp;#x1f72f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F73x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY|&amp;#x1f730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY-2|&amp;#x1f731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS|&amp;#x1f732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-2|&amp;#x1f733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-3|&amp;#x1f734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-4|&amp;#x1f735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI|&amp;#x1f736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI-2|&amp;#x1f737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MARCASITE|&amp;#x1f738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SAL-AMMONIAC|&amp;#x1f739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ARSENIC|&amp;#x1f73a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR|&amp;#x1f73b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR-2|&amp;#x1f73c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AURIPIGMENT|&amp;#x1f73d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BISMUTH ORE|&amp;#x1f73e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR|&amp;#x1f73f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F74x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR-2|&amp;#x1f740;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUICK LIME|&amp;#x1f741;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX|&amp;#x1f742;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-2|&amp;#x1f743;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-3|&amp;#x1f744;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALUM|&amp;#x1f745;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR OIL|&amp;#x1f746;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SPIRIT|&amp;#x1f747;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TINCTURE|&amp;#x1f748;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GUM|&amp;#x1f749;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WAX|&amp;#x1f74a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDER|&amp;#x1f74b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CALX|&amp;#x1f74c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TUTTY|&amp;#x1f74d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CAPUT MORTUUM|&amp;#x1f74e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SCEPTER OF JOVE|&amp;#x1f74f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F75x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CADUCEUS|&amp;#x1f750;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TRIDENT|&amp;#x1f751;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STARRED TRIDENT|&amp;#x1f752;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LODESTONE|&amp;#x1f753;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SOAP|&amp;#x1f754;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR URINE|&amp;#x1f755;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HORSE DUNG|&amp;#x1f756;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ASHES|&amp;#x1f757;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POT ASHES|&amp;#x1f758;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BRICK|&amp;#x1f759;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDERED BRICK|&amp;#x1f75a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AMALGAM|&amp;#x1f75b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM|&amp;#x1f75c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM-2|&amp;#x1f75d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATION|&amp;#x1f75e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PRECIPITATE|&amp;#x1f75f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F76x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISTILL|&amp;#x1f760;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE|&amp;#x1f761;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE-2|&amp;#x1f762;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PURIFY|&amp;#x1f763;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PUTREFACTION|&amp;#x1f764;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE|&amp;#x1f765;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-2|&amp;#x1f766;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-3|&amp;#x1f767;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-4|&amp;#x1f768;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-5|&amp;#x1f769;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALEMBIC|&amp;#x1f76a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF MARY|&amp;#x1f76b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF VAPOURS|&amp;#x1f76c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR RETORT|&amp;#x1f76d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HOUR|&amp;#x1f76e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NIGHT|&amp;#x1f76f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F77x
|style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DAY-NIGHT|&amp;#x1f770;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MONTH|&amp;#x1f771;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF DRAM|&amp;#x1f772;}}||style=&quot;background:#7bffe8&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF OUNCE|&amp;#x1f773;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOT OF FORTUNE|&amp;#x1f774;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OCCULTATION|&amp;#x1f775;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNAR ECLIPSE|&amp;#x1f776;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|VESTA FORM TWO|&amp;#x1f777;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTRAEA FORM TWO|&amp;#x1f778;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYGIEA FORM TWO|&amp;#x1f779;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARTHENOPE FORM TWO|&amp;#x1f77a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAUMEA|&amp;#x1f77B;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKEMAKE|&amp;#x1f77C;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GONGGONG|&amp;#x1f77D;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|QUAOAR|&amp;#x1f77E;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCUS|&amp;#x1f77F;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F78x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f780;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f781;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f782;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f783;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f784;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f785;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f786;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f787;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f788;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f789;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CIRCLE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f78a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND TARGET|&amp;#x1f78b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY SQUARE|&amp;#x1f78c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL SQUARE|&amp;#x1f78d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT WHITE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f78e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM WHITE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f78f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F79x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f790;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f791;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f792;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f793;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL SQUARE|&amp;#x1f794;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM SQUARE|&amp;#x1f795;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE TARGET|&amp;#x1f796;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f797;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f798;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f799;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f79a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM DIAMOND|&amp;#x1f79b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND TARGET|&amp;#x1f79c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY LOZENGE|&amp;#x1f79d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL LOZENGE|&amp;#x1f79e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL LOZENGE|&amp;#x1f79f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F7Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LOZENGE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL LOZENGE|&amp;#x1f7a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1f7a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1f7a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1f7a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1f7a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY BOLD GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1f7a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1f7a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1f7a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN SALTIRE|&amp;#x1f7a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SALTIRE|&amp;#x1f7a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SALTIRE|&amp;#x1f7aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SALTIRE|&amp;#x1f7ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SALTIRE|&amp;#x1f7ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SALTIRE|&amp;#x1f7ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SALTIRE|&amp;#x1f7ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F7Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&amp;#x1f7bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F7Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&amp;#x1f7c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&amp;#x1f7c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE LIGHT FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&amp;#x1f7c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&amp;#x1f7cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F7Dx
|style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7d0;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&amp;#x1f7d1;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7d2;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&amp;#x1f7d3;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&amp;#x1f7d4;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f7d5;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f7d6;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7d7;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7d8;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINE POINTED WHITE STAR|&amp;#x1f7d9;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CIRCLE WITH WHITE VERTICAL BAR|&amp;#x1f7da;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLET IN DOUBLE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7db;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F7Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7eb;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NOT EQUALS SIGN|&amp;#x1f7ec;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F7Fx
|style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EQUALS SIGN|&amp;#x1f7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE|&amp;#x1f7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE HORIZONTAL LINE|&amp;#x1f7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED BOTTOM RIGHT OBLIQUE HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRANSPARENT CUBE|&amp;#x1f7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CUBE|&amp;#x1f7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&amp;#x1f7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH BOTTOM HALF BISECTED|&amp;#x1f7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH TOP HALF BISECTED|&amp;#x1f7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL BISECTING LINES|&amp;#x1f7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&amp;#x1f7fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHOMBUS|&amp;#x1f7ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F80x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f80b;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F81x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f81f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F82x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&amp;#x1f820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&amp;#x1f821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&amp;#x1f822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&amp;#x1f823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&amp;#x1f824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&amp;#x1f825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&amp;#x1f826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&amp;#x1f827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&amp;#x1f828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&amp;#x1f829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&amp;#x1f82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&amp;#x1f82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f82f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F83x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&amp;#x1f833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&amp;#x1f834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&amp;#x1f835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&amp;#x1f836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&amp;#x1f837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&amp;#x1f838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&amp;#x1f839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&amp;#x1f83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&amp;#x1f83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f83f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F84x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&amp;#x1f843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&amp;#x1f844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&amp;#x1f845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&amp;#x1f846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&amp;#x1f847;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F85x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT RIGHT SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP DOWN SANS-SERIF ARROW|&amp;#x1f859;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F86x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f86f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F87x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f87f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F88x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&amp;#x1f887;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F89x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&amp;#x1f897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&amp;#x1f898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&amp;#x1f899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&amp;#x1f89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&amp;#x1f89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&amp;#x1f89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&amp;#x1f89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE HALF|&amp;#x1f89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE THIRD|&amp;#x1f89f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F8Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BOTTOM-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BOTTOM SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&amp;#x1f8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&amp;#x1f8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&amp;#x1f8ad;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F8Bx
|style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING UPWARDS THEN NORTH WEST|&amp;#x1f8b0;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING RIGHTWARDS THEN CURVING SOUTH WEST|&amp;#x1f8b1;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LOWER HOOK|&amp;#x1f8b2;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS BLACK ARROW TO BAR|&amp;#x1f8b3;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LEFTWARDS ARROW|&amp;#x1f8b4;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED UPWARDS ARROW|&amp;#x1f8b5;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED RIGHTWARDS ARROW|&amp;#x1f8b6;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED DOWNWARDS ARROW|&amp;#x1f8b7;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&amp;#x1f8b8;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&amp;#x1f8b9;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&amp;#x1f8ba;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&amp;#x1f8bb;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F8Cx
|style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&amp;#x1f8c0;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&amp;#x1f8c1;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F8Dx
|style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW OVER LONG LEFTWARDS ARROW|&amp;#x1f8d0;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON OVER LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&amp;#x1f8d1;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&amp;#x1f8d2;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&amp;#x1f8d3;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&amp;#x1f8d4;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&amp;#x1f8d5;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW THROUGH X|&amp;#x1f8d6;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH DOUBLE SLASH|&amp;#x1f8d7;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG LEFT RIGHT ARROW WITH DEPENDENT LOBE|&amp;#x1f8d8;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F8Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F8Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F90x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH FOUR DOTS|&amp;#x1f900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH TWO DOTS|&amp;#x1f901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE|&amp;#x1f902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH FOUR DOTS|&amp;#x1f903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&amp;#x1f904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH TWO DOTS|&amp;#x1f905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH DOT|&amp;#x1f906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE|&amp;#x1f907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK|&amp;#x1f908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK|&amp;#x1f909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK WITH DOT|&amp;#x1f90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK WITH DOT|&amp;#x1f90b;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHED FINGERS|&amp;#x1f90c;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEART|&amp;#x1f90d;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BROWN HEART|&amp;#x1f90e;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHING HAND|&amp;#x1f90f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F91x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ZIPPER-MOUTH FACE|&amp;#x1f910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY-MOUTH FACE|&amp;#x1f911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH THERMOMETER|&amp;#x1f912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NERD FACE|&amp;#x1f913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THINKING FACE|&amp;#x1f914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH HEAD-BANDAGE|&amp;#x1f915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROBOT FACE|&amp;#x1f916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUGGING FACE|&amp;#x1f917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGN OF THE HORNS|&amp;#x1f918;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CALL ME HAND|&amp;#x1f919;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED BACK OF HAND|&amp;#x1f91a;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-FACING FIST|&amp;#x1f91b;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-FACING FIST|&amp;#x1f91c;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDSHAKE|&amp;#x1f91d;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX AND MIDDLE FINGERS CROSSED|&amp;#x1f91e;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|I LOVE YOU HAND SIGN|&amp;#x1f91f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F92x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COWBOY HAT|&amp;#x1f920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOWN FACE|&amp;#x1f921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAUSEATED FACE|&amp;#x1f922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLING ON THE FLOOR LAUGHING|&amp;#x1f923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROOLING FACE|&amp;#x1f924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LYING FACE|&amp;#x1f925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE PALM|&amp;#x1f926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SNEEZING FACE|&amp;#x1f927;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ONE EYEBROW RAISED|&amp;#x1f928;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH STAR EYES|&amp;#x1f929;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH ONE LARGE AND ONE SMALL EYE|&amp;#x1f92a;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH FINGER COVERING CLOSED LIPS|&amp;#x1f92b;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SERIOUS FACE WITH SYMBOLS COVERING MOUTH|&amp;#x1f92c;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND HAND COVERING MOUTH|&amp;#x1f92d;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH VOMITING|&amp;#x1f92e;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOCKED FACE WITH EXPLODING HEAD|&amp;#x1f92f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F93x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT WOMAN|&amp;#x1f930;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BREAST-FEEDING|&amp;#x1f931;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALMS UP TOGETHER|&amp;#x1f932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SELFIE|&amp;#x1f933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINCE|&amp;#x1f934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN TUXEDO|&amp;#x1f935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTHER CHRISTMAS|&amp;#x1f936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRUG|&amp;#x1f937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON DOING CARTWHEEL|&amp;#x1f938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JUGGLING|&amp;#x1f939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FENCER|&amp;#x1f93a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODERN PENTATHLON|&amp;#x1f93b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRESTLERS|&amp;#x1f93c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER POLO|&amp;#x1f93d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDBALL|&amp;#x1f93e;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVING MASK|&amp;#x1f93f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F94x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WILTED FLOWER|&amp;#x1f940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DRUM WITH DRUMSTICKS|&amp;#x1f941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLINKING GLASSES|&amp;#x1f942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TUMBLER GLASS|&amp;#x1f943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOON|&amp;#x1f944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOAL NET|&amp;#x1f945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIFLE|&amp;#x1f946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST PLACE MEDAL|&amp;#x1f947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SECOND PLACE MEDAL|&amp;#x1f948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIRD PLACE MEDAL|&amp;#x1f949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOXING GLOVE|&amp;#x1f94a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARTIAL ARTS UNIFORM|&amp;#x1f94b;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CURLING STONE|&amp;#x1f94c;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LACROSSE STICK AND BALL|&amp;#x1f94d;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFTBALL|&amp;#x1f94e;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING DISC|&amp;#x1f94f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F95x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROISSANT|&amp;#x1f950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AVOCADO|&amp;#x1f951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUCUMBER|&amp;#x1f952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACON|&amp;#x1f953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POTATO|&amp;#x1f954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARROT|&amp;#x1f955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGUETTE BREAD|&amp;#x1f956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN SALAD|&amp;#x1f957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHALLOW PAN OF FOOD|&amp;#x1f958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STUFFED FLATBREAD|&amp;#x1f959;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EGG|&amp;#x1f95a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLASS OF MILK|&amp;#x1f95b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEANUTS|&amp;#x1f95c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIWIFRUIT|&amp;#x1f95d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PANCAKES|&amp;#x1f95e;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DUMPLING|&amp;#x1f95f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F96x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORTUNE COOKIE|&amp;#x1f960;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKEOUT BOX|&amp;#x1f961;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHOPSTICKS|&amp;#x1f962;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL WITH SPOON|&amp;#x1f963;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUP WITH STRAW|&amp;#x1f964;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COCONUT|&amp;#x1f965;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROCCOLI|&amp;#x1f966;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PIE|&amp;#x1f967;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRETZEL|&amp;#x1f968;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUT OF MEAT|&amp;#x1f969;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANDWICH|&amp;#x1f96a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANNED FOOD|&amp;#x1f96b;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFY GREEN|&amp;#x1f96c;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANGO|&amp;#x1f96d;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOON CAKE|&amp;#x1f96e;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGEL|&amp;#x1f96f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F97x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND THREE HEARTS|&amp;#x1f970;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|YAWNING FACE|&amp;#x1f971;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH TEAR|&amp;#x1f972;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PARTY HORN AND PARTY HAT|&amp;#x1f973;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH UNEVEN EYES AND WAVY MOUTH|&amp;#x1f974;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERHEATED FACE|&amp;#x1f975;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FREEZING FACE|&amp;#x1f976;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINJA|&amp;#x1f977;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DISGUISED FACE|&amp;#x1f978;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE HOLDING BACK TEARS|&amp;#x1f979;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PLEADING EYES|&amp;#x1f97a;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SARI|&amp;#x1f97b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAB COAT|&amp;#x1f97c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOGGLES|&amp;#x1f97d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIKING BOOT|&amp;#x1f97e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAT SHOE|&amp;#x1f97f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F98x
|style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRAB|&amp;#x1f980;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LION FACE|&amp;#x1f981;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCORPION|&amp;#x1f982;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TURKEY|&amp;#x1f983;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|UNICORN FACE|&amp;#x1f984;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAGLE|&amp;#x1f985;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DUCK|&amp;#x1f986;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAT|&amp;#x1f987;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARK|&amp;#x1f988;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OWL|&amp;#x1f989;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOX FACE|&amp;#x1f98a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTERFLY|&amp;#x1f98b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEER|&amp;#x1f98c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GORILLA|&amp;#x1f98d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIZARD|&amp;#x1f98e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHINOCEROS|&amp;#x1f98f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F99x
|style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRIMP|&amp;#x1f990;}}||style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUID|&amp;#x1f991;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRAFFE FACE|&amp;#x1f992;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ZEBRA FACE|&amp;#x1f993;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEDGEHOG|&amp;#x1f994;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAUROPOD|&amp;#x1f995;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|T-REX|&amp;#x1f996;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRICKET|&amp;#x1f997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KANGAROO|&amp;#x1f998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LLAMA|&amp;#x1f999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEACOCK|&amp;#x1f99a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIPPOPOTAMUS|&amp;#x1f99b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARROT|&amp;#x1f99c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RACCOON|&amp;#x1f99d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOBSTER|&amp;#x1f99e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUITO|&amp;#x1f99f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F9Ax
|style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROBE|&amp;#x1f9a0;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BADGER|&amp;#x1f9a1;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SWAN|&amp;#x1f9a2;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAMMOTH|&amp;#x1f9a3;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DODO|&amp;#x1f9a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLOTH|&amp;#x1f9a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTER|&amp;#x1f9a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGUTAN|&amp;#x1f9a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SKUNK|&amp;#x1f9a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAMINGO|&amp;#x1f9a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OYSTER|&amp;#x1f9aa;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAVER|&amp;#x1f9ab;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BISON|&amp;#x1f9ac;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAL|&amp;#x1f9ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUIDE DOG|&amp;#x1f9ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROBING CANE|&amp;#x1f9af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F9Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT RED HAIR|&amp;#x1f9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT CURLY HAIR|&amp;#x1f9b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT BALD|&amp;#x1f9b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT WHITE HAIR|&amp;#x1f9b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BONE|&amp;#x1f9b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG|&amp;#x1f9b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOOT|&amp;#x1f9b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTH|&amp;#x1f9b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERHERO|&amp;#x1f9b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERVILLAIN|&amp;#x1f9b9;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY VEST|&amp;#x1f9ba;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR WITH HEARING AID|&amp;#x1f9bb;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORIZED WHEELCHAIR|&amp;#x1f9bc;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANUAL WHEELCHAIR|&amp;#x1f9bd;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MECHANICAL ARM|&amp;#x1f9be;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MECHANICAL LEG|&amp;#x1f9bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F9Cx
|style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEESE WEDGE|&amp;#x1f9c0;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUPCAKE|&amp;#x1f9c1;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SALT SHAKER|&amp;#x1f9c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEVERAGE BOX|&amp;#x1f9c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GARLIC|&amp;#x1f9c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONION|&amp;#x1f9c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALAFEL|&amp;#x1f9c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAFFLE|&amp;#x1f9c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTER|&amp;#x1f9c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATE DRINK|&amp;#x1f9c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE CUBE|&amp;#x1f9ca;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BUBBLE TEA|&amp;#x1f9cb;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLL|&amp;#x1f9cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STANDING PERSON|&amp;#x1f9cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNEELING PERSON|&amp;#x1f9ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEAF PERSON|&amp;#x1f9cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F9Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MONOCLE|&amp;#x1f9d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADULT|&amp;#x1f9d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILD|&amp;#x1f9d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER ADULT|&amp;#x1f9d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEARDED PERSON|&amp;#x1f9d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH HEADSCARF|&amp;#x1f9d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON IN STEAMY ROOM|&amp;#x1f9d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON CLIMBING|&amp;#x1f9d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON IN LOTUS POSITION|&amp;#x1f9d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGE|&amp;#x1f9d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAIRY|&amp;#x1f9da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VAMPIRE|&amp;#x1f9db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MERPERSON|&amp;#x1f9dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELF|&amp;#x1f9dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GENIE|&amp;#x1f9de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZOMBIE|&amp;#x1f9df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F9Ex
|style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAIN|&amp;#x1f9e0;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE HEART|&amp;#x1f9e1;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BILLED CAP|&amp;#x1f9e2;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCARF|&amp;#x1f9e3;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOVES|&amp;#x1f9e4;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COAT|&amp;#x1f9e5;}}||style=&quot;background:#b690ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOCKS|&amp;#x1f9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED GIFT ENVELOPE|&amp;#x1f9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRECRACKER|&amp;#x1f9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JIGSAW PUZZLE PIECE|&amp;#x1f9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEST TUBE|&amp;#x1f9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PETRI DISH|&amp;#x1f9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DNA DOUBLE HELIX|&amp;#x1f9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPASS|&amp;#x1f9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ABACUS|&amp;#x1f9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE EXTINGUISHER|&amp;#x1f9ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1F9Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOLBOX|&amp;#x1f9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRICK|&amp;#x1f9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGNET|&amp;#x1f9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUGGAGE|&amp;#x1f9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTION BOTTLE|&amp;#x1f9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOOL OF THREAD|&amp;#x1f9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALL OF YARN|&amp;#x1f9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY PIN|&amp;#x1f9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEDDY BEAR|&amp;#x1f9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROOM|&amp;#x1f9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASKET|&amp;#x1f9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLL OF PAPER|&amp;#x1f9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR OF SOAP|&amp;#x1f9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPONGE|&amp;#x1f9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECEIPT|&amp;#x1f9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAZAR AMULET|&amp;#x1f9ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Chess Symbols'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA0x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING|&amp;#x1fa00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN|&amp;#x1fa01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK|&amp;#x1fa02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP|&amp;#x1fa03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT|&amp;#x1fa04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN|&amp;#x1fa05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREE|&amp;#x1fa06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KING|&amp;#x1fa1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&amp;#x1fa1f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA2x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED ROOK|&amp;#x1fa20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&amp;#x1fa21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&amp;#x1fa22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED PAWN|&amp;#x1fa23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KING|&amp;#x1fa24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&amp;#x1fa25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED ROOK|&amp;#x1fa26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&amp;#x1fa27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&amp;#x1fa28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED PAWN|&amp;#x1fa29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KING|&amp;#x1fa2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&amp;#x1fa2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED ROOK|&amp;#x1fa2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&amp;#x1fa2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&amp;#x1fa2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED PAWN|&amp;#x1fa2f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA3x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa3f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA4x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&amp;#x1fa48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&amp;#x1fa49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&amp;#x1fa4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&amp;#x1fa4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&amp;#x1fa4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&amp;#x1fa4f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA5x
|style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&amp;#x1fa50;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&amp;#x1fa51;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&amp;#x1fa52;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&amp;#x1fa53;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS FERZ|&amp;#x1fa54;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ALFIL|&amp;#x1fa55;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS FERZ|&amp;#x1fa56;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ALFIL|&amp;#x1fa57;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS WAZIR|&amp;#x1fa58;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS WAZIR|&amp;#x1fa59;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS CAMEL|&amp;#x1fa5a;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS CAMEL|&amp;#x1fa5b;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS GIRAFFE|&amp;#x1fa5c;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS GIRAFFE|&amp;#x1fa5d;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS DABBABA|&amp;#x1fa5e;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS DABBABA|&amp;#x1fa5f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA6x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED GENERAL|&amp;#x1fa60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED MANDARIN|&amp;#x1fa61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED ELEPHANT|&amp;#x1fa62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED HORSE|&amp;#x1fa63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CHARIOT|&amp;#x1fa64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CANNON|&amp;#x1fa65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED SOLDIER|&amp;#x1fa66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK GENERAL|&amp;#x1fa67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK MANDARIN|&amp;#x1fa68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK ELEPHANT|&amp;#x1fa69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK HORSE|&amp;#x1fa6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CHARIOT|&amp;#x1fa6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CANNON|&amp;#x1fa6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK SOLDIER|&amp;#x1fa6d;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA7x
|style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLET SHOES|&amp;#x1fa70;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE-PIECE SWIMSUIT|&amp;#x1fa71;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFS|&amp;#x1fa72;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORTS|&amp;#x1fa73;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|THONG SANDAL|&amp;#x1fa74;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT BLUE HEART|&amp;#x1fa75;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREY HEART|&amp;#x1fa76;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINK HEART|&amp;#x1fa77;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DROP OF BLOOD|&amp;#x1fa78;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADHESIVE BANDAGE|&amp;#x1fa79;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|STETHOSCOPE|&amp;#x1fa7a;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|X-RAY|&amp;#x1fa7b;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRUTCH|&amp;#x1fa7c;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOOD BAG|&amp;#x1fa7d;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INHALER|&amp;#x1fa7e;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX OF PILLS|&amp;#x1fa7f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA8x
|style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|YO-YO|&amp;#x1fa80;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KITE|&amp;#x1fa81;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARACHUTE|&amp;#x1fa82;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOMERANG|&amp;#x1fa83;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGIC WAND|&amp;#x1fa84;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINATA|&amp;#x1fa85;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NESTING DOLLS|&amp;#x1fa86;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARACAS|&amp;#x1fa87;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUTE|&amp;#x1fa88;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HARP|&amp;#x1fa89;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROMBONE|&amp;#x1fa8a;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|METEOR|&amp;#x1fa8b;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ERASER|&amp;#x1fa8c;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NET WITH HANDLE|&amp;#x1fa8d;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TREASURE CHEST|&amp;#x1fa8e;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOVEL|&amp;#x1fa8f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FA9x
|style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGED PLANET|&amp;#x1fa90;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAIR|&amp;#x1fa91;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAZOR|&amp;#x1fa92;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|AXE|&amp;#x1fa93;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIYA LAMP|&amp;#x1fa94;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BANJO|&amp;#x1fa95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILITARY HELMET|&amp;#x1fa96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ACCORDION|&amp;#x1fa97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG DRUM|&amp;#x1fa98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COIN|&amp;#x1fa99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARPENTRY SAW|&amp;#x1fa9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREWDRIVER|&amp;#x1fa9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LADDER|&amp;#x1fa9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOOK|&amp;#x1fa9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR|&amp;#x1fa9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINDOW|&amp;#x1fa9f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FAAx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLUNGER|&amp;#x1faa0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING NEEDLE|&amp;#x1faa1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNOT|&amp;#x1faa2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUCKET|&amp;#x1faa3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUSE TRAP|&amp;#x1faa4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTHBRUSH|&amp;#x1faa5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEADSTONE|&amp;#x1faa6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACARD|&amp;#x1faa7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCK|&amp;#x1faa8;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR BALL|&amp;#x1faa9;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|IDENTIFICATION CARD|&amp;#x1faaa;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BATTERY|&amp;#x1faab;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMSA|&amp;#x1faac;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDING HAND FAN|&amp;#x1faad;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIR PICK|&amp;#x1faae;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHANDA|&amp;#x1faaf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FABx
|style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLY|&amp;#x1fab0;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORM|&amp;#x1fab1;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEETLE|&amp;#x1fab2;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COCKROACH|&amp;#x1fab3;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|POTTED PLANT|&amp;#x1fab4;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOOD|&amp;#x1fab5;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FEATHER|&amp;#x1fab6;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTUS|&amp;#x1fab7;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CORAL|&amp;#x1fab8;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NEST|&amp;#x1fab9;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEST WITH EGGS|&amp;#x1faba;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYACINTH|&amp;#x1fabb;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|JELLYFISH|&amp;#x1fabc;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WING|&amp;#x1fabd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFLESS TREE|&amp;#x1fabe;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GOOSE|&amp;#x1fabf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FACx
|style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANATOMICAL HEART|&amp;#x1fac0;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNGS|&amp;#x1fac1;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PEOPLE HUGGING|&amp;#x1fac2;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT MAN|&amp;#x1fac3;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT PERSON|&amp;#x1fac4;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH CROWN|&amp;#x1fac5;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FINGERPRINT|&amp;#x1fac6;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIVER|&amp;#x1fac7;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIRY CREATURE|&amp;#x1fac8;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CENTAUR|&amp;#x1fac9;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRAGONFLY|&amp;#x1faca;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KIWI BIRD|&amp;#x1facb;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MONARCH BUTTERFLY|&amp;#x1facc;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCA|&amp;#x1facd;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOSE|&amp;#x1face;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DONKEY|&amp;#x1facf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FADx
|style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUEBERRIES|&amp;#x1fad0;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL PEPPER|&amp;#x1fad1;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|OLIVE|&amp;#x1fad2;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLATBREAD|&amp;#x1fad3;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMALE|&amp;#x1fad4;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FONDUE|&amp;#x1fad5;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAPOT|&amp;#x1fad6;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|POURING LIQUID|&amp;#x1fad7;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEANS|&amp;#x1fad8;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|JAR|&amp;#x1fad9;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GINGER ROOT|&amp;#x1fada;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PEA POD|&amp;#x1fadb;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROOT VEGETABLE|&amp;#x1fadc;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKLE|&amp;#x1fadd;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RASPBERRY|&amp;#x1fade;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPLATTER|&amp;#x1fadf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FAEx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MELTING FACE|&amp;#x1fae0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SALUTING FACE|&amp;#x1fae1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN EYES AND HAND OVER MOUTH|&amp;#x1fae2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PEEKING EYE|&amp;#x1fae3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH DIAGONAL MOUTH|&amp;#x1fae4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOTTED LINE FACE|&amp;#x1fae5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BITING LIP|&amp;#x1fae6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUBBLES|&amp;#x1fae7;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHAKING FACE|&amp;#x1fae8;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH BAGS UNDER EYES|&amp;#x1fae9;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DISTORTED FACE|&amp;#x1faea;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRACKING FACE|&amp;#x1faeb;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH SQUINTING EYES|&amp;#x1faec;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLEVER FACE|&amp;#x1faed;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PALM ON CHEEK|&amp;#x1faee;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FIGHT CLOUD|&amp;#x1faef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FAFx
|style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB CROSSED|&amp;#x1faf0;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HAND|&amp;#x1faf1;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HAND|&amp;#x1faf2;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM DOWN HAND|&amp;#x1faf3;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM UP HAND|&amp;#x1faf4;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDEX POINTING AT THE VIEWER|&amp;#x1faf5;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART HANDS|&amp;#x1faf6;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&amp;#x1faf7;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&amp;#x1faf8;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&amp;#x1faf9;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&amp;#x1fafa;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE FINGER SALUTE|&amp;#x1fafb;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND SNAPPING FINGERS|&amp;#x1fafc;}}||style=&quot;background:#5d7e4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB FORMING CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fafd;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG KICKING|&amp;#x1fafe;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMP|&amp;#x1faff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Symbols for Legacy Computing'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB0x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1|&amp;#x1fb00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2|&amp;#x1fb01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12|&amp;#x1fb02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3|&amp;#x1fb03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-13|&amp;#x1fb04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-23|&amp;#x1fb05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-123|&amp;#x1fb06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-4|&amp;#x1fb07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-14|&amp;#x1fb08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-24|&amp;#x1fb09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-124|&amp;#x1fb0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-34|&amp;#x1fb0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-134|&amp;#x1fb0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-234|&amp;#x1fb0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1234|&amp;#x1fb0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-5|&amp;#x1fb0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-15|&amp;#x1fb10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-25|&amp;#x1fb11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-125|&amp;#x1fb12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-35|&amp;#x1fb13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-235|&amp;#x1fb14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1235|&amp;#x1fb15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-45|&amp;#x1fb16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-145|&amp;#x1fb17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-245|&amp;#x1fb18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1245|&amp;#x1fb19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-345|&amp;#x1fb1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1345|&amp;#x1fb1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2345|&amp;#x1fb1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12345|&amp;#x1fb1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-6|&amp;#x1fb1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-16|&amp;#x1fb1f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB2x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-26|&amp;#x1fb20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-126|&amp;#x1fb21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-36|&amp;#x1fb22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-136|&amp;#x1fb23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-236|&amp;#x1fb24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1236|&amp;#x1fb25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-46|&amp;#x1fb26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-146|&amp;#x1fb27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1246|&amp;#x1fb28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-346|&amp;#x1fb29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1346|&amp;#x1fb2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2346|&amp;#x1fb2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12346|&amp;#x1fb2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-56|&amp;#x1fb2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-156|&amp;#x1fb2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-256|&amp;#x1fb2f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB3x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1256|&amp;#x1fb30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-356|&amp;#x1fb31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1356|&amp;#x1fb32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2356|&amp;#x1fb33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12356|&amp;#x1fb34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-456|&amp;#x1fb35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1456|&amp;#x1fb36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2456|&amp;#x1fb37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12456|&amp;#x1fb38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3456|&amp;#x1fb39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-13456|&amp;#x1fb3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-23456|&amp;#x1fb3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb3f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB4x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb4f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB5x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fb5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb5f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB6x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fb67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND RIGHT AND LOWER TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND LOWER AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LEFT AND LOWER TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND UPPER AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb6f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB7x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-2|&amp;#x1fb70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-3|&amp;#x1fb71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-4|&amp;#x1fb72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-5|&amp;#x1fb73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-6|&amp;#x1fb74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-7|&amp;#x1fb75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-2|&amp;#x1fb76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-3|&amp;#x1fb77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-4|&amp;#x1fb78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-5|&amp;#x1fb79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-6|&amp;#x1fb7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-7|&amp;#x1fb7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND UPPER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT AND UPPER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb7f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB8x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-1358|&amp;#x1fb81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER THREE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER FIVE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER SEVEN EIGHTHS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT FIVE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SEVEN EIGHTHS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb8f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FB9x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF BLOCK AND LOWER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND LOWER HALF BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb92;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND RIGHT HALF BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD FILL|&amp;#x1fb95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECKER BOARD FILL|&amp;#x1fb96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY HORIZONTAL FILL|&amp;#x1fb97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT FILL|&amp;#x1fb98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT FILL|&amp;#x1fb99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LOWER TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&amp;#x1fb9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&amp;#x1fb9f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FBAx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&amp;#x1fba0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fba1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fba2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fba3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fba4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fba5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fba6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fba7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT AND MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fba8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT AND MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fba9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&amp;#x1fbaa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fbac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fbad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&amp;#x1fbae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT HORIZONTAL WITH VERTICAL STROKE|&amp;#x1fbaf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FBBx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROWHEAD-SHAPED POINTER|&amp;#x1fbb0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECK MARK|&amp;#x1fbb1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF RUNNING MAN|&amp;#x1fbb2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF RUNNING MAN|&amp;#x1fbb3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH TIP LEFTWARDS|&amp;#x1fbb4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbb5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbb6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbb7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbb8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF FOLDER|&amp;#x1fbb9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF FOLDER|&amp;#x1fbba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOIDED GREEK CROSS|&amp;#x1fbbb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT OPEN SQUARED DOT|&amp;#x1fbbc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL CROSS|&amp;#x1fbbd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fbbe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&amp;#x1fbbf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FBCx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEAVY SALTIRE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&amp;#x1fbc0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1fbc1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1fbc2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&amp;#x1fbc3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED QUESTION MARK|&amp;#x1fbc4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE|&amp;#x1fbc5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH ARMS RAISED|&amp;#x1fbc6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING LEFT|&amp;#x1fbc7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbc8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH DRESS|&amp;#x1fbc9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&amp;#x1fbca;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CROSS MARK|&amp;#x1fbcb;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED SMALL LEFT SQUARE BRACKET|&amp;#x1fbcc;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SMALL UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&amp;#x1fbcd;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TWO THIRDS BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbce;}}||style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ONE THIRD BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbcf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FBDx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&amp;#x1fbd0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT|&amp;#x1fbd1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbd2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbd3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fbd4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbd5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&amp;#x1fbd6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&amp;#x1fbd7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbd8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbd9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbda;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&amp;#x1fbdb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbdc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbdd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&amp;#x1fbde;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&amp;#x1fbdf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FBEx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbe0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbe1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbe2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbe3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbe4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbe5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE LEFT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbe6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&amp;#x1fbe7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbe8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbe9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbeb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP RIGHT JUSTIFIED LOWER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM LEFT JUSTIFIED UPPER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM RIGHT JUSTIFIED UPPER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP LEFT JUSTIFIED LOWER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&amp;#x1fbef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffb0ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FBFx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1fbf0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1fbf1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1fbf2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1fbf3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1fbf4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1fbf5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1fbf6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1fbf7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1fbf8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1fbf9;}}||style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALARM BELL SYMBOL|&amp;#x1fbfa;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FC9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FCAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FCBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FCCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FCDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FCEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FCFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-B'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD0x
|style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RECTANGULAR TABLE|&amp;#x1fd00;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ESCALATOR|&amp;#x1fd01;}}||style=&quot;background:#5d7e4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLDOZER|&amp;#x1fd02;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAT TYRE|&amp;#x1fd03;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTHQUAKE|&amp;#x1fd04;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TRICYCLE|&amp;#x1fd05;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD1x
|style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|NAIL CLIPPER|&amp;#x1fd10;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTHPASTE|&amp;#x1fd11;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLIER|&amp;#x1fd12;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KNIFE WITH CUTTING BOARD|&amp;#x1fd13;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAKE|&amp;#x1fd14;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TISSUE BOX|&amp;#x1fd15;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOTHES HANGER|&amp;#x1fd16;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRILL|&amp;#x1fd17;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING BUTTON|&amp;#x1fd18;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKING POT|&amp;#x1fd19;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|APRON|&amp;#x1fd1a;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BINOCULARS|&amp;#x1fd1b;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INCENSE|&amp;#x1fd1c;}}||style=&quot;background:#768b4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PIGGY BANK|&amp;#x1fd1d;}}||style=&quot;background:#768b4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPRAY CAN|&amp;#x1fd1e;}}||style=&quot;background:#768b4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|PERFUME GLASS BOTTLE|&amp;#x1fd1f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD2x
|style=&quot;background:#5d7e4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GOLD BAR|&amp;#x1fd20;}}||style=&quot;background:#5d7e4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CYMBALS|&amp;#x1fd21;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|XYLOPHONE|&amp;#x1fd22;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONCRETE BLOCK|&amp;#x1fd23;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD4x
|style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPRING ONION|&amp;#x1fd40;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRAPEFRUIT|&amp;#x1fd41;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE POP|&amp;#x1fd42;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CINNAMON STICKS|&amp;#x1fd43;}}||style=&quot;background:#768b4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUGAR CUBES|&amp;#x1fd44;}}||style=&quot;background:#5d7e4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|POMEGRANATE|&amp;#x1fd45;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRAGON FRUIT|&amp;#x1fd46;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOFFEE|&amp;#x1fd47;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD5x
|style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCHID|&amp;#x1fd50;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAMELEON|&amp;#x1fd51;}}||style=&quot;background:#aeaf4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|OSTRICH|&amp;#x1fd52;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOLE|&amp;#x1fd53;}}||style=&quot;background:#97a24a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARIGOLD|&amp;#x1fd54;}}||style=&quot;background:#5d7e4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMBAT|&amp;#x1fd55;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d6d&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAHORSE|&amp;#x1fd56;}}||style=&quot;background:#457d8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOUCAN|&amp;#x1fd57;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD7x
|style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMACH|&amp;#x1fd70;}}||style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INTESTINE|&amp;#x1fd71;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD8x
|style=&quot;background:#768b4a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE REVEALING FACE|&amp;#x1fd80;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FD9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FDAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FDBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FDCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FDDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FDEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FDFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FE9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FEAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FEBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FECx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FEDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FEEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FEFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FF9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FFAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FFBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FFCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FFDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FFEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1FFFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#000000&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#000000&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|}
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Biology/Central Concepts/Energy and respiration</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>161204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662424</id>
      <parentid>4418964</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T13:46:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662424</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10667" sha1="5nqnretquvxztv11jmkfzkwyk7ckzwf" xml:space="preserve">=Energy and Work=

Energy and organic molecules are required by every living organism, and are used in two ways;

:Building blocks for making other organic molecules that the organism needs.
:Chemical potential energy which can be released by breaking down the molecules in respiration.

This chemical potential energy is used in the following ways;

:Muscle contraction and other cellular movements
:Active transport of substances
:Synthesis of complex substances (anabolic reactions) from simple ones.

Energy yielding reactions in all organisms generally produce an intermediary energy molecule, ATP.

=ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)=

ATP consists of adenine (organic base) and ribose (pentose sugar), making adenosine (a nucleotide), which is then combined with three phosphate groups to make ATP, a nucleotide. It is a small water-soluble molecule, allowing easy transport. When a phosphate group is removed, [''known as Hydrolysis''] ADP is formed and it produces 30.6kJ of energy, and is a reversible reaction that allows for interconversion between ATP and ADP - the formula is below: known as phosphorylation.

:ATP + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O ↔ ADP +H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;       ΔG = ± 30.6kJ

===Energy Currency===

The cells energy yielding reactions synthesise ATP, and ATP is used by the cell in all forms of work. and the cell trades in ATP rather than using intermediates. Energy lost during energy transfers is converted to thermal energy, as well as any excess energy, if too much is produced to create ATP for example. Energy currency is immediate donor of energy to cell's energy-requiring reaction, and a storage molecule is a short-term (glucose) or long term (glycogen) store of chemical energy. ATP losses a phosphate group and forms ADP

===Synthesis===

Most ATP is synthesised using electrical potential energy, the energy from the transfers of electrons by electron carriers in mitochondria and chloroplasts. It's stored as a difference in hydrogen ion concentration across the membrane (the membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts are basically impermeable to hydrogen ions). Hydrogen ions are then allowed to flow down their concentration gradient through a transport protein, and part of this protein is ATP synthase, an enzyme that, surprisingly, synthesises ATP. The transfer of three hydrogen ions results in the production of one ATP molecule provided that ADP and a phosphate group is present inside the organelle.

==Roles==

ATP is required for various biological processes in animals including; Active Transport, Secretion, Endocytosis, Synthesis and Replication of DNA and Movement.

===Active Transport===

[[A-level Biology/Biology Foundation/cell membranes and transport#Active Transport|Active Transport]] is the movement of molecules defined as the energy-consuming transport of molecules or ions across a membrane against a concentration gradient, made possible by transferring energy from ATP. Most cells have sodium/potassium pumps and these are maintained by ATP, for many many things.

===Muscle Contraction===

Muscle contraction goes as such;

A sarcomere contracts by sliding the thin actin filaments over the thick myosin filaments (molecules with a flexible head, an ATPase molecule, hydrolyses ATP to ADP and phosphate)

:1. Calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, allowing the myosin head to bind to the portion of actin filament next to it.
:2. This head then tilts at 45 degrees, moving the actin filament about 10nm in relation to the myosin towards the centre of the sarcomere
:3. Millions of fibres doing this at the same time makes the muscle contract, releasing ADP and phosphate
:4. Another ATP binds to the head and is again hydrolysed, and the head tilts back to it's original position
:5. When contraction ends, ATP is used to pump calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

During contraction, ATP is continually regenerated using creatine phosphate, which provides a phosphate group to ADP, allowing it to become ATP and creatine. The limited supply of creatine phosphate must be replenished via ATP from respiration. The muscle may not be able to keep up with it and a lactate pathway is used to allow continued formation of ATP, but the cells incur an oxygen debt.

=Respiration=
===Glycolysis===

This is the splitting of glucose, that eventually results in two molecules of pyruvate. ATP is used in the first stage, where glucose is phosphorylated using ATP, which allows the reaction to be easier. Glucose breaks down to hexose phosphate, which breaks down to hexose biphosphate, which breaks down to 2 molecules of triose phosphate. Hydrogen is then removed and transferred to NAD, producing two molecules of reduced NAD for each glucose molecule. The process produces 4 ATP molecules in total, in addition to the two molecules of reduced NAD, but requires 2 ATP molecules.

In summary.
Glucose &gt; Glucose-6-phosphate &gt; Fructose-1-phosphate &gt; Hexose-1,6-bi(s)phosphate &gt; 2x Triose Phosphate &gt; 2x Intermediate Compound &gt; 2x Pyruvate.

Pyruvate is then actively transported to the mitrochrondrial matrix for the link reaction.
Thus ultimately producing;

* 2 ATP Molecules
* 2 Pyruvate Molecules
*  2 Molecules of Reduced NAD [NADH]

===Link reaction===

Pyruvate and NAD enter the link cycle which takes place  in the mitochondrial matrix, where it is decarboxylated, dehydrogenated and combined with Coenzyme A to give acetyl coenzyme A. CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is produced and NAD is reduced. Acetyl coenzyme A acts as a carrier of acetyl groups to the krebs cycle.
The hydrogen removed from pyruvate is now transferred to NAD.

Thus ultimately; [as 2 molecules of Pyruvate]
* 2NADH produced
* 2 Co&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; produced

===Krebs cycle===

The krebs cycle(also known as Citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle)is a closed pathway of enzyme-controlled reactions;

:1. Acetate [from Acetyl CoA] combines with a four-carbon compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate)
:2. Citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated (the hydrogens reduce both NAD and FAD), yielding CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and NADH and FADH.
:3. ATP is produced via SLP [Substrate Level Phosphorylation]
:4. Oxaloacetate is regenerated to combine with another acetyl coenzyme A from the link reaction.

For each turn of the krebs cycle, three NAD molecules and one FAD are reduced,2 carbon dioxide molecules are produced and one ATP molecule is generated via an intermediate compound. The hydrogen released is used in oxidative phosphorylation to provide energy to make ATP.The reactions of Krebs cycle do not make use of oxygen.However,Oxygen is required in the final stage(i.e. Oxidative phosphorylation).

===Oxidative phosphorylation===

The electron transport chain provides the energy for the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP, and this takes place in the mitochondrial membranes. Reduced NAD/FAD are passed to the electron transport chain where hydrogens are removed from the two hydrogen carriers and is split into hydrogen ions and an electron. The electron is passed to a series of electron carriers whilst the hydrogen ion remains in the mitochondrial matrix. Once the electron is tranferred to oxygen, a hydrogen ion will be draw from the solution to reduce the oxygen to water.

The transfer of electrons along the series of electron carriers, passing from a higher carrier to a lower one, releasing energy, making it available to convert ADP + Phosphate to ATP. Each reduced NAD molecule produces 2.5 molecules of ATP (an average) and each reduced FAD produces 1.5 molecules of ATP (on average).

====Chemiosmosis====

The energy from the electron transport chain is used to pump hydrogen ions from the mitochondrial matrix into the area between the plasma membrane and the cristae - the concentration of hydrogen ions becomes higher than that in the matrix, a concentration gradient exists. Hydrogen ions are then allowed to pass that through protein channels that have the enzyme ATP synthase on the end, as the ions pass through their electrical energy is used to synthesise ATP. The energy of three hydrogen ions are used to phosporylate one ADP to ATP.

=Anaerobic respiration=

=== In Mammals ===

Pyruvate &gt; Lactic Acid

Pyruvate is dehydrogenated via Lactate Dehydrogenase producing Lactic Acid in mammals.
Pyruvate accepts 2H, allowing NADH &gt; NAD + 2H. This is '''very''' useful biologically for mammals, as during anaerobic respiration, the Link Reaction, Krebs Cycle and Oxidiative Phosphorylation cannot occur; as they all rely on O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or the products of a process that does. The biological use is that NAD is reoxidised which means it now can accept 2H in Glycolysis, this allows for 2ATP's to be released via glycolysis allowing the mammal to continue to respire and produce ATP without the presence of oxygen.

=== In Yeast ===

Pyruvate &gt; Ethanal &gt; Ethanol 
# Pyruvate is decarboxylated via Pyruvate decarboxylase to produce Ethanal [CO2 as a biproduct]
# Ethanal accepts 2H atoms from NADH thus going to Ethanol and reoxidising NAD.

Yeast is a 'facultative anaerobe' it can survive without oxygen although it is killed if the ethanol conc. exceeds 15%

=Respiratory Substrates=

The main respiratory substrates for all cells are carbohydrate usually in the form of hexose sugars such as glucose. Although glucose is not essential for all cells - a lot of cells can oxidise lipids and amino acids.

===Energy Values===

The energy liberated in aerobic respiration usually comes from the oxidation of hydrogen to water when reduced NAD and reduced FAD are passed into the electron transport chain. So the more hydrogen bonds to break, the more energy - lipids have a energy density more than double that of carbohydrates, because of their long fatty acid tails.

===Respiratory quotient===

The overall equation for aerobic respiration shows that oxygen used = carbon dioxide produced, and so they are in a 1:1 ratio. Other substrates do not do this, and it is possible to show what is being used for energy by using the respiratory quotient, which is;

&lt;math&gt;Respiratory\,Quotient = \frac{volume\,of\,carbon\,dioxide\,per\,unit\,time}{volume\,of\,oxygen\,per\,unit\,time}&lt;/math&gt;

High RQ values usually indicate that anaerobic respiration is taking place.
&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;{{text default color}}; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-collapse: collapse; white-space: nowrap; text-align: left&quot;
|-
! Respiratory Substrate
! Respiratory Quotient
|-
| Carbohydrates
| 1
|-
| Fat
| 0.7 - 0.72
|-
| Proteins
| 0.8 - 0.9
|-
| Carboxilic Acids acid
| 1.33 - 4.0
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Starting and Running a Wiki Website/Hosted Wikis</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>4662603</id>
      <parentid>4662229</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T20:48:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greenman</username>
        <id>7490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rejected the last text change (by [[Special:Contributions/ريشكا|ريشكا]]) and restored revision 4621837 by ~2026-14470-51</comment>
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      <text bytes="6530" sha1="1iemznv02l32dc6jyqiqjgd65va42cb" xml:space="preserve">There are companies that host wikis for free or for a price.  This means that you do not have to deal with complex programs like Ruby, PHP, MySQL, or Apache.  The wiki host will do this for you.

Beware!  Some hosts delete wikis without notice.  Make sure you are saving your own backup copy of the data in your wiki.  Some hosts make it easy to download everything you would need to run your wiki somewhere else, by using an open source wiki engine and providing backup dumps with full edit histories.  Other hosts lock you in more, e.g., with proprietary wiki markup languages, proprietary wiki engines, or limited backups.

=== Free wiki hosting ===
You can also find a [[Wikipedia:Comparison of wiki hosting services|comparison of wiki farms on Wikipedia]] and a [[mw:Hosting services|list of hosting services on MediaWiki.org]].

;[http://atwiki.jp/ @Wiki (Atwiki)] 
:Includes a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) and Wiki-mode editor. Users receive a sub-domain and personal wiki upon signup. Unlimited pages and users. English documentation is minimal. Their site is in Japanese only. 

;[https://civihosting.com/mediawiki-hosting/ CiviHosting]
:Commercial Wiki host with plans starting at $15 a month (servers in USA and Europe) including 24/7 support and VisualEditor. You can use your own domain for your wiki and they also sell domains.

;[http://gforgegroup.com/ GForge]
: People who put their source code at GForge also get a free associated wiki. Includes a WYSIWYG editor.

;[https://miraheze.org/ Miraheze]
:Non-profit wiki farm with no ads and free wiki hosting. Subdomains (*.miraheze.org) or custom domains are possible for wikis. Custom settings (logo, favicon, etc.) and extensions can be enabled. Wikis can either be public or private. All sites are HTTPS.

;[https://www.mywikis.com/ MyWikis]
:Everyone gets their wiki and can customize it however they wish. No staff user groups except in the main wiki, and plans start at $7/mo for unlimited resources and support. You cannot create a wiki automatically but this allows for the wiki to be customized on request. WARNING: This hosting provider reserves the right to censor or delete any content, explicitly including advocacy for the separation of church and state, that they find offensive. Users have no recourse except arbitration by another MyWikis staff member in the case of any dispute, as per their [https://www.mywikis.com/terms TOS].

;[http://www.shoutwiki.com ShoutWiki]
:Free wiki hosting supported by advertising on a subdomain of *.shoutwiki.com. Choice of skins include Aurora, CologneBlue, Monaco, Monobook, Modern, Nimbus, Truglass, and Vector. Only 5 wikis per user are allowed. Hosts wikis for individuals, companies, school, universities and communities. Wikis can be created through [http://shoutwiki.com/wiki/Special:CreateWiki Special:CreateWiki]. Offers three types of wikis: public wikis, private wikis and school/university wikis.

;[http://tiddlyspot.com/ TiddlySpot]
:Public or private access to wikis based on [http://www.tiddlywiki.com/ TiddlyWiki] yet fully compatible with [http://mptw.tiddlyspot.com/ MonkeyPirateTW], [http://monkeygtd.tiddlyspot.com/ MonkeyGTD] and [http://demosite-d3.tiddlyspot.com/ d3] plugins. Brilliant for notes, todos, follow-ups. Easy for download, edit off-line and keep the online version up-to-date, or even easier to edit on-line (password protected). Hosts free wikis.

;[http://www.fandom.com Fandom]
:Free wiki hosting supported by advertising on subdomains of fandom.com. Uses a fork of [http://www.mediawiki.org/ MediaWiki] with a choice of WYSIWYG or wikitext editing, easy image and video insertion, the FandomDesktop skin (other skins are no longer available), and a number of extensions.  Wikis are owned by Fandom rather than the community or the founder, which means that the community can decide to leave but they cannot have the wiki deleted or advertise their new location. All content is freely licensed under the Creative Commons license to make it compatible with the Wikimedia projects. Offers free database backups, full CSS customization, spam blacklisting and vandal patrol, help from Community Team. Site CSS is heavily restricted by the customization policy. Focuses on a young audience of fans.

;[http://www.wikidot.com Wikidot]
:Offers free Wiki sites in the wikidot.com subdomain and 1 free custom domain mapping. Uses the modified [http://pear.php.net/package/Text_Wiki/ Text_Wiki engine] to produce valid XHTML. Growing number of extensions. Several available licenses (Creative Commons, GFDL and others), customizable themes, AJAX interface, no size/traffic limits, full-text search, RSS import and export (for page changes, forum discussions, favorite items, account notifications etc.) and many more features.

;[http://www.xwiki.com/ XWiki]
:Paid hosting based on the [http://www.xwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Main/WebHome XWiki] engine.  Features include quick group editing, version control of documents, attached files, searching and rights management). Pages can be exported to PDF. Full MySQL exports can be provided by the host admin and installed using the open source [http://www.xwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Main/WebHome XWiki] engine.

;[https://editthis.info/wiki/Main_Page EditThis.info]
:A very easy and fast way to set up your wiki. You won't get a subdomain for your wiki (for example, if the name of the wiki you create was Example, the url of it would be ''editthis.info/example/''). The only available skin for your new wiki would be Monobook. You don't need to be a registered user to add a wiki and you can create as many wikis as you want.

;[https://telepedia.net/ Telepedia]
:Wiki host that allows entertainment-related wikis. Host is free but has ads for unregistered users. Admins can manage their wiki's setup using ManageWiki.

;[https://meta.wikioasis.org/Main_Page WikiOasis]
:Free wiki host with no ads. Wikis can have their own domains and subdomains. Wikis created at the request of staff. There are no hard limits on usage of the server's resources. Runs on the latest version of MediaWiki.

;[https://www.wikigrid.com/ WikiGrid]
:Free version of WikiForge wiki host. Wikis can have their own domains and subdomains. Runs on the latest version of MediaWiki

{{BookCat}}

=== See Also ===
Backtrack to: [[Starting and Running a Wiki Website/Overview|Overview]]

Previous page: [[Starting and Running a Wiki Website/Self-hosting|Self-hosting]]

Next page: [[Starting and Running a Wiki Website/Choosing a License|Choosing a License]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:Gperiod</title>
    <ns>10</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>4662466</id>
      <parentid>3822537</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:01:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662466</origin>
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      <text bytes="1995" sha1="tiq8gxtvtqwjd2fvbr2dhqjachs31e4" xml:space="preserve">&lt;includeonly&gt;{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em; width:{{{width|20}}}em&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:{{period color|Cambrian}};{{Text default color}};&quot; |'''Cambrian period'''&lt;br /&gt;542± 0.3 Ma to 488.3± 1.7 Ma&lt;br /&gt;
{{#if:{{{image|}}}|
{{!-}}
{{!}} align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 {{!}} [[Image:{{{image}}}|{{#expr:{{{width|20}}}*12}}px]]
}}
{{#if:{{{o2|}}}|
{{!-}}
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;Mean atmospheric [[w:Oxygen|{{chem|O|2}}]] content over period duration&lt;/span&gt;
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;ca. {{{o2}}} Vol %&lt;ref&gt;[[:Image:Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj.svg]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;({{#expr:{{{o2}}}/.2 round 0}} % of modern level)&lt;/span&gt;
}}
{{#if:{{{co2|}}}|
{{!-}}
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;Mean atmospheric [[w:Carbon dioxide|{{chem|CO|2}}]] content over period duration&lt;/span&gt;
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;ca. {{{co2}}} [[w:Parts per million|ppm]]&lt;ref&gt;[[:Image:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;({{#expr:{{{co2}}}/280 round 0}} times pre-industrial level)&lt;/span&gt;
}}
{{#if:{{{temp|}}}|
{{!-}}
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;Mean surface temperature over period duration&lt;/span&gt;
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;ca. {{{temp}}}&amp;nbsp;°C &lt;ref&gt;[[:Image:All palaeotemps.png]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;({{#expr:{{{temp}}}-14 round 0}}&amp;nbsp;°C above modern level)&lt;/span&gt;}}
{{#if:{{{sea level|}}}|
{{!-}}
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;Sea level (above present day)&lt;/span&gt;
{{!}} &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;{{{sea level}}}}}&lt;/span&gt;
|}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;

[[{{BOOKCATEGORY|A Chronological Survey of Sedimentary Landforms in the Continental United States}}/Templates|{{PAGENAME}}]]

[[sk:Šablóna:Infobox geochronologická jednotka]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
&lt;!--Book category added here--&gt;
&lt;includeonly&gt;{{BookCat}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Orbits/Worked Solutions</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>192651</id>
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      <id>4662432</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:26:31Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="3427" sha1="27fwukq48rsasa9f4wy18an282rrk1x" xml:space="preserve">'''1. The semi-major axis of an elliptical orbit can be approximated reasonably accurately by the mean distance of the planet for the Sun. How would you test, using the data in the table above, that the inner planets of the Solar System obey Kepler's Third Law?'''

Divide T&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; by R&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; and for each planet and see if this value is roughly constant.

'''2. Perform this test. Does Kepler's Third Law hold?'''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!style=&quot;background:	#fffdd0;{{text default color}};&quot;|Planet
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Mercury
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Venus
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Earth
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Mars
|-
|style=&quot;background:	#fffdd0;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''Picture'''
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| [[Image:Mercury in color - Prockter07 centered.jpg|70px]]
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|[[Image:Venus-real color.jpg|70px]]
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| [[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|70px]]
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| [[Image:Mars Valles Marineris.jpeg|70px]]
|-
|style=&quot;background:#fffdd0;&quot;| '''Mean&amp;nbsp;distance from Sun (km)'''
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|57,909,175
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|108,208,930
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|149,597,890
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|227,936,640
|-
|style=&quot;background:#fffdd0;&quot;| '''Orbital period (years)'''
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 0.2408467
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 0.61519726
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 1.0000174
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 1.8808476
|-
|style=&quot;background:#fffdd0;&quot;|&lt;math&gt;\frac{T^2}{R^3}&lt;/math&gt; '''(year&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;km&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; x 10&lt;sup&gt;−25&lt;/sup&gt;)'''
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2.987027815
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4.85540079
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2.986972006
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 1.588221903
|}

So, Kepler's Third Law does hold for the inner planets, using this rough approximation for the semi-major axis.

'''3. If T&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;alpha; R&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, express a constant C in terms of T and R.'''

&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{T^2}{R^3}&lt;/math&gt;

This is the constant of proportionality. It should be roughly the same for all the planets around the Sun. Alternatively, you can use:

&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{R^3}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

We will be using the former to answer the next two questions, but you should be able to get the same answers using the latter.

'''4. Io, one of Jupiter's moons, has a mean orbital radius of 421600&amp;nbsp;km, and a year of 1.77 Earth days. What is the value of C for Jupiter's moons?'''

&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{T^2}{R^3} = \frac{(1.77 \times 24 \times 60 \times 60)^2}{(421600000)^3} = 3.12 \times 10^{-16}\mbox{ s}^2\mbox{m}^{-3}&lt;/math&gt;

'''5. Ganymede, another of Jupiter's moons, has a mean orbital radius of 1070400&amp;nbsp;km. How long is its year?'''

&lt;math&gt;3.12 \times 10^{-16} = \frac{T^2}{1070400000^3}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;T = \sqrt{3.12 \times 10^{-16} \times 1070400000^3} = 618665\mbox{ s} = 7.16\mbox{ days}&lt;/math&gt;

Which isn't that accurate, due to the approximations that we used.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>4662452</id>
      <parentid>4662432</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T15:39:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="3478" sha1="jvvo4fs9trb7995w9kigu0vulnejnas" xml:space="preserve">'''1. The semi-major axis of an elliptical orbit can be approximated reasonably accurately by the mean distance of the planet for the Sun. How would you test, using the data in the table above, that the inner planets of the Solar System obey Kepler's Third Law?'''

Divide T&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; by R&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; and for each planet and see if this value is roughly constant.

'''2. Perform this test. Does Kepler's Third Law hold?'''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!style=&quot;background:	#fffdd0;{{text default color}};&quot;|Planet
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Mercury
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Venus
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Earth
! style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|Mars
|-
|style=&quot;background:	#fffdd0;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''Picture'''
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| [[Image:Mercury in color - Prockter07 centered.jpg|70px]]
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|[[Image:Venus-real color.jpg|70px]]
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| [[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|70px]]
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| [[Image:Mars Valles Marineris.jpeg|70px]]
|-
|style=&quot;background:#fffdd0;{{text default}};&quot;| '''Mean&amp;nbsp;distance from Sun (km)'''
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|57,909,175
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|108,208,930
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|149,597,890
| style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;|227,936,640
|-
|style=&quot;background:#fffdd0;{{text default}};&quot;| '''Orbital period (years)'''
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 0.2408467
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 0.61519726
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 1.0000174
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 1.8808476
|-
|style=&quot;background:#fffdd0;{{text default}};&quot;|&lt;math&gt;\frac{T^2}{R^3}&lt;/math&gt; '''(year&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;km&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; x 10&lt;sup&gt;−25&lt;/sup&gt;)'''
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2.987027815
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4.85540079
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2.986972006
|style=&quot;background:#efe;{{text default color}};&quot;| 1.588221903
|}

So, Kepler's Third Law does hold for the inner planets, using this rough approximation for the semi-major axis.

'''3. If T&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;alpha; R&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, express a constant C in terms of T and R.'''

&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{T^2}{R^3}&lt;/math&gt;

This is the constant of proportionality. It should be roughly the same for all the planets around the Sun. Alternatively, you can use:

&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{R^3}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

We will be using the former to answer the next two questions, but you should be able to get the same answers using the latter.

'''4. Io, one of Jupiter's moons, has a mean orbital radius of 421600&amp;nbsp;km, and a year of 1.77 Earth days. What is the value of C for Jupiter's moons?'''

&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{T^2}{R^3} = \frac{(1.77 \times 24 \times 60 \times 60)^2}{(421600000)^3} = 3.12 \times 10^{-16}\mbox{ s}^2\mbox{m}^{-3}&lt;/math&gt;

'''5. Ganymede, another of Jupiter's moons, has a mean orbital radius of 1070400&amp;nbsp;km. How long is its year?'''

&lt;math&gt;3.12 \times 10^{-16} = \frac{T^2}{1070400000^3}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;T = \sqrt{3.12 \times 10^{-16} \times 1070400000^3} = 618665\mbox{ s} = 7.16\mbox{ days}&lt;/math&gt;

Which isn't that accurate, due to the approximations that we used.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Chemistry/OCR/Atoms, Bonds and Groups/Atoms and Reactions/Atoms</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>207399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662453</id>
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      <text bytes="2627" sha1="nzku1x4iuf06kmalqljjqd7zk0unebf" xml:space="preserve">== Atomic Structure ==
Atoms are made up of three fundamental particles: '''protons''', '''neutrons''', and '''electrons'''.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+''' Atomic Structure '''
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef;{{Text default color}};&quot;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Particle || Relative Mass || Relative Charge
|-
| Protons || align=center| 1 || align=center| +1
|-
| Neutrons || align=center | 1 || align=center| 0
|-
| Electrons || align=center | 1/1836 || align=center| -1
|-

|}

Almost all of the mass of an atom is contained in the nucleus, which has an overall positive charge. But the nucleus is tiny compared with the total volume occupied by the whole atom. Overall, an atom is neutral, and contains an equal number of protons and electrons.

'''Mass number (A)''' – this represents the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom.&lt;br&gt;
'''Atomic number (Z)''' – this is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Given an atomic number and mass number, you can deduce the number of protons, neutrons (Neutral Charge) and electrons (Negative Charge)  in an atom. For example, a lithium atom (Z=3, A=7) contains three protons (found from Z), three electrons (as the number of protons = the number of electrons), and four neutrons (7 – 3 = 4).

=== Isotopes ===
'''Isotopes are atoms of the same element containing different number of neutrons.''' The most common example of isotopes is chlorine. Chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 are two isotopes of chlorine, which contain 18 and 20 neutrons respectively. Overall, chlorine contains approximately 75% of chlorine-35 and 25% of chlorine-37.

The isotopes of an element can be recorded using a mass spectrometer. The element is vaporised and then bombarded with electrons to create positive ions. The ions are sped up by a known electric field and then refracted by a known magnetic field. The different isotopes can then be collected by a detector and a percentage of each isotopes mass in an element calculated. This can then be used to calculate the Relative Atomic Mass.

== Relative Atomic Mass ==

'''The relative atomic mass is the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element relative to a Carbon-12 isotope having a value of 12.000.'''

This is the mass of an element depending on the percentage of the different isotopes of an element. Carbon-12 is used as a standard for the measurement of relative masses. The relative mass can be calculated using the results from a mass spectrometer.

Relative atomic mass = (% of isotope  x  atomic mass of isotope) ÷  100

The relative atomic mass of Chlorine is:
RAM(Cl) = (75×35)÷100 + (25×37)÷100 = 35.5

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Mathematics/Edexcel/Decision 2/Assignment Problems</title>
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      <id>4662430</id>
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      <text bytes="40225" sha1="augvlqm9qc8e96n971n2u2k2mzx9wi5" xml:space="preserve">Assignment Problems (AP) (also known as Allocation Problems, although they will be known as the former throughout this article) are a common form of problem. A distinguishing feature of AP is that one agent is assigned to one and only one task. Examples in real-life situations could be:

* Assigning contracts
* Assigning tasks to machinery
* Assigning agents to tasks
* Assigning Sales Personnel to Territories

&lt;br/&gt;
An example of such a problem would be three lorries, A, B and C, and three loads that need to be transported, 1, 2 and 3. An example arrangement would be A → 1, B → 2 and C → 3. This means that Lorry A transports Load 1, Lorry B transports Load 2 and Lorry C transports Load 3.

== Balanced Problems ==

A balanced AP is one in which:

(number of agents) = (number of tasks)
{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=right width=20% 
|+ Table 1
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|7
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
|}

Consider again our lorry and load example. In this example, the number of '''agents''' (lorries) was 3 and the number of '''tasks''' (loads to be transported) is also equal to 3. Thus, it is a '''balanced problem'''. Initially, one will consider only balanced problems and how they are to be solved.

Upon expansion of the earlier problem, it was revealed that the cost for each lorry to transport each load is different. These are represented in Table 1.

&lt;br/&gt;
The manager of the fleet of lorries wishes to minimise to total cost to complete all three jobs. How would one allocate the lorries to the loads? The table of numbers given is called the ''cost matrix'' of the problem.

=== Formulation as a Linear Programming Problem ===

A Linear Programming Problem can easily be developed for AP. One would define &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt; (where agent ''i'' is assigned task ''j'') where:

:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;=1, when agent ''i'' is completing task ''j''
:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;=0, when agent ''i'' does not complete task ''j''

Thus, one can obtain the contraints for the Linear Programming Problem by considering each agent/task in turn:

As each agent is assigned to exactly one job, we can deduce:

:for agent A: &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:for agent B: &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:for agent C: &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1

Similarly, since each job is assigned to exactly one agent, one can deduce:

:for job 1: &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C1&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:for job 2: &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C2&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:for job 3: &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B3&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1

If we apply this to the aforementioned example, one can see that for lorry A, it can only carry one of loads 1, 2 or 3. So, &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; could = 1, with &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; and &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; being zero, or &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; = 1, with &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; and &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; being zero, etc.

The obtain the ''objective function'' for this example, we must consider the total costs.

: For lorry A, costs will be: 15&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 10&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 12&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt;
: For lorry B, costs will be: 10&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 7&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 11&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B3&lt;/sub&gt;
: For lorry C, costs will be: 15&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 6&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 9&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C3&lt;/sub&gt;

The means, therefore, that the objection function, ''Z'', for this example is to minimise Z where:

: Z = 15&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 10&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 12&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 10&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 7&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 11&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B3&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 15&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 6&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 9&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C3&lt;/sub&gt;

Finally, this means that one can conclude the LPP to be:

&lt;blockquote style=&quot;border:1px solid&quot;&gt;Minimise Z, where Z = 15&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 10&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 12&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 10&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 7&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 11&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B3&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 15&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 6&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; 9&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C3&lt;/sub&gt;, subject to:
:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B1&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C1&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B2&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C2&lt;/sub&gt; = 1
:&lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;A3&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;B3&lt;/sub&gt; + &lt;big&gt;&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;C3&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Solution of the Balanced Assignment Problem==

An algorithm was developed by Harold Kuhn in the 1950s, and was named the Hungarian Algorithm. Its name is a reference to Dénes Kőnig and Jenő Egerváry, a pair of prominent Hungarian Mathematicians whose techniques are applied in this algorithm.

===The Hungarian Algorithm===

For the Hungarian Algorithm to work, the assignment problem must meet the following criteria:

*Each worker must be assigned, as we previously saw, to exactly one job.
*Each job must be assigned to exactly one worker.
*In the cost matrix, a constant can be added or subtracted from all cost values in any row or column without having any effect on the optimal assignments.

There are three stages in the implementation of the Hungarian Algorithm:

*Find the opportunity cost matrix
*Test for an optimal assignment. If one can be made, use it and stop.
*If an optimal assignment cannot be made, revise the opportunity cost matrix and return to the previous step.

To demonstrate these three steps, let us consider again the lorry example:

====Finding the Opportunity Cost Matrix====

The Opportunity Cost Matrix (OCM) is essentially a modified version of our initial Cost Matrix. In order to change the Cost Matrix into the OCM, one must carry out two stages.

# Carry out '''row reduction'''
# Carry out '''column reduction'''

Row reduction is the operation in which the smallest number in each row is subtracted from every number in that row. With our earlier example:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|7
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
|}
{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix with Row Minima
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
! width=75% style=&quot; border:1px solid grar;&quot;|Row Minimum
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|'''10'''
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|7
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|'''7'''
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|'''6'''
|}
{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix after Row Reduction
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|}

&lt;br/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;

Next, one completes the column reduction. This is the same as row reduction, only with the smallest number in each column being subtracted from each value within that column. Thus:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix after Row Reduction
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|}

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix with Column Minima
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|-
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''Column Minimum'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|'''3'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|'''0'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|'''2'''
|}
{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix after Column Reduction
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|}

&lt;br/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;

Thus, the completed Opportunity Cost Matrix is:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|}

====Interpreting The Opportunity Cost Matrix====

Since the aim of an assignment problem is to assign exactly one agent to exactly one task, one must match each agent up to the task which best minimises overall cost. After completing the row reduction and column reduction, it is logical to assume that the values that remain in the table are the minimum possible. Similarly, since the values in the table are the cost-values, the lowest values in the table are, surely, those of lowest cost. In order to find a solution, one must select one zero from each row and one zero from each column. However, one cannot select more than one value from any row or column, as it will result in one agent/task being assigned twice, which cannot occur in an Assignment Problem.

Again, let's consider the earlier example. If we were to select one zero from each column/row without any doubles occurring, the only possible solution is (with selected costs marked by asterices):

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0*
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0*
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0*
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|}

If we then assign this solution to our original cost matrix, one can see the following:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12*
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10*
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|7
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6*
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
|}

Thus, the final assignment is:

: A → 3 (cost 12)
: B → 1 (cost 10)
: C → 2 (cost 6)
: Z = 12 + 10 + 6 = 28

It is interesting to see that, despite this being the cheapest solution, it doesn't actually utilise all of the lowest values within the table.

===Optimality of a Solution===

An important issue with AP is the optimality of solution - when one obtains a solution, how can one be sure it truly is the best solution available? With the Hungarian algorithm, there is a fairly straightforward test for optimality that concerns drawing lines through the zeros in the Opportunity Cost Matrix. If the number of lines (horizontal and vertical only) is equal to the number of rows/columns, the solution obtained is optimal. If, however, the number of lines needed does not equal the number of rows/columns, the solution is not optimal, and can be improved. This is a somewhat perplexing technique, but one that is straightforward to implement and clear to interpret.

Consider the following OCM:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|}

&lt;br/&gt;
It is fairly easy to see that it would require only two lines to draw through all of the zeros - one could use a horizontal line through row B, and a vertical line through column 2, for instance. 2≠3 (the number of rows/columns), thus an optimal solution cannot be made.

Consider, on the other hand, our lorry example. Is the solution that we obtained optimal?

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|}

&lt;br/&gt;
One can see that, in order to strike through each zero, one would need three lines (for instance, one through column 2, one through row B and one through row A). 3 = 3, thus we have an optimal solution that cannot be improved upon.

====Revision of the Opportunity Cost Matrix====

In the event of achieving a non-optimal assignment, one must revise the OCM. There are several steps in this process:

#Check the costs uncovered by the drawn lines
#Identify the smallest uncovered value
#Subtract this value from all of the uncovered costs
#Add this value to any costs that are at the intersection of any two drawn lines

Take our non-optimal solution from earlier. The smallest uncovered value was one. Subtracting one from each uncovered value gives:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|}

Adding one to the point of intersection of the two lines (in this example, one could have drawn them through row B and column 2, therefore the point of intersection is cell B2) gives:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|5
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|}

Again, only two lines (this time, they must be through row A and column 3) are needed. They intersect at cell A3. The smallest uncovered value is, again, 1. So, subtracting one from each uncovered cell and adding one to cell A3 gives:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|}

Finally, the minimum number of lines needed to draw through all of the zeros is 3, which is the number of rows/columns. This means any assignment made will be optimal.

==Solutions of Unbalanced Assignment Problems==

The definition of a ''balanced'' AP was one in which the number of agents was the same as the number of tasks. In reality, this is unlikely to be the case - that is, it is unlikely that one would have the same number of taxi drivers to the number of customers, for example. In the event of an unbalanced problem, one must add a '''dummy''', which is a blank/empty row, added to the Cost Matrix, in order to 'balance' the rows, for the sake of the algorithm. If one had, for instance, three agents and four tasks, one would add a '''dummy row'''. On the other hand, if one had four agents and three tasks, one would add a '''dummy task'''. This helps as it means that one agent or task will be left without a 'real' assignment, as using them would increase the total cost of the assignment.

Consider the following example:

A taxi company has four drivers (A, B, C, D), each currently at different locations. Three customers (1, 2, 3) have called the taxi company and need to be driven to their destinations. The total distance that would be travelled, by the driver, is represented in the cost matrix below:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|19
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|17
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|21
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|13
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|18
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|21
|-
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''D'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|18
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|17
|}

The Taxi Company wishes to minimise the total distance travelled by its drivers. Find an optimal solution to this Assignment Problem.

&lt;blockquote&gt; Solution:

Initially, one must add a dummy column, in order to make this a 'balanced' problem. Let this column be called &quot;Row 4&quot;. Since there isn't actually a fourth customer, all of the costs in this matrix will be zero. This will mean that the otherwise most expensive taxi in the matrix will result in being assigned the dummy - in other words, it won't be used in the problem.

First, let's carry out row and column reduction:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix with Row Minima
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
! width=40% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
! width=75% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| Row Minimum
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|19
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|17
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|18
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|21
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|-
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''D'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|18
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|17
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|}

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ ... with Column Minima
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
! width=70% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|19
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|17
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|21
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|13
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|18
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|21
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|-
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''D'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|18
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|17
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|-
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''Column Minimum'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|15
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|13
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|}

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=left width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
! width=70% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|8
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|-
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''D'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|7
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|}

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;

As one can see, all of the zeros in the Opportunity Cost Matrix can only be struck through using 4 lines (for instance, 1 line vertically through Column 4, 3 lines horizontally through Rows A, B &amp; D). Thus, we've already arrived at the optimal solution because 4 lines can be used to mark through the entire matrix. The only possible solution is:

:A → 1
:B → 3
:C → 2
:D → 4*
:Z = 11 + 13 + 18 = 42

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

* Of course, customer 4 is in fact a 'dummy' - i.e., D doesn't actually transport any customer. Thus, the only three drivers needed are drivers A, B and C. Driver A will transport Passenger 1, Driver B will transport Passenger 3 and Driver C will transport Passenger 2.

==Maximisation Problems==

All of the examples that have been considered so far have been Minimisation problems - in other words, they've been ones in which the aim of the problem was to minimise a cost. Assignment problems can, however, be used for the opposite reason - to maximise a gain or a profit. Consider the example of ice-cream seller. They know that, in certain towns, they will sell more icecream than others. The day, too, changes how much ice-cream s/he sells - they only drive the van on Monday, Wednesday and Saturday (M, W and S respectively). Taking into account that the ice-cream van can only visit one town at a time, which town should the ice-cream van visit on which day, in order to maximise his/her profit.

The following cost-matrix represents the earnings (in £100s) for each town (A, B, C) on each day (M, W, S):

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|M
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|W
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|S
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|7
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|13
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
|}

If one were to carry out row and column reduction, as per usual, and then to come to a solution, it would be a solution that gave the '''minimum''' profit that the ice-cream van could make. In order to find the '''maximum''' profit, we first identify the largest value in the matrix. In this case, it is 13. We then subtract each number from 13 and assign the new number to the cell the original number was in. In other words, cell A1 (of current value 10) becomes &lt;math&gt; 13 - 10 = 3 &lt;/math&gt;.

After completing this process for the whole matrix, we achieve the following:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|M
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|W
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|S
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|3
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|4
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|2
|}

We can now carry out row and column reduction, as we usually would. This, eventually, results in the following Opportunity Cost Matrix:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Opportunity Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|M
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|W
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|S
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|6
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|0
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|1
|}

Since the smallest number of lines that can be used to strike-through each of the zeros in this matrix is 3 (which is equal to the number of rows/columns), an '''optimal assignment''' can be made. The only possible assignment is:

:A → M
:B → S
:C → W

On the cost matrix, this gives us:

{|   style=&quot;border:&quot;2&quot;;background:white;&quot; cellpadding=2px align=center width=20% 
|+ Cost Matrix
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:center; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|M
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|W
! width=25% style=&quot; border:1px solid gray;&quot;|S
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''A'''
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10*
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|7
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''B''' 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|10
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|12*
|- 
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; background: gray;{{text default color}};&quot;|'''C'''  
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|9
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|13*
| style=&quot;border:1px solid gray;&quot;|11
|}

This means that:

:On Monday, the van will visit town A.
:On Wednesday, the van will visit town B.
:On Saturday, the van will visit town C.

The total profit gives:

:&lt;math&gt;Z = 10 + 12 + 13 = 35&lt;/math&gt;

Thus the maximum total profit of the ice-cream van is £3500.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>A-level Computing 2009/AQA/The Computing Practical Project/Quality of Writing</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>229133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662425</id>
      <parentid>4647681</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T13:47:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="8418" sha1="js4egolf1gsgj4s2s9uej8utva0w019" xml:space="preserve">&lt;NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{CPTPageNavigationU4|
 | Prev = User Manual
 | Next = Appraisal}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Practical Project: Quality of Writing}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;

Having written this text book, I've come to discover that Quality of Writing is something that people find very important.  If it isn't well written and presented then you are going to find it very hard to read and you probably wouldn't recommend it to your friends.  It's exactly the same with your coursework, but if you don't present your work very well then you are going to lose marks and get your teacher very cross.  Overall this section is only worth 3 marks, but these are also the 3 easiest marks in the entire Unit.  If you follow the guidelines below then you are almost guaranteed to get them.
&lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;thumbinner&quot; style=&quot;width:252px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:240px;&quot; style=&quot;font-family: arial; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;
Eye have a spelling chequer,&lt;br /&gt;
It came with my Pea Sea.&lt;br /&gt;
It plane lee marks four my revue&lt;br /&gt;
Miss Steaks I can knot sea.

Eye strike the quays and type a whirred &lt;br /&gt;
And weight four it two say &lt;br /&gt;
Weather eye am write oar wrong &lt;br /&gt;
It tells me straight a weigh.

Eye ran this poem threw it,&lt;br /&gt;
Your shore real glad two no.&lt;br /&gt;
Its vary polished in its weigh.&lt;br /&gt;
My chequer tolled me sew.

A chequer is a bless thing,&lt;br /&gt;
It freeze yew lodes of thyme.&lt;br /&gt;
It helps me right all stiles of righting,&lt;br /&gt;
And aides me when eye rime.

Each frays come posed up on my screen&lt;br /&gt;
Eye trussed too bee a joule.&lt;br /&gt;
The chequer pours o'er every word&lt;br /&gt;
Two cheque sum spelling rule.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;
The original version of this poem was written by Jerrold H. Zar in 1992.  An unsophisticated spell checker will find little or no fault with this poem because it checks words in isolation.  A more sophisticated spell checker will make use of a [[w:language model|language model]] to consider the context in which a word occurs.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;


==Use a Word Processor==
This seems pretty obvious.  A lot of schools/colleges have agreements that promote the use Microsoft Office and Word, check to see if you can get a cheap copy of that.  Alternatively you can any implementation of [[w:OpenOffice|OpenOffice]], like [https://www.libreoffice.org/download/libreoffice-fresh/ download] [[w:LibreOffice|LibreOffice]] or other free Word alternatives, like [[w:AbiWord|AbiWord]].  

If you want to be really clever and write something in [[w:LaTeX|LaTeX]] then feel free, but it's probably not worth the effort right now.

==Use a footer==
You get given marks for having footers on your work. This needs to include the following:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;'''Your Name''' | '''The title of the Project''' | '''The page number'''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;'''P Kemp''' | '''My Amazing Fruit Stall Database''' | '''12/97'''&lt;/div&gt;

*[http://wordprocessing.about.com/od/wordprocessingsoftware/l/blheadfoot.htm Footers in Word]
*[http://wiki.services.openoffice.org/wiki/Documentation/OOoAuthors_User_Manual/Getting_Started/Creating_headers_and_footers Footers in OpenOffice]

==Check your Spelling and Grammar==
This is pretty obvious and should be easy enough to do as spelling mistakes are normally highlighted with little red squiggly lines. However, as you can see to the right there are some errors that your spell checker can't pick up.  You have to proof read it!

==Proof read==
Before every draft you hand in, and especially before your final deadline, proof read your work.  This means sitting down and reading through everything you have written.  You will be amazed at how many little mistakes you made without realising it.  Even better, get a friend or member of your family to read it.  If they can understand it then you are sure that the examiner will be able to understand it and you will get all the marks that you deserve.

DO NOT rely on your teacher to proof read your work, they have a lot to mark and might get annoyed with you.  It is far better to ask them to give you ideas on how to improve your technical work than asking them to explain the difference between 'they're', 'there' and 'their'!

==Use Headings NOT Bold and Underline==
When students are in years 7 and 8 they have great fun with word art and making their titles look very fancy.  You don't get any marks for having fancy titles, in fact using them could make you lose marks.

If you have never used Heading styles before, now is the time to learn.  By using styles such as Heading 1 and Heading 2 it will allow you to automatically create a table of contents!  Imagine that, no need to count the page numbers. 

*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BqHH-zkzEw Using Headings in Word]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zRDDItRO30 Using Headings in OpenOffice]
[[Image:Brethren-Vol2-1.png|thumb|150px|You need a contents page for people to find their way around your work]]

==Use a contents page==
It is essential that the marker can navigate their way through your report.  To help them with this we are going to add a table of contents at the front of the document. Doing this manually can take a long time, but if you use headings then your can automate the entire process.  Remember if you change any text you will need to update your contents page to show the new layout.  The last thing you should do before printing is to update the contents page!

Look at the videos above to see how it is done.

==Widows and Orphans==
A very common mistake when writing reports is to mess up the layout.  This can involve having headings at the bottom of the page and the text accompanying that text on the next page (Widow) or having the text slipping onto the next page (Orphan).  This makes it very hard to read.

Widow end of paragraph at the top of a page:
{{clear}}
{| border=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid #999; background-color:#FFFFFF;{{text default color}};&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
| Page 1 || Page 2
|-
| xxxxx xxx xxxxx. Xxx  x xxxxxx xxx  ||'''a widowed line.'''  
|-
| xxxx  xx xxxxx  xx xxxxxxxxx, xxx xx ||  
|-
| xxxxx, x xxxx  xxxxxxxx xxx xxxxxx.  || Xxx xxxx xx xxxxx x xxxxx xxxxx xx x
|-
| Xxxx xx xx xxxx xxxx xxxxxxx xx xx || xxxxx, x xxxx xxxxx. Xxxx xxxxxx xxx  
|}

Orphan line of paragraph at the bottom of a page:
{{clear}}
{| border=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid #999; background-color:#FFFFFF;{{text default color}}; &quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
| Page 1 || Page 2
|-
| xx xxxxxxxxx xx xxxx xxx. Xxx xxxx   || xxxx, xxxx xx xxxxxxxxx   xxxx xxx 
|-
| xxxxx xx xxxxxx xx xxxxxxxxxx, xxx ||xxxxxxxxx xx x xxxx xxxxx xx xxxxx.   
|-
| xx xxxxxx xx xxxxxxx xxxx xx xxxxx.  || Xxx xxx xx xxxxx x xxxxx xxxxx xx x
|-
| || xxxx  xx. Xxxxx  xx xxxxxxxx, xxx xx.
|-
| '''An orphan line xx x xxxxx, xxxxxxx'''  || xxxxx, x xxxx xxxxx, xxxx xxxxx xxx
|}

To make sure that your text is nice and tidy you need to make sure that if you have a Widowed header, you make sure that it starts off on the next page.  You can do this by using lots of carriage returns, but an easier and tidier way is to use '''page breaks'''.  You may not have used these before, they are a great way of making sure that everything is well laid out.

First of all find the '''¶''' button.  This shows us the formatting of the page.

Next find a heading that you want to switch to the next page, put the cursor in the front of the title and press &quot;CTRL+Enter&quot;

A page break should appear and things should be a little neater.

*[[w:Widows and Orphans|Wikipedia article]]

*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADe0UL95XD0 using page breaks in Word]
*[http://plan-b-for-openoffice.org/writer/topic/insert-manual-page-break using page breaks in OpenOffice]

==Make sure your screenshots are clear==
So your project works and you have a lot of screen shots to show that your testing works.  However the screenshots are so small that you can't read the data entered or the error messages.  This means you are going to lose marks as your evidence of testing doesn't show any testing!  Make sure that you crop unneeded parts of the screen out of your images.  Use the crop button.

*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhumF_TtjXw using crop in Word]
*[http://wiki.services.openoffice.org/wiki/Documentation/FAQ/Writer/GraphicsFramesObjects/How_do_I_crop_a_graphic using crop in OpenOffice]
{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Photoelectric effect</title>
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        <id>46022</id>
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{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid black; margin-left:1em&quot;
|colspan=2 style=&quot;background-color:#ffdead;{{Text default color}};&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Photoelectric effect
|-
|colspan=2| [[Image:Photoelectric effect in a solid - diagram.svg|thumb|right|275px|A diagram illustrating the emission of electrons from a metal plate, requiring energy gained from an incoming photon to be more than the work function of the material.]]
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Light-matter interaction'''
|-
| Low energy phenomena
| Photoelectric effect
|-
| Mid-energy phenomena
| [[Compton scattering]]
|-
| High energy phenomena
| [[Pair production]]
|}
The '''photoelectric effect''' is a phenomenon in which [[electron]]s are emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids or gases) as a consequence of their absorption of energy from [[electromagnetic wave|electromagnetic radiation]] of very short [[wavelength]], such as [[visible light|visible]] or [[ultraviolet light|ultraviolet]] [[light]]. Electrons emitted in this manner may be referred to as &quot;photoelectrons&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;serway_1&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title = Physics for Scientists &amp; Engineers|edition=3rd|author = Serway, Raymond A.|year = 1990|pages = 1150|publisher = Saunders|isbn = 0030302587|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=RUMBw3hR7aoC&amp;q=inauthor:serway+photoelectric&amp;dq=inauthor:serway+photoelectric&amp;pgis=1}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SZY843-4&quot;&gt;Sears, Francis W., Mark W. Zemansky and Hugh D. Young (1983), ''University Physics'', Sixth Edition, Addison-Wesley, pp. 843-4. {{ISBN|0-201-07195-9}}.&lt;/ref&gt; As it was first observed by [[Heinrich Hertz]] in 1887,&lt;ref name=&quot;SZY843-4&quot;/&gt; the phenomenon is also known as the &quot;Hertz effect&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;[http://books.google.com/books?vid=0K0iBwtYewSsTOZn0bYsGb4&amp;id=BPcQAAAAIAAJ The American journal of science]. (1880). New Haven: J.D. &amp; E.S. Dana. Page 234&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/HertzEffect.html Weisstein, Eric W. (2007), &quot;Eric Weisstein's World of Physics&quot;], ''Eric Weisstein's World of Science'', Wolfram Research&lt;/ref&gt; although the latter term has fallen out of general use. Hertz observed and then showed that [[electrodes]] illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The photoelectric effect takes place with photons with energies from about a few [[electronvolt]]s to, in high atomic number elements, over 1 [[MeV]]. At the high photon energies comparable to the electron rest energy of {{val|511|u=keV}}, [[Compton scattering]], another process, may take place, and above twice this ({{val|1.022|u=MeV}}) [[pair production]] may take place.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title = The Atomic Nucleus|author = Evans, R. D.|year = 1955|page= 712|url = http://www.archive.org/details/atomicnucleus032805mbp|isbn = 0898744148|publisher = Krieger|location = Malabar, Fla.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of [[wave–particle duality]].&lt;ref name=&quot;serway_1&quot; /&gt;

The term may also, but incorrectly, refer to related phenomena such as the photoconductive effect (also known as [[photoconductivity]] or [[Photoresistor|photoresistivity]]), the [[photovoltaic effect]], or the [[photoelectrochemical cell|photoelectrochemical effect]] which are, in fact, distinctly different.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Introduction and early historical view==
When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain threshold [[frequency]] (typically visible light for [[alkali metals]], near [[ultraviolet]] for other metals, and [[extreme ultraviolet]] for non-metals), the radiation is absorbed and [[electron]]s are emitted. This phenomenon was first observed by [[Heinrich Hertz]] in 1887.  Johann Elster (1854-1920) and Hans Geistel (1855-1923), students in [[Heidelberg]] developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light&lt;ref&gt;Asimov, ''[[Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology]]'' 2nd Revised edition&lt;/ref&gt;.  In 1902, [[Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard]] observed that the [[energy]] of individual emitted electrons increased with the [[frequency]] (which is related to the [[color]]) of the light. This appeared to be at odds with [[James Clerk Maxwell]]'s [[wave theory of light]], which was thought to predict that the electron energy would be proportional to the [[intensity (physics)|intensity]] of the radiation. In 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] solved this apparent paradox by describing light as composed of discrete quanta, now called [[photon]]s, rather than continuous waves. Based upon [[Max Planck]]'s theory of [[black-body radiation]], Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency multiplied by a constant, later called [[Planck's constant]]. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This discovery led to the [[quantum]] revolution in physics and earned Einstein the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1921.&lt;ref&gt;[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/index.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Modern view==
It has been shown that it is not necessary for light to be &quot;quantized&quot; to explain the photoelectric effect&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|first = Willis E.|last = Lamb|author-link = Willis Lamb|last2 = Scully|first2 = Marlan O.|title = The photoelectric effect without photons|url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19680009569_1968009569.pdf|year = 1968}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The most common method employed by physicists to calculate the probability of an atom ejecting an electron relies on &quot;[[Fermi's golden rule]]&quot;. Although based upon [[quantum mechanics]], the method treats the incident light as an [[electromagnetic wave]] that causes an atom and its constituent electrons to transition from one energy state (&quot;[[eigenstate]]&quot;) to another. 

While one can use the classical electromagnetic theory of light to describe the effect, one may also use the modern quantum theory of light to describe the photoelectric effect. However, the modern quantum theory of light is ''not'' a &quot;particle model&quot;, as it does not always predict results which one would expect from a naïve &quot;particle&quot; interpretation. An example would be in the dependence on [[polarized light|polarization]] with regard to the direction electrons are emitted, a phenomenon that has been considered useful in gathering polarization data from [[black hole]]s and [[neutron star]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0107486|author=Costa, E. ''et al.''|title=An efficient photoelectric X-ray Polarimeter for the study of Black holes and Neutron Stars|journal=Nature|volume= 411|year=2001|pages=662–665|doi=10.1038/35079508|pmid=11395761|issue=6838}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Traditional explanation==
The [[photon]]s of a light beam have a characteristic energy determined by the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs the energy of one photon and thus has more energy than the [[work function]] (the electron binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Increasing the intensity of the light beam increases the number of photons in the light beam, and thus increases the number of electrons emitted, but does not increase the energy that each electron possesses. Thus the energy of the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy of the individual photons. (This is true as long as the intensity is low enough for non-linear effects caused by multiphoton absorption or level shifts such as the [[AC Stark effect]] to be insignificant. This was a given in the age of Einstein, well before [[laser]]s had been invented.){{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they usually follow an &quot;all or nothing&quot; principle. All of the energy from one photon must be absorbed and used to liberate one electron from atomic binding, or the energy is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of the energy liberates the electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's [[kinetic energy]] as a free particle.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Experimental results of the photoelectric emission===

# For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
# For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no photoelectrons can be emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency.
#For a given metal of particular work function, increase in frequency of incident beam increases the intensity of the photoelectric current.
# Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron depends on the frequency of the incident light, but is independent of the intensity of the incident light so long as the latter is not too high &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0375-9601(96)00259-9|title=Intensity dependence of the photoelectric effect induced by a circularly polarized laser beam|year=1996|last1=Zhang|first1=Q|journal=Physics Letters A|volume=216|pages=125}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10&lt;sup&gt;−9&lt;/sup&gt; second.
# The direction distribution of emitted electrons peaks in the direction of polarization (the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, if it is linearly polarized.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Mathematical description===
The maximum [[kinetic energy]] ''K''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt; of an ejected electron is given by
:&lt;math&gt;K_{\mathrm{max}} = hf - \varphi&lt;/math&gt;
where ''h'' is the [[Planck constant]], ''f'' is the frequency of the incident photon, and {{nowrap|''φ'' {{=}} ''hf''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} is the [[work function]] (sometimes denoted ''W''), which is the minimum energy required to remove a delocalised electron from the surface of any given metal. The work function, in turn, can be written as
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = hf_0,&lt;/math&gt;
where ''f''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is called the threshold frequency for the metal.
The maximum [[kinetic energy]] of an ejected electron is thus
:&lt;math&gt;K_{\mathrm{max}} = h \left(f - f_0\right)&lt;/math&gt;
Because the kinetic energy of the electron must be positive, it follows that the frequency ''f'' of the incident photon must be greater than ''f''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; in order for the photoelectric effect to occur.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last = Fromhold|first = A.T.|title = Quantum mechanics for applied physics and engineering|publisher = Courier Dover Publications|year = 1991|pages = 5–6|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3SOwc6npkIwC&amp;pg=PA5&amp;lpg=PA5|isbn = 0486667413, 9780486667416}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Three-step model===
In the X-ray regime, the photoelectric effect in crystalline material is often decomposed into three steps:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title = Photoelectron Spectroscopy: Principles and Applications|author = Stefan Hüfner|publisher = Springer|isbn = 3540418024|year = 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Inner photoelectric effect (see photodiode below). The hole left behind can give rise to [[auger effect]], which is visible even when the electron does not leave the material. In molecular solids [[phonon]]s are excited in this step and may be visible as lines in the final electron energy. The inner photoeffect has to be dipole allowed. The [[transition rule]]s for atoms translate via the [[tight-binding model]] onto the crystal. They are similar in geometry to [[plasma oscillation]]s in that they have to be transversal.
# Ballistic transport of half of the electrons to the surface. Some electrons are scattered.
# Electrons escape from the material at the surface.

In the three-step model, an electron can take multiple paths through these three steps. All paths can interfere in the sense of the [[path integral formulation]].
For [[surface state]]s and [[molecule]]s the three-step model does still make some sense as even most [[atom]]s have multiple electrons which can scatter the one electron leaving.{{Citation needed|Hüfner should likely go here, but I won't presume|date=October 2009}}

==History==
===Early observations===
In 1839, [[A. E. Becquerel|Alexandre Edmond Becquerel]] discovered the photovoltaic effect while studying the effect of light on [[electrolytic cell]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Petrova-Koch&quot;&gt;[http://www.springerlink.com/content/vn6024740l4343p6/ Petrova-Koch, V. (2009) &quot;Milestones of Solar Conversion and Photovoltaics&quot;], ''High-Efficient Low-Cost Photovoltaics''. Springer Series in Optical Sciences, Vol. 140. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-79359-5_1, ISBN: 978-3-540-79358-8.&lt;/ref&gt; Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials.  In 1873, [[Willoughby Smith]] discovered [[photoconductivity]] in [[selenium]] while testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith1873&quot;&gt;[http://histv2.free.fr/selenium/smith.htm Smith, W., (1873) &quot;Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current&quot;]. ''Nature'', 1873-02-20, p.303.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Hertz's spark gaps===
In 1887, [[Heinrich Hertz]] observed the photoelectric effect and the production and reception of electromagnetic waves. He published these observations in the journal [[Annalen der Physik]]. His receiver consisted of a coil with a [[spark gap]], where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when in the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he substituted quartz for glass, as [[quartz]] does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of investigation and reported the results obtained. He did not further pursue investigation of this effect, nor did he make any attempt at explaining how this phenomenon was brought about.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Stoletov: the first law of photoeffect===
In the period from February 1888 and until 1891, a detailed analysis of photoeffect was performed by [[Aleksandr Stoletov]] with results published in 6 works; four of them in ''[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences|Comptes Rendus]]'', one review in ''Physikalische Revue'' (translated from Russian), and the last work in ''Journal de Physique''. First, in these works Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of photoeffect. Using this setup, he discovered the direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photo electric current (the first law of photoeffect or [[Stoletov's law]]). One of his other findings resulted from measurements of the dependence of the intensity of the electric photo current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure P&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; corresponding to a maximum photocurrent; this property was used for a creation of [[solar cell]]s.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===JJ Thomson: electrons===
In 1899, [[J. J. Thomson]] investigated [[ultraviolet light]] in [[Geissler tube|Crookes tube]]s. Influenced by the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], Thomson deduced that cathode rays consisted of negatively charged particles, later called electrons, which he called &quot;corpuscles&quot;. In the research, Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high frequency radiation. It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused a subatomic &quot;corpuscle&quot; to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and colour of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Radiant energy===
[[Image:PhotoelectricEffect(Tesla).png|thumb|right|Photoelectric motor. Rays falling on insulated conductor connected to a capacitor: the capacitor charges electrically.&lt;ref name=t1&gt;N. Tesla &quot;Apparatus for the Utilization of Radiant Energy&quot; {{US patent|685957}} (1901)&lt;/ref&gt;]]

[[Nikola Tesla]] described the photoelectric effect in 1901. He described such radiation as [[vibration]]s of [[Aether theories|aether]] of small [[wavelength]]s which [[ion]]ized the [[atmosphere]]. On November 5, 1901, he received the [[patent]] [[Tesla patents|US685957]], ''Apparatus for the Utilization of Radiant Energy'', that describes radiation charging and discharging conductors. This was done by using a [[metal]] plate or piece of [[mica]] exposed to &quot;''[[radiant energy]]''&quot;. Tesla used this effect to charge a capacitor with energy by means of a conductive plate, making a [[solar cell]] precursor. The radiant energy threw off with great velocity minute particles (i.e., electrons) which were strongly electrified. The patent specified that the radiation (or radiant energy) included many different forms. These devices have been referred to as &quot;''Photoelectric alternating current stepping motors''&quot;.{{Citation needed|by who?|date=October 2009}}

In practice, a polished insulated metal plate or other conducting-body in radiant energy (e.g. sunlight) will gain a positive charge as electrons are emitted by the plate. As the plate charges positively, electrons form an electrostatic force on the plate (because of surface emissions of the photoelectrons), and &quot;''drain''&quot; any negatively charged capacitors. In his patent application, Tesla noted that as the rays or radiation fall on the insulated conductor (which is connected to a [[capacitor]]), the capacitor will indefinitely charge electrically.&lt;ref name=t1/&gt;

===Von Lenard's observations===
In 1902, [[Philipp Lenard]] observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency. He used a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity, and had sufficient power to enable him to investigate the variation of potential with light frequency. His experiment directly measured potentials, not electron kinetic energy: he found the electron energy by relating it to the maximum stopping potential (voltage) in a phototube. He found that the calculated maximum electron [[kinetic energy]] is determined by the frequency of the light. For example, an increase in frequency results in an increase in the maximum kinetic energy calculated for an electron upon liberation - [[ultraviolet radiation]] would require a higher applied stopping potential to stop current in a phototube than blue light. However Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidised in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Lenard did not know of photons.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Einstein: light quanta===
[[Albert Einstein]]'s mathematical description  of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption of [[quantum|quanta]] of light (now called [[photon]]s), was in [[Annus Mirabilis papers|one of his 1905 papers]], named &quot;''On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light''&quot;. This paper proposed the simple description of &quot;light quanta&quot;, or photons, and showed how they explained such phenomena as the photoelectric effect. His simple explanation in terms of absorption of discrete [[quanta]] of light explained the features of the phenomenon and the characteristic frequency. Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect won him the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1921.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title = The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921|publisher = Nobel Foundation|url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/index.html|accessdate=2008-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The idea of light quanta began with [[Max Planck]]'s published law of [[Planck's law|black-body radiation]] (&quot;''On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum''&quot;. Annalen der Physik 4 (1901)) by assuming that Hertzian oscillators could only exist at energies ''E'' proportional to the frequency ''f'' of the oscillator by ''E'' = ''hf'', where ''h'' is Planck's constant. By assuming that light actually consisted of discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote an equation for the photoelectric effect that fitted experiments. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons were dependent only on the ''frequency'' of the incident light and not on its ''intensity'': a low-intensity, high-frequency source could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a high-intensity, low-frequency source would supply no photons of sufficient individual energy to dislodge any electrons. This was an enormous theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from [[James Clerk Maxwell]]'s equations for electromagnetic behavior, and more generally, the assumption of [[infinite divisibility]] of energy in physical systems. Even after experiments showed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, resistance to the idea of photons continued, since it appeared to contradict Maxwell's equations, which were well-understood and verified.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. Perhaps surprisingly, the precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasing ''frequency'' of incident light and is independent of the ''intensity'' of the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1915 when [[Robert Andrews Millikan]] showed that Einstein's prediction was correct.{{Citation needed|&quot;Einstein and the Photoelectric effect&quot; http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys314/lectures/photoe/photoe.html not a suitable ref|date=October 2009}}

===Effect on wave–particle question===
The photoelectric effect helped propel the then-emerging concept of the dualistic nature of [[light]], that light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical [[wave]] description of light,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Resnick, Basic Concepts in Relativity and Early Quantum Theory, Wiley, 1972, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Randall D. Knight, Physics for Scientists and Engineers With Modern Physics: A Strategic Approach, Pearson-Addison-Wesley, 2004, p. 1224&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, Knopf, 2005, p. 502&lt;/ref&gt; as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted.&lt;ref&gt;Robert Resnick, Basic Concepts in Relativity and Early Quantum Theory, Wiley, 1972, p. 138&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Randall D. Knight, Physics for Scientists and Engineers With Modern Physics: A Strategic Approach, Pearson-Addison-Wesley, 2004, p. 1224&lt;/ref&gt;

==Uses and effects==
===Photodiodes and phototransistors===
[[Solar cell]]s (used in [[solar energy|solar power]]) and [[Photodiode|light-sensitive diodes]] use a variant of the photoelectric effect, but not ejecting electrons out of the material. In [[semiconductor]]s, light of even relatively low energy, such as visible photons, can kick electrons out of the [[valence band]] and into the higher-energy [[conduction band]], where they can be harnessed, creating [[electric current]] at a voltage related to the [[bandgap]] energy.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Photomultipliers===
These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a [[photocathode]] coated onto part (an end or side) of the inside of the envelope. The photocathode contains combinations of materials such as caesium, rubidium and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number through [[secondary emission]] to provide a readily-detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Image sensors===
[[Video camera tube]]s in the early days of [[television]] used the photoelectric effect; newer variants used photoconductive rather than photoemissive materials.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Silicon [[image sensor]]s, such as [[charge-coupled device]]s, widely used for photographic imaging, are based on a variant of the photoelectric effect, in which photons knock electrons out of the valence band of energy states in a [[semiconductor]], but not out of the solid itself.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===The gold-leaf electroscope===
[[Image:Gold leaf electroscope diagram.svg|frame|right|The gold leaf [[electroscope]].]]

Gold-leaf [[electroscope]]s are designed to detect [[static electricity]]. Charge placed on the metal cap spreads to the stem and the gold leaf of the electroscope. Because they then have the same charge, the stem and leaf repel each other. This will cause the leaf to bend away from the stem.
The electroscope is an important tool in illustrating the photoelectric effect. Let us say that the scope is negatively charged throughout. There is an excess of electrons and the leaf is separated from the stem. But if we then shine high-frequency light onto the cap, the scope discharges and the leaf will fall limp. This is because the frequency of the light shining on the cap is above the cap's threshold frequency. The photons in the light have enough energy to liberate electrons from the cap, reducing its negative charge. This will discharge a negatively charged electroscope and further charge a positive electroscope. However, if the electromagnetic radiation hitting the metal cap does not have a high enough frequency (its frequency is below the threshold value for the cap), then the leaf will never discharge, no matter how long one shines the low-frequency light at the cap.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

===Photoelectron spectroscopy===
Since the energy of the photoelectrons emitted is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the material's work function or binding energy, the work function of a sample can be determined by bombarding it with a [[monochromatic]] [[X-ray]] source or [[UV]] source, and measuring the kinetic energy distribution of the electrons emitted.&lt;ref&gt;Photoelectron Spectroscopy Principles and Applications, by Stefan Hüfner.  Springer, 3rd edition, 2003.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Photoelectron spectroscopy]] is done in a high-vacuum environment, since the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present.  The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or a [[synchrotron radiation]] source.&lt;ref&gt;Solid-State Photoelectron Spectroscopy with Synchrotron Radiation, by John H. Weaver and Giorgio Margaritondo. Science 12 October 1979: Vol. 206. no. 4415, pp. 151 - 156 DOI: 10.1126/science.206.4415.151&lt;/ref&gt;

The concentric hemispherical analyser (CHA) is a typical electron energy analyzer, and uses an electric field to change the directions of incident electrons, depending on their kinetic energies. For every element and core (atomic orbital) there will be a different binding energy. The many electrons created from each of these combinations will show up as spikes in the analyzer output, and these can be used to determine the elemental composition of the sample.

===Spacecraft===
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can get up to the tens of [[volt]]s&lt;!--relative to the plasma?--&gt;. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft in shadow develop a negative charge (up to several kilovolts) from nearby plasma, and the imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. The [[static electricity|static charge]] created by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, though, because a more highly-charged object gives up its electrons less easily.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://holbert.faculty.asu.edu/eee460/spacecharge.html|title=Spacecraft charging}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Moon dust===
Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become charged through the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of the [[Moon]] by [[electrostatic levitation]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.firstscience.com/site/articles/moonfountains.asp Bell, Trudy E., &quot;Moon fountains&quot;], FirstScience.com, 2001-01-06.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Dust_Gets_A_Charge_In_A_Vacuum.html Dust gets a charge in a vacuum]&lt;/ref&gt; This manifests itself almost like an &quot;atmosphere of dust&quot;, visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by the [[Surveyor program]] probes in the 1960s. It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled up to kilometers high, and that the particles move in &quot;fountains&quot; as they charge and discharge.

===Night vision devices===
Photons hitting a gallium arsenide plate in [[night vision device]]s cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are then amplified into a cascade of electrons that light up a [[phosphor]] screen.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Cross section==
The photoelectric effect is simply an interaction mechanism conducted between photons and atoms. However, this mechanism does not have exclusivity in interactions of this nature and is one of 12 theoretically possible interactions &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title = The Atomic Nucleus|author = Evans, R. D.|year = 1955|page= 673|url = http://www.archive.org/details/atomicnucleus032805mbp|isbn = 0898744148|publisher = Krieger|location = Malabar, Fla.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. As noted in the prologue; Compton scattering and pair production are an example of two other competing mechanisms. Indeed, even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular single-photon bound-electron interaction, the result is also subject to statistical processes and is not guaranteed, albeit the photon has certainly disappeared and a bound electron has been excited (usually K or L shell electrons at nuclear (gamma ray) energies). The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by the cross section of interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. A crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, is given by &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title = Interaction of gamma-radiation with matter|author = Davisson, C. M.|year = 1965|pages = 37–78|url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965abgs.conf...37D}}&lt;/ref&gt;:

&lt;math&gt; \sigma = \mathrm{constant} \cdot \frac{Z^n}{E^3} &lt;/math&gt;

Here Z is [[atomic number]] and ''n'' is a number which varies between 4 and 5. (At lower photon energies a characteristic structure with edges appears, K edge, L edges, M edges, etc.) The obvious interpretation follows that the photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance, in the gamma ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy, and that photoelectric effect is directly proportional to atomic number. The corollary is that high-Z materials make good gamma-ray shields, which is the principal reason that lead (Z = 82) is a preferred and ubiquitous gamma radiation shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title = Radiation Detection and Measurement|author = Knoll, Glenn F.|year = 1999|pages = 49|url = http://sitemaker.umich.edu/gknoll/home|isbn = 047149545X|publisher = Wiley|location = New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

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GERMAN LESSONS V [[User:Nttphuong.rosa|Nttphuong.rosa]] ([[User talk:Nttphuong.rosa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nttphuong.rosa|contribs]]) 06:32, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>An Introduction to Molecular Biology/Genetic Code</title>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="26735" sha1="h4robthzj21921m37ugnn7v5j6odpr2" xml:space="preserve">{{Nav}}After the structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick, who used the experimental evidence of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin (among others), serious efforts to understand the nature of the encoding of proteins began. George Gamow, in 1954,&lt;ref&gt;Gamow, G. 1954. Possible relation between deoxyribonucleic acid and protein structure. Nature 173: 318.&lt;/ref&gt; postulated that a three-letter code must be employed to encode the 20 standard amino acids used by living cells to encode protein.  Three is the smallest integer n such that 4&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; is at least 20.

The fact that codons consist of three DNA bases was first demonstrated in the Crick, Brenner et al. experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13882203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=CRICK FH, BARNETT L, BRENNER S, WATTS-TOBIN RJ |title=General nature of the genetic code for proteins |journal=Nature |volume=192 |issue= |pages=1227–32 |year=1961 |pmid=13882203 |doi= |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; '''The first elucidation of a codon was done by Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich J. Matthaei in 1961 at the National Institutes of Health.'''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14479932&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=NIRENBERG MW, MATTHAEI JH |title=The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=47 |issue= |pages=1588–602 |year=1961 |pmid=14479932 |pmc=223178 |doi= |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; They used a cell-free system to translate a poly-uracil RNA sequence (i.e., UUUUU...) and discovered that the polypeptide that they had synthesized consisted of only the amino acid phenylalanine. They thereby deduced that the codon UUU specified the amino acid phenylalanine. This was followed by experiments in the laboratory of '''Severo Ochoa''' demonstrating that the '''poly-adenine RNA''' sequence (AAAAA...) coded for the polypeptide, poly-lysine. and the '''poly-cytosine RNA sequence''' (CCCCC...) coded for the polypeptide, poly-proline. Therefore the codon AAA specified the amino acid lysine, and the codon CCC specified the amino acid proline. Using different copolymers most of the remaining codons were then determined. Extending this work, Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the triplet nature of the genetic code and allowed the codons of the standard genetic code to be deciphered. In these experiments various combinations of mRNA were passed through a filter which contained ribosomes, the components of cells that translate RNA into protein. Unique triplets promoted the binding of specific tRNAs to the ribosome. '''Leder and Nirenberg were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons in their experiments.'''

Subsequent work by '''Har Gobind Khorana''' identified the rest of the genetic code. Shortly thereafter, '''Robert W. Holley determined the structure of transfer RNA (tRNA)''', the adapter molecule that facilitates the process of translating RNA into protein. This work was based upon earlier studies by Severo Ochoa, who received the Nobel prize in 1959 for his work on the enzymology of RNA synthesis. '''In 1968, Khorana, Holley and Nirenberg received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work.'''&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code Genetic Code]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Origin of genetic code==
There are many theories behind the origin of genetic codes. The genetic code used by all known forms of life is nearly universal. However, there are a huge number of possible genetic codes. If amino acids are randomly associated with triplet codons, there will be 1.5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;84&lt;/sup&gt; possible genetic codes.
Phylogenetic analysis of transfer RNA suggests that tRNA molecules evolved before the present set of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases.

Theoretically the genetic code could be completely random (a &quot;frozen accident&quot;), completely non-random (optimal) or a combination of random and nonrandom. There are sufficient data to refute the first possibility. For a start, a quick view on the table of the genetic code already shows a clustering of amino acid assignments. Furthermore, amino acids that share the same biosynthetic pathway tend to have the same first base in their codons, and amino acids with similar physical properties tend to have similar codons.

There are four themes running through the many theories that seek to explain the evolution of the genetic code (and hence the origin of these patterns):

1. Chemical principles govern specific RNA interaction with amino acids. Aptamer experiments showed that some amino acids have a selective chemical affinity for the base triplets that code for them. Recent experiments show that of the 8 amino acids tested, 6 show some RNA triplet-amino acid association. This has been called the stereochemical code. The stereochemical code could have created an ancient core of assignments. The current complex translation mechanism involving tRNA and associated enzymes may be a later development, and that originally, protein sequences were directly templated on base sequences.

2. Biosynthetic expansion. The standard modern genetic code grew from a simpler earlier code through a process of &quot;biosynthetic expansion&quot;. Here the idea is that primordial life &quot;discovered&quot; new amino acids (e.g., as by-products of metabolism) and later back-incorporated some of these into the machinery of genetic coding. Although much circumstantial evidence has been found to suggest that fewer different amino acids were used in the past than today, precise and detailed hypotheses about exactly which amino acids entered the code in exactly what order have proved far more controversial.

3. Natural selection has led to codon assignments of the genetic code that minimize the effects of mutations. A recent hypothesis suggests that the triplet code was derived from codes that used longer than triplet codons. Longer than triplet decoding has higher degree of codon redundancy and is more error resistant than the triplet decoding. This feature could allow accurate decoding in the absence of highly complex translational machinery such as the ribosome.

4. Information channels: Information-theoretic approaches see the genetic code as an error-prone information channel. The inherent noise (i.e. errors) in the channel poses the organism with a fundamental question: how to construct a genetic code that can withstand the impact of noise  while accurately and efficiently translating information? These “rate-distortion” models suggest that the genetic code originated as a result of the interplay of the three conflicting evolutionary forces: the needs for diverse amino-acids, for error-tolerance  and for minimal cost of resources. The code emerges at a coding transition when the mapping of codons to amino-acids becomes nonrandom. The emergence of the code is governed by the topology defined by the probable errors and is related to the map coloring problem.

==Summary of Khorana’s research==

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) with two repeating units (UCUCUCU → UCU CUC UCU) produced two alternating amino acids. This, combined with the Nirenberg and Leder experiment, showed that UCU codes for Serine and CUC codes for Leucine.
RNAs with three repeating units (UACUACUA → UAC UAC UAC, or ACU ACU ACU, or CUA CUA CUA) produced three different strings of amino acids.
RNAs with four repeating units including UAG, UAA, or UGA, produced only dipeptides and tripeptides thus revealing that UAG, UAA and UGA are stop codons.
With this, Khorana and his team had established that the mother of all codes, the biological language common to all living organisms, is spelled out in three-letter words: each set of three nucleotides codes for a specific amino acid. Their Nobel lecture was delivered on December 12, 1968. To do this Khorana was also the first to synthesize oligonucleotides, that is, strings of nucleotides.
===The table of Genetic Code===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;8&quot; | 2nd base
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | T
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | C
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | A
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | G
|-

! rowspan=&quot;16&quot; | 1st base
! rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | T
|TTT
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Phe/F) Phenylalanine
|TCT
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ser/S) Serine
|TAT
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Tyr/Y) Tyrosine
|TGT
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Cys/C) Cysteine
|-

|TTC
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Phe/F) Phenylalanine
|TCC
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ser/S) Serine
|TAC
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Tyr/Y) Tyrosine
|TGC
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Cys/C) Cysteine
|-

|TTA
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Leu/L) Leucine
|TCA
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ser/S) Serine
|TAA
| style=&quot;background:#b0b0b0;{{text default color}};&quot; | Ochre (''Stop'')
|TGA
| style=&quot;background:#b0b0b0;{{text default color}};&quot; | Opal (''Stop'')
|-

|TTG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Leu/L) Leucine
|TCG
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ser/S) Serine
|TAG
| style=&quot;background:#b0b0b0;{{text default color}};&quot; | Amber (''Stop'')
|TGG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Trp/W) Tryptophan
|-

! rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | C
|CTT
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Leu/L) Leucine
|CCT
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Pro/P) Proline
|CAT
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (His/H) Histidine
|CGT
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Arg/R) Arginine
|-

|CTC
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Leu/L) Leucine
|CCC
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Pro/P) Proline
|CAC
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (His/H) Histidine
|CGC
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Arg/R) Arginine
|-

|CTA
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Leu/L) Leucine
|CCA
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Pro/P) Proline
|CAA
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Gln/Q) Glutamine
|CGA
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Arg/R) Arginine
|-

|CTG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Leu/L) Leucine
|CCG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Pro/P) Proline
|CAG
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Gln/Q) Glutamine
|CGG
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Arg/R) Arginine
|-

! rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | A
|ATT
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ile/I) Isoleucine
|ACT
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Thr/T) Threonine
|AAT
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Asn/N) Asparagine
|AGT
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ser/S) Serine
|-

|ATC
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ile/I) Isoleucine
|ACC
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Thr/T) Threonine
|AAC
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Asn/N) Asparagine
|AGC
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ser/S) Serine
|-

|ATA
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ile/I) Isoleucine
|ACA
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Thr/T) Threonine
|AAA
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Lys/K) Lysine
|AGA
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Arg/R) Arginine
|-

|ATG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Met/M) Methionine
|ACG
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Thr/T) Threonine
|AAG
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Lys/K) Lysine
|AGG
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Arg/R) Arginine
|-

! rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | G
|GTT
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Val/V) Valine
|GCT
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ala/A) Alanine
|GAT
| style=&quot;background:#f8b7d3;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Asp/D) Aspartic acid
|GGT
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Gly/G) Glycine
|-

|GTC
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Val/V) Valine
|GCC
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ala/A) Alanine
|GAC
| style=&quot;background:#f8b7d3;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Asp/D) Aspartic acid
|GGC
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Gly/G) Glycine
|-

|GTA
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Val/V) Valine
|GCA
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ala/A) Alanine
|GAA
| style=&quot;background:#f8b7d3;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Glu/E) Glutamic acid
|GGA
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Gly/G) Glycine
|-

|GTG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Val/V) Valine
|GCG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Ala/A) Alanine
|GAG
| style=&quot;background:#f8b7d3;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Glu/E) Glutamic acid
|GGG
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; | (Gly/G) Glycine
|-
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#ffe75f;{{text default color}};&quot; rowspan=2| nonpolar
| style=&quot;background:#b3dec0;{{text default color}};&quot;| polar
| style=&quot;background:#bbbfe0;{{text default color}};&quot;| basic
| style=&quot;background:#f8b7d3;{{text default color}};&quot;| acidic
| style=&quot;background:#b0b0b0;{{text default color}};&quot;| (stop codon)
|}

== Degeneracy of the genetic code==

Degeneracy is the redundancy of the genetic code. The genetic code has redundancy but no ambiguity ( above for the full correlation). For example, although codons GAA and GAG both specify glutamic acid (redundancy), neither of them specifies any other amino acid (no ambiguity). The codons encoding one amino acid may differ in any of their three positions. For example the amino acid glutamic acid is specified by GAA and GAG codons (difference in the third position), the amino acid leucine is specified by UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG codons (difference in the first or third position), while the amino acid serine is specified by UCA, UCG, UCC, UCU, AGU, AGC (difference in the first, second or third position).

A position of a codon is said to be a fourfold degenerate site if any nucleotide at this position specifies the same amino acid. For example, the third position of the glycine codons (GGA, GGG, GGC, GGU) is a fourfold degenerate site, because all nucleotide substitutions at this site are synonymous; i.e., they do not change the amino acid. Only the third positions of some codons may be fourfold degenerate.
A position of a codon is said to be a twofold degenerate site if only two of four possible nucleotides at this position specify the same amino acid. For example, the third position of the glutamic acid codons (GAA, GAG) is a twofold degenerate site. In twofold degenerate sites, the equivalent nucleotides are always either two purines (A/G) or two pyrimidines (C/U), so only transversional substitutions   (purine to pyrimidine or pyrimidine to purine) in twofold degenerate sites are nonsynonymous.

A position of a codon is said to be a non-degenerate site if any mutation at this position results in amino acid substitution. There is only one threefold degenerate site where changing to three of the four nucleotides may have no effect on the amino acid (depending on what it is changed to), while changing to the fourth possible nucleotide always results in an amino acid substitution. This is the third position of an isoleucine codon: AUU, AUC, or AUA all encode isoleucine, but AUG encodes methionine. In computation this position is often treated as a twofold degenerate site.

There are three amino acids encoded by six different codons: serine, leucine, and arginine. Only two amino acids are specified by a single codon. One of these is the amino-acid methionine, specified by the codon AUG, which also specifies the start of translation; the other is tryptophan, specified by the codon UGG.
The degeneracy of the genetic code is what accounts for the existence of synonymous mutations.

Degeneracy results because there are more codons than encodable amino acids. For example, if there were two bases per codon, then only 16 amino acids could be coded for '''(4²=16)'''. Because at least 21 codes are required (20 amino acids plus stop), and the next largest number of bases is three, then '''4³ gives 64''' possible codons, meaning that some degeneracy must exist.

These properties of the genetic code make it more fault-tolerant for point mutations. For example, in theory, fourfold degenerate codons can tolerate any point mutation at the third position, although codon usage bias restricts this in practice in many organisms; twofold degenerate codons can tolerate one out of the three possible point mutations at the third position. Since transition mutations (purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine mutations) are more likely than transversion (purine to pyrimidine or vice-versa) mutations, the equivalence of purines or that of pyrimidines at twofold degenerate sites adds a further fault-tolerance.

Despite the redundancy of the genetic code, single point mutations can still cause dysfunctional proteins. For example, a mutated hemoglobin gene causes sickle-cell disease. In the mutant hemoglobin a hydrophilic glutamate (Glu) is substituted by the hydrophobic valine (Val), that is, GAA or GAG becomes GUA or GUG.  The substitution of glutamate by valine reduces the solubility of Beta globulins|β-globin which causes hemoglobin to form linear polymers linked by the hydrophobic interaction between the valine groups, causing sickle-cell deformation of erythrocytes. Sickle-cell disease is generally not caused by a ''de novo'' mutation. Rather it is selected for in geographic regions where malaria is common  (in a way similar to thalassemia), as heterozygous people have some resistance to the malarial ''Plasmodium'' parasite (heterozygote advantage).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14962356&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = Hebbel RP | title = Sickle hemoglobin instability: a mechanism for malarial protection | journal = Redox Rep. | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 238–40 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14962356 | doi = 10.1179/135100003225002826 | url = | issn = }}&lt;/ref&gt;

These variable codes for amino acids are allowed because of modified bases in the first base of the anticodon of the tRNA, and the base-pair formed is called a wobble base pair.  The modified bases include inosine and the Non-Watson-Crick U-G basepair.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11256617&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = Varani G, McClain WH | title = The G x U wobble base pair. A fundamental building block of RNA structure crucial to RNA function in diverse biological systems | journal = EMBO Rep. | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–23 | year = 2000 | month = July | pmid = 11256617 | pmc = 1083677 | doi = 10.1093/embo-reports/kvd001 | url = | issn = }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Initiation and Termination codon==
===Initiation or Start Codon===
The start codon is generally defined as the point, sequence, at which a ribosome begins to translate a sequence of RNA into amino acids.
When an RNA transcript is &quot;read&quot; from the 5' carbon to the 3' carbon by the ribosome the start codon is the first codon on which the tRNA bound to Met, methionine, and ribosomal subunits attach. '''ATG and AUG denote sequences of DNA and RNA, respectively, that are the start codon or initiation codon encoding the amino acid methionine (Met) in eukaryotes and a modified Met (fMet) in prokaryotes.'''
The principle called the Central dogma of molecular biology describes the process of translation of a gene to a protein. Specific sequences of DNA act as a template to synthesize mRNA in a process termed &quot;transcription&quot; in the nucleus. This mRNA is exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell and acts as a template to synthesize protein in a process called &quot;translation.&quot;
Three nucleotide bases specify one amino acid in the genetic code, a mapping encoded in the tRNA of the organism. The first three bases of the coding sequence (CDS) of mRNA to be translated into protein are called a start codon or initiation codon. The start codon is almost always preceded by an untranslated region 5' UTR.
The start codon is typically AUG (or ATG in DNA; this also encodes methionine). Very rarely in higher organisms (eukaryotes) are non AUG start codons used.
In addition to AUG, alternative start codons, mainly '''GUG''' and '''UUG''' are used in prokaryotes. For example E. coli uses 83% ATG (AUG), 14% GTG (GUG), 3% TTG (UUG) and one or two others (e.g., ATT and CTG).

===Termination or Stop codon===
[[File:06 chart pu3.png|thumb|450px| Genetic Code Chart]]

In the genetic code, a stop codon (also known as termination codon) is a nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals a termination of translation. Proteins are based upon polypeptides, which are unique sequences of amino acids; and most codons in messenger RNA correspond to the addition of an amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain, which may ultimately become a protein — stop codons signal the termination of this process, releasing the amino acid chain.

Stop codons were historically given many different names, as they each corresponded to a distinct class of mutants that all behaved in a similar manner. '''These mutants were first isolated within bacteriophages''' (T4 and lambda), viruses that infect the bacteria Escherichia coli. Mutations in viral genes weakened their infectious ability, sometimes creating viruses that were able to infect and grow within only certain varieties of E coli.

1. '''Amber mutations''' were the first set of nonsense mutations to be discovered.  They were isolated by Richard Epstein and Charles Steinberg, but named after their friend Harris Bernstein (see Edgar pgs. 580-581&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15514035&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Edgar B |title=The genome of bacteriophage T4: an archeological dig |journal=Genetics |volume=168 |issue=2 |pages=575–82 |year=2004 |pmid=15514035 |pmc=1448817 |doi= |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;) for the story behind this incident)

Viruses with amber mutations are characterized by their ability to infect only certain strains of bacteria, known as amber suppressors. These bacteria carry their own mutation that allow a recovery of function in the mutant viruses. For example, a mutation in the tRNA that recognizes the amber stop codon allows translation to &quot;read through&quot; the codon and produce full-length protein, thereby recovering the normal form of the protein and &quot;suppressing&quot; the amber mutation. Thus, amber mutants are an entire class of virus mutants that can grow in bacteria that contain amber suppressor mutations.

2.'''Ochre ''' Ochre mutation was the second stop codon mutation to be discovered. Given a color name to match the name of amber mutants, ochre mutant viruses had a similar property in that they recovered infectious ability within certain suppressor strains of bacteria. The set of ochre suppressors was distinct from amber suppressors, so ochre mutants were inferred to correspond to a different nucleotide triplet. Through a series of mutation experiments comparing these mutants with each other and other known amino acid codons, Sydney Brenner concluded that the amber and ochre mutations corresponded to the nucleotide triplets &quot;UAG&quot; and &quot;UAA&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Brenner S. A Life in Science 2001 (see pgs. 101-104) Published by BioMed Central Limited {{ISBN|0954027809 }} {{ISBN|978-0954027803}}&lt;/ref&gt;

3. Opal mutations or umber mutations the third and last stop codon in the standard genetic code was discovered soon after, corresponding to the nucleotide triplet &quot;UGA&quot;. Nonsense mutations that created this premature stop codon were later called opal mutations or umber mutations.

'''In RNA:'''
UAG (&quot;amber&quot;)
UAA (&quot;ochre&quot;)
UGA (&quot;opal&quot;)

'''In DNA:'''
TAG (&quot;amber&quot;)
TAA (&quot;ochre&quot;)
TGA (&quot;opal&quot; or &quot;umber&quot;).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=80% align=&quot;center&quot;
|+Exceptions to the Universal Genetic Code (UGC) in mitochondria
|-
!Organism!!Codon!!Standard!!Novel
|-
|rowspan=3|Mammalian
|AGA,&amp;nbsp;AGG
|Arginine
|Stop&amp;nbsp;codon
|-
|AUA
|Isoleucine
|Methionine
|-
|UGA
|Stop&amp;nbsp;codon
|Tryptophan
|-
|rowspan=3|Invertebrates
|AGA, AGG
|Arginine
|Serine
|-
|AUA
|Isoleucine
|Methionine
|-
|UGA
|Stop codon
|Tryptophan
|-
|rowspan=3|Yeast
|AUA
|Isoleucine
|Methionine
|-
|UGA
|Stop codon
|Tryptophan
|-
|CUA
|Leucine
|Threonine
|}

==Facts to be remembered==
Exceptions to the genetic code: Although the vast majority of living organisms today use the standard genetic code, geneticists have discovered a few variations on this code. Moreover, these variants are found in different evolutionary lineages and consist of different translations of a few codons.

The CUG codon, usually translated as leucine , corresponds to the serine 2 in many species of fungi Candida 3 .

Many species of green algae of the genus Acetabularia use stop codons UAG and UAA to encode glycine .

Many ciliates like Paramecium tetraurelia , Tetrahymena thermophila or Stylonychia 4 lemnae use codons UAG and UAA to code for glutamine instead of stop. UGA is the one stop codon used by these cells.

The ciliate Euplotes octocarinatus uses the codon UGA to encode cysteine, leaving UAG and UAA as stop signs.

In the three kingdoms of life , we sometimes find a twenty-first amino acid, selenocysteine , encoded by the UGA codon (normally a stop codon).

In archaea and eubacteria , a twenty-second amino acid, pyrrolysine is sometimes met, encoded by UAG (also usually a stop codon).

The first amino acid incorporated (determined by the start codon AUG) is a methionine in most eukaryotes , more rarely a valine (in some eukaryotes ), and formyl-methionine in most prokaryotes . In addition, this codon is GUG or GUU sometimes in some prokaryotes.

We therefore believe that life today originally had a smaller number of amino acids. These amino acids have been modified and have seen their numbers increase (by a phenomenon similar to the formation of sélénocytéine and pyrrolysine derived from serine and lysine, respectively, modified as they are on their transfer RNA on the ribosome .) These new amino acids were then used a subset of transfer RNAs and their associated coding. Maybe we notice signs of this phenomenon with glutamine , which in some bacteria, derived from glutamate still attached to its tRNA.

Another exception: the code is sometimes ambiguous. For example, the codon UGA is in the same organism ( Escherichia coli , for example) sometimes code for the 21st amino acid mentioned above ( selenocysteine ) or &quot;stop&quot;.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <origin>4662564</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="3549" sha1="g5hh1o1txz2p0xh0u86r94gn70qicao" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|Sämisch variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOE|E80]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. c4/2...g6|King's Indian defence]] → [[../|4...d6]]
}}
== 5. f3 · Sämisch variation ==
The '''Sämisch variation''' is one of the major alternatives to the king's Indian main line. 5. f3 bolsters the e4 pawn. This solidifies White's position and makes it a tough nut for Black to crack. Black would prefer for White to overextend in the centre. The drawback is that White's king's side development is impeded because the king's knight cannot go to its usual square, f3. Secondly, the g1-a7 diagonal is open and on a direct line to white's king, should white castle short. 

This is the only major system in the king's Indian where White may castle long (White has a standard mode of attack against king's side fianchettos seen in many different openings: f3, Be3, Qd2, O-O-O, h4, h5 etc.), although White has yet to commit to that in many modern variations they castle short. 

Black doesn't have much to think about yet: [[/5...O-O|'''5...O-O''']] is the priority and main move, and Black is ready to exploit their lead in development by breaking the centre. Alternative fifth moves usually transpose in the next couple of turns. 

=== History ===
[[w:Friedrich Sämisch|Friedrich Sämisch]] (1896―1975) was a German grandmaster. His name, and the name of the line, is sometimes rendered '''Saemisch'''. Sämisch introduced the line in 1925.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1007041 Sämisch v Yates, 1925. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;

In the 20th century, the Sämisch became a major battleground at the highest levels of chess. [[w:Mikhail Botvinnik|Mikhail Botvinnik]] employed it in the [[w:World Chess Championship 1960|World Chess Championships in 1960]] and [[w:World Chess Championship 1961|1961]] against [[w:Mikhail Tal|Mikhail Tal]]. It was employed by [[w:Anatoly Karpov|Anatoly Karpov]] against [[w:Garry Kasparov|Garry Kasparov]] in [[w:World Chess Championship 1990]].

The Sämisch has fallen in popularity in favour of the more natural-looking [[../5. Nf3|5. Nf3]], but it's still sometimes seen in grandmaster play. Today it is about half as popular as the fianchetto variation and as quarter as popular as the main line.&lt;ref&gt;In the Lichess master game database, as of August 2026, the position after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nc3 Bg7 4. e4 d6 5. Nf3 O-O 6. Be2 accounts for approximately 55,000 games; after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nf3 Bg7 4. g3 O-O 5. Bg2 d6 6. O-O 19,000 games; after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nc3 Bg7 4. e4 d6 5. f3 O-O 6. Be3 15,000; and after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nc3 Bg7 4. e4 d6 5. Be2 O-O 6. Bg5 6,000 games.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}

{{Chess/theory table
|name1=Panno variation
|line1=5...O-O 6. Be3 Nc6 7. Qd2 a6 8. Nge2 Rb8
|eval1={{Chess/not|=}}

|name2=Sämisch gambit
|line2=5... ... 6. ... c5 7. dxc5 dxc5 8. Qxd8 Rxd8 9. Bxc5
|eval2={{Chess/not|=}}

|name3=Closed variation
|line3=5... ... 6. ... e5 7. d5 c6
|eval3={{Chess/not|=}}
}}

{{ChessMid}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
{{Wikipedia|King's Indian Defence, Sämisch Variation}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Sämisch King's Indian |last=Gallagher |first=Joe |publisher=B. T. Batsford |year=1995 |isbn=0-7134-7730-X |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Sämisch King's Indian Uncovered |last=Cherniaev |first=Alexander |publisher=Everyman Chess |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85744-5404 |location=London |last2=Prokuronov |first2=Eduard}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>g5hh1o1txz2p0xh0u86r94gn70qicao</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662565</id>
      <parentid>4662564</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T17:47:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <origin>4662565</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3579" sha1="3kc5y1lunvdh53r0g7286jw50gdv4hu" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|Sämisch variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOE|E80]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. c4/2...g6|King's Indian defence]] → [[../|4...d6]]
}}
== 5. f3 · Sämisch variation ==
The '''Sämisch variation''' is one of the major alternatives to the king's Indian main line. 5. f3 bolsters the e4 pawn. This solidifies White's position and makes it a tough nut for Black to crack. Black would prefer for White to overextend in the centre. The drawback is that White's king's side development is impeded because the king's knight cannot go to its usual square, f3. Secondly, the g1-a7 diagonal is open and on a direct line to white's king, should white castle short. 

This is the only major system in the king's Indian where White may castle long (White has a standard mode of attack against king's side fianchettos seen in many different openings: f3, Be3, Qd2, O-O-O, h4, h5 etc.), although White has yet to commit to that in many modern variations they castle short. 

Black doesn't have much to think about yet: [[/5...O-O|'''5...O-O''']] is the priority and main move, and Black is ready to exploit their lead in development by breaking the centre. Alternative fifth moves usually transpose in the next couple of turns. 

=== History ===
[[w:Friedrich Sämisch|Friedrich Sämisch]] (1896―1975) was a German grandmaster. His name, and the name of the line, is sometimes rendered '''Saemisch'''. Sämisch introduced the line in 1925.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1007041 Sämisch v Yates, 1925. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;

In the 20th century, the Sämisch became a major battleground at the highest levels of chess. [[w:Mikhail Botvinnik|Mikhail Botvinnik]] employed it in the [[w:World Chess Championship 1960|World Chess Championships in 1960]] and [[w:World Chess Championship 1961|1961]] against [[w:Mikhail Tal|Mikhail Tal]]. It was employed by [[w:Anatoly Karpov|Anatoly Karpov]] against [[w:Garry Kasparov|Garry Kasparov]] in [[w:World Chess Championship 1990|World Chess Championship 1990]].

The Sämisch has fallen in popularity in favour of the more natural-looking [[../5. Nf3|5. Nf3]], but it's still sometimes seen in grandmaster play. Today it is about half as popular as the fianchetto variation and as quarter as popular as the main line.&lt;ref&gt;In the Lichess master game database, as of August 2026, the position after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nc3 Bg7 4. e4 d6 5. Nf3 O-O 6. Be2 accounts for approximately 55,000 games; after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nf3 Bg7 4. g3 O-O 5. Bg2 d6 6. O-O 19,000 games; after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nc3 Bg7 4. e4 d6 5. f3 O-O 6. Be3 15,000; and after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nc3 Bg7 4. e4 d6 5. Be2 O-O 6. Bg5 6,000 games.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}

{{Chess/theory table
|name1=Panno variation
|line1=5...O-O 6. Be3 Nc6 7. Qd2 a6 8. Nge2 Rb8
|eval1={{Chess/not|=}}

|name2=Sämisch gambit
|line2=5... ... 6. ... c5 7. dxc5 dxc5 8. Qxd8 Rxd8 9. Bxc5
|eval2={{Chess/not|=}}

|name3=Closed variation
|line3=5... ... 6. ... e5 7. d5 c6
|eval3={{Chess/not|=}}
}}

{{ChessMid}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
{{Wikipedia|King's Indian Defence, Sämisch Variation}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Sämisch King's Indian |last=Gallagher |first=Joe |publisher=B. T. Batsford |year=1995 |isbn=0-7134-7730-X |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Sämisch King's Indian Uncovered |last=Cherniaev |first=Alexander |publisher=Everyman Chess |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85744-5404 |location=London |last2=Prokuronov |first2=Eduard}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>OpenSCAD User Manual/First Steps/Changing the color of an object</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>250589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662597</id>
      <parentid>4639007</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T20:24:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cosmicaug</username>
        <id>2433273</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Changed link to specific section listing extended web colors as used in source</comment>
      <origin>4662597</origin>
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      <text bytes="2130" sha1="7ucr3n9m5h0llo3t7xihshhq0n8sq2k" xml:space="preserve">Any object, or a group of them, may be colored by preceding the [[OpenSCAD User Manual/Primitive Solids|object module]] call with the [[OpenSCAD_User_Manual/Transformations#color|&lt;code&gt;color()&lt;/code&gt;]] [[OpenSCAD_User_Manual/User-Defined_Functions_and_Modules#Operator_modules|operator module]].

There are two ways to specify the color to set:
; RGB vector : three floats in the range [0.0:1.0] in a three element vector [&lt;redval&gt;,&lt;greenval&gt;,&lt;blueval&gt;]
; &quot;&lt;colorname&gt;&quot; : a string containing a color name from [[w:Web Colors#Extended colors|the list of Web Colors]]. 

{{NOTE|changing the colors works only in Preview mode (F5);  render mode (F6) does not currently support color}}

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|'''Usage example 1 - changing the color of an object:'''
|-
|&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
color([1,0,0])
   cube([2,3,4]);
translate([3,0,0])
   color([0,1,0])
      cube([2,3,4]);
translate([6,0,0])
   color([0,0,1])
      cube([2,3,4]);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|[[File:OpenSCAD_Changing_Color.png|thumb|150px|OpenSCAD changing the color of an object]]
|}

A &lt;code&gt;color()&lt;/code&gt; operator may be included, the same as any other operator, like &lt;code&gt;translate()&lt;/code&gt;, in a stack of operators that precede call to an object module.

Using braces (&quot;{}&quot;) to define a level of scope will apply color, or any other operator module, to all of the objects included in the scope
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
color([0,0,1]) {
    translate([6,0,0])
       cube([2,3,4]);
    translate([-6,0,0])
       cube([2,3,4]);
    }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

In a stack of operators the first call to &lt;code&gt;color()&lt;/code&gt; overrides all others that come later.
{{OpenSCAD User Manual/Simple Page Navigation
| prev        = OpenSCAD_User_Manual/First_Steps/Positioning_an_object
| prev_disp   = Positioning an object
| next        = OpenSCAD User Manual/First Steps/Model views
| next_disp   = First Steps: Model views
| book        = OpenSCAD User Manual/First Steps
| book_disp   = First Steps
}}
[[ru:Руководство пользователя по OpenSCAD/Первые шаги/Изменение цвета объекта]]
{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical Sciences: A Manual for CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and JRF/Chemical Sciences/Periodic Table</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>251027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662745</id>
      <parentid>4582800</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T10:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="14101" sha1="ri5dgladhbd98yrrt5ouhc7f0cc5yky" xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;width: 80%&quot;
|-
|'''Group''' →
|'''1'''
|'''2'''
|'''3'''
|'''4'''
|'''5'''
|'''6'''
|'''7'''
|'''8'''
|'''9'''
|'''10'''
|'''11'''
|'''12'''
|'''13'''
|'''14'''
|'''15'''
|'''16'''
|'''17'''
|'''18'''
|-
|'''Period''' ↓
|colspan=&quot;20&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|'''1'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|1&lt;br /&gt;[[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Hydrogen|'''H''']]
|colspan=&quot;16&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|2&lt;br /&gt;'''He'''
|-
|'''2'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|3&lt;br /&gt;'''Li'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|4&lt;br /&gt;'''Be'''
|colspan=&quot;10&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|5&lt;br /&gt;'''B'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|6&lt;br /&gt;'''C'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|7&lt;br /&gt;'''N'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|8&lt;br /&gt;'''O'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|9&lt;br /&gt;'''F'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|10&lt;br /&gt;'''Ne'''
|-
|'''3'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|11&lt;br /&gt;'''Na'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|12&lt;br /&gt;'''Mg'''
|colspan=&quot;10&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|13&lt;br /&gt;'''Al'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|14&lt;br /&gt;'''Si'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|15&lt;br /&gt;[[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Phosphorus|'''P''']]
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|16&lt;br /&gt;[[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Sulfur|'''S''']]
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|17&lt;br /&gt;'''Cl'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|18&lt;br /&gt;'''Ar'''
|-
|'''4'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|19&lt;br /&gt;'''K'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|20&lt;br /&gt;'''Ca'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|21&lt;br /&gt;'''Sc'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|22&lt;br /&gt;'''Ti'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|23&lt;br /&gt;'''V'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|24&lt;br /&gt;'''Cr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|25&lt;br /&gt;'''Mn'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|26&lt;br /&gt;'''Fe'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|27&lt;br /&gt;'''Co'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|28&lt;br /&gt;'''Ni'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|29&lt;br /&gt;'''Cu'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|30&lt;br /&gt;'''Zn'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|31&lt;br /&gt;'''Ga'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|32&lt;br /&gt;'''Ge'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|33&lt;br /&gt;'''As'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|34&lt;br /&gt;'''Se'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|35&lt;br /&gt;'''Br'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|36&lt;br /&gt;'''Kr'''
|-
|'''5'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|37&lt;br /&gt;'''Rb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|38&lt;br /&gt;'''Sr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|39&lt;br /&gt;'''Y'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|40&lt;br /&gt;'''Zr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|41&lt;br /&gt;'''Nb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|42&lt;br /&gt;'''Mo'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|43&lt;br /&gt;'''Tc'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|44&lt;br /&gt;'''Ru'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|45&lt;br /&gt;'''Rh'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|46&lt;br /&gt;'''Pd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|47&lt;br /&gt;'''Ag'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|48&lt;br /&gt;'''Cd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|49&lt;br /&gt;'''In'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|50&lt;br /&gt;'''Sn'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|51&lt;br /&gt;'''Sb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|52&lt;br /&gt;'''Te'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|53&lt;br /&gt;'''I'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|54&lt;br /&gt;'''Xe'''
|-
|'''6'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|55&lt;br /&gt;'''Cs'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|56&lt;br /&gt;'''Ba'''
|style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;{{Text default color}};1px;&quot;|*&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|72&lt;br /&gt;'''Hf'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|73&lt;br /&gt;'''Ta'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|74&lt;br /&gt;'''W'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|75&lt;br /&gt;'''Re'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|76&lt;br /&gt;'''Os'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|77&lt;br /&gt;'''Ir'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|78&lt;br /&gt;'''Pt'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|79&lt;br /&gt;'''Au'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|80&lt;br /&gt;'''Hg'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|81&lt;br /&gt;'''Tl'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|82&lt;br /&gt;'''Pb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|83&lt;br /&gt;'''Bi'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|84&lt;br /&gt;'''Po'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|85&lt;br /&gt;'''At'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|86&lt;br /&gt;'''Rn'''
|-
|'''7'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|87&lt;br /&gt;'''Fr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffc0c0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|88&lt;br /&gt;'''Ra'''
|style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;{{Text default color}};1px;&quot;|**&lt;br /&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|104&lt;br /&gt;'''Rf'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|105&lt;br /&gt;'''Db'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|106&lt;br /&gt;'''Sg'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|107&lt;br /&gt;'''Bh'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|108&lt;br /&gt;'''Hs'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|109&lt;br /&gt;'''Mt'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|110&lt;br /&gt;'''Ds'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|111&lt;br /&gt;'''Rg'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#ffff99;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|112&lt;br /&gt;'''Uub'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|113&lt;br /&gt;'''Uut'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|114&lt;br /&gt;'''Uuq'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|115&lt;br /&gt;'''Uup'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|116&lt;br /&gt;'''Uuh'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|117&lt;br /&gt;'''Uus'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#FFA07A;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|118&lt;br /&gt;'''Uuo'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;21&quot;|&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|* '''Lanthanides'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|57&lt;br /&gt;'''La'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|58&lt;br /&gt;'''Ce'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|59&lt;br /&gt;'''Pr'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|60&lt;br /&gt;'''Nd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|61&lt;br /&gt;'''Pm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|62&lt;br /&gt;'''Sm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|63&lt;br /&gt;'''Eu'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|64&lt;br /&gt;'''Gd'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|65&lt;br /&gt;'''Tb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|66&lt;br /&gt;'''Dy'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|67&lt;br /&gt;'''Ho'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|68&lt;br /&gt;'''Er'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|69&lt;br /&gt;'''Tm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|70&lt;br /&gt;'''Yb'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px solid black;&quot;|71&lt;br /&gt;'''Lu'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|** '''Actinides'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|89&lt;br /&gt;'''Ac'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|90&lt;br /&gt;'''Th'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|91&lt;br /&gt;'''Pa'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|92&lt;br /&gt;'''U'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|93&lt;br /&gt;'''Np'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dashed black;&quot;|94&lt;br /&gt;'''Pu'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|95&lt;br /&gt;'''Am'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|96&lt;br /&gt;'''Cm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|97&lt;br /&gt;'''Bk'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|98&lt;br /&gt;'''Cf'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|99&lt;br /&gt;'''Es'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|100&lt;br /&gt;'''Fm'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|101&lt;br /&gt;'''Md'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|102&lt;br /&gt;'''No'''
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:#a0ffa0;color:black;border:1px dotted black;&quot;|103&lt;br /&gt;'''Lr'''
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em auto 1em auto&quot;
|-
| '''Block''' || '''Background'''
|-
| s block || bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;| red
|-
| p block || bgcolor=&quot;#FFA07A&quot;| orange
|-
| d block || bgcolor=&quot;#ffff99&quot;| yellow
|-
| f block ||  bgcolor=&quot;#a0ffa0&quot;| green
|}

'''Radioactivity'''
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:solid 1px black;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements with solid borders have stable isotopes&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:dashed 1px black;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements with dashed borders have only radioactive naturally occurring isotopes&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:dotted 1px black;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements with dotted borders do not occur naturally&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div style=&quot;border:none;padding:1px;&quot;&gt;elements without borders are too radioactive to have been discovered yet&lt;/div&gt;

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cascading Style Sheets/z-index</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>254878</id>
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      <id>4662741</id>
      <parentid>4451366</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T10:18:22Z</timestamp>
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        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
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      <text bytes="4585" sha1="jtdxxkidp5bdvcbec4jukuf1ut634aq" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; width: 240px; padding: 8px 8px 0; background: rgba(0,0,0,0.05); border: 1px solid var(--color-base); margin: 8px; color: var(--color-base);&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0 0 8px; height: 240px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); position: relative;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 10px; left: 10px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(255,0,0,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 0; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
0
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 20px; left: 40px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(255,255,0,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 1; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
1
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 30px; left: 70px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(0,255,0,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 2; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
2
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 40px; left: 100px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(0,255,255,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 3; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
3
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 50px; left: 20px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(0,0,255,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 4; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
4
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 60px; left: 50px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(255,0,255,0.4);{{Text default color}};text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 5; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
5
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 70px; left: 80px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(255,128,0,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 6; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
6
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 80px; left: 30px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(128,255,0,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 7; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
7
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 90px; left: 60px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(0,255,128,0.4);{{Text default color}}; text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 8; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
8
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height: 100px; width: 100px; font-size: 36px;top: 100px; left: 90px; border: 1px solid var(--color-base); background: rgba(0,128,255,0.4);{{Text default color}};text-align: center; position: absolute; z-index: 9; line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
9
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
Ten translucent divs with respective z-index from 0 to 9.
&lt;/div&gt;

== z-index Usage ==
Every element whose z-index is specified as an integer or whose opacity is not equal to 100% establishes a new stacking context in which the element itself is the zero z-index for its child elements, and its children are positioned relative to each other but cannot overlap elements outside of the container.

If a relatively positioned element is display:inline, its left/right and top/bottom offsets are based on its container only instead of the stacking context

A z-index of auto means that the element does not create a z-index of zero for its children, so their z-index value is relative to the other elements on the page

If two or more sibling elements have the same stacking level within their parent, they are rendered back to front in the order of their appearance in the HTML markup.

If you want relatively positioned elements in one div to overlap relatively positioned elements in another div, you have to raise the z-index of the entire div, or combine the content into the one container div

If you want one element to paint on top of everything else, but you want a child of that element to be behind everything else, make that element the only relatively positioned element, then position the child with a negative z-index

If you want one border color to overlap another on adjacent table cells, give that cell a higher z-index than the other. Use a border width of zero with the higher z-index to erase the border completely.

An element that establishes a stacking context will overlap an adjacent floating element if they intersect

Elements with the same stacking context are displayed based on source order; tags added last overlap tags added first

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Fundamental Hardware Elements of Computers/Simplifying boolean equations</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>256442</id>
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{{CPTPageNavigationU2|
 | Prev = Boolean algebra
 | Next = Boolean identities}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Fundamental Hardware Elements of Computers: Simplifying boolean equations}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;
A common question is to give you a complex boolean equation, which you will then have to work out a simpler exact equivalent.  This is useful when you are designing circuits and want to minimise the number of gates you are using or make circuits that only use particular types of gates. To simplify boolean equations you must be familiar with two methods. You can normally use either, but try to master both:
* Truth tables
* Boolean algebra - identities and De Morgans Law

{{CPTExample|title=Example: Simplifying boolean equations with Truth Tables}}
Draw the truth table for the following:
 &lt;math&gt;(A . B) + A&lt;/math&gt;
We are going to solve this using a truth table and we need to break the problem down into its component parts:

As the equation uses A and B list the different values they can take (4 in total)
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em auto 1em auto&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 0
| 0
|-
| 0
| 1
|-
| 1
| 0
|-
| 1
| 1
|}

Next we are going to work out the brackets first: &lt;math&gt;A.B&lt;/math&gt; and add this to our truth table
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em auto 1em auto&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;A.B&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 0
| 0
| 0
|-
| 0
| 1
| 0
|-
| 1
| 0
| 0
|-
| 1
| 1
| 1
|}
Finally we will OR this result (&lt;math&gt;A.B&lt;/math&gt;) with A to find &lt;math&gt;(A.B)+A&lt;/math&gt;, the final column of the truth table
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em auto 1em auto&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;A.B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;(A.B)+A&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 0
| 0
| 0
| 0
|-
| 0
| 1
| 0
| 0
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 1
| 0
| 0
| 1
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 1
| 1
| 1
| 1
|}
Now that our truth table is complete, look at the final column, is there a simpler way of writing this?  Why aye! The final column is true when, and only when, A is true, it doesn't require B's input at all.  So we can simplify to '''A''' telling us that:
 &lt;math&gt;(A.B)+A = A&lt;/math&gt;
{{Robox/Close}}

{{CPTExample|title=Example: Simplifying boolean equations with Truth Tables}}
Let's look at another example
 &lt;math&gt;\overline{A . \overline{B}}&lt;/math&gt;
We first of all need to break down the equation into its component parts.  Starting off with A and B we the work out &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;A.\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt; and finally &lt;math&gt;\overline{A . \overline{B}}&lt;/math&gt;.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;A.\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A . \overline{B}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 0
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| 0
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| 1
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| 1
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|}
This can be simplified to &lt;math&gt;\overline{A} + B&lt;/math&gt; telling us that: &lt;math&gt;\overline{A . \overline{B}} = \overline{A} + B&lt;/math&gt;.  How did we jump to this conclusion?  Let's take a look at all the places where the result is true:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A . \overline{B}}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 0
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 0
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| 1
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 1
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|}
{{CPTAmbox|text=When simplifying boolean equations, if the final column of the truth table has one true value, apply an AND(.), if the final column of the truth table has more than one true value, apply an OR(+)}}
We need to get a combination of A, B that gives the result shown above.  We can see that whenever A is false (&lt;math&gt;\overline{A}&lt;/math&gt;)the answer is true:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A . \overline{B}}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 0
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 0
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| 1
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| 1
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|}
We can also see that whenever the B value is true then the answer is also true:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A . \overline{B}}&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
| 0
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 0
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| 1
| 0
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: silver;{{Text default color}};&quot;
| 1
| 1
| &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
|}
So we know that we need to combine &lt;math&gt;\overline{A} with B&lt;/math&gt; to get an equation solving all cases.

If we AND them &lt;math&gt;\overline{A} . B&lt;/math&gt; this only gives us one of the scenarios, so that's not the answer.

If we OR them &lt;math&gt;\overline{A} + B&lt;/math&gt; then this gives us three answers, matching all the responses above. This is our solution.
{{CPTAmbox|text=Tip: In the case where all the answers output are 1, The answer is plainly 1}}
{{Robox/Close}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Simplifying boolean equations with Truth Tables}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Give a simplified boolean description, ?, for the following truth tables:}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;?&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|&lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;?&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}}}
}}
{{CPTAnswer|&lt;math&gt;A.B&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;?&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}}}
}}
{{CPTAnswer|&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;?&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}}}
}}
{{CPTAnswer|&lt;math&gt;A+\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTQuestion|Simplify the following boolean equations using truth tables:}}
{{CPTQuestion|&lt;math&gt;(\overline{A.B}).A&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTAnswer|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;{A.B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A.B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A.B}.A&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}}

This can be simplified to: &lt;math&gt;A.\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;
}}
{{CPTQuestion|&lt;math&gt;(\overline{A.B})+A&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTAnswer|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;{A.B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A.B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A.B}+A&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}}
The answer in all cases is a plain &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;
}}
{{CPTQuestion|&lt;math&gt;(A.\overline{B})+B&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTAnswer|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;(A.\overline{B})&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;(A.\overline{B})+B&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}}
This can be simplified to: &lt;math&gt;\overline{\overline{A}.\overline{B}}&lt;/math&gt; OR &lt;math&gt;A+B&lt;/math&gt; (because of De Morgan's Laws)
}}
{{CPTQuestion|&lt;math&gt;\overline{B}+A.B&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTAnswer|1=
Remember that we deal with the AND before the OR, meaning we can read the equation as: &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}+(A.B)&lt;/math&gt;
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;(A.B)&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}+(A.B)&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}}
This can be simplified to: &lt;math&gt;A+\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;
}}
{{CPTQuestion|&lt;math&gt;(\overline{A}+\overline{B}).B&lt;/math&gt;}}
{{CPTAnswer|1=
{{{!}} class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
{{!}}-
! &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{A}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;\overline{B}&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;(\overline{A}+\overline{B})&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;(\overline{A}+\overline{B}).B&lt;/math&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 0
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 0
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}-
{{!}} 1
{{!}} 1
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/div&gt;
{{!}}}
This can be simplified to: &lt;math&gt;\overline{A}.B&lt;/math&gt;
}}
{{Robox/Close}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Computing/AQA/Fundamentals of data representation/ASCII and unicode</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>256592</id>
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      <id>4662433</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:33:08Z</timestamp>
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        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="24362" sha1="36e9mioryqbvzymujysn0job3biofty" xml:space="preserve">&lt;NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{CPTPageNavigationP2|
 | Prev = Character form of decimal digit
 | Next = Error checking}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Fundamentals of Data Representation: ASCII and unicode}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;
[[File:Qwerty.svg|thumb|400px|center|The 104-key PC US English QWERTY keyboard layout evolved from the standard typewriter keyboard, with extra keys for computing.]]
ASCII normally uses 8 bits (1 byte) to store each character. However, the 8th bit is used as a check digit, meaning that only 7 bits are available to store each character.  This gives ASCII the ability to store a total of
 2^7 = 128 different values.
[[File:ASCII full.svg|thumb|150px|center|The 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered from 32 to 126 (decimal)]]
{{CPTAmbox|text=There is also [[w:Extended ASCII|extended ASCII]] that uses the 8th bit to store data, allowing for a much larger character set, but for the exam you'll probably be fine with 7 bit parity ASCII}}
ASCII values can take many forms:
* Numbers
* Letters (capitals and lower case are separate)
* Punctuation (?/|\£$ etc.)
* non-printing commands (enter, escape, F1)
Take a look at your keyboard and see how many different keys you have.  The number should be 104 for a [[w:Windows key|windows]] keyboard, or 101 for traditional keyboard.  With the shift function valus (a, A; b, B etc.) and recognising that some keys have repeated functionality (two shift keys, the num pad). We roughly have 128 functions that a keyboard can perform.

{| style=&quot;background:none;color:inherit; text-align:center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|-
! Binary !! Dec !! Hex !! Abbr
|-
| 000 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 0 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 00
| [[w:Null character|NUL]]
|-
| 000 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 1 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 01
| [[w:Start of Header|SOH]]
|-
| 000 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 2 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 02
| [[w:C0 and C1 control codes|STX]]
|-
| 000 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 3 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 03
| [[w:End-of-text character|ETX]]
|-
| 000 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 4 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 04
| [[w:End-of-transmission character|EOT]]
|-
| 000 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 5 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 05
| [[w:Enquiry character|ENQ]]
|-
| 000 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 6 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 06
| [[w:Acknowledge character|ACK]]
|-
| 000 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 7 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 07
| [[w:Bell character|BEL]]
|-
| 000 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 8 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 08
| [[w:Backspace|BS]]
|-
| 000 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 9 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 09
| [[w:Tab key|HT]]
|-
| 000 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 10 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 0A
| [[w:Newline|LF]]
|-
| 000 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 11 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 0B
| [[w:Vertical Tab|VT]]
|-
| 000 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 12 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 0C
| [[w:Form feed|FF]]
|-
| 000 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 13 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 0D
| [[w:Carriage return|CR]]
|-
| 000 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 14 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 0E
| [[w:Shift Out and Shift In characters|SO]]
|-
| 000 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 15 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 0F
| [[w:Shift Out and Shift In characters|SI]]
|-
| 001 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 16 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 10
| [[w:Data Link Escape|DLE]]
|-
| 001 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 17 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 11
| [[w:Device Control 1|DC1]]
|-
| 001 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 18 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 12
| [[w:Device Control 2|DC2]]
|-
| 001 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 19 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 13
| [[w:Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF)|DC3]]
|-
| 001 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 20 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 14
| [[w:Device Control 4|DC4]]
|-
| 001 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 21 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 15
| [[w:Negative-acknowledge character|NAK]]
|-
| 001 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 22 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 16
| [[w:Synchronous idle|SYN]]
|-
| 001 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 23 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 17
| [[w:End of Transmission Block|ETB]]
|-
| 001 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 24 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 18
| [[w:Cancel character|CAN]]
|-
| 001 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 25 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 19
| [[w:End of Medium|EM]]
|-
| 001 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 26 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 1A
| [[w:Substitute character|SUB]]
|-
| 001 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 27 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 1B
| [[w:Escape character|ESC]]
|-
| 001 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 28 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 1C
| [[w:File separator|FS]]
|-
| 001 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 29 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 1D
| [[w:Group separator|GS]]
|-
| 001 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 30 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 1E
| [[w:Record Separator|RS]]
|-
| 001 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 31 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 1F
| [[w:Unit Separator|US]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |
|-
| 111 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot; | 127 || style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot; | 7F
| [[w:Delete character|DEL]]
|}
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
!Binary !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph
|-
|010 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 32 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 20 || [[w:space (punctuation)|?]]
|-
|010 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 33 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 21 || [[w:Exclamation mark|!]]
|-
|010 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 34 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 22 || [[w:Quotation mark|&quot;]]
|-
|010 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 35 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 23 || [[w:Number sign|#]]
|-
|010 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 36 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 24 || [[w:Dollar sign|$]]
|-
|010 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 37 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 25 || [[w:Percent sign|%]]
|-
|010 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 38 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 26 || [[w:Ampersand|&amp;]]
|-
|010 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 39 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 27 || [[w:apostrophe|']]
|-
|010 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 40 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 28 || [[w:Parentheses|(]]
|-
|010 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 41 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 29 || [[w:Parentheses|)]]
|-
|010 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 42 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2A || [[w:Asterisk|*]]
|-
|010 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 43 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2B || [[w:Plus sign|+]]
|-
|010 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 44 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2C || [[w:Comma (punctuation)|,]]
|-
|010 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 45 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2D || [[w:Hyphen-minus|-]]
|-
|010 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 46 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2E || [[w:Full stop|.]]
|-
|010 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 47 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 2F || [[w:Slash (punctuation)|/]]
|-
|011 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 48 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 30 || [[w:0 (number)|0]]
|-
|011 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 49 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 31 || [[w:1 (number)|1]]
|-
|011 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 50 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 32 || [[w:2 (number)|2]]
|-
|011 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 51 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 33 || [[w:3 (number)|3]]
|-
|011 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 52 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 34 || [[w:4 (number)|4]]
|-
|011 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 53 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 35 || [[w:5 (number)|5]]
|-
|011 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 54 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 36 || [[w:6 (number)|6]]
|-
|011 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 55 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 37 || [[w:7 (number)|7]]
|-
|011 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 56 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 38 || [[w:8 (number)|8]]
|-
|011 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 57 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 39 || [[w:9 (number)|9]]
|-
|011 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 58 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 3A || [[w:Colon (punctuation)|:]]
|-
|011 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 59 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 3B || [[w:Semicolon|;]]
|-
|011 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 60 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 3C || [[w:Less-than sign|&lt;]]
|-
|011 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 61 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 3D || [[w:Equals sign|=]]
|-
|011 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 62 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 3E || [[w:Greater-than sign|&gt;]]
|-
|011 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 63 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 3F || [[w:Question mark|?]]
|}
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:bottom;&quot;
!Binary !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph
|-
|100 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 64 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 40 || [[w:@|@]]
|-
|100 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 65 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 41 || [[w:A|A]]
|-
|100 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 66 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 42 || [[w:B|B]]
|-
|100 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 67 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 43 || [[w:C|C]]
|-
|100 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 68 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 44 || [[w:D|D]]
|-
|100 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 69 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 45 || [[w:E|E]]
|-
|100 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 70 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 46 || [[w:F|F]]
|-
|100 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 71 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 47 || [[w:G|G]]
|-
|100 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 72 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 48 || [[w:H|H]]
|-
|100 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 73 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 49 || [[w:I|I]]
|-
|100 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 74 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4A || [[w:J|J]]
|-
|100 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 75 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4B || [[w:K|K]]
|-
|100 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 76 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4C || [[w:L|L]]
|-
|100 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 77 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4D || [[w:M|M]]
|-
|100 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 78 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4E || [[w:N|N]]
|-
|100 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 79 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 4F || [[w:O|O]]
|-
|101 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 80 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 50 || [[w:P|P]]
|-
|101 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 81 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 51 || [[w:Q|Q]]
|-
|101 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 82 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 52 || [[w:R|R]]
|-
|101 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 83 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 53 || [[w:S|S]]
|-
|101 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 84 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 54 || [[w:T|T]]
|-
|101 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 85 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 55 || [[w:U|U]]
|-
|101 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 86 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 56 || [[w:V|V]]
|-
|101 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 87 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 57 || [[w:W|W]]
|-
|101 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 88 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 58 || [[w:X|X]]
|-
|101 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 89 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 59 || [[w:Y|Y]]
|-
|101 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 90 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 5A || [[w:Z|Z]]
|-
|101 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 91 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 5B || [[w:Square brackets|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
|-
|101 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 92 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 5C || [[w:Backslash|\]]
|-
|101 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 93 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 5D || [[w:Square brackets|&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
|-
|101 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 94 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 5E || [[w:Caret|^]]
|-
|101 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 95 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 5F || [[w:Underscore|_]]
|}
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:bottom;&quot;
!Binary !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph
|-
|110 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 96 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 60 || [[w:Grave accent|`]]
|-
|110 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 97 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 61 || [[w:a|a]]
|-
|110 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 98 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 62 || [[w:b|b]]
|-
|110 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 99 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 63 || [[w:c|c]]
|-
|110 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 100 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 64 || [[w:d|d]]
|-
|110 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 101 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 65 || [[w:e|e]]
|-
|110 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 102 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 66 || [[w:f|f]]
|-
|110 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 103 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 67 || [[w:g|g]]
|-
|110 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 104 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 68 || [[w:h|h]]
|-
|110 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 105 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 69 || [[w:i|i]]
|-
|110 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 106 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 6A || [[w:j|j]]
|-
|110 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 107 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 6B || [[w:k|k]]
|-
|110 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 108 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 6C || [[w:l|l]]
|-
|110 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 109 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 6D || [[w:m|m]]
|-
|110 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 110 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 6E || [[w:n|n]]
|-
|110 1111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 111 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 6F || [[w:o|o]]
|-
|111 0000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 112 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 70 || [[w:p|p]]
|-
|111 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 113 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 71 || [[w:q|q]]
|-
|111 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 114 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 72 || [[w:r|r]]
|-
|111 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 115 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 73 || [[w:s|s]]
|-
|111 0100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 116 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 74 || [[w:t|t]]
|-
|111 0101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 117 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 75 || [[w:u|u]]
|-
|111 0110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 118 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 76 || [[w:v|v]]
|-
|111 0111 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 119 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 77 || [[w:w|w]]
|-
|111 1000 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 120 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 78 || [[w:x|x]]
|-
|111 1001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 121 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 79 || [[w:y|y]]
|-
|111 1010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 122 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 7A || [[w:z|z]]
|-
|111 1011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 123 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 7B || [[w:Bracket#Curly brackets|&amp;#123;]]
|-
|111 1100 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 124 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 7C || [[w:Vertical bar|&amp;#124;]]
|-
|111 1101 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 125 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 7D || [[w:Bracket#Curly brackets|&amp;#125;]]
|-
|111 1110 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 126 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 7E || [[w:Tilde|~]]
|}
|}

If you look carefully at the ASCII representation of each character you might notice some patterns.  For example:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Binary !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph
|-
|110 0001 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 97 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 61 || [[w:a|a]]
|-
|110 0010 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 98 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 62 || [[w:b|b]]
|-
|110 0011 || style=&quot;background:#CFF;{{text default color}};&quot;| 99 ||style=&quot;background:lightblue;{{text default color}};&quot;| 63 || [[w:c|c]]
|}
As you can see, a = 97, b = 98, c = 99.  This means that if we are told what value a character is we can easily work out the value of subsequent or prior characters.
{{ExampleRobox|title=Example: ASCII characters}}
Without looking at the ASCII table above! If we are told that the ASCII value for the character '5' is 011 0101, what is the ASCII value for '8'.

We know that '8' is three characters after '5', as 5,6,7,8.  This means that the ASCII value of '8' will be three bigger than that for '5':
   011 0101  ASCII '5'
 +      011
   --------  
   011 1000  ASCII '8'
Checking above this is the correct value.

If you are worried about making mistakes with binary addition, you can deal with the decimal numbers instead.  Take the example where you are given the ASCII value of 'g', 110 0111, what is 'e'?

We know that 'e' is two characters before 'g', as e, f, g.  This means that the ASCII value of 'e' will be two smaller than that for 'g'.
 64 32 16  8  4  2  1
  1  1  0  0  1  1  1 = 103&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; = ASCII value of 'g'
 
 103 - 2 = 101&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;
 
 64 32 16  8  4  2  1
  1  1  0  0  1  0  1 = 101&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; = ASCII value of 'e'
{{Robox/Close}}

{{CPTExercise|theme=1|title=Exercise: ASCII}}
{{CPTQuestion|Without using the crib table (you won't get it in the exam!) answer the following questions:

The ASCII code for the letter 'Z' is 90(base10), what is the letter 'X' stored as}}
{{CPTAnswerTab}}88 - as it is 2 characters down in the alphabet{{CPTAnswerTabEnd}}
{{CPTQuestionTab}}
How many ASCII 'characters' does the following piece of text use:
 Hello Pete,
 ASCII rocks!
{{CPTQuestionTabEnd}}
{{CPTAnswerTab}}
27 or 26. If you said 23 you'd be wrong because you must include the non-printing characters at the end of each line.  Each end of line needs a EOL command, and a new line needs a carriage return (CR), making the text like so:
 Hello Pete,[EOL][CR]
 ASCII rocks![EOL]
{{CPTAnswerTabEnd}}
{{Robox/Close}}
For the Latin alphabet ASCII is generally fine, but what if you wanted to write something in Mandarin, or Hindi?  We need another coding scheme!

{{ExampleRobox|theme=6|title=Extension: Coding ASCII}}
You might have to use ASCII codes when reading from text files.  To see what each ASCII code means we can use the folliwing function &lt;code&gt;ChrW(x)&lt;/code&gt; which returns the ASCII code with denary value x.  Try out the following code to see the first 128 characters. What is special about character 10?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;vbnet&quot;&gt;
For x = 0 To 127
  Console.WriteLine(&quot;ASCII for &quot; &amp; x &amp; &quot; = &quot; &amp; ChrW(x))
Next
Console.ReadLine()
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robox/Close}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>36e9mioryqbvzymujysn0job3biofty</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Hardware Devices/Output devices</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>257911</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-20T13:55:18Z</timestamp>
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        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="13219" sha1="g116xqsfrrcs1zj26fzmqucn3aruwqc" xml:space="preserve">&lt;NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{CPTPageNavigationU2|
 | Prev = Input devices
 | Next = Secondary storage devices}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Hardware Devices: Output devices}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;
Pay special attention to devices with an {{Font color||#ff9933|orange}} background, you need to be able to describe exactly how they work!

{{Dbox|Output Devices|Device that a computer sends data or instructions to}}

== Visual display units ==

===[[w:Cathode ray tube|Cathode-Ray Tube]]===
A cathode ray tube is a [[w:Visual display unit|Visual Display Unit]]. You might know them as the old 'fat' televisions and monitors that have mostly been superseded by LCD screens.

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|the image on a CRT can be viewed from a wide range of angles}}
'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Heavy, large and power hungry compared to LCD screens}}
[[Image:CRT color enhanced.png|center|thumb|250px|Cutaway rendering of a color CRT: &lt;br /&gt;'''1.'''&amp;nbsp;Three Electron guns (for red, green, and blue phosphor dots)&lt;br /&gt;'''2.'''&amp;nbsp;Electron beams &lt;br /&gt;'''3.'''&amp;nbsp;Focusing coils &lt;br /&gt;'''4.'''&amp;nbsp;Deflection coils &lt;br /&gt;'''5.'''&amp;nbsp;Anode connection &lt;br /&gt;'''6.'''&amp;nbsp;Mask for separating beams for red, green, and blue part of displayed image &lt;br /&gt;'''7.'''&amp;nbsp;Phosphor layer with red, green, and blue zones &lt;br /&gt;'''8.'''&amp;nbsp;Close-up of the phosphor-coated inner side of the screen]]

===&lt;span style=&quot;background: #ff9933;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;[[w:Flat-screen computer monitor|Flat Screen (LCD)]]&lt;/span&gt;===
[[File:LG L194WT-SF LCD monitor.jpg|thumb|center|A 19-inch [[w:LG|LG]] flat-panel [[w:LCD monitor|LCD monitor]].]]
LCDs are Visual Display Units. Most modern Televisions and Monitors are liquid crystal displays (LCD).  An LCD screen is made up by an array of pixels or picture elements, each pixel contains Red Green and Blue and there is a back light that shines through the pixel, creating an image
[[File:LCD-normal.png|80px|center]]
To change the image displayed on the screen will require different combinations of Red, Green and Blue pixels.  To do this the pixels are sandwiched between two [[w:Polarization (waves)|polarized]] grills.
[[File:CPT-Outputs-VDU-LCD-open.svg|300px|center]]
These grills are controlled by an electric current and when current is applied, the grids go perpendicular to each other, blocking out all light from a particular colour.
[[File:CPT-Outputs-VDU-LCD-green.svg|300px|center]]
Applying different current patterns to different pixels means that you can choose whether each pixel displays Red, Green or Blue, thus building an image:
[[File:LCD pixels on Acer Extensa 5620Z 20090124.jpg|300px|center]]

'''Pros'''
LCD screens have several benefits over traditional CRT screens:
{{Plus|Smaller and lighter than equivalent sized CRT}}
{{Plus|More energy efficient than CRT}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|viewing angles of LCD screens can be smaller than an equivalent CRT.  This means the viewers can't see images from the side of the screen}}
{{Minus|[[w:Defective pixel|Dead pixels]] can plague LCD Monitors, where the grills governing the colour of an individual pixel get stuck and fix that pixel to always displaying a certain colour or no colour at all}}
[[File:Lcd_display_dead_pixel.jpg|thumb|center|150px|an example of a dead pixel]]

===[[w:Plasma screen|Plasma Screen]]===
Plasma screens are Visual Display Units. They are generally more expensive than LCDs and CRTs, and offer similar performance to an LCD.  They are power hungry and  used mainly for large television sets

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Visual Display Units}}
{{CPTQuestion|Explain how an LCD screen works:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
# An LCD screen is made up by an array of pixels, each pixel contains Red Green and Blue and there is a back light that shines through the pixel, creating an image.
# The pixels are sandwiched between two [[w:Polarization (waves)|polarized]] grills.
# These grills are controlled by an electric current and when current is applied, the grids go perpendicular to each other, blocking out all light from a particular colour.
# Applying different current patterns to different pixels means that you can choose whether each pixel displays Red, Green or Blue, thus building an image
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Give two benefits and one drawback of using a LCD screen over a CRT:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
{{Plus|Smaller and lighter than equivalent sized CRT}}
{{Plus|More energy efficient than CRT}}

{{Minus|dead pixels can effect the image}}
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name 3 types of Visual display unit:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* LCD
* Plasma
* CRT
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

== Sound output ==
Speech output might include [[w:Speech synthesis|speech synthesis]], [[w:Headphones|headphones]] or [[w:Computer speaker|speakers]]
[[Image:Logitech-usb-speakers.jpg|thumb|center|300px|A pair of speakers for notebook computers, runs off USB]]
== [[w:Electronic paper|Electronic paper]] ==
[[File:Amazon_Kindle_3.JPG|thumb|150px|center|Amazon Kindle using an e-paper display]]
Electronic paper is made up of tiny plastic balls that have different colours on each side (black and white).  Applying an electrical current to the 'paper' flips the balls to make the pattern of a picture and an image is displayed.  The image stays there until you apply another current. This is used in modern e-book readers such as the Amazon Kindle and in other devices such as phones
[[File:Kindle 3 texture (crop).jpg|thumb|center|If you look closely you can see the 'ball's on the Kindle 3]]
[[Image:E-ink.svg|thumb|center|500px|Appearance of pixels]]
'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Images are easy to read in sunlight, unlike most electronic screens}}
{{Plus|You only need to use electricity to change the image, not maintain it, meaning batteries last longer than LCD screens.  In some cases batteries may last weeks, whilst an LCD equivalent would only last a day or two}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|The refresh rate of screens is too slow to show moving images}}
{{Minus|Ghosting might occur, where the shadow of old images remains on the screen after you have refreshed}}
[[Image:e-ink ghost.jpg|thumb|center|An e-ink screen showing the &quot;ghost&quot; of a prior image]]

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Electronic paper}}
{{CPTQuestion|Give two benefits and one drawback for using electronic paper over an LCD screen:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
{{Plus|Images are easy to read in sunlight}}
{{Plus|You only need to use electricity to change the image, not maintain it, meaning batteries last longer than LCD screens}}

{{Minus|The refresh rate of screens is too slow to show moving images}}
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

== Printers ==
There are several different types of [[w:Printer (computing)|Printer]]s, the one's you need to know are below

===&lt;span style=&quot;background: #ff9933;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;[[w:Printer (computing)#Impact printers|Impact Printer]]&lt;/span&gt;===
Impact printers rely on a forcible impact to transfer ink to the media, similar to the action of a typewriter. All but the dot matrix printer rely on the use of formed characters, letterforms that represent each of the characters that the printer was capable of printing. Impact printers varieties include, typewriter-derived printers, teletypewriter-derived printers, daisy wheel printers, dot matrix printers and line printers. Dot matrix printers remain in common use in businesses where multi-part forms are printed, such as car rental services, this allows several sheets of paper to be written to with one strike of the printer head, it also allows for carbon paper to be written to through sealed envelopes:
[[File:CPT-Outputs-Printers-Impact-MultiPart.svg|center|400px]]

Dot matrix printers use a print head containing a line of pins.  The number of pins can vary from 7 into the dozens.  As the print head passes over the paper the pins impact on the ink ribbon forming characters on the paper line by line.
[[File:CPT-Outputs-Printers-ImpactHead.svg|center|75px|7 pin print head]]

[[File:CPT-Outputs-Printers-ImpactExample.svg|center|400px]]

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Can print multi-part stationary}}
{{Plus|very cheap to run}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|unable to produce high definition images, you are limited to the number of pins available}}
{{Minus|slow when compared to laser}}

[[File:Dot_matrix_example_text.png|thumb|center|output from a dot-matrix printer, showing the individual rod strikes on the ribbon to make an image on the paper]]

===&lt;span style=&quot;background: #ff9933;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;[[w:Inkjet printer|Inkjet Printer]]&lt;/span&gt;===
[[File:Druckkopf.jpg|center|thumb|Inkjet heads: &lt;br&gt; Disposable head (left) and &lt;br&gt; Fixed head (right) with ink cartridge (middle)]]
Inkjets are examples of non-impact printer.  They operate by propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid or molten material (ink) onto almost any sized page. They are the most common type of computer printer used by consumers.
# The paper is fed into the printer
# The print head contains one or more cartridges of ink of different colours (some only have black ink)
# The print head moves from one side to another, each cartridge spraying tiny particles of ink onto the paper to form the correct pattern
# After one line is finished the paper is fed through a little more, and the next line printed

[[File:Inkjet_s.jpg|thumb|center|Output from an inkjet printer showing the individual blobs of ink on the paper]]

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Inkjet printers are cheaper than lasers}}
{{Plus|They can produce high quality images for photos etc}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|They are slower than lasers}}
{{Minus|Per page they are relatively expensive}}

===&lt;span style=&quot;background: #ff9933;{{text default color}};&quot;&gt;[[w:Laser printer|Laser Printer]]&lt;/span&gt;===
Lasers are examples of non-impact printers. A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics.  They work in the following way:


# The drum is given a negative charge
# This charge is erased in the correct places by the laser to create the image using the [[w:Photoelectric effect|photoelectric effect]]
[[File:Laser printer-Writing.svg|center|400px]]
#&lt;li value=&quot;3&quot;&gt; The drum is coated in [[w:Toner|toner]], a negatively charged fine dust, which is repelled by the charge on the drum. Only in the uncharged areas does the toner apply&lt;/li&gt;
# The drum rolls over the paper and transfers the toner onto it(if your printing gets jammed the paper might have this dust on it which comes off on your hands)
# The paper is then put through heated rollers which melts the toner and seals it to the paper, thus finishing the image.
[[File:Laser printer fusing.svg|center|300px]]

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Fast}}
{{Plus|Cheap to Produce large volumes of printing}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Expensive hardware}}
[[File:Hp_laserjet_4200dtns.jpg|center|thumb|Hp laserjet 4200]]

===[[w:Plotter|Plotter]]===
Plotters were an alternate printing technology once common in engineering and architectural firms. Pen-based plotters rely on contact with the paper, but not impact, per se, and special purpose pens that are mechanically run over the paper to create text and images.  They were particularly adept to printing vector graphics, though they have generally been replaced with wide-format conventional inkjet/laser printers.

# Paper is placed in the plotter.
# The plotter arm selects a pen of the correct colour
# the arm then moves the pen to the area where printing needs to start.
# the pen is lowered onto the paper and the arm moves it drawing a continuous image.
# The pen raises and lowers depending on what needs to be drawn, the plotter can also select from a group of colour pens

(some plotters involve keeping the pens stationary and moving the paper instead)

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|cheap to run}}
{{Plus|can produce very precise technical drawings}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|there may be issues around the colour pens available, it is hard to combine colours as you would in an inkjet}}
{{Minus|slow}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F031434-0012,_Aachen,_Technische_Hochschule,_Rechenzentrum.jpg|center|thumb|Plotter at work on a technical drawing]]

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Printers}}
{{CPTQuestion|What printing device is best for printing thousands of leaflets to advertise a shop opening? Why?}}
{{CPTAnswer|
Laser printer:
* it can print incredibly fast
* it can print in colour
* toner doesn't run in the rain, meaning the leaflets won't be spoilt during delivery
}}
{{CPTQuestionTab}}
For a seven pin impact printer, what character would the following line codes output:
 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 | 1,4 | 1,4 | 2,3
{{CPTQuestionTabEnd}}
{{CPTAnswer|
[[File:CPT-Outputs-Printers-Impact-P.svg|50px]]
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Describe how a laser printer works:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
# Electrical charge version of the image is transferred to the drum
# Paper passes over the drum and the charge is transferred to the paper
# [[w:Toner|Toner]], a fine dust, is attracted to the charge on the paper, making the image
# The paper is then put through heated rollers which then melts the toner and seals it to the paper, thus finishing the image.
}}
{{CPTQuestion|When might you want to use an impact printer over an inkjet printer?}}
{{CPTAnswer|
When you are printing multi-part stationary
}}
{{CPTQuestion|When might you want to use an inkjet printer over an impact printer?}}
{{CPTAnswer|
When you want detail and colour
}}
{{Robox/Close}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>C programming/stdint.h</title>
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      <text bytes="18624" sha1="kvjvf6a6fxl5x2g8olw4a9s1alap6on" xml:space="preserve">'''stdint.h''' is a [[C++ Programming#.h|header file]] in the [[C Programming/Standard libraries|C standard library]] introduced in the [[C Programming/C Reference|C99 standard library]] section 7.18 to allow programmers to write more portable code by providing a set of typedefs that specify exact-width integer types, together with the defined minimum and maximum allowable values for each type, using macros&lt;ref name=pubs /&gt; . This header is particularly useful for embedded programming which often involves considerable manipulation of hardware specific I/O registers requiring integer data of fixed widths, specific locations and exact alignments. '''stdint.h (for C or C++)''', and '''cstdint (for C++)''' can be downloaded or quickly created if they are not provided.

The naming convention for exact-width integer types is '''int''N''_t''' for [[C Programming/Reference Tables#Table of Data Types|signed int]] and '''uint''N''_t''' for [[C Programming/Reference Tables#Table of Data Types|unsigned int]] &lt;ref name=pubs /&gt; . For example &lt;code&gt;int8_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;uint64_t&lt;/code&gt; amongst others could be declared together with defining their corresponding ranges &lt;code&gt;INT8_MIN&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;INT8_MAX&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;0&lt;/code&gt; (zero) to &lt;code&gt;UINT64_MAX&lt;/code&gt;; again using a similar but upper case naming convention. In addition stdint.h defines limits of integer types capable of holding object pointers such as &lt;code&gt;UINTPTR_MAX&lt;/code&gt;, the value of which depends on the processor and its address range&lt;ref name=pubs /&gt;.

The exact-width types and their corresponding ranges are only included in that header if they exist for that specific compiler/processor. Note that even on the same processor, two different compiler implementations can differ. The use of &lt;code&gt;#if&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;#ifdef&lt;/code&gt; would allow the inclusion or exclusion of types by the use of compilers preprocessor so that the correct exact-width set is selected for a compiler and its processor target.

The related include file &lt;code&gt;&lt;[[C Programming/limits.h|limits.h]]&gt;&lt;/code&gt; provides macros values for the range limits of common integer variable types. In '''C''' &lt;code&gt;&lt;[[C Programming/limits.h|limits.h]]&gt;&lt;/code&gt; is already included in &lt;code&gt;&lt;stdint.h&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, but in contrast to &lt;code&gt;&lt;stdint.h&gt;&lt;/code&gt; which is implementation independent; all maximum and minimum integer values defined in &lt;code&gt;&lt;[[C Programming/limits.h|limits.h]]&gt;&lt;/code&gt; are compiler implementation specific. For example a compiler generating 32 bit executables will define LONG_MIN as −2,147,483,648 [−2&lt;sup&gt;31&lt;/sup&gt;] however for 64 bit processors targets, LONG_MIN can be −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 [−2&lt;sup&gt;63&lt;/sup&gt;].

== Background ==
=== Corresponding integer types ===
The C standard has a notion of &quot;corresponding integer types&quot;. Informally, what this means is for any integer type T:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c&quot;&gt;
typedef signed T A;
typedef unsigned T B;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
the type &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; and the type &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; are said to be '''corresponding integer types''' (note: &lt;code&gt;typedef&lt;/code&gt; doesn't create a new type, it creates a new identifier as a synonym for the given type). This is important for two reasons:

* corresponding types are friendly to aliasing and type puns
* corresponding types have a similar object representation

Both of these combined require code like:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c&quot;&gt;
A a = 1;
B b = 1;
*(B*)&amp;a = 0;
*(A*)&amp;b = 0;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
to have defined behavior by the standard (as opposed to being undefined in the general case). There are many caveats to how far you can push this, so it's important to actually read the C standard to see what's legal or not (the bulk of this has to deal with padding bits and out of range representations).

=== Representation ===
The C99 standard elaborated the difference between value representations and object representations.

The object representation of an integer consists of 0 or more padding bits, 1 or more value bits&lt;ref name = &quot;pubs&quot;&gt;technically, it actually allows 0 or more value bits, but the only way you can construct this is with a single-bit bit-field of a signed integer&lt;/ref&gt;, and either 0 or 1 sign bits (this doesn't count as a value bit) depending on the signedness of the integer type.

The value representation is a conceptual representation of an integer. The value representation ignores any padding bits and does a (possible) rearrangement to the bits so that the integer is ordered sequentially from most significant value bit to least significant value bit. Most programmers deal with this representation because it allows them easily to write portable code by only dealing with −0 and out of range values as opposed to both of those in addition to tricky aliasing rules and trap representations if they choose to deal with the object representation directly.
&lt;!-- TODO: talk about precision, width, padding, &lt;code&gt;sizeof&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;CODE&gt;CHAR_BIT&lt;/CODE&gt;. --&gt;

==== Signed representation ====
The C standard allows for only three signed integer representations specified by the compiler writer:

* sign and magnitude
* one's complement
* two's complement (the most widely used)

== Integer types ==

The types &lt;code&gt;''&amp;lt;something&amp;gt;''_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;u''&amp;lt;something&amp;gt;''_t&lt;/code&gt; are required to be corresponding signed and unsigned integer types. For the types that are marked optional, an implementation must either define both &lt;code&gt;''&amp;lt;something&amp;gt;''_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;u''&amp;lt;something&amp;gt;''_t&lt;/code&gt; or neither of the two. The limits of these types shall be defined with macros with a similar name in the same fashion as described below.

If a type is of the form &lt;code&gt;[u]''&amp;lt;something&amp;gt;N''_t&lt;/code&gt; (or similarly for a preprocessor define), '''N''' must be a positive decimal integer with no leading 0's.

=== Exact-width integer types ===

These are of the form &lt;code&gt;int''N''_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;uint''N''_t&lt;/code&gt;. Both types must be represented by exactly '''N''' bits with no padding bits. &lt;code&gt;int''N''_t&lt;/code&gt; must be encoded as a two's complement signed integer and &lt;code&gt;uint''N''_t&lt;/code&gt; as an unsigned integer. These types are optional unless the implementation supports types with widths of 8, 16, 32 or 64, then it shall typedef them to the corresponding types with corresponding '''N'''. Any other '''N''' is optional&lt;ref name=pubs /&gt; .

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Specific integral type limits
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; | Specifier
! style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; | Signing
! style=&quot;width: 3.5em&quot; | Bits
! style=&quot;width: 3.5em&quot; | Bytes
! style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; | Minimum Value
! style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; | Maximum Value
|- style=&quot;background-color: #fdfdfd;{{text default color}};&quot;
| &lt;code&gt;int8_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Signed
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 1
| −2&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; which equals −128
| 2&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which is equal to 127
|- style=&quot;background-color: #fdfdfd;{{text default color}};&quot;
| &lt;code&gt;uint8_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Unsigned
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 1
| 0
| 2&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which equals 255
|-
| &lt;code&gt;int16_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Signed
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 16
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 2
| −2&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; which equals −32,768
| 2&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which equals 32,767
|-
| &lt;code&gt;uint16_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Unsigned
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 16
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 2
| 0
| 2&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which equals 65,535
|- style=&quot;background-color: #fdfdfd;{{text default color}};&quot;
| &lt;code&gt;int32_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Signed
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 32
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 4
| −2&lt;sup&gt;31&lt;/sup&gt; which equals −2,147,483,648
| 2&lt;sup&gt;31&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which equals 2,147,483,647
|- style=&quot;background-color: #fdfdfd;{{text default color}};&quot;
| &lt;code&gt;uint32_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Unsigned
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 32
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 4
| 0
| 2&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which equals 4,294,967,295
|-
| &lt;code&gt;int64_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Signed
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 64
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 8
| −2&lt;sup&gt;63&lt;/sup&gt; which equals −9,223,372,036,854,775,808
| 2&lt;sup&gt;63&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which equals 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
|-
| &lt;code&gt;uint64_t&lt;/code&gt;
| Unsigned
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 64
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | 8
| 0
| 2&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 which equals 18,446,744,073,709,551,615
|}

The limits of these types are defined with macros with the following formats:
* &lt;code&gt;INT''N''_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (2&lt;sup&gt;''N''−1&lt;/sup&gt; − 1) of the signed version of int'''N'''_t.
* &lt;code&gt;INT''N''_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value (−2&lt;sup&gt;''N''−1&lt;/sup&gt;) of the signed version of int'''N'''_t.
* &lt;code&gt;UINT''N''_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (2&lt;sup&gt;''N''&lt;/sup&gt; – 1) of the unsigned version of uint'''N'''_t.

=== Minimum-width integer types ===

These are of the form &lt;code&gt;int_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;uint_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;. &lt;code&gt;int_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt; is a signed integer and &lt;code&gt;uint_least''N''_t&lt;/code&gt; is an unsigned integer&lt;ref name=pubs /&gt; .

The standard mandates that these have widths greater than or equal to '''N''', and that no smaller type with the same signedness has N or more bits. For example, if a system provided only a &lt;code&gt;uint32_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;uint64_t&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;uint_least16_t&lt;/code&gt; must be equivalent to &lt;code&gt;uint32_t&lt;/code&gt;.

An implementation is required to define these for the following '''N''': 8, 16, 32, 64. Any other '''N''' is optional.

The limits of these types are defined with macros with the following formats:
* &lt;code&gt;INT_LEAST''N''_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (2&lt;sup&gt;''N''−1&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 or greater) of the signed version of &lt;code&gt;int_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;INT_LEAST''N''_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value (−2&lt;sup&gt;''N''−1&lt;/sup&gt; + 1 or less) of the signed version of &lt;code&gt;int_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;UINT_LEAST''N''_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (2&lt;sup&gt;''N''&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 or greater) of the unsigned version of &lt;code&gt;uint_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt; .

stdint.h should also define macros which will convert constant decimal, octal or hexadecimal value which are guaranteed to be suitable for the corresponding types and to be usable with the [[C preprocessor#Conditional compilation|&lt;code&gt;#if&lt;/code&gt;]]:
* &lt;code&gt;INT''N''_C(''value'')&lt;/code&gt; is substituted for a value suitable for &lt;code&gt;int_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;. For example if &lt;code&gt;int_least64_t&lt;/code&gt; is &quot;typedefed&quot; to &lt;code&gt;signed long long int&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;INT64_C(123)&lt;/code&gt; corresponds to &lt;code&gt;123LL&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;UINT''N''_C(''value'')&lt;/code&gt; is substituted for a value suitable for &lt;code&gt;uint_least'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;.

=== Fastest minimum-width integer types ===

These are of the form &lt;code&gt;int_fast'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;uint_fast'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;.

The standard does not mandate anything about these types except that their widths must be greater than or equal to '''N'''. It also leaves it up to the implementer to decide what it means to be a &quot;fast&quot; integer type.

An implementation is required to define these for the following '''N''': 8, 16, 32, 64&lt;ref&gt;http://www.tuxgraphics.org/common/src2/article09043/avr-libc-user-manual-1.6.4/group__avr__stdint.html&lt;/ref&gt;.

The limits of these types are defined with macros with the following formats:
* &lt;code&gt;INT_FAST''N''_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (2&lt;sup&gt;''N''−1&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 or greater) of the signed version of &lt;code&gt;int_fast'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;INT_FAST''N''_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value (−2&lt;sup&gt;''N''−1&lt;/sup&gt; + 1 or less) of the signed version of &lt;code&gt;int_fast'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;UINT_FAST''N''_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (2&lt;sup&gt;''N''&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 or greater) of the unsigned version of &lt;code&gt;uint_fast'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt; &lt;ref name=pubs /&gt; .

=== Integers wide enough to hold pointers ===

&lt;code&gt;intptr_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;uintptr_t&lt;/code&gt; are, respectively, signed and unsigned integers which are guaranteed to be able to hold the value of a pointer. These two types are optional.

The limits of these types are defined with the following macros:
* &lt;code&gt;INTPTR_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value (−32,767 [−2&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; + 1] or less) of &lt;code&gt;intptr_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;INTPTR_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (32,767 [2&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; − 1] or greater) of &lt;code&gt;intptr_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;UINTPTR_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (65,535 [2&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; − 1] or greater) of &lt;code&gt;uintptr_t&lt;/code&gt;&lt;ref&gt; http://linux.die.net/man/3/intptr_t &lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Greatest-width integer types ===
&lt;code&gt;intmax_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;uintmax_t&lt;/code&gt; is a signed and unsigned integer which are of the greatest supported width. They are, in other words, the integer types which have the greatest limits.

The limits of these types are defined with macros with the following formats:
* &lt;code&gt;INTMAX_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (9,223,372,036,854,775,807 [2&lt;sup&gt;63&lt;/sup&gt; − 1] or greater) of the signed version of &lt;code&gt;intmax_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;INTMAX_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value (−9,223,372,036,854,775,807 [−2&lt;sup&gt;63&lt;/sup&gt; + 1] or less) of the signed version of &lt;code&gt;intmax_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;UINTMAX_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (18,446,744,073,709,551,615 [2&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt; − 1] or greater) of the unsigned version of &lt;code&gt;uintmax_t&lt;/code&gt;.

Macros which will convert constant decimal, octal or hexadecimal value which will suit the corresponding type are also defined:
* &lt;code&gt;INTMAX_C(''value'')&lt;/code&gt; is substituted for a value suitable for &lt;code&gt;intmax_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;UINTMAX_C(''value'')&lt;/code&gt; is substituted for a value suitable for &lt;code&gt;uintmax_t&lt;/code&gt;&lt;ref name=pubs /&gt; .

== Other integer limits ==
* &lt;code&gt;PTRDIFF_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value of &lt;code&gt;[[Stddef.h#Type ptrdiff t|ptrdiff_t]]&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;PTRDIFF_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value of &lt;code&gt;ptrdiff_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;SIZE_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value (2&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; − 1 or greater) of &lt;code&gt;[[Stddef.h#Type size t|size_t]]&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;WCHAR_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value of &lt;code&gt;[[Stddef.h#Type wchar t|wchar_t]]&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;WCHAR_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value of &lt;code&gt;wchar_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;WINT_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value of &lt;code&gt;wint_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;WINT_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value of &lt;code&gt;wint_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;SIG_ATOMIC_MIN&lt;/code&gt; is the minimum value of &lt;code&gt;sig_atomic_t&lt;/code&gt;.
* &lt;code&gt;SIG_ATOMIC_MAX&lt;/code&gt; is the maximum value of &lt;code&gt;sig_atomic_t&lt;/code&gt;.

== Criticisms and caveats ==

* Some (non-conforming) implementations tack C99 support on top of a C89 runtime library.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} One of the consequences of this is that the new &lt;code&gt;printf&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;scanf&lt;/code&gt; specifiers aren't recognized and will probably lead to something undefined. The typical ways of working around this are:
** The most common (and the most wrong) way is to use the &lt;code&gt;long&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;unsigned long&lt;/code&gt; types as an intermediate step and pass these types into &lt;code&gt;printf&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;scanf&lt;/code&gt;. This works reasonably well for the exact, minimum, and fast integer types less than 32-bits but may cause trouble with &lt;code&gt;ptrdiff_t&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;size_t&lt;/code&gt; and the types larger than 32-bits, typically on platforms that use 32-bit &lt;code&gt;long&lt;/code&gt;s and 64-bit pointers.
** Not using &lt;code&gt;scanf&lt;/code&gt; directly but manually reading in a buffer, calling &lt;code&gt;strto&lt;i|u&gt;max&lt;/code&gt;, and then converting it to the desired type. This doesn't help with printing out integers though.
** Using a 3rd-party &lt;code&gt;printf&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;scanf&lt;/code&gt; library that is C99 compatible.
** Using the C99 standard printing format specifiers. PRId64 for example. These are declared in inttypes.h.

* The rules for integer rank and corresponding integer types may force implementers to choose the lesser of two evils in not supporting an integer type, making a bad compromise, or supporting an integer type a non-conforming way.
** For example, there are machines that either have special support for an extremely large signed integer register or an extremely large unsigned integer register without supporting the other type.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} An implementation can either choose not to expose this to a C implementation, synthesize a slow type as the corresponding integer type, synthesizing a weird corresponding integer type, or expose the integer to the programmer without setting it to the &lt;code&gt;[u]intmax_t&lt;/code&gt; types or synthesizing a corresponding integer type.

* The &lt;code&gt;[u]int'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt; types are a compromise between the desire to have guaranteed two's complement integer types and the desire to have guaranteed types with no padding bits (as opposed to a more fine grained approach which would define more types). Because of the &quot;all or nothing&quot; approach to the &lt;code&gt;[u]int'''N'''_t&lt;/code&gt; types, an implementation might have to play the same sort of games described above depending on whether they care about speed, programmer convenience, or standards conformance.

== See also ==
* [[C Programming/inttypes.h|inttypes.h]]

== Notes and references ==
&lt;references/&gt;
* {{man|bd|stdint.h|SUS|integer types}}

== External links ==

* [http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/types/integer C++ reference for fixed width integer types inherited from C]
As stdint.h is not shipped with older C++ compilers and Visual Studio C++ products prior to Visual Studio 2010, third-party implementations are available:
* [http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/pstdint.h pstdint.h] – A cross-platform, free implementation from Paul Hsieh. This implementation was tested on the following compilers, all with 0 warnings at their highest respective settings: Borland Turbo C 2.0, WATCOM C/C++ 11.0 (16 bits and 32bits), Microsoft Visual C++ 6.0 (32 bit), Microsoft Visual Studio.net (VC7), Intel C++ 4.0, GNU gcc v3.3.3.
* [http://code.google.com/p/msinttypes/ msinttypes] – ISO C9x compliant [http://msinttypes.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/stdint.h stdint.h] and [http://msinttypes.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/inttypes.h inttypes.h] for Microsoft Visual Studio are available on [[Google Code]]. This implementation was tested with Microsoft Visual Studio 6.0, Microsoft Visual Studio .NET 2003, Microsoft Visual Studio 2005, and Microsoft Visual Studio 2008.
* [http://www.boost.org/doc/libs/1_37_0/boost/cstdint.hpp boost/cstdint.hpp] – This file from the [[Boost C++ Libraries|Boost]] library contains data types which are in stdint.h. The advantage of the use of &lt;boost/cstdint.hpp&gt; is that it can be used on many platforms. The code becomes naturally portable, and can be compiled on any platform without changes whenever the boost library can be used.

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>kvjvf6a6fxl5x2g8olw4a9s1alap6on</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Webpage Design/HTML &amp; style sheets</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>259029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662444</id>
      <parentid>4662418</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:59:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662444</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18541" sha1="d91gpu370chqos1gj2j7cqht2kj6a01" xml:space="preserve">&lt;NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{CPTPageNavigationU2|
 | Prev = Web page construction
 | Next = Webpage design}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Webpage Design: HTML &amp; style sheets}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{Dbox|[[Cascading Style Sheets|Style sheet]]|a collection of rules about how to present an HTML document}}

In HTML it is possible to add colours, fonts and other styles to the web pages that you build, however this is not recommended and '''HTML should be used for structure only'''.  To add colours, fonts, etc. we will use Cascading Style Sheets, also known as CSS.

== Style rules ==
A style sheet is made up of Style Rules.  Each Style Rule has three parts, a selector, a property and a value:
{{CPTRuleTab}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property : value}&lt;/code&gt;
{{CPTRuleEnd}}
For multiple properties you separate them using a semicolon;
{{CPTRuleTab}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property1 : value1; property2 : value2}&lt;/code&gt;
{{CPTRuleEnd}}

== Selectors ==
{{Dbox|selectors| &quot;select&quot; the elements on an HTML page that are affected by the style rule(s)}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property : value}&lt;/code&gt;
You need to know three types of selector:
* '''type''', selects all elements of a certain type on the page e.g. &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : green}&lt;/code&gt; selects all the heading 1s and turns them green
* '''class''', selects all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements &lt;code&gt;.classname { color : red}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''ID''', selects the item with the single ID that you have specified &lt;code&gt;#idname { color : blue }&lt;/code&gt;.  You can only apply an ID once in an HTML document
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! CSS Property !! Description !! CSS Values !! Example for Heading 1 !! Output
|-
| font-style: || Changes the font style of text elements || normal, italic, oblique || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-style : italic }&lt;/code&gt; || ''Hello''
|-
| font-weight: || Define how bold text is || bold, normal, 400 || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-weight : bold }&lt;/code&gt; || '''Hello'''
|-
| background-color: || Define page or item background colour || green, brown, yellow || &lt;code&gt;h1 { background-color : yellow }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;background-color:yellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| text-align: || horizontal position of text || center, left, right || &lt;code&gt;h1 { text-align : center }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| font-family: || define the font of page text || &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, Arial, Helvetica || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-family : &quot;Times New Roman&quot; }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times New Roman;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| font-size: || define the size of page text || 100%, 250%, 50% || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-size : 250% }&lt;/code&gt; || {{CPTh2|Hello}}
|-
| color: || changes the foreground colour of an element || green, brown, orange || &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : green }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| (EXTENSION) text-decoration: || Allows for underlining, strikethrough etc. || overline, underline, line-through || &lt;code&gt;h1 { text-decoration : underline }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;u&gt;Hello&lt;/u&gt;
|}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS rules}}
{{CPTQuestion|Write CSS rules to do the following:&lt;br /&gt;
Turn all heading 3s blue:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h3 { color : blue}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Turn all paragraphs red and itallic:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
p { color : red; font-style : italic}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=Turn all class=bbold: bold and blue}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.bbold { color : blue; font-weight: bold}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=Turn all class=uit: underlined and italic}}
{{CPTAnswer| 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.uit { text-decoration : underline; font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the three components of a CSS style rule:}}
{{CPTAnswer| 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
selector {property: value}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the three different types of selector and describe each:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* '''type''', selects all elements of a certain type on the page e.g. &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : red}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''class''', selects all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements &lt;code&gt;.classname { color : white}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''ID''', selects the item with the single ID that you have specified &lt;code&gt;#idname { color : blue}&lt;/code&gt;
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Describe the difference between HTML and CSS:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* '''HTML''' - Used for page structure
* '''CSS''' - a collection of rules about how to present an HTML document
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

=== Type ===
{{Dbox|Type rules|select all elements of a certain type on the page and apply styles to them}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt; h1 { color : green }&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

&lt;p&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is! &lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;Seriously!&lt;/p&gt;


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As we probably know, this would build the following page:
{{Webpage|My Website|{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This is my amazing website, look how great it is!

I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.

Seriously!}}
You might think my claims are a little over the top, but we could try to make the site better by adding some colour to the title using the following CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { color : green }
p { color : red; font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
We can't just place this directly into the page, we have to create a new section inside the &lt;code&gt;&lt;head&gt; &lt;/head&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tags, this is called embedding CSS, we'll look at another method, External Style Sheets later:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;style TYPE=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
    &lt;!--
    h1 { color : green }
    p { color : red; font-style : italic }
    --&gt;
    &lt;/style&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

&lt;p&gt; This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;Seriously!&lt;/p&gt;


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

What this will do is change the heading to green, and change each paragraph to red and italic:
{{Webpage|My Website|&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;color:green&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;p style{{=}}&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;''This is my amazing website, look how great it is!''&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p style{{=}}&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;''I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.''&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p style{{=}}&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;''Seriously!''&lt;/p&gt;}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS Type Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website2&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h2 { color : red }
h1 { color : blue; text-decoration : underline }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;blue&quot;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|&lt;u&gt;Contact Details&lt;/u&gt;}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;red&quot;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;red&quot;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

1010101@10100101.com}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
p { font-weight : bold }
h1 { font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website2|''{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
'''Please use the details below to get in contact'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Home: 0101010101010'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Mobile: 1010101010101'''

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

'''1010101@10100101.com'''}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write rules to produce the following output:
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;red&quot;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

1010101@10100101.com}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { color : red; }
h2 { text-decoration : underline}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write rules to produce the following output:
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style=&quot;style{{=}}&quot;background-color:yellow;&quot;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;style{{=}}&quot;background-color:red;&quot;&quot;&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;style{{=}}&quot;background-color:red;&quot;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { background-color : yellow; }
h2 { text-decoration : underline }
p { background-color : red}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{Robox/Close}}

=== Class ===
{{Dbox|Class rules|select all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;.classname {property1 : value1; property2 : value2}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take another look at the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


    &lt;p class=&quot;texts&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


    &lt;p class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

As you can see there are classes attached to some of the HTML tags, namely the 'textb' and 'texts' classes.  On their own they don't do anything, we need to write some CSS style rules to make them come to life, remember that a class selector starts with a (.).
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.textb { color : red; text-decoration : underline }
.texts { font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Webpage|My website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;red&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;red&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

''I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.''

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;red&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Seriously!&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS Class Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of the CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website3&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;txtt&quot;&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;h2 class=&quot;txtg&quot;&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p class=&quot;txtt&quot;&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p class=&quot;txtg&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.txtg { color : blue }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|1=
note that class=&quot;txtt&quot; does nothing as the CSS doesn't define it.
{{Webpage|My Website3|{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;blue&quot;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;blue&quot;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.txtg { color : red }
.txtt { text-decoration : underline; color : green }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website3|2=&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

=== ID ===
{{Dbox|ID rules|select the item with the single ID that you have specified. '''You can only apply an ID once in an HTML document.'''}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;#idname { color : blue }&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take yet another look at the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;A Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p id=&quot;para1&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


    &lt;p id=&quot;para2&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


    &lt;p id=&quot;para3&quot;&gt;Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, I have assigned an id to each of the paragraphs, this means that I can now style them separately from each other. Remember that an ID selector starts with a #.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#para1 { color : red }
#para2 { color : white }
#para3 { color : blue }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Webpage|A Website|
{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;red&quot;&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;white&quot;&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;blue&quot;&quot;&gt;Seriously!&lt;/span&gt;}}
Each id rule applies to a different paragraph, unfortunately I set #para2 to white, so you can't see it!
{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS ID Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of the CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website3&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 id=&quot;main&quot;&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;h2&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p id=&quot;txthighlight&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#main{ color : green }
#txthighlight{ background-color : yellow }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website3|
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}&quot;green&quot;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;style{{=}}&quot;background-color:yellow;&quot;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write the CSS to produce the following:
{{Webpage|My Website3|2=
''{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/div&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#main{ font-style : italic }
#txthighlight{ text-align : center }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{Robox/Close}}

== Style sheets (Cascading Style Sheets or CSS) ==
You should be pretty comfortable with the use of CSS rules, we are now going to look how these rules are linked with the HTML.  As we know the style (CSS) of a web page’s contents should to be separated from its structure (HTML), and when these two things come together, it creates the page that you see in your web browser.  There are two methods of linking style to structure that you need to know:

* '''Embedded style''', blocks of CSS information inside the HTML document
* '''External style sheets''', i.e., a separate CSS file referenced from the HTML document

=== Embedded style ===
Blocks of CSS information inside the HTML document. You can see that inside the head tag we have a block of CSS that applies to the HTML below it:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;style type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
    &lt;!--
    h1 { font-weight : 900 }
    .highlight {color : yellow }
    --&gt;
    &lt;/style&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== External style sheets ===
External style sheets use a separate file to store the style information (a .css file) and link the file from inside the HTML document.
----
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;home.html&lt;/div&gt;
----
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;link href=&quot;style.css&quot; rel=&quot;stylesheet&quot; type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
----
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;style.css&lt;/div&gt;
----
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { font-weight : 900 }
.highlight {color : yellow }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
----
As you can see above the HTML file links to the CSS file through the line:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;&lt;link href=&quot;style.css&quot; rel=&quot;stylesheet&quot; type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;.  You could get an HTML page to link to multiple CSS files and link a CSS file from multiple HTML files.
[[File:CPT-Web-CSS-external.svg|center|300px]]
External style sheets are a better way of linking CSS to HTML than embedding CSS in HTML as you can:
{{Plus|Link one CSS file to many HTML files to reuse the same style without needing to retype it}}
{{Plus|When changing the style of a website you only need to change the style information in one location and it'll filter through to all pages}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Types of style sheet}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the two different style sheets:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* external
* embedded
* (there is also inline but it's not pretty to use and not in the syllabus)
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Why might you prefer to use external style sheets on a large web site?}}
{{CPTAnswer|You can link the same style sheet from multiple pages and changes to the site style would only require changes to that one style sheet}}
{{Robox/Close}}

{{ExampleRobox|theme=6|title=Extension:CSS3}}
[[File:Html5 css3 styling.svg|thumb|center|100px]]
There is an awful lot more to learn about CSS and a new version is currently being released alongside HTML5.  Don't get left behind, learn all about [http://www.w3schools.com/css/default.asp CSS2] and [http://www.w3schools.com/css3/default.asp CSS3] at w3schools.
{{Robox/Close}}
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|}

{{epigraph|quote=''learn a lot teaching others''|cite=James Joyce, ''Ulysses'' 115.05}}

Welcome to the [[Main Page|Wikibook]] of annotations to James Joyce's novel ''Ulysses'', a [[w:wiki|wiki-based]] project which aims to provide readers of the novel with a comprehensive list of annotations explaining Joyce's innumerable quotations, allusions and references. When finished, it will also contain a list of errata and corrigenda to the original edition of 1922.

Please see the [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Contents|Contents]] page for a full list of the eighteen episodes into which ''Ulysses'' is divided. If you wish to browse individual pages of the novel, see the [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Page Index|Page Index]]. A PDF of the book will eventually be made available.

This Wikibook is a work in progress. Contributors are welcome and are encouraged to add their names or Wikibook Usernames to the [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Contributors|list of contributors]].

==Bibliography==
{{wikisource|Index:Ulysses, 1922.djvu|Ulysses}}
{{wikiquote|Ulysses_(novel)|Ulysses}}
* {{cite book
  |last = Joyce
  |first = James
  |title = Ulysses
  |publisher = Shakespeare and Company
  |year = 1922
  |place = Paris}}
* {{cite book
  |last1 = Gifford
  |first1 = Don
  |last2 = Seidman
  |first2 = Robert J.
  |title = Ulysses Annotated
  |publisher = University of California Press
  |year = 1988
  |isbn = 0-520-05639-6}}
* {{cite book
  |last = Thornton
  |first = Weldon
  |title = Allusions in Ulysses
  |publisher = The University of North Carolina Press
  |year = 1968
  |isbn = 0-8078-4089-0}}
* {{cite book
  |last = Bowen
  |first = Zack R.
  |title = Musical Allusions in the Works of James Joyce: Early Poetry through Ulysses
  |publisher = State University of New York Press
  |place = Albany
  |year = 1974
  |isbn = 0-87395-248-0}}
* {{cite book
  |last = Smith
  |first = James Penny
  |title = Musical Allusions in James Joyce's Ulysses
  |publisher = The University of North Carolina Press
  |year = 1968}}
* {{cite book
  |editor = Michael Groden ''et al.''
  |title = The James Joyce Archive
  |volume = 1-27
  |publisher = Garland Publishing
  |year = 1977-1979
  |location = New York}}
* {{cite book
  |last = Ellmann
  |first = Richard
  |title = James Joyce
  |publisher = Oxford University Press
  |location = New York
  |year = 1982
  |isbn = 0-19-503381-7}}
* {{cite book
  |last = Gorman
  |first = Herbert Sherman
  |title = James Joyce
  |publisher = Farrar &amp; Rinehart
  |location = New York
  |year = 1939}}
* {{cite book
  |last1 = Gunn
  |first1 = Ian
  |last2 = Hart
  |first2 = Clive
  |title = James Joyce's Dublin: A Topographical Guide to the Dublin of Ulysses
  |publisher = Thames and Hudson
  |year = 2004
  |isbn = 0-500-51159-4}}
* {{cite book 
  |title= An Irish-English Dictionary
  |last= Dinneen
  |first= Rev. Patrick S.
  |year= 1927
  |publisher= Irish Texts Society
  |location= Dublin
  |url= http://glg.csisdmz.ul.ie/index.php?mobile_display=false}}

==External links==
{{Reading level|intermediate}}
* [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/collections/JoyceColl The James Joyce Scholars' Collection]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20120622202300/http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/portal.html James Joyce Portal]
* [http://fracman.home.mchsi.com/ Joycean Essay Archive]
* [http://www.jamesjoyce.ie/ James Joyce Centre]

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==Contributors==
Contributors to the Wikibook ''Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses'' who would like their contributions to be acknowledged are encouraged to add their names or Wikibook Usernames to the following list:

* [[User:Erigena|Erigena]]
* [[User:robertwhyteus|Robert Whyte]]
* [[User:michaelwinn|Michael Winn]]

==Authors==
If you wish to be formally listed as an author of the Wikibook ''Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses'', please sign your name below.

According to the United States Code for registering a copyrighted work, you must include your nationality (what country you claim citizenship in) and the country you are currently residing in, if different. It is also suggested by the U.S. Copyright office to include the year you were born, for identification purposes. They also ask for the year of death, and if you know of a Wikibookian who has passed away, this would also be useful. Please add comments [[Talk:Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Contributors|in the discussion page]] if you have any reservations about giving this information out.

Bear in mind that this information is needed only if you want to be credited formally as the author of this Wikibook and have your information correctly cited in any formal registration procedure for this Wikibook. Efforts to get this information put into the general user record of MediaWiki have met with huge resistance even on a voluntary basis, so this is the only forum for you to even put this sort of information out to the public.  This information may also be needed for enforcement of copyright laws in the unfortunate situation where somebody copies this Wikibook contrary to the terms of the GFDL. An attempt to contact you would then be done to see if you would be willing to enforce your copyright for this Wikibook.

Anonymous authors include those who made edits without logging in as a User.  While edits of this nature are appreciated, it is not possible to give credit to the contributor unless they have created a Wikibooks account.

* [[User:Erigena|Erigena]], '''Brendan Ward''', Dublin, Ireland (1964)
* [[User:robertwhyteus|Robert Whyte]], '''Robert Whyte''', Brisbane, Australia (1955)
* [[User:michaelwinn|Michael Winn]], '''Michael Winn''', Pt, Loma, United States (1939)

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      <text bytes="3395" sha1="j724xgmwc82y9xgvnjx289i02gtnlpr" xml:space="preserve">These ''Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses'' are based on the original edition of the novel, published by Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare and Company in Paris on 2 February 1922. Episode divisions and titles, though not present in the ''editio princeps'', have been added to avoid confusion and to aid the modern reader. Joyce himself divided the novel into three parts, to which he gave the titles the ''Telemachia'', the ''Odyssey'' and the ''Nostos'' (or &quot;Return Home&quot;), though these titles were suppressed when the book was published.&lt;ref&gt;* {{cite book
  |editor1-first= Stuart
  |editor1-last= Gilbert
  |title = Letters of James Joyce
  |volume = I:113
  |publisher = Viking Press
  |location = New York
  |year = 1957}}&lt;/ref&gt; I have adopted the standard spellings used by contemporary Joyceans. Joyce's idiosyncratic spellings derive from Victor Bérard's two-volume ''Les Phéniciens et l’Odyssée'', which he consulted in 1918 in the [[w:Zentralbibliothek Zürich|Central library of Zürich]].&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Ulysses (novel)#Structure|Ulysses]].&lt;/ref&gt; All eighteen titles occur in the two [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Appendices/Schemata|schemata]] which became public after the appearance of the novel and which outline its structure and Homeric parallels.

== Contents ==
*[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Dust Jacket|Dust Jacket]]
*[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Title Page|Title Page]]
*[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Colophon|Colophon]]

'''Part I: The Telemachia'''
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Telemachus|Episode 1, Telemachus]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Nestor|Episode 2, Nestor]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus|Episode 3, Proteus]]

'''Part II: The Odyssey'''
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Calypso|Episode 4, Calypso]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Lotus Eaters|Episode 5, Lotus Eaters]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Hades|Episode 6, Hades]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Aeolus|Episode 7, Aeolus]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Lestrygonians|Episode 8, Lestrygonians]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Scylla and Charybdis|Episode 9, Scylla and Charybdis]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Wandering Rocks|Episode 10, Wandering Rocks]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Sirens|Episode 11, Sirens]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Cyclops|Episode 12, Cyclops]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Nausicaa|Episode 13, Nausicaa]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Oxen of the Sun|Episode 14, Oxen of the Sun]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Circe|Episode 15, Circe]]

'''Part III: The Nostos'''
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Eumaeus|Episode 16, Eumaeus]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Ithaca|Episode 17, Ithaca]]
* [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Penelope|Episode 18, Penelope]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
'''ULYSSES BY JAMES JOYCE'''{{spaces|5}}The paper wrapper or dust jacket with which copies of the original edition of ''Ulysses'' were covered featured the two colours of the Greek flag - blue and white - at Joyce's own request.

On 2 February 1922 Joyce, his future wife Nora Barnacle and a number of their friends went to Ferrari's restaurant in Paris to celebrate the publication of ''Ulysses'', which had taken place that very day, the author's fortieth birthday.

{{epigraph|quote=''He had brought with him a package containing his copy of ''Ulysses'', and placed it under his chair. Nora remarked that he had thought about the book for sixteen years, and spent seven years writing it. Everyone asked to see it opened, but he seemed to shrink from producing it. After the dessert he at last untied the parcel and laid the book on the table. It was bound in the Greek colours - white letters on a blue field - that he considered lucky for him, and suggesting the myth of Greece and Homer, the white island raising from the sea.''&lt;ref&gt;Nutting had mixed the exact shade of blue for him, since the binders could not get it right and needed something to copy. [Ellmann's footnote. Myron Nutting (1890-1972) was an American artist who became acquainted with Joyce in Paris in 1921; Ellmann (op. cit.), p. 516.]&lt;/ref&gt; ''There was a toast to the book and its author which left Joyce deeply moved.''|cite=Richard Ellmann, ''James Joyce'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, Revised edition (1982), p. 524.}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
'''ULYSSES'''{{spaces|5}}''Ulysses'' is the dominant English form (and the form used across Europe, with slight variations) of standard Latin ''Ulixēs''. The name itself corresponds to Ancient Greek ''[[wikipedia:Odysseus#Name,_etymology,_and_epithets|Ὀδυσσεύς]]'' (''Odysseus''): the hero of Homer's ''Odyssey''. The Latin ''[[wikt:Ulysses|Ulyssēs]]'' is a less classical variant, used in standard English translations of Homer's epic (e.g. [[w:George Chapman|George Chapman]], [[w:John Dryden|John Dryden]], [[w:Alexander Pope|Alexander Pope]], [[w:Samuel Butler|Samuel Butler]]). In particular, Joyce was familiar from a young age with [[w:Charles Lamb|Charles Lamb's]] ''The Adventures of Ulysses''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=46}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1895, when he was in his third year at Belvedere College, Joyce chose Ulysses as his subject for an essay entitled &quot;My Favourite Hero&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Gorman |first=Herbert Sherman |year=1939 |publisher=Farrar &amp; Rinehart |location=New York |page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''PRONUNCIATION OF THE TITLE'''{{spaces|5}}''Ulysses'' has traditionally been stressed on the second syllable, in accord with [[wikt:Ulysses|the original Latin]]. It still is, in US English especially. But often it is stressed on the first syllable instead, notably [[wikipedia:Odysseus|in the UK and Ireland]] when referring to the novel. Whichever syllable Joyce himself stressed, he pronounced the word as &quot;oulissays&quot; or &quot;oolissays&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=230 ''n''}}&lt;/ref&gt; very close to the original Latin (no initial &quot;y&quot; sound, for example).

'''SHAKESPEARE AND COMPANY'''{{spaces|5}}[[w:Shakespeare and Company (bookstore)|Shakespeare and Company]] was a bookstore founded by an American expatriate [[w:Sylvia Beach|Sylvia Beach]] in Paris. It originally opened at 8 Rue Depuytren on 17 November 1919 before moving to larger premises at 12 Rue de l'Odéon in 1922. Joyce first met Beach at a literary soirée at the poet [[w:André Spire|André Spire's]] house at [[W:Neuilly-sur-Seine|Neuilly-sur-Seine]] on 11 July 1920. Fittingly, Beach first approached Joyce in Spire's library. The following day Joyce visited her bookshop and the two became fast friends. Sylvia Beach went on to publish ''Ulysses'' on 2 February 1922.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |pages=488–489}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''RUE DE L'ODÉON'''{{spaces|5}}The [[w:Rue de l'Odéon|Rue de l'Odéon]] is a street in the [[w:Odéon|Odéon]] quarter of the [[w:6th arrondissement of Paris|6th arrondissement of Paris]] on the [[w:Rive Gauche (Paris)|Left Bank]]. The French poet [[w:Adrienne Monnier|Adrienne Monier's]] bookshop, ''La Maison des amis des livres'', was located at No. 7. In 1922 her lover Sylvia Beach moved her bookshop, Shakespeare and Company, to No. 12. On his second visit to Paris in early 1903, Joyce regularly dined at a café in the nearby Carrefour de l'Odéon.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Gorman |first=Herbert Sherman |year=1939 |publisher=Farrar &amp; Rinehart |location=New York |page=100}}&lt;br&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=123}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
'''1000 COPIES'''{{spaces|5}}A further 20 copies were printed, without dust jackets, on mixed paper and marked, ''press copy''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=3587503691&amp;searchurl=an%3Djoyce%26bi%3Ds%26sgnd%3Don%26sortby%3D1%26tn%3Dulysses AbeBooks.]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''DUTCH HANDMADE PAPER'''{{spaces|5}}Holland handmade paper.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=3587503691&amp;searchurl=an%3Djoyce%26bi%3Ds%26sgnd%3Don%26sortby%3D1%26tn%3Dulysses AbeBooks.]&lt;/ref&gt; These copies sold for 350 francs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=504}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''VERGÉ D'ARCHES'''{{spaces|5}}A type of [[:w:laid paper|laid paper]] that is manufactured in the French town of [[:w:Arches, Vosges|Arches]] and reserved for deluxe editions of books. These copies sold for 250 francs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=504}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''HANDMADE PAPER'''{{spaces|5}}Linen handmade paper, which was slightly less expensive than the paper used for the first 250 copies.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=3587503691&amp;searchurl=an%3Djoyce%26bi%3Ds%26sgnd%3Don%26sortby%3D1%26tn%3Dulysses AbeBooks.]&lt;/ref&gt; These copies sold for 150 francs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=504}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''typographical errors'''''{{spaces|5}}The original edition of ''Ulysses'' contains more than 2000 errata.&lt;ref&gt;Jack Dalton, ''The Text of Ulysses'', in Fritz Senn, ed. ''New Light on Joyce from the Dublin Symposium''. Indiana University Press (1972), p.102.&lt;/ref&gt; Several factors contributed to this outcome: Sylvia Beach's inexperience as a publisher;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ellmann |first1=Richard |year=1982 |title=Ulysses: A Short History |journal=Ulysses |publisher=Penguin Books Ltd |page=714}}&lt;/ref&gt; Joyce's poor eyesight, which made it difficult for him to correct galleys;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Gorman |first=Herbert Sherman |year=1939 |publisher=Farrar &amp; Rinehart |location=New York |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt; the book's printer Maurice Darantière's inexperience at typesetting English texts;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Gorman |first=Herbert Sherman |year=1939 |publisher=Farrar &amp; Rinehart |location=New York |pages=286–287}} Gorman suggests that this may have been as much an advantage as a disadvantage, given the book's idiosyncrasies.&lt;/ref&gt; Joyce's many late changes to the text;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ellmann |first1=Richard |year=1982 |title=Ulysses: A Short History |journal=Ulysses |publisher=Penguin Books Ltd |page=714}}&lt;br&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Gorman |first=Herbert Sherman |year=1939 |publisher=Farrar &amp; Rinehart |location=New York |pages=287–288}} Joyce, it seems, treated the galleys as drafts to be improved upon, whereas he should have been searching them for typographical errors.&lt;/ref&gt; the avant-garde nature of the work.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Gorman |first=Herbert Sherman |year=1939 |publisher=Farrar &amp; Rinehart |location=New York |page=287}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''S. B.'''''{{spaces|5}}[[:w:Sylvia Beach|Sylvia Beach]], proprietor of the Parisian bookstore [[:w:Shakespeare and Company|Shakespeare and Company]]. She published Joyce's ''Ulysses'' on 2 February 1922. The printer was Maurice Darantière of [[w:Dijon|Dijon]]. See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Title Page|Title Page]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

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  <page>
    <title>Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Calypso</title>
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      <text bytes="1190" sha1="r6vxnz24uy861aazumcgpuo6robyvt8" xml:space="preserve">==Contents==
The following list contains links to the initial page of the '''Odyssey''' and to each of the fifteen pages of its first episode '''Calypso'''. Page 52 is blank. The pagination is that of the original edition of ''Ulysses'', published in Paris on 2 February 1922.

'''Status''' of this episode: as of December 2020, the only annotations are on page 61.

'''Episode 4: Calypso'''
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*[[/051|Page 51]]
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*[[/067|Page 67]]
}}

{| style=&quot;width: 26%; margin: 0px auto;&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot;
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{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Cyclops</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="1708" sha1="pzb1mp0n60r4z04xlvxzjs9bbb58hwh" xml:space="preserve">==Contents==
The following list contains links to each of the fifty-one pages of the twelfth episode '''Cyclops'''. The pagination is that of the original edition of ''Ulysses'', published in Paris on 2 February 1922.

'''Episode 12: Cyclops'''
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}}

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  <page>
    <title>Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Oxen of the Sun</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="1566" sha1="66rxdt6y6vzhc05rgwuy9hlm63fbpmg" xml:space="preserve">==Contents==
The following list contains links to each of the forty-two pages of the fourteenth episode '''Oxen of the Sun'''. The pagination is that of the original edition of ''Ulysses'', published in Paris on 2 February 1922.

'''Episode 14: Oxen of the Sun'''
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{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Penelope</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>3795148</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:40:34Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="1668" sha1="qo0igx4wcmh7bmkfnd68fz360dgbesu" xml:space="preserve">==Contents==
The following list contains links to each of the forty-three pages of the eighteenth episode '''Penelope'''. The pagination is that of the original edition of ''Ulysses'', published in Paris on 2 February 1922.

'''Status''' of this episode: as of December 2020, annotations exist for about one tenth of the pages only.

'''Episode 18: Penelope'''
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*[[/690|Page 690]]
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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==

{| style=&quot;width: 26%; margin: 0px auto;&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot;
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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''S'''{{spaces|5}}''Ulysses'' opens and closes with the serpentine letter ''S''. This has been compared to the figures of serpents in the ''[[w:Book of Kells|Book of Kells]]'' that have their tails in their mouths ([[w:ouroboros|ouroboros]]): ''Ulysses'' is a closed circle, ending where it began. In ''[[w:Finnegans Wake|Finnegans Wake]]'' Joyce achieved a similar effect by linking the opening and closing sentences of the book so that the former completes the latter.

Joyce was greatly influenced by the ''Book of Kells''. Referring to Edward Sullivan's ''The Book of Kells'' (a facsimile of some pages of the manuscript with a commentary), he once told his young Irish friend Arthur Power: &quot;In all the places I have been to, Rome, Zurich, Trieste, I have taken it about with me, and have pored over its workmanship for hours. It is the most purely Irish thing we have, and some of the big initial letters which swing right across a page have the essential character of a chapter of ''Ulysses''.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce |last=Ellmann |first=Richard |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-281465-6 |page=545}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''S'''{{spaces|5}}The three parts into which Joyce divides ''Ulysses'' open with significant letters:
:Part I (''The Telemachiad''): '''''S'''''
:Part II (''The Odyssey''): '''''M'''''
:Part III (''The Nostos''): '''''P'''''
These letters are the initials of the novel's three protagonists: ''S''tephen Dedalus, ''M''olly (Marion) Bloom and ''P''oldy (Leopold) Bloom.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last=Gifford | first=Don | last2=Seidman | first2=Robert J. | title=Ulysses Annotated | publisher=University of California press | publication-place=Berkeley Los Angeles London |page=12| date=1988 | isbn=0-520-05639-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''S'', ''M'' and ''P'' are also significant in the context of Aristotelian logic. In a [[w:syllogism|syllogism]] there are three terms: the subject, the middle term and the predicate. These are conventionally represented by the letters ''S'', ''M'' and ''P'' respectively. In the original 1922 edition, Episode 17 (''Ithaca'') ended with a large black period, which was once used as a conventional sign for [[w:Q.E.D.|Q.E.D.]] at the end of a formal proof or demonstration. Thus ''Ulysses'' is a polemical work with a logical structure.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford, ''Ibid.''&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Stately'''{{spaces|5}}For all his cynicism and neo-paganism, Buck Mulligan is identified as an upholder of church and state.

'''plump'''{{spaces|5}}(1) Fat, chubby. Joyce's principal model for Buck Mulligan, [[w:Oliver St. John Gogarty|Oliver St. John Gogarty]], was hardly ''plump''. Ellmann writes that when Joyce first met Gogarty in the National Library in 1903, Gogarty was &quot;handsome, lithe though inclined to fat, prosperous and merry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ellmann, ''op. cit.'' 117.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1904 Gogarty attended [[w:University of Oxford|Oxford]], where, in his own words, he &quot;became mentally and physically ''pinguis'' [Latin: ''fat'']&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Many Lines to Thee: Letters to G. K. A. Bell 1904-1907 |last=St John Gogarty |first=Oliver |editor=James F. Carens |year=1971 |publisher=Dolmen |location=Ireland |page=29}}&lt;/ref&gt; Whether plump is an accurate description of Gogarty, there is no doubt that Joyce intended Buck Mulligan to be fat: in ''Oxen of the Sun'' ([[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Oxen of the Sun/384|384.33-36]]), Dixon jocosely inquires whether Mulligan's &quot;incipient ventripotence&quot; indicates that he is pregnant. It is possible that, in the Shakespearean context of ''Ulysses'', Joyce intended Mulligan to represent the fat knight [[w:Falstaff|Falstaff]] to Stephen's [[w:Prince Hal|Prince Hal]].

'''plump'''{{spaces|5}}(2) Blunt (in manners); crude; rude; clownish.&lt;ref&gt;''Oxford English Dictionary.''&lt;/ref&gt; These adjectives accurately describe Mulligan's character.

'''Buck Mulligan'''{{spaces|5}}Malachi Mulligan is a portrait of Oliver St. John Gogarty, a young writer and medical student with whom Joyce (portrayed here as Stephen Dedalus) lived for six nights (9-14 June 1904) in the [[w:Martello tower|Martello Tower]] at [[w:Sandycove|Sandycove]]. According to the two [[w:Linati schema for Ulysses|schemas]] which Joyce provided for ''Ulysses'', Buck Mulligan here represents [[w:Antinous son of Eupeithes|Antinous]], the leader of the suitors of [[w:Penelope|Penelope]] in the ''[[w:Odyssey|Odyssey]]''. As Stephen represents [[:w:Prince Hamlet|Hamlet]] as well as the ''Odyssey's'' [[w:Telemachus|Telemachus]], Mulligan can also be identified with [[w:King Claudius|Claudius]].

The first sentence in Ulysses is rated by The Guardian &lt;ref&gt;http://www.theguardian.com/culture/gallery/2012/apr/29/ten-best-first-lines-fiction#_=_&lt;/ref&gt; as one of the 10 best first lines in fiction.

'''stairhead'''{{spaces|5}}A [[wikt:stairhead|stairhead]] is a level space at the top of a flight of steps. In the Martello tower at Sandycove, a narrow spiral staircase of stone steps leads from the interior of the tower to the roof or [[wikt:terreplein|terreplein]]. Buck Mulligan, in mockery of the Catholic ceremony of the [[w:Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], has just ascended these steps in imitation of a Catholic priest ascending the steps to the altar.

'''bearing'''{{spaces|5}}A more solemn word than ''carrying''. One also ''[[wikt:bear#Etymology 2|bears arms]]'', appropriate here, as Mulligan and Stephen will [[wikt:cross swords|cross swords]] in this episode. The military setting in the Martello tower underscores the sense or meaning Joyce assigned to this episode in the Linati schema: ''Il figlio spodestato alla lotta'' (&quot;The dispossessed son in combat&quot;).

'''bowl'''{{spaces|5}}Mulligan's shaving bowl represents the [[w:chalice|chalice]] that holds the wine, which becomes the blood of Christ in the Mass.

'''razor'''{{spaces|5}}The first of many allusions in this episode to blades and cutting. Mulligan is a shaver, and also a future surgeon, but the deadliest weapon in this episode is neither the razor nor the scalpel. Rather than belonging to Mulligan, it is in the possession of Stephen (at least as he sees it). It is ''the lancet'' of his (Stephen's) art, the ''cold steel pen''. This allusion is a play on the phrase &quot;the pen is mightier than the sword&quot;.

'''''Introibo ad altare Dei'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''I will go in to the altar of God.'' The Latin [[w:Tridentine Mass|Tridentine Mass]] opens with the ''Prayers at the Foot of the Altar''. After making the [[w:Sign of the Cross|Sign of the Cross]], the priest and his servers intone an [[wikt:antiphon|antiphon]] based on Psalm 43 (Vulgate 42), ''Iudica Me, Deus'' (''Judge Me, O God''), the fourth verse of which Mulligan quotes. By intoning these words ''after'' he has ascended the steps, Mulligan has perverted the order of the liturgy.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/tutorial/ordo-missae-1.html Prayers at the Foot of the Altar]&lt;/ref&gt;

Joyce preferred to indicate spoken dialogue with a dash, in the Continental manner, rather than with inverted commas. The latter were used, against the author's wishes, in ''[[w:Dubliners|Dubliners]]'' and the first two editions of ''[[w:A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man|A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Hans Walter Gabler, ''A Note on the Text'', in James Joyce, ''Dubliners'', Vintage International (1993), page 233.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Chrysostomos'''{{spaces|5}}(''Greek'') ''Χρυσόστομος'' is Greek for ''golden-mouthed'', a common epithet meaning ''[[wikt:eloquent|eloquent]]'', though here it refers literally to Mulligan's [[w:Gold teeth|gold-pointed teeth]].&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 14.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 12.&lt;/ref&gt; The epithet was applied to [[w:John Chrysostom|St John Chrysostomos]], one of the fathers of the Greek church, whose name recalls that of [[w:Oliver St. John Gogarty|Oliver ''St John'' Gogarty]], Joyce's principal model for Buck Mulligan. On 16 June, the feast of the [[wikt:confessor|confessor]] [[w:St. John Francis Regis|St John Francis Regis]], the fourth lesson of the [[w:Nocturns|Second Nocturn]] would have been taken from one of John Chrysostom's sermons.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/romanbreviaryref03cath#page/457/mode/1up John, Marquess of Bute (translator), ''The Roman Breviary'' (1908) 457.]&lt;/ref&gt;

In Ireland [[w:Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] was known as ''Grigoir Belóir'' (''Gregory of the Golden Mouth'').&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100005A/index.html ''Annals of the Four Masters'' M590.4] and [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100005A/index.html ''Annála Ríoghachta Éireann'' M590.4.]&lt;/ref&gt;

There was also, reputedly, an Irish  saint of the 6th-century known as ''Greoihir Belóir'' (''Gregory of the Golden Mouth''). He lived in a cave in the [[w:Aran Islands|Aran Islands]]. A local myth recounts that he bit off his lower lip while fretting over his sins, and a golden lip grew in its place.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/irishlocallegend00ohan#page/n44/mode/1up John O'Hanlon, ''Irish Local Legends'' 27-29.]&lt;/ref&gt; Gregory's Sound, between Inishmore and Inishmaan, is named after him. [[w:John Millington Synge|John Millington Synge]] mentions the Bay of Gregory of the Golden Mouth in his one-act play ''[[w:Riders to the Sea|Riders to the Sea]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.one-act-plays.com/dramas/riders_to_the_sea.html ''Riders to the Sea''.]&lt;/ref&gt;

In his early satire ''Gas from a Burner'' (1912), Joyce refers to [[w:Augusta, Lady Gregory|Lady Gregory]] as ''Gregory of the Golden Mouth''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://groups.google.com/group/alt.books.james-joyce/msg/9293e8a84ff978c9 ''Gas from a Burner'' 42.]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Two strong shrill whistles''' The two whistles represent the [[w:Sacring-Bell|sacring bell]], which is rung during the elevation of the consecrated Host during Mass. The origin of these helpful whistles is still a mystery. There are two obvious sources: (1) the mailboat, which is just about to leave Kingtown Harbour, about 1200 metres away (see [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Telemachus/005|005.17]]) (2) a train arriving at Sandycove Railway Station, about 900 metres away.

In the live reading of ''Ulysses'', broadcast in 1982 on ''[[w:Raidió Teilifís Éireann|Raidió Éireann]]'' to commemorate Joyce's centenary, the two whistles were represented by two blasts of a ship's whistle. But the resulting sound is hardly ''shrill'', sounding more like a tuba than a piccolo.

I prefer the train whistle, which is normally of much higher pitch than a ship's whistle. In the final episode of ''Ulysses'', Molly hears two train whistles (see [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Penelope/706|706.05]] and [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Penelope/713|713.11]]). It is possible that Joyce intended a connection between these two events, linking the novel's most [[w:Mephistopheles|Mephistophelean]] character at the beginning of the book with the [[w:Eternal feminine|Ever-Womanly]] Molly at the end. Molly's bedroom at 7 Eccles Street is only about 600 metres from [[w:Drumcondra railway station|Drumcondra Railway Station]].

'''Is Buck Mulligan Sancho Panza?''' To raise a possible parallel with or echo of Cervantes, Roger B. Salomon&lt;ref&gt;Desperate Storytelling: Post-Romantic Elaborations of the Mock-Heroic Mode, Roger B. Salomon University of Georgia Press, July, 2008 [https://books.google.com.au/books?id=SgxTSovLB4YC&amp;dq=is+Buck+Mulligan+sancho+Panza%3F&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s]&lt;/ref&gt; suggests Joyce in Portrait and Ulysses has Stephen play out the mock-heroic mode invented by Cervantes in Don Quixote, combining both nostalgic creator and ironic critic. (The mock hero aligns his deepest emotional attachments to dead mythologies and forgotten codes of ethics;  an alienated figure in a landscape hostile to the possibility of any kind of attainment. The reader is witness to a dialogue between the real and a faded ideal, between the sensible and the admirable.) He suggests Buck Mulligan plays the part of both supportive friend and deflating realist a la Sancho Panza in Don Quixote. This role, though in a more kindly and distant way, seems to transfer to Leopold Bloom.  This is just one thread in a myriad of literary allusions Joyce draws upon, but nevertheless a powerful one.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

004.13 {{spaces|5}} '''Two dactyls''' Buck Mulligan's real name, Malachi Mulligan, contains two groupings of three syllables. A dactyl is a metrical foot used in poetry which contains a stress on the first syllable, as ''Mal''*ach*i ''Mull''*i*gan.&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactyl_(poetry)] ''Dactyl (poetry'' Wikipedia article.&lt;/ref&gt;

004.17 '''Jejune''' {{spaces|5}} Mulligan's modifier for &quot;jesuit&quot; reflects the tone of the chapter towards the Catholic faith, tradition, and liturgy.&lt;br /&gt;
{{spaces|5}} (1) without interest or significance; dull; insipid: a jejune novel. &lt;br /&gt;
{{spaces|5}} (2) juvenile; immature; childish: jejune behavior.&lt;br /&gt;
{{spaces|5}} (3) lacking knowledge or experience; uninformed: jejune attempts to design a house.&lt;ref&gt;[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/jejune] ''Jejune'' Dictionary.com article&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
005.12 '''Algy calls it . . . mother?''' {{spaces|5}} Algernon &quot;Algy&quot; Charles Swinburne, a Victorian poet, wrote these words in the poem &quot;A Triumph of Time.&quot; On line 257 and 258, he writes &quot;I will go back to the great sweet mother,/Mother and lover of men, the sea.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/swinburne/triumph.html &quot;A Triumph of Time&quot; by A. C. Swinburne] ''The Poems of Algernon Charles Swinburne'', 6 volumes, London: Chatto &amp; Windus, 1904.&lt;/ref&gt; The imagery of the sea here is feminine and sexual, set in direct apposition to Buck's use of &quot;snotgreen&quot; and &quot;scrotumtightening&quot; as descriptors of the sea.

005.13 '''''Epi oinopa ponton'''''{{spaces|5}}(''[[w:Homeric Greek|Homeric Greek]]'') ''Upon the wine-coloured sea''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 15.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 12.&lt;/ref&gt; The Homeric epithet ''ἐπὶ οἴνοπα πόντον'' occurs several times in the ''[[w:Odyssey|Odyssey]]'', the first occurrence being at 1:183.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0135%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D178 ''Odyssey'' 1:178-229.]&lt;/ref&gt; The precise meaning of ''οἴνοπα'' (''wine-faced, wine-dark, wine-coloured'', or something else) has been endlessly debated by scholars. Nevertheless, this phrase remains perhaps the best-known quotation from ancient Greek literature, one which scholars of the language are sure to encounter in their first months of study. By putting this quote into Mulligan's mouth, Joyce is not doing Mulligan's scholarship any favours. Ironically, the Classical Greek which Mulligan would have learned at Oxford was not [[w:Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching|pronounced]] according to the reconstructed pronunciation of Ancient Greek; the Classical Association, which promoted the introduction of a more authentic pronunciation, was only founded in 1903.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.classicalassociation.org/ The Classical Association.]&lt;/ref&gt; So Mulligan has almost as little experience of the Greeks ''in the original'' as Stephen.

005.15 '''''Thalatta! Thalatta!'''''{{spaces|5}}(''[[w:Attic Greek|Attic Greek]]'') ''The sea! The sea!''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 15.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 13.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[w:Thalatta! Thalatta!|θάλαττα θάλαττα]]'' is a familiar quotation from the ''[[w:Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]]'' (''The Inland Expedition'') of [[w:Xenophon|Xenophon]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D7%3Asection%3D24 Xenophon, ''Anabasis'' 4:7:24.]&lt;/ref&gt; The joyful cry of the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries upon finally reaching the Black Sea is one of the best-known quotations from ancient Greek literature. Joyce is once again undermining Mulligan's scholarship by having him quote such a familiar phrase.

005.24 '''hyperborean''' {{spaces|5}} A word comprised of &quot;hyper-,&quot; a Greek term meaning beyond or above, and &quot;borean,&quot; a term referring to the north wind.&lt;ref&gt;[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hyperborean] Dictionary.com definition of &quot;Hyperborean.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Hyperboreans were said to live in a land beyond where the north wind dwelt in Thrace. This mythical land was perfect, and the sun shone all the time, perhaps suggesting a place within the arctic circle. In Joyce, &quot;Hyperborean&quot; is used to refer to a character's Celtic origin, having come from Asia and settled in Ireland, beyond the north wind.&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Hyperborea|Hyperborea]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
006.12 '''bowsy''' {{spaces|5}} Gurrier, lout; an uncouth or aggressive young man.&lt;ref&gt;[http://homepage.tinet.ie/~nobyrne/b.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;

006.23 '''g. p. i.''' {{spaces|5}} General Paresis of the Insane is a kind of paralytic dementia which affects the brain and nervous system, resulting in seizures and other muscular reflex abnormalities. At the time, doctors did not know that GPI was caused by syphilitic infection.&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_paresis_of_the_insane General Paresis of the Insane]&lt;/ref&gt; Here, Buck Mulligan refers to GPI as Genera Paralysis of the Insane, when it is not &quot;Paralysis,&quot; but &quot;Paresis.&quot; Despite his medical background (014.18, 19), he is still ignorant of this fact.

006.31 '''dogsbody''' {{spaces|5}}  someone who does drudge work.&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogsbody]&lt;/ref&gt;

006.34 '''Ursula'''  {{spaces|5}} In Christian legend [[Wikipedia:Saint Ursula|Saint Ursula]] was massacred along with 11,000 virginal handmaidens in (probably) the 4th century AD. Mulligan's reference stresses the supposed commitment to virginity of his aunt's servant. 

006.36 '''Caliban . . . mirror''' {{spaces|5}} [[Wikipedia:Caliban|Caliban]] is, most famously, a monstrous character in William Shakespeare's play ''The Tempest.'' However, the reference to the mirror is from another work: Oscar Wilde's preface to ''The Picture of Dorian Gray''. In it, Wilde says that &quot;The nineteenth century dislike of Realism is that of Caliban seeing his own face in the glass. The nineteenth century dislike of Romanticism is that of Caliban not seeing his own face in the glass.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26740 ''The Picture of Dorian Gray'' by Oscar Wilde. London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, &amp; co. (1916)]&lt;/ref&gt; As Mulligan pulls the mirror away from Daedalus' face, he says &quot;If only Wilde could see you now,&quot; as if to suggest that Daedalus has somehow opposed Wilde's aphorism.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
007.30 '''Matthew Arnold''' {{spaces|5}} [[w:Matthew Arnold|Matthew_Arnold]] was a poet who lived from 1822 to 1888 and wrote mostly on contemporary social issues.&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Arnold Wikipedia's page on Matthew Arnold]&lt;/ref&gt; The significance of a deaf gardener masked with Arnold's face is that the social critic is totally focused on what he can see--&quot;watching narrowly the dancing motes of grasshalms&quot;—rather than anything he can perceive with other senses.

007.32 '''omphalos'''{{spaces|5}}(''Homeric Greek'') ''navel'', ''centre''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 17.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 15.&lt;/ref&gt; In the ''[[w:Odyssey|Odyssey]]'', the island of [[w:Ogygia|Ogygia]], on which Odysseus is being detained by the nymph Calypso at the beginning of the epic, is described thus:

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Odyssey 1:48-50&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0135%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D44 ''Odyssey'' 1:48-50.]&lt;/ref&gt;'''''&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''ἀλλά μοι ἀμφ᾽ Ὀδυσῆι δαΐφρονι δαίεται ἦτορ,''
''δυσμόρῳ, ὃς δὴ δηθὰ φίλων ἄπο πήματα πάσχει''
''νήσῳ ἐν ἀμφιρύτῃ, ὅθι τ᾽ '''ὀμφαλός''' ἐστι θαλάσσης.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
| &lt;poem&gt;''But my heart is torn for wise Odysseus,''
''Hapless man, who far from his friends has long been suffering woes''
''In a sea-girt isle, where is the '''navel''' of the sea''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

Several locations have been identified with Ogygia, including Ireland. See also [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Telemachus/017|017.31]], [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus/038|038.14]] and [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Oxen of the Sun/383|383.32]].

The term ''[[wikt:omphalos|omphalos]]'' has a number of meanings which resonate throughout ''Ulysses'':&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=James Joyce's Ulysses: A Study |last=Gilbert |first=Stuart |year=1930}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:'''[[wikt:navel|Navel]]'''{{spaces|5}}symbolical of birth and the interconnectedness of all life; the seat of the soul and the point at which mystics stare while meditating. Stephen may be suggesting that contemporary Irish nationalism was little more than self-centred [[wikt:navel-gazing|navel-gazing]]. See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus/038|038.11 ff.]]

:'''Centre of the world'''{{spaces|5}}The [[w:Pythia|Oracle of Delphi]] was believed to be located at the centre of the world, which was represented by a stone known as the ''[[w:Omphalos|omphalos]]''.

In some editions of ''Ulysses'', the word ''omphalos'' is italicized. See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Telemachus/017|017.31]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
008.30 '''Sir Peter Teazle''' {{spaces|5}} [[w:Sir Peter Teazle|Sir_Peter_Teazle]] is a humorous figure in Richard Sheridan’s satire, “The School For Scandal.”

008.32 '''hired mute from Lalouette's''' {{spaces|5}} In the [[w:Victorian era|Victorian_era]], mourners were commonly hired for funerals to add to the atmosphere. These people were dressed in dull colors and stood near the entrance to the home or church, looking somber. Lalouette's, Gifford and Seidman note, was a Dublin mortuary whose rental services included mutes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://joyceproject.com/notes/010070mutes.htm The Joyce Project]&lt;/ref&gt; Mulligan's reference would have been obvious to Daedalus, because mutes had been in common use since Elizabethan England, and Lalouette's was famous in the region.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
009.13 '''Sassenach''' {{spaces|5}} &quot;Sassenach&quot; is a Gàidhlig loanword, denoting &quot;Saxon.&quot; It bears a disparaging meaning, and is often used in jest.&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons Wikipedia's page on Saxon]&lt;/ref&gt;

009.20-22 '''''And no more . . . brazen cars''''' {{spaces|5}} These words are from a poem by William Butler Yeats titled ''Who Goes with Fergus.'' &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/who-goes-with-fergus/ ''Who Goes with Fergus'' by William Butler Yeats]&lt;/ref&gt; In the following paragraph, 'Woodshadows' and 'white breast of the dim sea' also refer to this poem. Joyce repeatedly quotes poems by Yeats, perhaps to reinforce his statement about the cracked mirror as &quot;a symbol of Irish art&quot; on page 007.02.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spectacle.org/398/thoughts.html Five Ideas about Joyce]&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
010.05 '''I am the boy . . . invisibility''' {{spaces|5}} From a popular musical of the day called ''Turko the Terrible.'' In it, King Turko sings about how he will use his newfound gift of invisibility, given him by a rose.&lt;ref&gt;[http://joyceproject.com/notes/010078invisibility.htm The Joyce Project]&lt;/ref&gt; Daedalus' mother hid that she attended bawdy shows, and this poem is used to illustrate that fact.

010.09 '''And no more . . . brood''' {{spaces|5}} From the same Yeats poem as 009.20.

010.21 '''''Liliata rutilantium te confessorum turma circumdet : iubilantium te virginum chorus excipiat'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''May the lilied throng of radiant Confessors encompass thee; may the choir of rejoicing Virgins welcome thee.'' These words are taken from the ''Ordo Commendationis Animae'' (''Rite for the Commending of a Departing Soul''),&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.preces-latinae.org/thesaurus/Varia/CommendatioAnimae.html ''Ordo Commendationis Animae''.]&lt;/ref&gt; one of the Prayers for the Dying that form part of the [[w:Last Rites|Last Rites]] given to Catholics at the point of death. This prayer can be found in the ''[[w:Roman Ritual|Roman Ritual]]'' (''Rituale Romanum''), the official book of the [[w:Roman Rite|Roman Rite]] containing all the services not found in the ''[[w:Missale Romanum|Missal]]'' or ''[[w:Brevarium Romanum|Breviary]]''. It comprises the seventh chapter of the title ''Anointing of the Sick''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/ritualeromanumpa00cath#page/156/mode/1up ''Rituale Romanum'']&lt;/ref&gt;

Stephen would have heard these words when the Last Rites were being given to his dying mother.

''Liliata'', &quot;lilied&quot;, means &quot;as white as lilies&quot; or &quot;as bright as lilies&quot;. ''[[wikt:confessor|Confessors]]'' are saints who suffered for their faith but were not martyred for it.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
015.18 '''Ask nothing more of me, sweet. All I can give you I give.''' These words are from the opening lines of Algernon Charles Swinburne's poem &quot;The Oblation&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Oblation |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/50330/the-oblation |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=The Poetry Foundation}}&lt;/ref&gt;

015.24-25. '''''Heart of my heart, were it more, / More would be laid at your feet.''''' These lines continue the Swinburne poem from 015.18.

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

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==Annotations==
037.01-07 '''Limits of the diaphane But he adds : in bodies. Then he was aware of them bodies before of them coloured ... Limit of the diaphane in. Why in? Diaphane, adiaphane.'''{{spaces|5}}Here Stephen is contemplating [[w:Aristotle|Aristotle's]] theory of light and colour, which is found in two of Aristotle's works: ''[[w:On the Soul|On the Soul]]'' and ''[[w:Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)|Sense and Sensibilia]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 45.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 42.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Sense and Sensibilia'''''&lt;ref&gt;[http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/sense/ Aristotle, ''Sense and Sensibilia'' §3 (439&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;18 ff.), translated by J. I. Beare] and [http://www.archive.org/stream/aristotledeanima005947mbp#page/n164/mode/1up ''On the Soul'' 2:7.]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''We have already in ''On the Soul'' stated of Light that it is the colour of the Translucent [τοῦ διαφανοῦς], [being so related to it] incidentally; for whenever a fiery element is in a translucent medium presence there is Light; while the privation of it is Darkness. But the &quot;Translucent&quot; [διαφανὲς], as we call it, is not something peculiar to air, or water, or any other of the bodies usually called translucent, but is a common &quot;nature&quot; and power, capable of no separate existence of its own, but residing in these, and subsisting likewise in all other bodies in a greater or less degree. As the bodies in which it subsists must have some extreme bounding surface, so too must this. Here, then, we may say that Light is a &quot;nature&quot; inhering in the Translucent when the latter is without determinate boundary. But it is manifest that, when the Translucent is in determinate bodies, its bounding extreme must be something real; and that colour is just this &quot;something&quot; we are plainly taught by facts, colour being actually either at the external limit, or being itself that limit [πέρας], in bodies. Hence it was that the Pythagoreans named the superficies of a body its &quot;hue&quot;, for &quot;hue&quot;, indeed, lies at the limit of the body; but the limit of the body; is not a real thing; rather we must suppose that the same natural substance which, externally, is the vehicle of colour exists [as such a possible vehicle] also in the interior of the body.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

Stephen's translation of διαφανὲς (''transparent'', ''translucent'') as ''diaphane'' suggests that he is using [[w:Thomas Aquinas|Thomas Aquinas's]] Latin commentary on ''Sense and Sensibilia'' to try and make sense of Aristotle's obscure theory:&lt;ref&gt;[http://dhspriory.org/thomas/SensuSensato.htm#5 Thomas Aquinas, ''Commentary on Sense and Sensibilia'' §5.] and [http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/css01.html#81216 ''Sentencia Libri De Sensu et Sensato'', Lectio 6.]&lt;/ref&gt;

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Commentary on Sense and Sensibilia'''''&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''huiusmodi corpora proprie dicuntur perspicua sive transparentia, vel diaphana. Phanon enim in Graeco idem est quod visibile ... Concludit ergo, quod color est extremitas perspicui in corpore determinato: quod quidem additur, eo quod huiusmodi corpora sunt, quae secundum se colorantur.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
| &lt;poem&gt;''Such bodies are properly called perspicuous or transparent, or also diaphanous, for in Greek means the same as visible. ... Accordingly he concludes that color is the limit of the transparent. He adds in a determinate body, because such bodies are those that are themselves colored.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

Aquinas makes similar remarks in his commentary on Aristotle's treatise ''On the Soul''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://dhspriory.org/thomas/DeAnima.htm#215L Thomas Aquinas, ''Commentary on Aristotle's On the Soul'', Book 2, Lectio 15, §428.] and [http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/can2.html#80508 ''Sentencia Libri De Anima'', Librum 2, Lectio 15.]&lt;/ref&gt;

The term ''adiaphane'' seems to be Stephen's own. Neither the Greek αδιαφανὲς nor the Latin ''adiaphana'' is to be found in his sources. The obvious meaning of ''adiaphane'' is ''the opaque'' or ''opacity'', which is what ''[[wikt:adiaphane|adiaphane]]'' means in French. (Stephen, and Joyce, read Aristotle in Paris. See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Nestor/026|026.04 ff.]]) Four lines below, however, Stephen refers to the darkness as ''it''. In Aristotle's text, ''darkness'' (σκότος) is defined as the ''privation of light''. See also Stephen's description of darkness on the next page as ''[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus/038|the black adiaphane]]''.

It is typical of Stephen to be fascinated by Aristotle's outdated and obscure theory of light and colour (and Thomas Aquinas's comments thereon), while having little or no interest in what modern science has to say about these phenomena.


037.06 '''''maestro di color che sanno'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''master of those who know''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 45.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 42.&lt;/ref&gt; This is how [[w:Dante Alighieri|Dante]] describes [[w:Aristotle|Aristotle]] in the ''[[w:Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]'' 4:131-132.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/inferno00aliggoog#page/n62/mode/2up Dante Alighieri, ''Inferno'' 4:131.]&lt;/ref&gt; In Dante's Italian ''color'' can mean both ''them'' and ''colour'', which is what Stephen is currently contemplating. Language is [[wikt:protean|protean]].


037.13-15 '''''nacheinander ... nebeneinander'''''{{spaces|5}}(''German'') ''in succession ... side by side''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 45.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 42.&lt;/ref&gt; Stephen is quoting from the long essay of 1766 ''Laokoon oder über die Grenzen der Mahlerey und Poesie'' (''Laocoön, or On the Limits of Painting and Poetry'') by the German art critic [[w:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6889/pg6889.txt Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, ''Laokoon''.] and [http://www.archive.org/stream/laocon00lessgoog#page/n272/mode/2up ''Laocoön'' §20.]&lt;/ref&gt; Lessing was inspired to write this essay by the monumental sculpture in the Vatican known as [[w:Laocoön and His Sons|Laocoön and His Sons]] or ''The Laocoön'', which depicts the scene described by [[w:Virgil|Virgil]] in Book 2 of the ''[[w:Aeneid|Aeneid]]'', in which the Trojan priest and his sons are crushed to death by two sea-serpents, punishment, or so the Trojans think, for advising them not to accept the [[w:Trojan Horse|Wooden Horse]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0055%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D195 Virgil, ''Aeneid'' 2:199-233.]&lt;/ref&gt;

In comparing the sculpture with Virgil's verse, Lessing came to the conclusion that the visual arts (e.g. painting and sculpture) and the literary arts (e.g. poetry) should not try to emulate each other. Each has its own unique sphere: painting is spatial, insofar as the whole work of art is experienced in a single glance; poetry, on the other hand, is temporal, being recited or read from beginning to end over an extended period of time. The painter, therefore, should depict only such images as can be captured in a single moment, while the poet should depict acts and events, avoiding static descriptions:

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Laokoon §16'''''&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''Wenn es wahr ist, daß die Malerei zu ihren Nachahmungen ganz andere Mittel, oder Zeichen gebrauchet, als die Poesie; jene nämlich Figuren und Farben in dem Raume, diese aber artikulierte Töne in der Zeit;''
&lt;/poem&gt;
| &lt;poem&gt;''If it is true that painting, in its imitations, makes use of entirely different means and signs from those which poetry employs; the former employing figures and colours in space, whereas the latter articulates sounds in time;''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Laokoon §20'''''&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''Körperliche Schönheit entspringt aus der übereinstimmenden Wirkung mannigfaltiger Teile, die sich auf einmal übersehen lassen. Sie erfordert also, daß diese Teile nebeneinander liegen müssen; und da Dinge, deren Teile '''nebeneinander''' liegen, der eigentliche Gegenstand der Malerei sind; so kann sie, und nur sie allein, körperliche Schönheit nachahmen.''

''Der Dichter, der die Elemente der Schönheit nur '''nacheinander''' zeigen könnte, enthält sich daher der Schilderung körperlicher Schönheit, als Schönheit, gänzlich. Er fühlt es, daß diese Elemente, '''nacheinander''' geordnet, unmöglich die Wirkung haben können, die sie, '''nebeneinander''' geordnet, haben ....''
&lt;/poem&gt;
| &lt;poem&gt;''Corporeal beauty is the result of the harmonious action of various parts which can be taken in at a glance. It requires therefore that these parts should lie '''next to one another'''; and therefore things whose parts lie next to one another are the proper object of painting: this art and this alone can imitate corporeal beauty.''

''The poet who can only describe the elements of beauty, '''one after the other''', abstains altogether from painting corporeal beauty as beauty. He feels that these elements arranged '''in succession''' cannot possibly produce the effect which they have when arranged '''next to one another''' ....''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

See also [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Circe/521|521.22-23]].


037.14 '''a cliff that beetles o'er his base'''. Echoing Haines's quotation, [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Telemachus/018|018.16]], of the line from ''Hamlet'' act 1 scene 4, line 77.


037.18 '''''Los'''''{{spaces|5}}[[w:Los (Blake)|Los]] is a character who appears in the [[w:William Blake's prophetic books|prophetic works]] of the English poet and mystic [[w:William Blake|William Blake]].&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 45-46.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 43.&lt;/ref&gt; In ''[[w:The Book of Los|The Book of Los]]'', Los appears as a smith, with furnaces, an anvil and a hammer of adamant.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/work.xq?workid=b-los&amp;java=yes William Blake, ''The Book of Los'', Plate 5, lines 20-22.]&lt;/ref&gt; It is a simplification, however, to regard him as the creator of the material world. It would be more accurate to assign that role jointly to Los and [[w:Urizen|Urizen]]. In March 1912, Joyce delivered a lecture in Italian at the Università Populare in Trieste on the subject of William Blake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Occasional, Critical and Political Writing |last=Joyce |first=James |editor=Kevin Barry |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-283353-7 |pages=175–182}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the course of this lecture he quoted from another of the poet's prophetic works, ''[[w:Milton a Poem|Milton]]'':

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Milton 29:19-20&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/work.xq?workid=milton&amp;java=yes William Blake, ''Milton''.]&lt;/ref&gt;'''''&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''For every Space larger than a red Globule of Man's blood''
''Is visionary, and is created by the Hammer of Los:''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

See also [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Nestor/024|024.07 ff.]] and [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Scylla and Charybdis/178|178.28 ff.]]


037.18 '''''Demiurgos'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Greek'') ''[[wikt:Demiurge|Demiurge]]'' is the modern English form of the ancient Greek [[wikt:δημιουργός|δημιουργός]] (''demiourgos''), the word [[w:Plato|Plato]] gave to the hypothetical creator of the material world.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 45-46.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 43.&lt;/ref&gt; In ancient Greek the word meant ''craftsman'', ''skilled worker'', ''maker'', ''creator'', ''artist'', ''master''. Plato first used the term ''[[w:Demiurge|δημιουργός]]'' in his dialogue ''[[w:Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', not as the personal name of a specific deity, but simply as a common noun meaning ''craftsman'', ''maker'' or ''fashioner''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/physis/plato-timaeus/genesis.asp Plato, ''Timaeus'' 28a.]&lt;/ref&gt; The ancient Greeks did not subscribe to the notion of ''Creation from nothing'' ([[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus/038|038.11]]); for Plato, the creator was a craftsman who fashioned the material world out of the already extant [[w:Chaos (cosmogony)|Chaos]], like the sculptor who turned a shapeless lump of marble into the ''[[w:Laocoön and His Sons|Laocoön]]''.

Later schools of philosophy that were influenced by Plato (e.g. [[w:Middle Platonism|Middle Platonism]], [[w:Neopythagoreanism|Neo-Pythagoreanism]], [[w:Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonism]]) regarded the Demiurge as an important but subordinate deity. [[w:Gnosticism|Gnostics]] used the concept of a Demiurge to solve the perennial [[w:Problem of evil|problem of evil]]. The Gnostic [[w:Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentine]], mentioned by Stephen in ''[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Telemachus/021|Telemachus]]'', is reputed to have included the Demiurge in his theology.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gnosis.org/library/flora.htm Ptolemy, ''Letter to Flora''.] [[w:Ptolemy (gnostic)|Ptolemy the Gnostic]] was a disciple of Valentine.&lt;/ref&gt; In Joyce's time, the [[w:Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] used the term to describe ''the Supernal Power which built the universe''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/isisunveiledama03blavgoog#page/n44/mode/1up/ Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, ''Isis Unveiled'' 1:xxviii.]&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}


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|style=&quot;background-color: #efe;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px solid Steelblue; padding: 0.5em; font-size: small; text-align: center;&quot;|'''[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses]]'''&lt;br /&gt;[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Nestor/036|Preceding Page]] | [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Page Index|Page Index]] | [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus/038|Next Page]]
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==Annotations==
'''mahamanvantara'''{{spaces|5}}(''Sanskrit'') This is an esoteric term used in Hinduism to denote a very long [[w:Hindu units of measurements|period of time]].&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 51.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 49.&lt;/ref&gt; A [[w:Manvantara|manvantara]] is a period of time equal to the lifespan of a [[w:Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]]: 306,720,000 years. A mahamanvantara or mahakalpa is a period of time equal to the lifespan of [[w:Brahma (god)|Brahma]]: 311,040,000,000,000 years.

:1 mahayuga = 4,320,000 years
:71 mahayugas = 1 manvantara = 306,720,000 years
:2000 mahayugas = 1 day and night of Brahma = 8,640,000,000 years
:720,000 mahayugas = 1 year of Brahma = 3,110,400,000,000 years
:100 years of Brahma = 1 mahamanvantara = 311,040,000,000,000 years.

In the context of ''Ulysses'', the meaning assigned to the term ''mahamanvantara'' in the theosophy of [[w:Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] is probably of greater relevance. In a glossary of theosophical terms, which Blavatsky appended to the 1890 edition of ''The Key to Theosophy'', the entries for ''Mahamanvantara'' and ''Manvantara'' are as follows:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/keytotheosophybe00blav#page/299/mode/1up Helena Blavatsky, ''The Key to Theosophy'' 299, 301.]&lt;/ref&gt;

{{quote|'''Mahâmanvantara''' (''Sans.'') The great interludes between the ''Manus'', the period of universal activity. ''Manvantara'' here implies simply a period of activity, as opposed to ''praylaya'' or rest, without reference to the length of the cycle.}}

{{quote|'''Manvantara''' (''Sans.'') A period of manifestation, as opposed to ''pralaya'', dissolution or rest; the term is applied to various cycles, especially to a Day of Brahmâ, 4,320,000,000 solar years, and to the reign of one Manu, 306,720,000. Lit., ''Manu-antara'', between Manus. (See ''Secret Doctrine'', ii., 68 ''et seq''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/secretdoctrines01blavgoog#page/n90/mode/1up Helena Blavatsky, ''The Secret Doctrine'', Volume 2, pp. 68 ff.]&lt;/ref&gt;)}}

'''''— Qui vous a mis dans cette fichue position?'''''&lt;br&gt;
'''''— C'est le pigeon, Joseph.'''''&lt;br&gt;
(''French'') This is a near quotation from ''La Vie de Jésus'' (''The Life of Jesus''), an anti-Catholic novel by [[w:Léo Taxil|Léo Taxil]]:&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 52.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 50-51.&lt;br&gt;{{cite book |title=La Vie de Jésus |last=Taxil |first=Léo |year=1884 |publisher=P. Fort |location=Paris |page=15 |url=http://books.google.ie/books/about/La_Vie_de_J%C3%A9sus.html?id=auAuQwAACAAJ&amp;redir_esc=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::''— Who put you in this wretched condition?''
::''— It was the pigeon, Joseph.''

In the original, Joseph actually asks: ''Qui donc, si ce n'est un homme, vous a mis dans cette fichue position?'' (''Who then, if it wasn't a man, put you in this wretched position?'').

French grammar requires the feminine participle ''mise'' (''put''), as [[w:Saint Joseph|Joseph]] is asking [[w:Mary (mother of Jesus|Mary]]. But the error, which Stephen (Joyce?) replicates here, was already present in the edition of the book that would have been available to Joyce in Zürich.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ulysses/nodding.html Jorn Barger, ''Joyce nodding?'']&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''lait chaud'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''hot milk'', ''warm milk''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 52.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''lapin'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''rabbit''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 52.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''gros lots'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''top prizes'', ''jackpots''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 52.&lt;/ref&gt; Stephen, it seems, misunderstands this French term. He is referring to the public lotteries, which had been permitted in France since 1844.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/encyclopaediabri17chisrich#page/21/mode/1up ''Encyclopædi Britannica'' (Eleventh Edition), '''Lotteries'''.]&lt;/ref&gt; But ''[[wikt:lot|lot]]'' means ''prize (in a lottery)'', so the actual meaning of ''gros lots'' is ''first prizes'' or ''jackpots''.

'''''La Vie de Jésus'' by M. Léo Taxil'''{{spaces|5}}[[w:Léo Taxil|Léo Taxil]] was the pseudonym of the anti-Catholic and anti-clerical French writer Marie Joseph Gabriel Antoine Jogand-Pagès (1854-1907).&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 53.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 50-51.&lt;/ref&gt; ''La Vie de Jésus'' (''The Life of Jesus'', also known in English as ''The Amusing Gospel'') is a humorous work, in which Taxil satirically holds up to ridicule inconsistencies, errors, and false beliefs to be found in the gospels.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=La Vie de Jésus |last=Taxil |first=Léo |year=1884 |publisher=P. Fort |location=Paris |page=15 |url=http://books.google.ie/books/about/La_Vie_de_J%C3%A9sus.html?id=auAuQwAACAAJ&amp;redir_esc=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''— C'est tordant, vous savez. Moi je suis socialiste. Je ne crois pas en l'existence de Dieu. Faut pas le dire a mon père.'''''&lt;br&gt;
'''''— Il croit?'''''&lt;br&gt;
'''''— Mon père, oui.'''''&lt;br&gt;
(''French'') This is a fragment of a conversation Stephen had in Paris with Patrice Egan about Taxil's ''La Vie de Jésus'':&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 53.&lt;/ref&gt;

::''— It's hilarious, you know. Me, I'm a socialist. I do not believe in the existence of God. You mustn't tell my father.''
::''— He is a believer?''
::''— My father, yes.''

'''''Schluss'''''{{spaces|5}}(''German'') ''Period!'' ''Enough said!''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 53.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[wikt:Schluss|Schluss]]'' is German for ''end'', ''conclusion'', but here Stephen is using it colloquially as a mild exclamation, meaning ''Enough!''

'''Paysayennn. P. C. N., you know : ''physiques, chimiques et naturelles'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''physical, chemical and natural''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 53.&lt;/ref&gt; ''Paysayenn'' is a phonetic spelling of how a Frenchman would pronounce the letters ''[[w:French alphabet|P. C. N.]]'' The letters are an abbreviation for the French phrase ''[[w:fr:PCN|Physique-Chimie-Sciences naturelles]]'' (''Physics, Chemistry, Natural Science''). In December 1902, Joyce was granted a provisional card of admission to the course for the certificate in physics, chemistry and biology at the École de Médecine in Paris. This certificate was required before he would be permitted to study medicine. As it happened, his medical ambitions only lasted a few more days.&lt;ref&gt;Ellmann (1982) 112-113.&lt;/ref&gt; Note that Stephen's translation of ''P. C. N.'' is not quite correct.

'''''mou en civet'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''lung stew''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 53.&lt;/ref&gt; A stew made from the lungs or [[wikt:lights|lights]] of butchered animals would have been one of the cheapest dishes available in a Paris restaurant.

'''''boul'Mich''''''{{spaces|5}}(''French slang'') ''Boulevard Saint-Michel''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 53.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1904 the [[w:Boulevard Saint-Michel|Boulevard Saint-Michel]], a street on the [[w:Rive Gauche (Paris)|Left Bank]] of the Seine in Paris, was the café centre of the city's student and bohemian life.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''hencods' roes:''' The eggs of a female (hen) cod fish.

'''gelid:''' extremely cold

'''peckish:''' slightly hungry

'''hob:''' a flat metal shelf at the side or back of a fireplace, used for heating pans.

==References==

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''chookchooks''': Chook is an Australian/New Zealand call made to chickens.

'''drouth''': A variation of the word drought, a period of drier than normal conditions.

'''quoits''': iron or brass rings, perhaps washers to secure part of Bloom's bed.

'''short knock''': The sound of a gavel at the end of a hastily concluded bidding process heard at an auction.

'''Tweedy''': Bloom's father-in-law, Brian Tweedy.

'''Plevna''': A city in North Bulgaria, the site of a major battle of the Russo-Turkish War fought in 1877.

'''corner''': Buying up controlling shares of a limited supply, in this case valuable stamps. 

==References==

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==Annotations==

'''In the swim''': collusion, secret or deceitful cooperation.

'''Potato''': carried in Bloom’s pocket as a talisman.

'''Arthur Griffith''': Irish politician and founder of the Irish political party for independence from the British, Sinn Féin(O''urselves'' or W''e Ourselves'').

'''Ikey''': anti-Semitic reference, possibly related to the bank of Ireland.

==References==


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'''''Là ci darem'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''There we shall join [hands]''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 77.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 73.&lt;/ref&gt; These are the opening words of the [[w:Duettino|duettino]] ''Là ci darem la mano'', Act I, Number 7 of [[w:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart's]] comic opera ''[[w:Don Giovanni|Don Giovanni]]'', in which the Don, a sexual predator, begins his seduction of the peasant Masetto's young bride Zerlina. The opera occupies Bloom's mind for the rest of the day on account of the similarity between his and Masetto's predicaments:&lt;ref&gt;[[s:it:Don Giovanni/Atto Primo/Scena nona|''Don Giovanni''' Act 1, Scene 9.]]&lt;/ref&gt;

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Là ci darem la mano'''''&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;;Don Giovanni
:Là ci darem la mano,
:Là mi dirai di sì.
:Vedi, non è lontano;
:Partiam, ben mio, da qui.
;Zerlina
:(Vorrei e non vorrei,
:Mi trema un poco il cor.
:Felice, è ver, sarei,
:Ma può burlarmi ancor.)
;Don Giovanni
:Vieni, mio bel diletto!
;Zerlina
:(Mi fa pietà Masetto.)
;Don Giovanni
:Io cangierò tua sorte.
;Zerlina
:Presto ... non son più forte.
;Don Giovanni
:Andiam!
;Zerlina
:Andiam!
;A due
:Andiam, andiam, mio bene.
:a ristorar le pene
:D’un innocente amor.
&lt;/poem&gt;
| &lt;poem&gt;;Don Giovanni
:There we shall join hands,
:There you shall say &quot;Yes&quot; to me.
:See, it's not far;
:Let's leave here, my dear.
;Zerlina
:(I would like to, and I wouldn't like to,
:My heart is aflutter a little.
:It's true, I would be happy,
:But he can still make a fool of me.)
;Don Giovanni
:Come, my pretty beloved!
;Zerlina
:(I feel sorry for Masetto.)
;Don Giovanni
:I will change your destiny.
;Zerlina
:Quickly ... I am no longer strong.
;Don Giovanni
:Let's go!
;Zerlina
:Let us go!
;Both
:Let us go, let us go, my darling,
:To cure the pains
:Of an innocent love.
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

'''''Voglio e non vorrei'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''I want to but I wouldn't like to''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 77.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 73&lt;/ref&gt; Bloom has misremembered Zerlina's line. He will correct it in ''[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Hades/090|Hades]]'', but he continually makes the same mistake throughout the day. It has been suggested that Bloom is thinking of a pair of lines spoken by Don Giovanni's servant Leporello in the opening scene: ''Voglio far il gentiluomo/E non voglio più servir'' (''I want to be a gentleman/And I no longer wish to serve'').&lt;ref&gt;[[s:it:Don Giovanni/Atto Primo/Scena prima|''Don Giovanni''' Act 1, Scene 1.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In ''[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Circe/417|Circe]]'', two pages before repeating the mistake, Bloom addresses Molly with the words ''At your service''.

Zerlina's ''Vorrei e non vorrei'' (''I would like to and I wouldn't like to'') might be more loosely translated as: ''I would like to, but I shouldn't'', or ''Should I or shouldn't I?''.

'''Wonder if she pronounces that right : ''voglio'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') The word ''voglio'' (''I want to'') is pronounced [ˈvɔʎo] in [[W:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], (vOLo in [[w:Extended Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet|X-SAMPA]], ''vawl-yo'' phonetically). Of course, this is all irrelevant to Molly, who won't be called upon to sing this word.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''I. N. R. I.'''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum'' (''Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews'').&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1 = Gifford |first1 = Don |last2 = Seidman |first2 = Robert J. |title = Ulysses Annotated |publisher = University of California Press |year = 1988 |page = 94}}&lt;br&gt;{{cite book |last1 = Thornton|first1 = Weldon|title = Allusions in Ulysses |publisher = University of North Carolina Press |year = 1968 |page = 84}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[w:Gospel of John|John 19:19]], this was the inscription Pilate wrote and placed on Christ's cross.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2019&amp;version=VULGATE John 19.]&lt;/ref&gt; The original Greek form is '''ιησους ο ναζωραιος ο βασιλευς των ιουδαιων''' (''Iēsous ho Nazōraios ho Basileus tōn Ioudaiōn''). According to John 19:20, the inscription was written in Hebrew (which probably means [[w:Aramaic|Aramaic]]), Latin and Greek.

The original Greek '''ο ναζωραιος''' has been translated ''[[w:Nazareth|of Nazareth]]'' and ''[[w:Nazarene (title)|the Nazarene]]''.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''vibrato'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''vibrated''. In English ''[[w:Vibrato|vibrato]]'' is a technical term which describes the musical technique of quickly and repeatedly raising and lowering the pitch of a note by a small amount in order to impart an emotional expressiveness to the note. The practice is particularly associated with vocal music and [[w:String instrument|string technique]]. Some types of [[w:Pipe organ|organ]] can produce a similar effect by altering the pressure of the air passing through the pipes. Bloom is probably thinking of the [[w:Vox humana|vox humana]] [[w:Organ stop|stop]] on a church organ. This stop uses a [[w:Tremulant|tremulant]] (or tremolant) to achieve a vibrato effect. ''Vox humana'' is Latin for ''Human voice'', so Bloom is justified in saying that, ''he knew how to make that instrument talk....''

'''''Stabat Mater'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''The Mother Stood''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 95.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 85.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[w:Stabat Mater|Stabat Mater]]'' are the opening words and traditional title of a 13th-century hymn to the [[w:Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]]. The hymn is sometimes known as the ''Stabat Mater Dolorosa'' (''The Sorrowful Mother Stood'') to distinguish it from another work with the same opening. It recounts the suffering of Christ's mother during his [[w:Passion (Christianity)|Passion]]. It has been set to music several times.

'''''Quis est homo?'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Who is the man?''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 95.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 85.&lt;/ref&gt; These are the opening words of the third stanza of the ''[[w:Stabat Mater|Stabat Mater]]''. In [[w:Gioachino Rossini|Rossini's]] setting, ''[[w:Stabat Mater (Rossini)|Quis est homo?]]'' is a duet for soprano and mezzo-soprano.

'''''Gloria'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Glory''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 96.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 85.&lt;/ref&gt; The opening word and traditional title of the hymn ''[[w:Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria in excelsis Deo]]'' (''Glory to God in the highest''), the Greater Doxology or Angelic Hymn which forms part of the [[w:Order of Mass|Ordinary]] of the [[w:Tridentine Mass|Latin Mass]].

The ''Gloria'' in the spurious ''Mozart's Twelfth Mass'' is still a popular piece with amateur choirs.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Mozart%27s+Twelfth+Mass&amp;oq=Mozart%27s+Twelfth+Mass&amp;aq=f&amp;aqi=&amp;aql=&amp;gs_sm=e&amp;gs_upl=3675l16055l0l16581l21l21l0l15l15l0l172l828l1.5l6l0 YouTube]&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
'''''Madame'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''Madam'', a title or form of address for a married woman.

'''''voglio e non vorrei''. No : ''vorrei e non.'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''I want to and I wouldn't like to. No : I would like to and [I would] not [like to].''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 109.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 92.&lt;/ref&gt; Bloom corrects his earlier mistake, though he will later repeat the mistake. See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Calypso/061|061.33]].

'''''Mi trema un poco il'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''My [heart] is aflutter a little''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 109.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 92.&lt;/ref&gt; ''Mi trema un poco il cor'' is the next line Zerlina sings after ''Vorrei e non vorrei''. See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Calypso/061|061.33]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Mater Misericordiæ'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Mother of Mercy''. The [[w:Mater Misericordiæ University Hospital|Mater Misericordiæ University Hospital]], popularly known as the Mater, was the largest hospital in Dublin in 1904.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 113.&lt;/ref&gt; Located on the corner of Eccles Street, it was founded in 1861.

'''Ward for incurables there.'''{{spaces|5}}The Mater Misericordiæ hospital did have a ward for incurables in 1904.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 113.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{| style=&quot;width: 23%; margin: 0px auto;&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot;
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|}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Habeat corpus'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Let him have the body.'' Bloom has adapted the legal term ''[[w:Habeas corpus|Habeas corpus]]'' (''May you have the body''), a writ requiring a prisoner to appear in person before a judge so that the judge may determine whether or not he has been lawfully detained .

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Fuit Ilium!'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Troy has been!''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 150.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 126.&lt;/ref&gt; The quotation is from [[w:Virgil|Virgil's]] epic poem the ''[[w:Aeneid|Aeneid]]'' 2:325:

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Aeneid'' 2:325-326'''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D318 ''Aeneid'']&lt;br&gt;[http://www.theoi.com/Text/VirgilAeneid2.html H. R. Fairclough's Translation]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|
''...: We Trojans are no more, Ilium is no more, nor the great''&lt;br&gt;
''Glory of the Teucrians;''
|
''...: fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium et ingens''&lt;br&gt;
''Gloria Teucrorum;''
|}

''[[w:Ilium|Ilium]]'' is a Latinized form of ''Ilion'' (Ἴλιον), another name for the legendary city of Troy, whence the title of Homer's ''Iliad''. The Trojans were sometimes known as ''Teucri'' (''Teucrians'') after [[w:King Teucer|Teucer]], ''earliest ancestor'' of the Trojans.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theoi.com/Text/VirgilAeneid3.html ''Aeneid'' 3:104 ff.]&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Orchestral Satan, weeping many a rood ... fatto trombetta'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') Stephen here conflates two lines from [[w:John Milton|Milton's]] ''[[w:Paradise Lost|Paradise Lost]]'' and one line from [[w:Dante Alighieri|Dante's]] ''[[w:Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 194.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 153.&lt;/ref&gt; The lines from Milton refer first to Satan's huge bulk as he lies prone in the burning lake of Hell and then to the tears he lets drop as he is about to address his fallen angels:

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Paradise Lost 1:196 ... 1:620'''''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/26/pg26.txt John Milton, ''Paradise Lost''.]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''Lay floating many a rood...''
''Tears such as angels weep burst forth....''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

The line from Dante is the closing line of the twenty-first canto of the ''Inferno''. It refers not to Satan but to another infernal demon Barbariccia, one of the ''[[w:Malabranche (Divine Comedy)|Malabranche]]''. Barbariccia is the leader of a troop of demons who escort Dante and Virgil through the fifth of the ''[[w:Malebolge|Malebolge]]'' that comprise the Eighth Circle of Hell. His fellow demons salute him by sticking out their tongues and he responds by farting:

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Inferno 21:139'''''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/1009/pg1009.txt Dante, ''Inferno''.]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''ed elli avea del cul fatto trombetta.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
| &lt;poem&gt;''and he made a trumpet of his arse.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

Stephen has modernized Dante's spelling of ''elli'' (''he'')

'''Gaptoothed Kathleen''' : [[w:Kathleen Ni Houlihan|Kathleen Ni Houlihan]], symbol of irish nationalism.

'''and one more to hail him : ''ave, rabbi'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''hail, master.''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 195.&lt;/ref&gt; The words, spoken by Judas just before he kisses and betrays Christ, are taken from the Latin [[w:Vulgate|Vulgate]] translation of Matthew 26:49.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2026&amp;version=KJV Matthew 26.]&lt;/ref&gt; Cranly is presumably being identified here by Joyce as Judas. Joyce and J. F. Byrne (the model for Cranly) became estranged in 1902, shortly before Joyce met [[w:Oliver St. John Gogarty|Oliver St. John Gogarty]] (the model for Buck Mulligan), though it was Byrne who felt that he had been betrayed by Joyce.&lt;ref&gt;Ellmann (1983) 116-117.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
== Annotations ==
'''''Ta an bad ar an tir. Taim imo shagart'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Errata'') These Irish expressions should read: ''Tá an bád ar an tír. Táim i mo shagart.'' When an earlier draft of this chapter was printed in ''[[w:The Little Review|The Little Review]]'' in April 1919, the reading was the same as appears here.&lt;ref&gt;[http://dl.lib.brown.edu/repository2/repoman.php?verb=render&amp;id=129892512531252&amp;view=pageturner&amp;pageno=42 ''The Little Review'', Volume 5, Number 12, p. 40.]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''Tá an bád ar an tír. Táim i mo shagart'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Irish'') ''The boat is on the land. I am a priest.''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 217.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 176.&lt;/ref&gt; The first sentence is very close to one in Eugene O'Growney's ''Simple Lessons in Irish''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Simple Lessons in Irish: Part 1 |last=O'Growney |first=Eugene |year=1897 |publisher= |location= |isbn= |page=22 |url=http://archive.org/stream/SimpleLessonsInIrishPart1Ogrowney/SimpleLessonsInIirishPart1RevEugene0growney#page/n20/mode/1up}} §57 includes the sentence: ''Atá an bád ar tír'' (''There is a boat on land'').&lt;/ref&gt; The author was a Catholic priest, which probably accounts for the second sentence. In ''Stephen Hero'', we are told that when Stephen Daedalus undertakes a course of lessons in Irish, ''He bought the O'Growney's primers published by the Gaelic League''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Stephen Hero |last=Joyce |first=James |year=1986 |publisher=Grafton Books |location=London |isbn=0-586-04477-9 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; Father O'Growney's portrait hangs over the mantelpiece in the classroom where Stephen learns Irish.&lt;ref&gt;''Ibid''. p. 58.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''beurla'''{{spaces|5}}(''Irish, Hiberno-English'') ''The English language''. The Irish word ''beurla'' (now spelt ''béarla'') originally meant ''language'', ''speech'', ''dialect'', but gradually replaced ''Saics-Bhéarla'' (''the Saxon tongue''). Eugene O'Growney gave ''beurla'' as the spelling in 1897,&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/SimpleLessonsInIrishPart2OGrowney/SimpleLessonsInIrishPart2Rev.EugeneOGrowney#page/n23/mode/2up Eugene O'Growney, ''Simple Lessons in Irish'', Part 2, §332, p.25.]&lt;/ref&gt; but Patrick S. Dinneen gave ''béarla''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/irishenglishdict011837mbp#page/n82/mode/1up Patrick S. Dinneen, ''Irish-English Dictionary'' 61-62.]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''A basilisk. ''E quando vede l'uomo l'attosca''. Messer Brunetto'''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''And when it looks at men it poisons them''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 217-218.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 176.&lt;/ref&gt; A [[wikt:basilisk|basilisk]] is a mythical beast hatched by a cockerel from the egg of a serpent, and said to be so venomous that even its glance is deadly. [[w:Brunetto Latini|Brunetto Latini]] was a Florentine scholar of the 13th-century. Among his works is ''Li Livres dou Trésor'' (''The Books of the Treasury''), an encyclopaedia in French.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Li Livres dou Trésor |last=Latini |first=Brunetto |year=1863 |publisher=Imprimerie Impériale |location=Paris |pages=192–193 |url=http://archive.org/stream/lilivresdoutreso00latiuoft#page/192/mode/1up}}&lt;/ref&gt; The work was translated into Italian as ''Il Tesoro de Brunetto Latini'' (''The Treasury of Brunetto Latini''), commonly misattributed to Bono Giamboni.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Il Tesoro de Brunetto Latini volgarizzato da Bono Giamboni |year=1887 |publisher= |location=Bologna |pages=137–139 |url=http://archive.org/stream/iltesoro02lati#page/137/mode/1up}}&lt;/ref&gt; Book 5, Chapter 3, ''Della natura del basilischio'' (''On the nature of the basilisk''), includes the remark, which Stephen misremembers: ''e col suo vedere attosca l'uomo quando lo vede'' (''and with its sight it poisons men when it looks at them''). The original French version is: ''et de sa veue tue les homes quant il les voit'' (''and with its sight kills men when it looks at them'').

Although Stephen misremembers the Italian quotation, Joyce apparently did not, for he quotes it correctly in ''Giacomo Joyce'' 15: As I come out of Ralli's house I come upon her [Amalia Popper] suddenly as we both are giving alms to a blind beggar. She answers my sudden greeting by turning and averting her black basilisk eyes. ''E col suo vedere attosca l'uomo quando lo vede''. I thank you for the word, messer Brunetto.

Ser Brunetto Latini was a guardian and teacher of Dante, who mentions both him and ''Il Tesoro'' in the ''Inferno'' 15. ''Messer'' and ''Ser'' are old forms of address, meaning ''My Sire'' and ''Sire''.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Hooks and Eyes for Believers’ Breeches'''''{{spaces|5}}A sermon by the influential preacher [[w:Charles Spurgeon|Charles Spurgeon]]&lt;ref&gt;https://www.romans45.org/spurgeon/fsl/vf.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''inquit Eglintonus Chronolologos'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'', ''Greek'') ''said Eglinton the Chronologist.''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 239. Gifford Latinizes ''Chronolologos'' by altering it to ''Chronolologus''.&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chronolologos'' (''[[wikt:chronologist|chronologist]]'') is artificial Greek.

'''''nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''in the middle of the journey of our life''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 240.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 203.&lt;/ref&gt; This is the opening line of [[w:Dante Alighieri|Dante's]] ''[[w:Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]''. Dante was thirty-five in 1300, the year in which the ''[[w:Divine Comedy|Divine Comedy]]'' is set. Seventy years is the traditional lifespan allotted to mankind ([[s:Bible (King James)/Psalms#Psalm 90|Psalms 90:10]]).

'''''From hour to hour it rots and rots'''''{{spaces|5}} Quote taken from ''[[As You Like It]]''

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''Dumas fils (or is it Dumas père)'''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''Dumas Junior (or is it Dumas Senior)''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 249.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 212-213.&lt;/ref&gt; The reference is to the French writers [[w:Alexandre Dumas, fils|Alexandre Dumas, fils]] and his father [[w:Alexandre Dumas, père|Alexandre Dumas, père]]. Joyce requested that ''fils'' and ''père'' be set in italics in the errata list he compiled for the fourth impression of ''Ulysses''. This errata list was printed and bound with this impression as pages 733-736.&lt;ref&gt;James Joyce, ''Ulysses'', Shakespeare &amp; Company, Paris (1924).&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Hamlet ''père'' and Hamlet ''fils'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''Hamlet Senior and Hamlet Junior''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 250.&lt;/ref&gt; The former is the ghost in Shakespeare's play, the latter is the eponymous hero. Stephen has taken up John Eglinton's allusion to the two Dumas.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
In the first paragraph, significant wording is borrowed from Prince Aldfrid’s Itinerary through Ireland, James Clarence Mangan.
==References==
{{reflist}}
https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/in-cruachan-s-land-james-joyce-and-james-clarence-mangan-1.3582011
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==Annotations==
283:11 &quot;The citizen&quot; is not given a name. However, in the following section Gerty MacDowell's Granpapa Giltrap's is said to have a dog called Garryowen. Although the link is not explicitly stated, it is at least plausible that the citizen and Granpapa Giltrap are one and the same.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==
'''''a chara'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Irish'') ''friend''. This is the vocative case of the noun ''[[wikt:cara#Irish|cara]]''.

'''the mountain gorse ''(Ulex Europeus)'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''[[w:Ulex europaeus|Ulex europaeus]]'' is the scientific name for the evergreen shrub variously known in Ireland as the [[wikt:whin|whin]], [[wikt:furze|furze]] or [[wikt:gorse|gorse]].&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 320.&lt;/ref&gt; The leaves are spiny but green, while the flowers are yellow. When they wilt, however, the leaves turn ''tawny orange'' in the words of [[w:John Betjeman|John Betjeman]] in ''Cornish Cliffs''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.sanjeev.net/poetry/betjeman-john/cornish-cliffs-182179.html ''Cornish Cliffs''.]&lt;/ref&gt; In his essay ''Of Usury'', Francis Bacon describes the yellow headgear worn by Jewish moneylenders as ''orange-tawny''.&lt;ref&gt;''The Essays of Francis Bacon, Edited, with Introduction and Notes by Mary Augusta Scott'', New York (1908), pp. 187-188.&lt;/ref&gt; Gorse is found throughout Ireland.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wildflowersofireland.net/plant_detail.php?id_flower=109 Wildflowers of Ireland.]&lt;/ref&gt;

When identifying a species through its [[w:Binomial nomenclature|scientific name]], it is now modern usage to capitalize the genus (''Ulex'') but not the species (''europaeus'').

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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'''''Bi i dho husht'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Irish'') ''Be quiet''. The correct Irish form is: ''[[wikt:tost#Irish|Bí i do thost]]''. The final word is pronounced [hɔsˠt̪ˠ] (approximately: ''hawst''). The Citizen has clearly confused this with the unrelated English word ''hush'', which implies that he is by no means a fluent speaker of his native tongue.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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'''tantras'''{{spaces|5}}(''Sanskrit'') A ''[[wikt:tantra|tantra]]'' is a Hindu religious text.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 329.&lt;/ref&gt; In [[w:Theosophy|Theosophy]], tantras are mystical and magical words comprising rituals associated with black magic or sorcery.&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/theosophicalglos00blav#page/296/mode/1up Helen Blavatsky, ''The Theosophical Glossary'', p. 296.]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''etheric double'''{{spaces|5}}(''Theosophy'') In [[w:Theosophy|Theosophy]], the ''double'', or ''Astral Body'', is the ethereal counterpart or shadow of a man or animal's physical body.&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/theosophicalglos00blav#page/35/mode/1up Helen Blavatsky, ''The Theosophical Glossary'', p. 35.]&lt;br&gt;Gifford (1988) 330.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''jivic rays'''{{spaces|5}}(''Theosophy'') In [[w:Theosophy|Theosophy]], ''jiva'' refers to Life, as the Absolute.&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/theosophicalglos00blav#page/153/mode/1up Helen Blavatsky, ''The Theosophical Glossary'', p. 153.]&lt;br&gt;Gifford (1988) 330.&lt;/ref&gt; It may also refer to the Monad, the immortal part of man which is reincarnated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/theosophicalglos00blav#page/201/mode/1up Helen Blavatsky, ''The Theosophical Glossary'', p. 201.]&lt;/ref&gt; The adjectival form ''jivic'' appears to be Joyce's own coinage.

'''prālāyā'''{{spaces|5}}(''Sanskrit'') ''dissolution''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 330.&lt;/ref&gt; In ''The Theosophical Glossary'', [[w:Helen Blavatsky|Helen Blavatsky]] defines '''Pralaya''' as: ''A period of obscuration or repose—planetary, cosmic or universal—the opposite of Manvantara.''&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/theosophicalglos00blav#page/242/mode/1up Helen Blavatsky, ''The Theosophical Glossary'', p.242.]&lt;/ref&gt; In the context of [[w:Theosophy|Theosophy]], ''[[wikt:pralaya|pralaya]]'' refers to the period between death and reincarnation.

In transliterating Sanskrit terms from [[w:Devanagari transliteration|Devanagari]] to Roman script, a [[wikt:macron|macron]] is placed over a long vowel. There are no long vowels in ''pralaya''; Joyce's macrons here and below (lines 16 and 19) are whimsical.

See also [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus/041|041.04]].

'''tālāfānā, ālāvātār, hātākāldā, wātāklāsāt'''{{spaces|5}}''telephone, elevator, hot and cold [plumbing], water closet''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 330.&lt;/ref&gt; The whimsical spellings and [[wikt:macron|macrons]] parody the [[w:Theosophical Society|Theosophists']] predilection for Sanskrit terms. See ''prālāyā'' above.

'''Māyā'''{{spaces|5}}(''Sanskrit'') ''Illusion''. In both Hindu philosophy and Theosophy ''māyā'' refers to the idea that the physical world of sense perception is not part of true reality.&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.org/stream/theosophicalglos00blav#page/195/mode/1up Helen Blavatsky, ''The Theosophical Glossary'', p. 195.]&lt;/ref&gt;

In this case, Joyce's whimsical [[wikt:macron|macrons]] are justified, but it is probably fair to say he would have added them even if they were not.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''corpora cavernosa'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''cavernous bodies''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 332.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[w:Corpus cavernosum penis|Corpora cavernosa]]'' is the anatomical name for two masses of erectile tissue in the penis; a [[w:penile erection|penile erection]] occurs when the cavities in these bodies (and in a third body, the ''[[w:corpus spongiosum penis|corpus spongiosum penis]]'') fill with blood and become distended.

'''''in articulo mortis per diminutionem capitis'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''at the moment of death caused by the decrease of the head''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 332.&lt;/ref&gt; Bloom's medical Latin is improvised; ''[[w:Capitis diminutio|capitis diminutio]]''  is actually a legal term meaning ''the loss of one's political rights'', whereas Bloom means ''the breaking of the neck'' (''per frangentem cervicis'').

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Sinn Fein ... Sinn fein amhain'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Errata'') This should read: ''Sinn féin ... Sinn féin amháin''. Gabler (1984) did not emend it, however, on the grounds that the errors were Joyce's and not typos. When an early draft of this episode was published in ''[[w:The Little Review|The Little Review]]'', it appeared exactly as it does on the page above.&lt;ref&gt;[http://dl.lib.brown.edu/repository2/repoman.php?verb=render&amp;id=1299770729203127&amp;view=pageturner&amp;pageno=52 ''The Little Review'', Volume 6, Number 7 (November 1919), p. 50.]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''Sinn féin ... Sinn féin amháin!'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Irish'') ''Ourselves ... Ourselves alone!''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 333.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 269.&lt;/ref&gt; Watchword of Irish nationalists at the turn of the century. According to Gifford these words occur in the refrain of [[w:Timothy Daniel Sullivan|Timothy Daniel Sullivan's]] patriotic song ''The West's Awake'', though the only song of this name that I am aware of is by [[w:Thomas Davis (Young Irelander)|Thomas Osbourne Davis]], and it does not include these words. Thornton mentions a song called ''Sinn Fein, Sinn Fein Amhain'' by O'Higgins.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Songs in the Works of James Joyce |last=Hodgart |first=Matthew |coauthors=Mabel Worthington |year=1959 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn= |page=202 |url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=RNxaAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Sinn#search_anchor |accessdate=06-12-2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''doyen'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''senior member''. Joyce italicized ''[[wikt:doyen|doyen]]'', which suggests that he intended it to be understood in its French acceptation rather than its English.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Gladiolus Cruentus'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''[[w:gladiolus|Gladiolus cruentus]]'' is the scientific name for a flowering plant known as the blood-red gladiolus on account of the colour of its flowers. The plant is a native of South Africa. Its name could be translated as ''little blood-stained sword'', appropriate for the favourite flower of an executioner.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 335-336. Gifford calls it a fictional species, but it was identified by the British botanist [[w:Thomas Moore (botanist)|Thomas Moore]] in the 19th century.&lt;/ref&gt;

When identifying a species through its [[w:Binomial nomenclature|scientific name]], it is now modern usage to capitalize the genus (''Gladiolus'') but not the species (''cruentus''). See also [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Cyclops/284|284.13]].

'''''hoch'''''{{spaces|5}}(''German'') ''noble'', ''sublime''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[wikt:hoch|Hoch]]'' is used in German toasts and salutations. The German for ''Long live the king!'' is ''Hoch lebe der König'', while ''Hoch der Kaiser!'' means ''Up the Kaiser!''

'''''banzai'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Japanese'') ''ten thousand years''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[wikt:banzai|Banzai]]'' is used as both a battle cry and a salutation to the emperor.

'''''eljen'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Errata''). This should be spelled ''éljen''.

'''''éljen'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Hungarian'') ''long live...!''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt; This is the third perlson singular, present subjunctive indefinite of the verb ''[[wikt:él|él]]'' (''to live'').

'''''zivio'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Serbo-Croatian''). This should be spelled ''živio''.

'''''živio'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Serbo-Croatian'') ''long live...!'', ''cheers!''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt; This is the optative mood (here identical to the active past participle, masculine singular) of the verb ''[[wikt:žívjeti|žívjeti]]'' (''to live'').

'''''chinchin'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Pidgin English'') This is a traditional salutation and toast from the Far East.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[wikt:chin-chin|Chinchin]]'' is probably of Chinese origin.

'''''polla kronia'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Modern Greek'') ''many happy returns''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt; The usual form in Modern Greek is ''[[wikt:χρόνια πολλά|χρόνια πολλά]]'', so perhaps Joyce's text could be amended to: ''khrónia pollá''.

'''''hiphip'''''{{spaces|5}}(''American'') From ''[[wikt:hip hip hooray|hip hip hooray]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''vive'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''long live...!''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''''Allah'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Arabic'') ''God''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt; As an interjection' ''Allah!'' is generally used to express surprise, not to acclaim a leader.

'''''evviva'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Italian'') ''long live...!''&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 336.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''compos mentis'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') A legal expression meaning ''[[wikt:compos mentis|of sound mind]]'', ''sane''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 345.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''A pishogue, if you know what that is.'''{{spaces|5}}Clearly, the Citizen does not know what that is. A ''[[wikt:pishogue|pishogue]]'' is a magic spell. The [[wikt:Hiberno English|Hiberno-English]] word he is looking for is ''[[wikt:pithogue|pithogue]]'', from the Irish ''[[wikt:piteog|piteog]]'', which means ''an effeminate man'', ''a dandy'', ''a sissy'', or (in modern usage) ''a homosexual'', which is possibly what lies behind the Citizen's insult. The term ''pishogue'' is never applied to individuals.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 345. Gifford, in common with most annotators, does not appreciate the Citizen's mistake.&lt;/ref&gt;

It is possible that the mistake is Joyce's rather than the Citizen's. The two words occur on the same page of Father Dineen's ''Irish-English Dictionary'' (first edition). Joyce certainly knew this work; it was first published in 1904, the year in which ''Ulysses'' is set, and Dineen appears in ''Scylla and Charybdis'' ([[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Scylla and Charybdis/202|202.31-32]] and [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Scylla and Charybdis/206|206.30]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla: An Irish-English Dictionary |last=Dineen |first=Patrick S. |year=1904 |publisher=M. H. Gill &amp; Son Ltd. |location=Dublin |isbn= |page=508 |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/Dinneen1sted.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; If the mistake is the Citizen's, it is another indication that he is not as fluent in the Irish language as he would have us believe. See also [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Cyclops/301|301.24]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''in re'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') A legal term meaning ''[[wikt:in re|in the matter of]]'', ''with regard to''.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''en masse'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''in a single body or [[wikt:en masse|group]]''.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{|style=&quot;width: 23%; margin: 0px auto;&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot;
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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Entente cordiale'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''Cordial agreement''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 360.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 286.&lt;/ref&gt; The ''[[w:Entente cordiale|Entente cordiale]]'' was a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between France and the United Kingdom.

'''perfidious Albion'''{{spaces|5}}A translation of the perennial French lament, ''Perfide Albion!'' See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Cyclops/311|311.37]].

'''''Conspuez les Français'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''Down with the French''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 360.&lt;/ref&gt; See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Cyclops/311|311.37]].

'''Come Where the Booze is Cheaper''' was a music hall monologue and song written and composed by E W Rogers &amp; A E Durandeau (1890) and performed by Charles Coborn (1852-1945).  See https://monologues.co.uk/musichall/Songs-C/Come-Where-The-Booze-Is-Cheaper.htm

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''En ventre sa mère'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''In his mother's belly''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988)&lt;/ref&gt; This archaic French phrase is still used in [[w:En ventre sa mere|English law]] to refer to a child who has not yet been born. J. J. O'Molloy, who uses the phrase, is an unemployed lawyer.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Abba!'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Syriac-Greek'') ''Father''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 381.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[wikt:Abba|word]] is chiefly used as an invocation to God as the Heavenly Father.

'''''Adonai!'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Hebrew'') ''My Lord''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 381.&lt;/ref&gt; This term is usually substituted for the [[wikt:Tetragrammaton|Tetragrammaton]] [[wikt:YHWH|YHWH]], the sacred name of the God, which Jews consider too sacred to be uttered.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Faugh a ballagh'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Hiberno-English'') ''Get out of the way!'' An anglicization of the Irish ''Fág an bealach''. In Dineen's ''Irish-English Dictionary'' it is flagged as ''a challenge''.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{|style=&quot;width: 23%; margin: 0px auto;&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot;
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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Mais bien sûr ... et mille compliments'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''But of course ... and thank you very much.''.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{|style=&quot;width: 23%; margin: 0px auto;&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot;
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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Sturzgeburt'''''{{spaces|5}}(''German'') ''sudden birth'', a term used in legal medicine to describe a precipitate deliveryin which the foetus falls out of the birth canal. Use of the term arises in cases where the foetus has been injured or killed during birth, either as a result of ''Sturzgeburt'' or through ill-treatment following delivery. The term is also used to describe any birth that occurs almost immediately after the onset of labour, with few contractions.

'''''primafacie'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''[[wikt:prima facie|prima facie]]'' is a Latin expression meaning ''at first sight'', ''on the face of it''. In English it may be used as an adjective meaning ''obvious'', ''not requiring proof''. Hans Walter Gabler amended Joyce's ''primafacie'' to ''prima facie''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Ulysses: The Corrected Text |last=Joyce |first=James |editor=Hans Walter Gabler |others=With Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior |year=1986 |publisher=The Bodley Head |location=London |page=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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|}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Vidi aquam egredientem de templo a latere dextro. Alleluia'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''I saw water coming out of the temple on the right-hand side''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 453.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 359.&lt;/ref&gt; This is not from the ''[[w:Introit|Introit]]'' for [[w:Paschal Tide|paschal time]]; it is the opening phrase of one of the [[w:Antiphon|antiphons]] that may be sung during [[w:Eastertide|Eastertide]] in the [[w:Asperges|Asperges]], or rite of sprinkling the congregation with holy water, a penitential rite that ordinarily precedes the principal Mass on Sunday. This particular antiphon is based on [[w:Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel 47]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2047&amp;version=VULGATE Ezekiel 47.]&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:Psalms|Psalms 117]] (Vulgate):&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalmi+117&amp;version=VULGATE Psalms 117.]&lt;/ref&gt;

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''''Vidi Aquam'''''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.archive.org/stream/MissaleRomanum1603#page/n883/mode/1up ''Missale Romanum (1603)'' 883.]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| &lt;poem&gt;''Vidi aquam egredientem de templo,''
''A latere dextro, Alleluia:''
''Et omnes, ad quos pervenit aqua ista,''
''Salvi facti sunt, et dicent, Alleluia, Alleluia.''

'''V.''' ''Confitemini Domino quoniam bonus:''
'''R.''' ''Quoniam in saeculum misericordia eius.''

'''V.''' ''Gloria Patri, et Filio, et Spiritui Sancto:''
'''R.''' ''Sicut erat in principio, et nunc, et semper,''
''Et in saecula sæculorum. Amen.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
| &lt;poem&gt;''I saw water coming forth from the temple''
''On the right side, Alleluia:''
''And all those to whom this water came''
''Were saved, and shall say, Alleluia, Alleluia.''

'''V.''' ''Give praise to the Lord, for He is good:''
'''R.''' ''For His mercy endureth forever.''

'''V.''' ''Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit:''
'''R.''' ''As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be,''
''World without end. Amen.''
&lt;/poem&gt;
|}


'''''Altius aliquantulum'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Somewhat higher''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 453.&lt;/ref&gt; Gifford translates this incorrectly as &quot;with considerable profundity&quot;; it is actually a reference to the fact that this verse is sung at a slightly higher pitch than the first verse in the traditional chant.&lt;ref&gt;[http://musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf ''Liber Usualis'' 12.] (PDF page 124.)&lt;/ref&gt;


'''''Et omnes ad quos pervenit aqua istas'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''And all those to whom this water came.'' See '''410.22''' above.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 453.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}


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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''la belle dame sans merci'''''{{spaces|5}}(''French'') ''the beautiful woman without pity''. The traditional French concept of the beautiful woman who tempts men with the promise of love only to destroy them echoes the Greek myth of Circe. Keats used this expression as the title of a poem of 1819.

'''''ad deam qui laetificat juventutem meam'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''to the goddess who gladdens my youth''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 454.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 360.&lt;/ref&gt; Stephen has adapted a phrase from the [[w:Tridentine Mass|Latin Tridentine Mass]], which was still in use in 1904. At the start of the Mass, during the ''Prayers at the Foot of the Altar'', the Priest intones the words: ''Introibo ad altare Dei'' (''I will go into the altar of God''). To this the servers respond: ''Ad Deum qui laetificat iuventutem meam'' (''To God who gladdens my youth'').

See also [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Telemachus/003|003.05]].

Joyce's spelling ''[[wikt:juventus|juventutem]]'' is an acceptable alternative to ''[[wikt:iuventus|iuventutem]]''. Gabler emends the text in favour of the latter.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Ulysses: The Corrected Text |last=Joyce |first=James |editor=Hans Walter Gabler |others=With Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior |year=1986 |publisher=The Bodley Head |location=London |page=353}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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'''''Cui bona?'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''Who benefits by it?''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 470.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 373-374.&lt;/ref&gt; The adage ''[[w:Cui bona|cui bona]]'' is often used colloquialy to mean ''of what use is it?''.

'''''aurora borealis'''''{{spaces|5}}The [[w:Aurora (astronomy)|Northern Lights]]. See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Circe/413|413.24]].

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''tripudium'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') See [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Proteus/049|049.04]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

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{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''Then the decree ''nisi'' and the King's Proctor to show cause why and, he failing to quash it, ''nisi'' was made absolute'''{{spaces|5}}On ''decree nisi'' and ''decree absolute'' see [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Cyclops/310|310.24]]. The [[w:Proctor|King's Proctor]] (or, in the O'Shea divorce case, Queen's Proctor) is the solicitor who represents the Crown in the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes. Among his powers is the right to show cause against a decree ''nisi'', thus preventing it from becoming absolute.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''genus omne'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''all that kind''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 562.&lt;/ref&gt; The usual form of this phrase is: ''[[wikt:et hoc genus omne|et hoc genus omne]]'' (''and all this sort of thing''). The narrator (Bloom?) is using the Latin phrase as a simple substantive, as though it were a synonym for ''[[wikt:ilk|ilk]]''. This unusual practice is typical of his affected style in this episode.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
'''''Rus in Urbe'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''The Countryside in the City''.&lt;ref&gt;Gifford (1988) 590.&lt;br&gt;Thornton (1968) 476.&lt;/ref&gt; The phrase, commonly used to indicate an extensive garden attached to a city residence, first occurs in the twelfth book of [[w:Martial|Martial's]] epigrams.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/martial_epigrams_book12.htm Martial, ''Epigrams'' 12:57:21] and [http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost01/Martialis/mar_ep12.html Marcus Valerius Martialis, ''Epigrammaton Libri XII'' 12:57:21.]&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

==References==
{{reflist}}

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&lt;br&gt;
==Annotations==
691.12 '''Pooles Myriorana''' {{spaces|5}} By 1900, Poole's Myriorama had seven separate shows touring for 40 weeks of the year.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Moving panorama&quot; in Wikipedia&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Moving panorama|Myrioramas]] were a kind of entertainment that got popular in the 19th century and was later replaced by cinemas. It gave the spectators the illusion of travelling through a landscape, for example along a river, an exotic place or a glorious British battle scene. Poole's show included explanations by a narrator, music and other effects. The landscapes were painted on a very long canvass, winding like a scroll between two vertical cylinders.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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== Annotations ==

== References ==
{{reflist}}

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==Annotations==

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{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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{{reflist}}

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  <page>
    <title>A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Problem Solving, Programming, Data Representation and Practical Exercise/Fundamentals of Data Representation/Status register</title>
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{{CPTPageNavigationU1|
 | Next = Information coding schemes
 | Prev = Two's complement}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Fundamentals of Data Representation: Status register}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;
Maths in a processor is normally performed using set numbers of bits.  For example where you add 8 bits to 8 bits. This will often cause no problems at all:

  00110011 (51)
 +00001010 (10)
  --------
  00111101 (61)

But what happens if we add the following numbers together:
  01110011 (115)
 +01001010 (74)
  --------
  10111101 (189)

This may appear to have gone ok, but we have a problem.  If we are dealing with twos complement numbers the answer from adding two positive numbers together is negative!

  01110011 (115)
 +01001010 (74)
  --------
  '''&lt;u&gt;1&lt;/u&gt;'''0111101 (-67!)

==Overflow==
Let's take a look at another problem example, the problem of overflow
{{Dbox|Overflow|When the result of a calculation is too large to fit into a set number of bits}}

     1010 (-6)
    +1010 (-6)
     --------
  (1)'''&lt;u&gt;0&lt;/u&gt;'''100 (+4!)
As you can see in the sum above, we have added two negative numbers together and the result is a positive number.

To deal with the situations mentioned above we use the status register
{{Dbox|Status Register|information about process states such as whether a result is zero, positive/negative or resulted in overflow.}}

==The most common flags==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#D0E0FF;{{text default color}}; width:10%&quot; |Flag
! style=&quot;background:#D0E0FF;{{text default color}}; width:25%&quot; |Name
! style=&quot;background:#D0E0FF;{{text default color}}; width:60%&quot; |Description
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Z'''
| [[w:Zero flag|Zero flag]]
| Indicates that the result of an arithmetic or logical operation (or, sometimes, a load) was zero.
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''C'''
| [[w:Carry flag|Carry flag]]
| Enables numbers larger than a single word (in the examples above 4 or 8 bits) to be added/subtracted by carrying a binary digit from a less significant word to the [[w:least significant bit|least significant bit]] of a more significant word as needed
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''S''' / '''N'''
| Sign flag / [[w:Negative flag|Negative flag]]
| One indicates whether the result was negative whereas the other indicates whether a subtraction or addition has taken place.
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''O'''
| [[w:Overflow flag|Overflow flag]]
| Indicates that the signed result of an operation is too large to fit in the register width using [[w:twos complement|twos complement]] representation.
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''P'''
| [[w:Parity flag|Parity flag]]
| Indicates whether the number of set bits of the last result is odd or even.
|}

{{ExampleRobox|title=Status register working}}
For the sum that we met earlier we will take a look at how the status register can be used to stop the incorrect answer arising:
  01110011 (115)
 +01001010 (74)
  --------
  10111101 (-67)
Status register: Z = False | C = False | N = '''True''' | O = '''True''' | P = Even

Using these flags you can see that the result is negative, if the original sum used only positive values, then we know we have an error.

Looking at the other equation:
     1010 (-6)
    +1010 (-6)
     ----
  (1)'''&lt;u&gt;0&lt;/u&gt;'''100
Status register: Z = False | C = '''True''' | N = '''False''' | O = '''True''' | P = Odd

Using these flags you can see that the result is positive when the original used two negative numbers.  We can also see that overflow occurred.
{{Robox/Close}}

{{CPTExercise|theme=1|title=Exercise: Status register}}
{{CPTQuestionTab}}What is the problem with the result of the following 4 bit sum:

     1011 (-5)
    +1011 (-5)
     ----
{{CPTQuestionTabEnd}}
{{CPTAnswerTab}}The result would create overflow, giving an incorrect answer:
     1011 (-5)
    +1011 (-5)
     ----
  (1)0110 (+6)
{{CPTAnswerTabEnd}}
{{CPTQuestion|In the context of calculations what is overflow?}}
{{CPTAnswer|When a the result of a calculation is too large to fit into a set number of bits.}}
{{CPTQuestion|What do we need the status register for?}}
{{CPTAnswer|The status register holds flags keeping track of the results of sums, this helps us to see when there is an error in a result and correct it accordingly}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name three flags in a status register:}}
{{CPTAnswer|Overflow, Carry, Negative, Zero}}
{{CPTQuestionTab}}Show the Status register for the following sum:

     1001 (-7)
    +1001 (-7)
     ----
  (1)0010 (+2)
{{CPTQuestionTabEnd}}
{{CPTAnswerTab}}
Status register: Z = False | C = '''True''' | N = '''False''' | O = '''True''' | P = Odd
{{CPTAnswerTabEnd}}
{{Robox/Close}}</text>
      <sha1>1n9v0ktr9t86628pojlvwohi4x3dkbc</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Postage Meter Stamp Catalog/Monaco</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>282581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662568</id>
      <parentid>4662210</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T18:15:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Л.П. Джепко</username>
        <id>98013</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* GROUP B: With Euro sign in frank, inscribed “€ MONACO” or “€ PRINCIPAUTE DE MONACO” */ a typo</comment>
      <origin>4662568</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19455" sha1="torag3tmszmlg40uujudu682un4ijkt" xml:space="preserve">=Monaco=
{{font/top|size=3}}
* The country is an independent Principality with a special relationship with France. All meters placed into use so far are of French manufacture. The first meter was placed into use in 1928. All stamps are inscribed “MONACO”. 
* The stamps are grouped as follows:
:: A - Inscribed “PRINCIPAUTE DE MONACO”
:: B - inscribed “€ MONACO”
:: PO - Special stamps generated only by Post Office meters and imprinters
:: PD - Special stamps used to collect Postage Due
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;
----
----
== &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;GROUP A: Inscribed “PRINCIPAUTE DE MONACO”&lt;/span&gt;==
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: Monaco stamp type A1.jpg|left|500px]]

'''A1. Havas “Tiranty” ''' (FV-1), 1928. 
: Small upright rectangle with simulated-perforation border with breaks in sides. 
: “POSTES” curved at bottom above M#.
:::::::::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “A” prefix. {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
:::::::::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “WA” prefix. {{space|4}} [''Rare'']
: TM: SL 
: Values: {{space|4}}  50c, 65c, 90c, 1F, 1F50, 1F75, 2F25, 2F50, 4F


[[File: Monaco stamp type A2.jpg|left|530px]]

'''A2. Havas “Grandjean” ''' (MV-6). {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
: As Type A1 but M# with “B” prefix. 
: TM: SL
: Values: {{space|4}}  40c, 50c, 70c, 80c, 1F50, 2F , 2Foo , 3F , 3Foo , 5F, 6F, 9F , 10F, 12F, 14F, 15F, 18F, 20F, 25F, 30F


[[File: Monaco stamp type A3.jpg|left|530px]]

'''A3. Havas “C”''' (MV). 
: As Types A1 and A2 but M# with “C”, &quot;CG&quot; or &quot;CW&quot; prefix. 
: Stamp (including town line and frank) is 100 mm wide.
: TM: SL 
:::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “C” prefix
:::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “CG” prefix
:::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “CW” prefix
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★00 {{space|4}}  ★00F {{space|4}}  ★00oo {{space|4}}  ★000F {{space|4}}  ★000

:::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''a'''. With 4-digit impression counter high above town line


[[File: Monaco stamp type A3point1.jpg|left|400px]]

'''A3.1. Havas “C&quot;''' (rebuilt) and ''' “G” ''' (MV). 
: Similar to Type A3 but the stamp (including town line and frank) is 75 mm wide.
:::::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “CG” prefix
:::::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “G” prefix
: TM: SL 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★00 {{space|4}}  ★00F {{space|4}}  ★00oo {{space|4}}  ★000F {{space|4}}  ★000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A4.jpg|left|455px]]

'''A4. Havas “K” ''' (MV). 
: M# with “K” prefix. 
:::::::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. “POSTES”
:::::::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. “POSTES” straight {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
: TM: SL stacked at left
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★00'''.''' {{space|4}}  ★0.oo


[[File: Monaco stamp type A5A.jpg|left|510px]]

'''A5. Havas “M” ''' (MV). 
: Frank wider than tall. 
::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “M” prefix {{space|4}}
::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “MG” prefix {{space|4}}
::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''C'''. M# with “MW” prefix {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
: TM: SL 

::::::::::::::::::::::::: '''a'''. TM line at top rather than bottom


[[File: Monaco stamp type A6.jpg|left|180px]]

'''A6. Secap “N” ''' (MV). {{space|4}}
: “POSTES” only slightly curved. 
: M# with “N” prefix. 
: With or without user's initials at left of frank.
: TM: Normally one straight line of text stacked below the frank and with the date below.  A second line of text may be used to show the region, which for Monaco franks is “P&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;TE&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; DE MONACO”
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★00 {{space|4}}  ★00F {{space|4}}  ★000 {{space|4}}  ★000F {{space|4}}  0000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A7A.jpg|left|300px]]

'''A7. Secap “NA”, “ND” and “NE” ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” only slightly curved. 
::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “NA” prefix
::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “ND” prefix
::::::::::::::: '''C'''. M# with “NE” prefix
::::::::::::::: '''D'''. M# with “NK” prefix
::::::::::::::: '''E'''. M# with “NAW” prefix {{space|4}} [''Uncommon'']
::::::::::::::: '''F'''. M# with “NEW” prefix {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
:::::::::::::: TM: SC 
:::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★00 {{space|4}}  ★000 {{space|4}}  0 0 0 {{space|4}}  0000 {{space|4}}  00''','''00


[[File: Monaco stamp type A8.jpg|left|540px]]

'''A8. Satas “C” ''' (MV). {{space|4}} [''Uncommon'']
: “POSTES” curved. 
: M# with “SC” prefix. 
: TM: SL  
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★000 {{space|4}}  ★000F 


[[File: Monaco stamp type A9.jpg|left|540px]]

'''A9. Satas “D” ''' (MV). {{space|4}}
: “POSTES” curved. 
: M# with “SD” prefix. 
: TM: SL 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★000F {{space|4}}  0000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A10.jpg|left|330px]]

'''A10. Satas “D” ''' (MV). {{space|4}}
: As Type A9 but TM SC with tall date figures. 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★000F {{space|4}}  0000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A11.jpg|left|330px]]

'''A11. Satas “R” ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” curved. 
: TM: SC 
::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “SR” or “S.R.” prefix
::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “SRW” prefix {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A12.jpg|left|330px]]

'''A12. Satas “J” ''' (MV). 
: Date figures tall. 
: “POSTES” curved. 
: M# with “SJ” or “S.J” prefix. 
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★00 {{space|4}}  ★000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A13.jpg|left|385px]]

'''A13. Satas “F” ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” curved. 
: Date figures tall. 
: M# with “SF” prefix. 
: TM: SC
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★000F {{space|4}}  0000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A14.jpg|left|330px]]

'''A14. Satas “L” ''' (MV).
: “POSTES” curved.
: Date figures very short. 
::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “SL” prefix
::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “SL W” prefix {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
: TM: SL 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★ 0 0 0 
&lt;br&gt;


[[File: Monaco stamp type A15.jpg|left|330px]]
[[File:Monaco Type A15B.jpg|304px|right]]

'''A15. Havas “P” ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” straight or curved. 
: M# with “P” prefix. 
::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “P” prefix
::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “PW” prefix {{space|4}} [''Scarce'']
: TM: SC 
::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}} 000 {{space|4}} ★000
::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}} 00 {{space|4}}


[[File: Monaco stamp type A16.jpg|left|315px]]

'''A16. Havas “T” ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” curved. 
: Value figures relatively small. 
: Date figures with stops after D and before Y. 
:::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “T” prefix
:::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “TW” prefix {{space|4}} [''Uncommon'']
::::::::::::::: TM: SC 
::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  000 {{space|4}}  0000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A17.jpg|left|330px]]
&lt;br&gt;
'''A17. Havas ”R” ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” curved. 
: M# with “R” or “RC” prefix. 
: TM: SC
: V/F: {{space|4}}  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;≋&lt;/span&gt;000 {{space|4}}  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;≋&lt;/span&gt;0''','''00


[[File: Monaco stamp type A18.jpg|left|330px]]

'''A18. SMH/Alcatel (Neopost) ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” curved. 
: Value figures relatively small. 
::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “F” prefix
::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “FW” prefix {{space|4}} [''Uncommon'']
:::::::::::::::: TM: SC 
:::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  0000


[[File: Monaco stamp type A19.jpg|left|330px]]

'''A19. Secap''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” slightly curved. 
: Date figures widely spaced. 
::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “NC” prefix. Date with stops after D and M
::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “NL” prefix. Date without stops
::::::::::::::::: '''C'''. M# with “NP” prefix. Date without stops
::::::::::::::: TM: SC 
::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★000 (NC) {{space|4}}  00''','''00 (NL) {{space|4}}  0000 (NP)


[[File: Monaco stamp type A20.jpg|left|330px]]

'''A20. Satas ''' (MV). 
: “POSTES” small, slightly curved. 
: Date figures widely spaced. 
::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. M# with “SG” prefix. Date with stops after D and M
::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. M# with “SK” prefix. Date without stops. Value figures relatively small
::::::::::::::::: '''C'''. M# with “SV” prefix. Date with stops after D and M
::::::::::::::: TM: SC 
::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;≋&lt;/span&gt;000 (SG) {{space|4}}  0000 (SK) {{space|4}}  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;≋&lt;/span&gt;0''','''00 (SV)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: Monaco stamp type A21.jpg|left|350px]]

'''A21. Neopost ''' (MV). 
: Frank wider than tall. 
: Date figures widely spaced. 
: M# with “RC” prefix.
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;≋&lt;/span&gt;00'''.'''00 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

== &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;GROUP B: With Euro sign in frank, inscribed “€ MONACO” or “€ PRINCIPAUTE DE MONACO”&lt;/span&gt;==
&lt;br&gt;

{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B1.jpg|left|330px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B1. Satas''' (MV). 
: “LA POSTE” straight at bottom above M#.
: Date figures widely spaced with stops after D and M.
: M# with &quot;SE, &quot;SG&quot;, &quot;HR&quot;, or &quot;SV&quot; prefix.
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ≋000 (SG) {{space|4}}  ≋0,00 (SE)
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B2.jpg|left|330px]]
[[File:Monaco Type B2B.jpg|304px|left]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B2. Secap ''' (MV). 
: As Type B1 but date without stops. 
:: '''A'''. M# with “NP” prefix and with comma separator in value.
:: '''B'''. M# with &quot;NS&quot; prefix and without comma in value.
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  00,00 {{space|4}}  0000
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B3.jpg|left|330px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B3. Neopost''' (MV). 
: Nearly identical in appearance to Type B1, but M# has “R”, &quot;RC&quot; or “HR” prefix. 
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ≋0.00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B4.jpg|left|335px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B4. Neopost ''' (MV). 
: Date figures narrowly spaced with stops centered after D and M. 
: M# with “F” prefix. 
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  0000
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B5.jpg|left|345px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B5. Secap ''' (MV). 
: Wide frank, nearly square. 
: Date figures with stops after D and M. 
: M# with “NX” prefix. 
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  000,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B6.jpg|left|340px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B6. Neopost “Electronic” ''' (MV). 
: Wide, square frank as Type B5. 
: Date figures with dashes between D and M and Y. 
: M# with “HC” prefix. 
: TM: SC 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ≋≋0,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B7.jpg|left|330px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B7. Secap''' (MV).
: As Type B2 but inscribed “PRINCIPAUTE / DE MONACO”. 
: M# with “NP” prefix. 
: TM: SC
: V/F: {{space|4}}  0000
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B8.jpg|left|355px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B8. Pitney Bowes “Paragon”''' (MV). 
: Frank similar in size and shape to Type B5, but value figures are smaller and widely spaced.
: M# with “BP” prefix.
: TM: SC
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ≋00,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B8point1.jpg|left|375px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B8.1. Pitney Bowes “A/B900”''' (MV). 
: As Type B8 but the frank is wider and the value figures are larger.
: M# with “BE” prefix.
: TM: SC
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ≋00,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B9.jpg|left|305px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B9. Pitney Bowes “PostPerfect” '''(digital). 
: Frank slightly wider than tall. 
: Narrow spacing between TM and frank. 
: M# with “BN” prefix. 
: TM: SC
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ≋00,00

:: '''a'''. With M# prefix “OBN”
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B10.jpg|left|315px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B10.	 Satas''' (digital). 
: Frank upright as with Types B1 through B4 but town mark is rectangle as with Type B7. 
: M# with “SB”, &quot;SBA&quot;, or &quot;SC&quot; prefix
: Value figures thick and narrow.
: TM: rectangle
: V/F: {{space|4}}  000,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B11A.jpg|left|385px]]
[[File: Monaco stamp type B11B.jpg|left|365px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B11. Neopost''' (digital). 
: Frank wider than tall as with Types B5 and B6 but with “LA POSTE” at top below country name. 
: M# with “HD”, “HH”, “HK” or &quot;HY&quot; prefix.
: M# with “HU” prefix (Model IS440/480).
: '''A'''. “€ MONACO” wide
: '''B'''. “€ MONACO” narrow. Frank also slightly narrower
: TM: rectangle
: V/F: {{space|4}}  000,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B12.jpg|left|340px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B12. Satas''' (digital).
: Frank is nearly identical in appearance to Type B11 but M# with “SM”, “SP”, “SX” or &quot;SZ&quot; prefix.
: TM: rectangle
: V/F: {{space|4}}  000,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B13.jpeg|left|325px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B13. Pitney Bowes/SECAP''', various models (digital).
: Upright frank as with Type B10 except &quot;LA POSTE&quot; is above the value figures.
: Meter number prefix &quot;VB&quot;.
: TM: SL in rectangle
: V/F: {{space|4}}  000,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File: Monaco stamp type B14.jpg|left|345px]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
'''B14. Pitney Bowes “DM Infinity”''' (digital).
: Frank slightly wider than tall as with B12, but “LA POSTE” is below the value figures rather than above.
: Value figures quite thick.
: M# prefixes “MD” and &quot;MM&quot; seen.
: TM: SL in rectangle
: V/F: {{space|4}}  000,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


{|
|-
|style=&quot;width:400px; vertical-align: top;&quot;|
[[File:Monaco Type B15.jpg|297px|left]]

|style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;|
: '''B15. Neopost “IS5000” / “IS6000”''' (digital). 
: Similar to Type B11 but with “LA POSTE” below value. 
: M# with “HZ” prefix.
: TM: rectangle
: V/F: {{space|4}}  000,00
|}
&lt;br&gt;


----

== &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;GROUP C: Inscribed “MONTE-CARLO” instead of country name&lt;/span&gt;==
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: Monaco stamp type C1.jpeg|left|500px]]

'''C1. Satas''' (MV), 1958. {{space|4}} [''Extremely rare'']
: As type A5 but with &quot;MONTE-CARLO&quot; at top of frank instead of the country name.
: Meter “M 1691” only.
: One example is known, dated 12 February 1958. This same meter dated in September 1958 has &quot;PRINCIPAUTE DE MONACO&quot; at top (Type A5).
: TM: SL 
: V/F: {{space|4}}  ★000&lt;sup&gt;F&lt;/sup&gt;


----

== &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;GROUP PO: Special stamps generated only by Post Office meters and imprinters&lt;/span&gt;==
&lt;br&gt;

[[File: image needed.jpg|left|170px]]

::::::::::::::::::: '''PO1. Secap “Junior” ''' (MV). 
::::::::::::::::::: Very similar to Type A19B, but M# with “N1” prefix. 
::::::::::::::::::: TM: SC 
::::::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  00''','''00 


----
{{font/top|color=green}}
Types PO2 and up are known printed on self-adhesive labels with the following underprint designs:
: '''A'''. Panel at left with bird border, comet tail at right (light blue)
: '''B'''. Birds in flight with full moon (light blue)
: '''C'''. Monte Carlo Castle (pink and gray)

The stamps illustrated below all show underprint C.
{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: Monaco stamp type PO2.jpg|left|400px]]

::::::::::::::::::: '''PO2. SERCEM''' (digital). 
::::::::::::::::::: Text applied digitally in black to a preprinted self-adhesive label with design in pink and gray consisting of castle at left and lozenges at right. 
::::::::::::::::::: Frank similar in design to previous types. 
::::::::::::::::::: TM SL stacked at left within rectangular border open at sides. 
::::::::::::::::::: Date, hour and value figures tall (~3 mm). 
::::::::::::::::::: M# with “GO2 PC” or &quot;GO3 PC&quot; prefix.
::::::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  0000''','''00


[[File: Monaco stamp type PO3.jpg|left|400px]]

::::::::::::::::::: '''PO3. Olivetti “PR50” ''' (digital). 
::::::::::::::::::: Similar to type PO2 but the frank and TM have no frames.
::::::::::::::::::: The date and value figures are fairly heavy and somewhat angular, most notable in the '6' and '9' which have straight appendages. The “1” is footed.
::::::::::::::::::: Date, hour and value figures short (~2 mm). 
::::::::::::::::::: M# with “G04 PC” prefix.
::::::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  0000''','''00


[[File: Monaco stamp type PO4.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: Monaco stamp type PO4C.jpg|left|400px]]

::::::::::::::::::: '''PO4. Olivetti &quot;PR2&quot; ''' (digital). 
::::::::::::::::::: Similar to Type PO3 but the value figures are fairly heavy, like on Type PO-D1, and they are slightly more rounded. This is most notable in the '6' and '9' which have curved appendages. The “1” has no foot.
::::::::::::::::::: M# with “G03 PC” or &quot;GO6 PC&quot; prefix.

:::::::::::::::::::: '''A'''. Francs (FRF) above euros (EUR)
:::::::::::::::::::: '''B'''. Euros (EUR) above francs (FRF)
:::::::::::::::::::: '''C'''. Euros (EUR) only
::::::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  0''','''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: Monaco stamp type PO5.jpg|left|405px]]

::::::::::::::::::: '''PO5. Olivetti &quot;PR50&quot; ''' (digital). 
::::::::::::::::::: Very similar to Type PO4B but the date and value figures are like those found with Type PO3, i.e. somewhat angular, most notable in the '6' and '9' which have straight appendages, and with footed “1”. 
::::::::::::::::::: M# with “G08 PC&quot; prefix.
::::::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  0''','''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:Monaco Type PO6.jpg|371px|left]]

::::::::::::::::::: '''PO6.''' Unidentified (digital). 
::::::::::::::::::: Very similar to Type PO4C but without the Post Office name, with a seriffed font, and with the mail type below the value figures. 
::::::::::::::::::: M# with “G06&quot; prefix.
::::::::::::::::::: V/F: {{space|4}}  0''','''00

:::::::::::::::::::: '''a'''. Mail type: Lettre Suivre Inter
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

== &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;GROUP PD: Special stamps used to collect Postage Due&lt;/span&gt;==
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: Monaco stamp type PD1.jpg|left|340px]]

'''PD1. Frama ''' (digital). 
: Square frank 23 mm wide with &quot;PRINCAPAUTE / DE MONACO&quot; at top, &quot;POSTES&quot; at bottom.
: Ar right is &quot;MONTE CARLO&quot; straight at top above date and time with large &quot;TIMBRE TAXE&quot; at bottom.
: Without meter number.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  00000 

'''NOTE''': See France type PD-A2


----&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;Return to main catalog&lt;/span&gt; ⇒&lt;/span&gt; &lt;u&gt;[[../]]&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;


&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;Return to top&lt;/span&gt; ⇒&lt;/span&gt; &lt;u&gt;[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/International_Postage_Meter_Stamp_Catalog/Monaco Monaco]&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>torag3tmszmlg40uujudu682un4ijkt</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aros/Platforms/Arm Raspberry Pi support</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662436</id>
      <parentid>4662408</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:37:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeff1138</username>
        <id>301139</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662436</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="82068" sha1="06mprtkq72zsqhuaq7nphg8zgpr2aao" xml:space="preserve">{{ArosNav}}

[[#Native]]

[[#Hosted]]

[[#Build]]

[[#Hardware]]

[[#Reference]]

==Introduction==

Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5  

The Raspberry Pi Foundation is a charity founded in May 2009 to promote the study of basic computer science in schools, and is responsible for developing a single-board computer called the Raspberry Pi.

The Foundation is supported by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Broadcom. Its aim is to &quot;promote the study of computer science and related topics, especially at school level, and to put the fun back into learning computing.&quot;

The original Raspberry Pi 1 Model B computer went on sale in February 2012 and set a new standard shattering the dominance of the PC in the home and education markets. Millions in the various formats, A, B, A+, B+ and Compute have since been shipped worldwide. The original concept of the Raspberry Pi was for a computer board providing Internet access with up to 1080p HD graphics at very low cost. The boards provide a platform for children and adults from any background to acquire computer science knowledge and help develop the future World-Wide-Web and all things internet (IOT hub and bridges out to home network to cloud of sensors).

Hobbyists and tech dabblers/tinkerers are the main purchases of the Pis (around half). The rest of the sales are split between education/industrial. While the Raspberry Pi boards were designed primarily for education, they have become very popular with manufacturers of embedded systems. The Raspberry Pi Foundation has ensured backwards compatibility with each 32bit and separately with 64bit revisions. The bare-bones Compute module is aimed specifically at the OEM industrial manufacturer. 


* Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 &quot;southbridge&quot; with VideoCore 7 
* Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 
* Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 

* Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 

[[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|DHCP Settings]]

&lt;pre&gt;
2008 Trustees collected for Foundation
2009 Charity status gained 
2010 
2011 First Raspberry prototypes 
2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835
2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 
2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 
2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 
2013 Over two million sold 
2014 Over three million sold 
2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 
2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 
2015 Over four million first gen pis sold  
2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 
2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 
2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 
2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 
2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 

2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 
2015 Over a million pi2s sold 


2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 
2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz - 1Gb - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n and a dual 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 
2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 
2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 
     1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 
2017 12 million pis sold in total 
2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 
2019 Over 15 million sold 
2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 
2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 
     1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 
2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 
2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge


2019 Pi 4 Model B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 1/2/4 GB ram 
2020 Silent Pi 4 upgrade with more USB-c psu support and PI400 1.8GHz inside keyboard 
2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm form factor with extra breakout IO board 
     CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM 
     CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite 
     CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite 
     CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules 
     CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc 
     CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite 
     CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc
2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - 
     CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite
     CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash
     CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite
     CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite
     CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 
2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 


2023 Pi 5 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k displays from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5V 5A psu 
2024 Pi 5 2GB version uses BCM2712D0 
2024 Pi-500 
2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board 
     CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
2025 Pi-500+


2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 


2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom  
2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 
2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 
2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 
2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI 
2026 
2027 


2028 Pi 6 
&lt;/pre&gt;


===Native===

* 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work
* 2013-05 Work put on hiatus 
* 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb
* 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support as well], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi]  
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 64bit]
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=jonx latest commits for pi 4] 
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5]


'''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot C Classes Developer etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 

64bit build works well on a single core and multicore may follow. There is no Bluetooth support for all amiga like OSs but [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] with the priviso [https://support.bluetooth.com/hc/en-us/articles/360049492171-What-are-the-requirements-to-use-the-Bluetooth-brand cannot use brand name or logo unless licence gained]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&amp;rowstart=60&amp;pid=13363#post_13363 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] 

*Waveshare Compute Module IO Board with PoE Feature and CM3 board does not boot. 
*RPi IO board and CM3 untested 


Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI or RPiPWM. Press Save button 

Wifi setup needs the network prefs with Wireless tab completed with your router settings and main TCP/IP tab click add interface for bwfm.device as net0: as well. Please Save 

If it does not set to start at boot, settings are preserved. Instead, add this to the user-startup:
&lt;pre&gt;
execute sys:system/network/arostcp/s/startnet
run wirelessmanager device=bwfm.device &gt;nil:
&lt;/pre&gt;
Network will start automatically on boot. If you don't want the wirelessmanager icon on Wanderer desktop, just add 'nogui' to the wirelessmanager line

Youtube [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [], 


The status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD 


===Hosted===

On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+] 
AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port 

[http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] 


===Good sites to visit===

*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] 
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] 

Linux only
*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] 
*[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi]
*[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore]
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ pi OS Lite] 
*[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] 
*[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] 

*[ FydeOS]
*[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS]


Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS 
*[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] 
*[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4]
*[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] 
*[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] 
*[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] 
*[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] 
*[ HaikuOS]

*[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] 


==Build==

===64bit===


===32bit===


# download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/
# make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports
# make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf
# cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -:

&lt;pre&gt;
&gt;cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf
&gt;/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports
&gt;make
&gt;make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it.

You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi.

The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows ..
&lt;pre&gt;
./configure --target=raspi-armhf
make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder.

NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first

arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console &quot;emulation&quot; via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library

arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS.

The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load our arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom).

the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO)


==== Hosted ====

=====64bit=====


[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d84b9a337f9aa059154d9af69275935125166bdd some Apple Silicon support]


=====32bit=====

Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013]

 ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf  --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib

arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux)

*armel - many of the &quot;android&quot; machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. 
*armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP)

Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI.

Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets.

*needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target 
*as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes.

with—disable-crosstools  $AROS_CC  is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC  ?  If  so,  this  is  wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. 
Yes,  Android  port  will  build.  And  even  work. But it's not good because  the  port  will  not  be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example:

&lt;pre&gt;
enum test {foo, bar};
enum test testvar;
&lt;/pre&gt;

siseof(testvar)  will  be  equal  to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS)  and  sizeof(short)  on  Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example.

Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts.

Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS.

compiler=kernel  is  appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or  barebone  hardware,  if  we  talk  about  native).  This includes bootstraps,  their  linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations.

No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows,  Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work.

If  you  want  to  compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append  the  following  to  USER_INCLUDES  (or  USER_CFLAGS,  this  is effectively the same):

 -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

$(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to:

 -isystem  &lt;your_os_includes&gt;  -isystem  &lt;host_OS_gcc_private_includes&gt;
 -nostdinc

This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs.

If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH).

Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one.

Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types.

Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but &quot;./configure --target=raspi-armhf&quot; is enough to start, then &quot;make arosboot-raspi&quot; will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc).  It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output.

*armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, 
*armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise,

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armel' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
 ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \
             --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
    ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \
                --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is:

 make


* Hosted under ARM Linux which needs to be already installed [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.php current ABIv1] 


Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM

Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device.
Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error:

&lt;pre&gt;
    Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic
    configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x
    checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no
    checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no
    checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu
    checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c
    checking whether build environment is sane... yes
    checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip
    checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p
    checking for gawk... no
    checking for mawk... mawk
    checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes
    checking whether make supports nested variables... yes
    checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc
    checking whether the C compiler works... no
    configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic':
    configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables
    See config.log' for more details
    make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77
    [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512
    [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory
    make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10
    make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2
&lt;/pre&gt;


looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic

found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi
so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick
and the missing lib was built.

now the next stop is at
fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory
and
fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory
in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed?

fixed with adding
-I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
to where is missing on mmakefiles like
USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles.


Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again.

My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a &quot;template&quot; to compare to native compilation under arm linux.


Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild).
The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC.

For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script.

Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config&quot; and do make on &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build&quot; dir.

Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh


Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there:

#MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm

Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this.

Try adding this line (and the variant &quot;linklibs-armhf&quot; instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do &quot;linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick&quot;.
Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile

To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case.

With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with
&quot;cannot find -laeabi &quot; so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok.


== Hardware ==

===64bit===


====BCM2712====

With the Pi5 

Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] opefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 


====BCM2711====

With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 

the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c 

*[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different 
The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles.
The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same.

Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes.
Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation)
With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register.

the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction.
    the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions 

    the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of &quot;one read port, one write port&quot; to one &quot;two read ports, one write port&quot; block)

    The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhz
    But it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use.
    vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers.
    vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread.
    vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads.
    With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests.

    Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs.
    a fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible 
    The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer)
    Faster LPDDR4 memory.
    A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver.
    Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats.
    All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 

H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1
HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates 

Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs
If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised 

Possible maximum performance 
&lt;pre&gt;
VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s
VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s
VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s
&lt;/pre&gt;


====BCM2837==== 

With the Pi3 
* Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&amp;nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] 

The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has very slowly risen. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and might benefit from active cooling (ie fan) if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur.

Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 


ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. 


===32bit===

=== Core Kernel ===


====BCM2708(family)====
which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&amp;nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM)

*Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox 
*IRQ scheduler, etc 
*Arasan based SD Card controller 
*Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&amp;catid=45:raspberry-pi&amp;Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf],  [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], 
*[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip 
*CMOS RAM 
*VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc 
*Audio Driver 
*Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) 
*[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers]
*I2S 
*Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) 
*[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO]

BCM2836 
* For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board

*[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features],


 Implemented so far... 

# Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target.
# Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display.
# Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function.
# Implemented serial debug support
# Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc)
# Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers.
# Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer.
# Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media.
# Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The &quot;rom&quot; image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot.
# Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else.
# fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi ..


Improvements...

# Implement a USB chipset driver &quot;OR&quot; finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the &quot;virtual&quot; hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) 
# Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) 
# Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI]
# fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code
# Graphics depend on having a decent &quot;bcmdma.resource&quot; implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for &quot;blitting&quot;. 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver  - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 
# The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate.


 Boot up typical for most other OSs before a lot of open sourcing i.e. around 2017 onwards 

On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition.

The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks

*On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf 
*The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it
*configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU
*reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings)
*loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition
*activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image

The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU.

RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named &quot;kernel.img&quot; at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem)

Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf.

You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling.

At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules 

&lt;pre&gt;
?          - alias for 'help'
mtest      - simple RAM test
autoscr    - run script from memory
base       - print or set address offset
bbm        - BBM sub-system
bdinfo     - print Board Info structure
boot       - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootd      - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootm      - boot application image from memory
bootp      - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol
cmp        - memory compare
coninfo    - print console devices and information
cp         - memory copy
crc32      - checksum calculation
echo       - echo args to console
fatinfo    - print information about filesystem
fatload    - load binary file from a dos filesystem
fatls      - list files in a directory (default /)
go         - start application at address 'addr'
help       - print online help
iminfo     - print header information for application image
itest      - return true/false on integer compare
jade       -
loadb      - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode)
loads      - load S-Record file over serial line
loady      - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode)
loop       - infinite loop on address range
md         - memory display
mm         - memory modify (auto-incrementing)
mtest      - simple RAM test
mw         - memory write (fill)
nfs        - boot image via network using NFS protocol
nm         - memory modify (constant address)
pci        - list and access PCI Configuration Space
ping       - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host
printenv   - print environment variables
rarpboot   - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol
reset      - Perform RESET of the CPU
run        - run commands in an environment variable
saveenv    - save environment variables to persistent storage
saves      - save S-Record file over serial line
setenv     - set environment variables
sleep      - delay execution for some time
tftpboot   - boot image via network using TFTP protocol
USB        - USB sub-system
usbboot    - boot from USB device
version    - print monitor version
&lt;/pre&gt;

Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1,

the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for
hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS  routed  only  raw  hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt.  1:1 relationship between CPU  and hardware interrupts is present only on PC.

IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class.  PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant  to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain &quot;Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means&quot;. They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system.

Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No.  A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was &quot;abstract timer interrupt&quot;, used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea.

Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work?
 
Poseidon.library creates its &quot;Poseidon Event Task&quot; during RTF_COLDSTART -&gt; then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example.

You miss what happens next...
 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch().
 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible:
 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run.
 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list.

My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop.

There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures.

The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table.

The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :)

Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this:

        movw r0, #:lower16:label

        movt   r0, #:upper16:label

In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations.

There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to &quot;fake&quot; executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need.

Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. 

=== GPU ===

VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU.   Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute.

The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API.   The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf).   That's also the bad news.  Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much.  It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly.

The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated.   It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later.

Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC.  If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected.
 
have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled.

If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work.

L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled.

Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics.
 Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever.
 I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp).

    #warning &quot;TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory&quot;
        /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */
        for(x = 0; x &lt; 4096; x ++)
        {
            pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04);
        }

Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages?

Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device).

You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached)

    So ..
     
     pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | 2;

     
    should be enough?

No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80'

tell dosboot the correct defaults to use

Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead,  display  drivers  should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=&gt;instantiate itself. This   should   make  things way simpler. With this approach you only need  to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No
hardcoded stuff. 
Currently  VESA  and  VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it.

they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context).

AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent
years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that
they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them
from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy
code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM
marked as chip.

BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code?

Also, IIRC we have support for &quot;external memory allocators&quot;. Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox.

All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats.

trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET).
Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units.
The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ.

Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port?
It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port.  You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource.

You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs.

So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work.

Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this.

That should have done it.

If you set &quot;#define DEBUG 1&quot; in  arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output?

have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display?

Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting?
The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot

Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm.
 
To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen.
 
Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks).
 
have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress..

was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression.
Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. 
it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks.

Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS/OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs are a bit weird and far from optimal, especially MorphOS one, because it aims for m68k binary compatibility.
It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right)

The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place.  If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur.  I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian.  It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary.  They were both little-endian.
The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode).

 
What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest?
 
I have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems?
You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it.
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

I so far have -:
 
vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and  returns saying all is well
vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object.
vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise
vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer,
 
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback.  In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer.
don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses)

Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons.
This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP.
Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting.

As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there.

struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi.  AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol.

&lt;pre&gt;
redmask: 0x0000F800
greenmask: 0x000007E0
bluemask: 0x0000001F
alphamask: 0

redshift: 16
greenshift: 21
blueshift: 27
alphashift: 0
&lt;/pre&gt;

It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE

This stuff is a bit confusing.  The &quot;names&quot; of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory,
ignoring endianess. So for example:

ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines.

The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending
on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and
stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/).

With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine
to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag.
(RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to
be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG).

The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31).

The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered,
the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt-&gt;stdpixfmt) already in the system,
and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one.

In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the
gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use
HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt
tag list based on that.
15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5
(or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped).
 aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count.
But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses
in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc.

Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you
are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be.

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B.

read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment .
 
Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening.

The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red.

Why did usbromstartup become HW-specific ?
In  the  past i have done a big job separating kickstart into several parts. I have never got any responses, so i re-describe my idea.

For now it loads the hs otg chipset driver ..

The  idea  is  to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to
    make   user's  life  easier.  So,  the kickstart was split into 'base'
    (which  does  not  contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board
    Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff.
     This  way,  for  example, distribution makers can save up space on CD
    and  make  CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration
    would load the same base with different BSP's.
     Next  there  was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These
    are   filesystems.  Hosted  ports  do  not need them to boot up, so on
    hosted   they  are  left  out.  At  the  other  hand,  they  are  also
    architecture-agnostic.  So  i put them into 'FS' package (standing for
    'filesystem').

     Poseidon  is  one  more  big part. I made it into separate package in
    order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to
    run  on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon
    is  hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty
    standard).

It's mandatory on PI since there are no other interface types - so being a separate package is irrelevant/pointless.

Is Raspberry's USB controller non-HCI compliant? Actually i expect it to be compliant, then wouldn't it be better to make existing drivers discovering them? 
 
AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but I'm not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code.  Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running.  Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong.

Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side.  Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode &amp; switching modes once it's up and running.

Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup.

And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way...  u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot.

vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. 

 Framebuffer - basic display 

RasPi has to speak to the &quot;operating system&quot; which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls.

The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required.

The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and  composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied.

The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds).
must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. 
For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says &quot;interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer.&quot; so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data.

The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out).

openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface

To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits.


 USB 

* Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. 
* Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub.

Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components.

Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the &quot;virtual&quot; root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals.


The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”).

There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg].

The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code.

The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port).

Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider....

* Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile
* Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) )
* Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start.

the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB.

Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. 

After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. 

The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have &quot;prefixed&quot; it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. 


Trident saw this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

and this:

    Product     : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 255
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 1
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 60416
    DevVers   : 0200

and even this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;)

So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. 

[http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio]


 Audio 

[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI]

The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality

the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures

Analogue audio

Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 &amp; 1.4


 Ethernet 

10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket


 GPIO 

GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins)

Probably a resource rather than a device...

Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p


 GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration 

Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... 


 Miscellanous

hdmi issues

Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there.

You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal.

If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to &quot;set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode

Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options.

Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA.
If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost

composite video

changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box

Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't?

Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat  What's the result?

Put back config.txt What's the result?

for PAL mode   sdtv_mode=2

dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached
hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected

&lt;pre&gt;
# NOOBS Auto-generated Settings:
#hdmi_force_hotplug=1
#config_hdmi_boost=4
#overscan_left=24
#overscan_right=24
#overscan_top=16
#overscan_bottom=16
#disable_overscan=0
start_x=1
gpu_mem=128
&lt;/pre&gt;

tvservice -c &quot;PAL 4:3&quot;

&lt;pre&gt;
/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s   or tvservice -s 
state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA
Group CEA has 1 modes:
(native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT
Group DMT has 0 modes:
&lt;/pre&gt;

sudo amixer cset numid=3 1

forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in

config.txt

the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says

There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others.

What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground.

The wiring for the 4 pole are:

TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH)

RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW

Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way.

Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug.

Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one.


External devices

* Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&amp;nbsp;nm, peak at 880&amp;nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&amp;nbsp;nm wavelengths 
* Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - 
* Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle

N.B.  dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles.  It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board.  the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. 
The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible.  currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219.  The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd  be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. 
Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board.


== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662445</id>
      <parentid>4662436</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T15:01:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeff1138</username>
        <id>301139</id>
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      <text bytes="82078" sha1="cuczvjtq7qkv38lq8797904m0moiswr" xml:space="preserve">{{ArosNav}}

[[#Native]]

[[#Hosted]]

[[#Build]]

[[#Hardware]]

[[#Reference]]

==Introduction==

[[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3 Port]]

Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5  

The Raspberry Pi Foundation is a charity founded in May 2009 to promote the study of basic computer science in schools, and is responsible for developing a single-board computer called the Raspberry Pi.

The Foundation is supported by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Broadcom. Its aim is to &quot;promote the study of computer science and related topics, especially at school level, and to put the fun back into learning computing.&quot;

The original Raspberry Pi 1 Model B computer went on sale in February 2012 and set a new standard shattering the dominance of the PC in the home and education markets. Millions in the various formats, A, B, A+, B+ and Compute have since been shipped worldwide. The original concept of the Raspberry Pi was for a computer board providing Internet access with up to 1080p HD graphics at very low cost. The boards provide a platform for children and adults from any background to acquire computer science knowledge and help develop the future World-Wide-Web and all things internet (IOT hub and bridges out to home network to cloud of sensors).

Hobbyists and tech dabblers/tinkerers are the main purchases of the Pis (around half). The rest of the sales are split between education/industrial. While the Raspberry Pi boards were designed primarily for education, they have become very popular with manufacturers of embedded systems. The Raspberry Pi Foundation has ensured backwards compatibility with each 32bit and separately with 64bit revisions. The bare-bones Compute module is aimed specifically at the OEM industrial manufacturer. 


* Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 &quot;southbridge&quot; with VideoCore 7 
* Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 
* Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 

* Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 

&lt;pre&gt;
2008 Trustees collected for Foundation
2009 Charity status gained 
2010 
2011 First Raspberry prototypes 
2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835
2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 
2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 
2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 
2013 Over two million sold 
2014 Over three million sold 
2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 
2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 
2015 Over four million first gen pis sold  
2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 
2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 
2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 
2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 
2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 

2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 
2015 Over a million pi2s sold 


2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 
2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz - 1Gb - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n and a dual 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 
2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 
2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 
     1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 
2017 12 million pis sold in total 
2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 
2019 Over 15 million sold 
2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 
2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 
     1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 
2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 
2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge


2019 Pi 4 Model B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 1/2/4 GB ram 
2020 Silent Pi 4 upgrade with more USB-c psu support and PI400 1.8GHz inside keyboard 
2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm form factor with extra breakout IO board 
     CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM 
     CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite 
     CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite 
     CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules 
     CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc 
     CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite 
     CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc
2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - 
     CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite
     CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash
     CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite
     CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite
     CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 
2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 


2023 Pi 5 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k displays from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5V 5A psu 
2024 Pi 5 2GB version uses BCM2712D0 
2024 Pi-500 
2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board 
     CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
2025 Pi-500+


2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 


2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom  
2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 
2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 
2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 
2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI 
2026 
2027 


2028 Pi 6 
&lt;/pre&gt;


===Native===

* 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work
* 2013-05 Work put on hiatus 
* 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb
* 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support as well], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi]  
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 64bit]
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=jonx latest commits for pi 4] 
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5]


'''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot C Classes Developer etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 

64bit build works well on a single core and multicore may follow. There is no Bluetooth support for all amiga like OSs but [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] with the priviso [https://support.bluetooth.com/hc/en-us/articles/360049492171-What-are-the-requirements-to-use-the-Bluetooth-brand cannot use brand name or logo unless licence gained]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&amp;rowstart=60&amp;pid=13363#post_13363 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] 

*Waveshare Compute Module IO Board with PoE Feature and CM3 board does not boot. 
*RPi IO board and CM3 untested 


Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI or RPiPWM. Press Save button 

Wifi setup needs the network prefs with Wireless tab completed with your router settings and main TCP/IP tab click add interface for bwfm.device as net0: as well. Please Save 

If it does not set to start at boot, settings are preserved. Instead, add this to the user-startup:
&lt;pre&gt;
execute sys:system/network/arostcp/s/startnet
run wirelessmanager device=bwfm.device &gt;nil:
&lt;/pre&gt;
Network will start automatically on boot. If you don't want the wirelessmanager icon on Wanderer desktop, just add 'nogui' to the wirelessmanager line

Youtube [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [], 


The status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD 


===Hosted===

On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+] 
AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port 

[http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] 


===Good sites to visit===

*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] 
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] 

Linux only
*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] 
*[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi]
*[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore]
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ pi OS Lite] 
*[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] 
*[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] 

*[ FydeOS]
*[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS]


Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS 
*[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] 
*[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4]
*[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] 
*[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] 
*[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] 
*[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] 
*[ HaikuOS]

*[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] 


==Build==

===64bit===


===32bit===


# download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/
# make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports
# make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf
# cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -:

&lt;pre&gt;
&gt;cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf
&gt;/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports
&gt;make
&gt;make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it.

You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi.

The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows ..
&lt;pre&gt;
./configure --target=raspi-armhf
make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder.

NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first

arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console &quot;emulation&quot; via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library

arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS.

The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load our arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom).

the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO)


==== Hosted ====

=====64bit=====


[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d84b9a337f9aa059154d9af69275935125166bdd some Apple Silicon support]


=====32bit=====

Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013]

 ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf  --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib

arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux)

*armel - many of the &quot;android&quot; machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. 
*armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP)

Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI.

Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets.

*needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target 
*as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes.

with—disable-crosstools  $AROS_CC  is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC  ?  If  so,  this  is  wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. 
Yes,  Android  port  will  build.  And  even  work. But it's not good because  the  port  will  not  be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example:

&lt;pre&gt;
enum test {foo, bar};
enum test testvar;
&lt;/pre&gt;

siseof(testvar)  will  be  equal  to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS)  and  sizeof(short)  on  Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example.

Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts.

Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS.

compiler=kernel  is  appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or  barebone  hardware,  if  we  talk  about  native).  This includes bootstraps,  their  linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations.

No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows,  Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work.

If  you  want  to  compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append  the  following  to  USER_INCLUDES  (or  USER_CFLAGS,  this  is effectively the same):

 -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

$(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to:

 -isystem  &lt;your_os_includes&gt;  -isystem  &lt;host_OS_gcc_private_includes&gt;
 -nostdinc

This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs.

If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH).

Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one.

Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types.

Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but &quot;./configure --target=raspi-armhf&quot; is enough to start, then &quot;make arosboot-raspi&quot; will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc).  It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output.

*armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, 
*armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise,

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armel' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
 ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \
             --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
    ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \
                --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is:

 make


* Hosted under ARM Linux which needs to be already installed [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.php current ABIv1] 


Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM

Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device.
Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error:

&lt;pre&gt;
    Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic
    configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x
    checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no
    checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no
    checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu
    checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c
    checking whether build environment is sane... yes
    checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip
    checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p
    checking for gawk... no
    checking for mawk... mawk
    checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes
    checking whether make supports nested variables... yes
    checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc
    checking whether the C compiler works... no
    configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic':
    configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables
    See config.log' for more details
    make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77
    [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512
    [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory
    make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10
    make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2
&lt;/pre&gt;


looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic

found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi
so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick
and the missing lib was built.

now the next stop is at
fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory
and
fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory
in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed?

fixed with adding
-I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
to where is missing on mmakefiles like
USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles.


Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again.

My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a &quot;template&quot; to compare to native compilation under arm linux.


Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild).
The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC.

For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script.

Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config&quot; and do make on &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build&quot; dir.

Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh


Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there:

#MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm

Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this.

Try adding this line (and the variant &quot;linklibs-armhf&quot; instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do &quot;linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick&quot;.
Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile

To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case.

With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with
&quot;cannot find -laeabi &quot; so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok.


== Hardware ==

===64bit===


====BCM2712====

With the Pi5 

Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] opefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 


====BCM2711====

With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 

the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c 

*[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different 
The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles.
The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same.

Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes.
Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation)
With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register.

the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction.
    the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions 

    the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of &quot;one read port, one write port&quot; to one &quot;two read ports, one write port&quot; block)

    The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhz
    But it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use.
    vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers.
    vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread.
    vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads.
    With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests.

    Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs.
    a fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible 
    The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer)
    Faster LPDDR4 memory.
    A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver.
    Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats.
    All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 

H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1
HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates 

Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs
If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised 

Possible maximum performance 
&lt;pre&gt;
VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s
VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s
VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s
&lt;/pre&gt;


====BCM2837==== 

With the Pi3 
* Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&amp;nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] 

The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has very slowly risen. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and might benefit from active cooling (ie fan) if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur.

Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 


ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. 


===32bit===

=== Core Kernel ===


====BCM2708(family)====
which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&amp;nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM)

*Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox 
*IRQ scheduler, etc 
*Arasan based SD Card controller 
*Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&amp;catid=45:raspberry-pi&amp;Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf],  [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], 
*[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip 
*CMOS RAM 
*VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc 
*Audio Driver 
*Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) 
*[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers]
*I2S 
*Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) 
*[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO]

BCM2836 
* For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board

*[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features],


 Implemented so far... 

# Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target.
# Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display.
# Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function.
# Implemented serial debug support
# Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc)
# Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers.
# Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer.
# Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media.
# Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The &quot;rom&quot; image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot.
# Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else.
# fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi ..


Improvements...

# Implement a USB chipset driver &quot;OR&quot; finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the &quot;virtual&quot; hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) 
# Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) 
# Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI]
# fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code
# Graphics depend on having a decent &quot;bcmdma.resource&quot; implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for &quot;blitting&quot;. 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver  - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 
# The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate.


 Boot up typical for most other OSs before a lot of open sourcing i.e. around 2017 onwards 

On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition.

The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks

*On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf 
*The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it
*configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU
*reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings)
*loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition
*activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image

The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU.

RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named &quot;kernel.img&quot; at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem)

Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf.

You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling.

At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules 

&lt;pre&gt;
?          - alias for 'help'
mtest      - simple RAM test
autoscr    - run script from memory
base       - print or set address offset
bbm        - BBM sub-system
bdinfo     - print Board Info structure
boot       - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootd      - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootm      - boot application image from memory
bootp      - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol
cmp        - memory compare
coninfo    - print console devices and information
cp         - memory copy
crc32      - checksum calculation
echo       - echo args to console
fatinfo    - print information about filesystem
fatload    - load binary file from a dos filesystem
fatls      - list files in a directory (default /)
go         - start application at address 'addr'
help       - print online help
iminfo     - print header information for application image
itest      - return true/false on integer compare
jade       -
loadb      - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode)
loads      - load S-Record file over serial line
loady      - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode)
loop       - infinite loop on address range
md         - memory display
mm         - memory modify (auto-incrementing)
mtest      - simple RAM test
mw         - memory write (fill)
nfs        - boot image via network using NFS protocol
nm         - memory modify (constant address)
pci        - list and access PCI Configuration Space
ping       - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host
printenv   - print environment variables
rarpboot   - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol
reset      - Perform RESET of the CPU
run        - run commands in an environment variable
saveenv    - save environment variables to persistent storage
saves      - save S-Record file over serial line
setenv     - set environment variables
sleep      - delay execution for some time
tftpboot   - boot image via network using TFTP protocol
USB        - USB sub-system
usbboot    - boot from USB device
version    - print monitor version
&lt;/pre&gt;

Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1,

the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for
hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS  routed  only  raw  hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt.  1:1 relationship between CPU  and hardware interrupts is present only on PC.

IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class.  PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant  to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain &quot;Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means&quot;. They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system.

Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No.  A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was &quot;abstract timer interrupt&quot;, used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea.

Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work?
 
Poseidon.library creates its &quot;Poseidon Event Task&quot; during RTF_COLDSTART -&gt; then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example.

You miss what happens next...
 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch().
 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible:
 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run.
 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list.

My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop.

There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures.

The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table.

The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :)

Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this:

        movw r0, #:lower16:label

        movt   r0, #:upper16:label

In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations.

There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to &quot;fake&quot; executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need.

Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. 

=== GPU ===

VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU.   Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute.

The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API.   The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf).   That's also the bad news.  Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much.  It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly.

The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated.   It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later.

Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC.  If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected.
 
have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled.

If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work.

L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled.

Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics.
 Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever.
 I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp).

    #warning &quot;TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory&quot;
        /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */
        for(x = 0; x &lt; 4096; x ++)
        {
            pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04);
        }

Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages?

Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device).

You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached)

    So ..
     
     pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | 2;

     
    should be enough?

No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80'

tell dosboot the correct defaults to use

Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead,  display  drivers  should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=&gt;instantiate itself. This   should   make  things way simpler. With this approach you only need  to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No
hardcoded stuff. 
Currently  VESA  and  VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it.

they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context).

AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent
years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that
they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them
from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy
code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM
marked as chip.

BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code?

Also, IIRC we have support for &quot;external memory allocators&quot;. Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox.

All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats.

trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET).
Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units.
The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ.

Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port?
It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port.  You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource.

You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs.

So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work.

Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this.

That should have done it.

If you set &quot;#define DEBUG 1&quot; in  arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output?

have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display?

Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting?
The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot

Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm.
 
To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen.
 
Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks).
 
have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress..

was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression.
Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. 
it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks.

Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS/OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs are a bit weird and far from optimal, especially MorphOS one, because it aims for m68k binary compatibility.
It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right)

The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place.  If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur.  I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian.  It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary.  They were both little-endian.
The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode).

 
What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest?
 
I have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems?
You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it.
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

I so far have -:
 
vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and  returns saying all is well
vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object.
vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise
vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer,
 
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback.  In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer.
don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses)

Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons.
This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP.
Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting.

As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there.

struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi.  AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol.

&lt;pre&gt;
redmask: 0x0000F800
greenmask: 0x000007E0
bluemask: 0x0000001F
alphamask: 0

redshift: 16
greenshift: 21
blueshift: 27
alphashift: 0
&lt;/pre&gt;

It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE

This stuff is a bit confusing.  The &quot;names&quot; of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory,
ignoring endianess. So for example:

ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines.

The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending
on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and
stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/).

With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine
to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag.
(RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to
be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG).

The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31).

The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered,
the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt-&gt;stdpixfmt) already in the system,
and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one.

In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the
gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use
HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt
tag list based on that.
15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5
(or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped).
 aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count.
But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses
in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc.

Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you
are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be.

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B.

read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment .
 
Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening.

The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red.

Why did usbromstartup become HW-specific ?
In  the  past i have done a big job separating kickstart into several parts. I have never got any responses, so i re-describe my idea.

For now it loads the hs otg chipset driver ..

The  idea  is  to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to
    make   user's  life  easier.  So,  the kickstart was split into 'base'
    (which  does  not  contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board
    Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff.
     This  way,  for  example, distribution makers can save up space on CD
    and  make  CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration
    would load the same base with different BSP's.
     Next  there  was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These
    are   filesystems.  Hosted  ports  do  not need them to boot up, so on
    hosted   they  are  left  out.  At  the  other  hand,  they  are  also
    architecture-agnostic.  So  i put them into 'FS' package (standing for
    'filesystem').

     Poseidon  is  one  more  big part. I made it into separate package in
    order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to
    run  on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon
    is  hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty
    standard).

It's mandatory on PI since there are no other interface types - so being a separate package is irrelevant/pointless.

Is Raspberry's USB controller non-HCI compliant? Actually i expect it to be compliant, then wouldn't it be better to make existing drivers discovering them? 
 
AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but I'm not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code.  Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running.  Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong.

Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side.  Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode &amp; switching modes once it's up and running.

Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup.

And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way...  u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot.

vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. 

 Framebuffer - basic display 

RasPi has to speak to the &quot;operating system&quot; which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls.

The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required.

The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and  composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied.

The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds).
must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. 
For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says &quot;interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer.&quot; so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data.

The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out).

openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface

To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits.


 USB 

* Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. 
* Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub.

Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components.

Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the &quot;virtual&quot; root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals.


The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”).

There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg].

The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code.

The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port).

Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider....

* Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile
* Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) )
* Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start.

the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB.

Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. 

After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. 

The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have &quot;prefixed&quot; it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. 


Trident saw this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

and this:

    Product     : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 255
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 1
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 60416
    DevVers   : 0200

and even this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;)

So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. 

[http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio]


 Audio 

[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI]

The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality

the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures

Analogue audio

Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 &amp; 1.4


 Ethernet 

10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket


 GPIO 

GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins)

Probably a resource rather than a device...

Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p


 GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration 

Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... 


 Miscellanous

hdmi issues

Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there.

You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal.

If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to &quot;set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode

Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options.

Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA.
If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost

composite video

changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box

Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't?

Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat  What's the result?

Put back config.txt What's the result?

for PAL mode   sdtv_mode=2

dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached
hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected

&lt;pre&gt;
# NOOBS Auto-generated Settings:
#hdmi_force_hotplug=1
#config_hdmi_boost=4
#overscan_left=24
#overscan_right=24
#overscan_top=16
#overscan_bottom=16
#disable_overscan=0
start_x=1
gpu_mem=128
&lt;/pre&gt;

tvservice -c &quot;PAL 4:3&quot;

&lt;pre&gt;
/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s   or tvservice -s 
state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA
Group CEA has 1 modes:
(native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT
Group DMT has 0 modes:
&lt;/pre&gt;

sudo amixer cset numid=3 1

forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in

config.txt

the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says

There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others.

What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground.

The wiring for the 4 pole are:

TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH)

RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW

Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way.

Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug.

Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one.


External devices

* Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&amp;nbsp;nm, peak at 880&amp;nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&amp;nbsp;nm wavelengths 
* Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - 
* Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle

N.B.  dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles.  It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board.  the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. 
The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible.  currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219.  The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd  be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. 
Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board.


== References ==

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      <timestamp>2026-08-20T17:45:12Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Jeff1138</username>
        <id>301139</id>
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      <text bytes="82130" sha1="osruuqcsffomv4yl9m8tqwp2kk7rels" xml:space="preserve">{{ArosNav}}

[[#Native]]

[[#Hosted]]

[[#Build]]

[[#Hardware]]

[[#Reference]]

==Introduction==

[[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3 Port]]

Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5  

The Raspberry Pi Foundation is a charity founded in May 2009 to promote the study of basic computer science in schools, and is responsible for developing a single-board computer called the Raspberry Pi.

The Foundation is supported by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Broadcom. Its aim is to &quot;promote the study of computer science and related topics, especially at school level, and to put the fun back into learning computing.&quot;

The original Raspberry Pi 1 Model B computer went on sale in February 2012 and set a new standard shattering the dominance of the PC in the home and education markets. Millions in the various formats, A, B, A+, B+ and Compute have since been shipped worldwide. The original concept of the Raspberry Pi was for a computer board providing Internet access with up to 1080p HD graphics at very low cost. The boards provide a platform for children and adults from any background to acquire computer science knowledge and help develop the future World-Wide-Web and all things internet (IOT hub and bridges out to home network to cloud of sensors).

Hobbyists and tech dabblers/tinkerers are the main purchases of the Pis (around half). The rest of the sales are split between education/industrial. While the Raspberry Pi boards were designed primarily for education, they have become very popular with manufacturers of embedded systems. The Raspberry Pi Foundation has ensured backwards compatibility with each 32bit and separately with 64bit revisions. The bare-bones Compute module is aimed specifically at the OEM industrial manufacturer. 


* Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 &quot;southbridge&quot; with VideoCore 7 
* Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 
* Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 

* Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 

&lt;pre&gt;
2008 Trustees collected for Foundation
2009 Charity status gained 
2010 
2011 First Raspberry prototypes 
2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835
2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 
2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 
2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 
2013 Over two million sold 
2014 Over three million sold 
2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 
2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 
2015 Over four million first gen pis sold  
2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 
2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 
2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 
2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 
2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 

2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 
2015 Over a million pi2s sold 


2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 
2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz - 1Gb - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n and a dual 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 
2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 
2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 
     1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 
2017 12 million pis sold in total 
2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 
2019 Over 15 million sold 
2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 
2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 
     1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 
2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 
2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge


2019 Pi 4 Model B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 1/2/4 GB ram 
2020 Silent Pi 4 upgrade with more USB-c psu support and PI400 1.8GHz inside keyboard 
2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm form factor with extra breakout IO board 
     CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM 
     CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite 
     CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite 
     CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules 
     CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc 
     CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite 
     CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc
2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - 
     CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite
     CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash
     CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite
     CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite
     CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 
2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 


2023 Pi 5 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k displays from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5V 5A psu 
2024 Pi 5 2GB version uses BCM2712D0 
2024 Pi-500 
2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board 
     CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
2025 Pi-500+


2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 


2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom  
2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 
2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 
2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 
2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, 
2026 
2027 


2028 Pi 6 
&lt;/pre&gt;


===Native===

* 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work
* 2013-05 Work put on hiatus 
* 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb
* 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support as well], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi]  
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 64bit]
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=jonx latest commits for pi 4] 
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5]


'''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot C Classes Developer etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 

64bit build works well on a single core and multicore may follow. There is no Bluetooth support for all amiga like OSs but [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] with the priviso [https://support.bluetooth.com/hc/en-us/articles/360049492171-What-are-the-requirements-to-use-the-Bluetooth-brand cannot use brand name or logo unless licence gained]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&amp;rowstart=60&amp;pid=13363#post_13363 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] 

*Waveshare Compute Module IO Board with PoE Feature and CM3 board does not boot. 
*RPi IO board and CM3 untested 


Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++  or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++. Press Save button 

Wifi setup needs the network prefs with Wireless tab completed with your router settings and main TCP/IP tab click add interface for bwfm.device as net0: as well. Please Save 

If it does not set to start at boot, settings are preserved. Instead, add this to the user-startup:
&lt;pre&gt;
execute sys:system/network/arostcp/s/startnet
run wirelessmanager device=bwfm.device &gt;nil:
&lt;/pre&gt;
Network will start automatically on boot. If you don't want the wirelessmanager icon on Wanderer desktop, just add 'nogui' to the wirelessmanager line

Youtube [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [], 


The status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD 


===Hosted===

On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+] 
AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port 

[http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] 


===Good sites to visit===

*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] 
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] 

Linux only
*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] 
*[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi]
*[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore]
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ pi OS Lite] 
*[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] 
*[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] 

*[ FydeOS]
*[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS]


Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS 
*[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] 
*[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4]
*[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] 
*[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] 
*[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] 
*[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] 
*[ HaikuOS]

*[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] 


==Build==

===64bit===


===32bit===


# download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/
# make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports
# make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf
# cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -:

&lt;pre&gt;
&gt;cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf
&gt;/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports
&gt;make
&gt;make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it.

You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi.

The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows ..
&lt;pre&gt;
./configure --target=raspi-armhf
make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder.

NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first

arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console &quot;emulation&quot; via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library

arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS.

The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load our arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom).

the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO)


==== Hosted ====

=====64bit=====


[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d84b9a337f9aa059154d9af69275935125166bdd some Apple Silicon support]


=====32bit=====

Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013]

 ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf  --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib

arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux)

*armel - many of the &quot;android&quot; machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. 
*armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP)

Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI.

Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets.

*needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target 
*as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes.

with—disable-crosstools  $AROS_CC  is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC  ?  If  so,  this  is  wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. 
Yes,  Android  port  will  build.  And  even  work. But it's not good because  the  port  will  not  be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example:

&lt;pre&gt;
enum test {foo, bar};
enum test testvar;
&lt;/pre&gt;

siseof(testvar)  will  be  equal  to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS)  and  sizeof(short)  on  Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example.

Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts.

Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS.

compiler=kernel  is  appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or  barebone  hardware,  if  we  talk  about  native).  This includes bootstraps,  their  linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations.

No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows,  Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work.

If  you  want  to  compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append  the  following  to  USER_INCLUDES  (or  USER_CFLAGS,  this  is effectively the same):

 -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

$(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to:

 -isystem  &lt;your_os_includes&gt;  -isystem  &lt;host_OS_gcc_private_includes&gt;
 -nostdinc

This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs.

If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH).

Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one.

Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types.

Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but &quot;./configure --target=raspi-armhf&quot; is enough to start, then &quot;make arosboot-raspi&quot; will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc).  It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output.

*armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, 
*armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise,

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armel' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
 ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \
             --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
    ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \
                --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is:

 make


* Hosted under ARM Linux which needs to be already installed [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.php current ABIv1] 


Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM

Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device.
Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error:

&lt;pre&gt;
    Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic
    configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x
    checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no
    checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no
    checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu
    checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c
    checking whether build environment is sane... yes
    checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip
    checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p
    checking for gawk... no
    checking for mawk... mawk
    checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes
    checking whether make supports nested variables... yes
    checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc
    checking whether the C compiler works... no
    configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic':
    configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables
    See config.log' for more details
    make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77
    [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512
    [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory
    make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10
    make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2
&lt;/pre&gt;


looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic

found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi
so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick
and the missing lib was built.

now the next stop is at
fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory
and
fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory
in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed?

fixed with adding
-I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
to where is missing on mmakefiles like
USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles.


Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again.

My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a &quot;template&quot; to compare to native compilation under arm linux.


Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild).
The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC.

For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script.

Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config&quot; and do make on &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build&quot; dir.

Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh


Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there:

#MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm

Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this.

Try adding this line (and the variant &quot;linklibs-armhf&quot; instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do &quot;linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick&quot;.
Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile

To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case.

With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with
&quot;cannot find -laeabi &quot; so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok.


== Hardware ==

===64bit===


====BCM2712====

With the Pi5 

Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] opefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 


====BCM2711====

With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 

the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c 

*[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different 
The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles.
The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same.

Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes.
Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation)
With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register.

the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction.
    the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions 

    the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of &quot;one read port, one write port&quot; to one &quot;two read ports, one write port&quot; block)

    The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhz
    But it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use.
    vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers.
    vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread.
    vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads.
    With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests.

    Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs.
    a fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible 
    The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer)
    Faster LPDDR4 memory.
    A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver.
    Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats.
    All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 

H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1
HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates 

Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs
If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised 

Possible maximum performance 
&lt;pre&gt;
VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s
VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s
VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s
&lt;/pre&gt;


====BCM2837==== 

With the Pi3 
* Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&amp;nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] 

The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has very slowly risen. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and might benefit from active cooling (ie fan) if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur.

Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 


ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. 


===32bit===

=== Core Kernel ===


====BCM2708(family)====
which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&amp;nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM)

*Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox 
*IRQ scheduler, etc 
*Arasan based SD Card controller 
*Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&amp;catid=45:raspberry-pi&amp;Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf],  [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], 
*[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip 
*CMOS RAM 
*VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc 
*Audio Driver 
*Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) 
*[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers]
*I2S 
*Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) 
*[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO]

BCM2836 
* For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board

*[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features],


 Implemented so far... 

# Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target.
# Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display.
# Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function.
# Implemented serial debug support
# Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc)
# Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers.
# Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer.
# Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media.
# Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The &quot;rom&quot; image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot.
# Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else.
# fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi ..


Improvements...

# Implement a USB chipset driver &quot;OR&quot; finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the &quot;virtual&quot; hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) 
# Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) 
# Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI]
# fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code
# Graphics depend on having a decent &quot;bcmdma.resource&quot; implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for &quot;blitting&quot;. 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver  - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 
# The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate.


 Boot up typical for most other OSs before a lot of open sourcing i.e. around 2017 onwards 

On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition.

The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks

*On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf 
*The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it
*configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU
*reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings)
*loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition
*activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image

The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU.

RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named &quot;kernel.img&quot; at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem)

Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf.

You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling.

At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules 

&lt;pre&gt;
?          - alias for 'help'
mtest      - simple RAM test
autoscr    - run script from memory
base       - print or set address offset
bbm        - BBM sub-system
bdinfo     - print Board Info structure
boot       - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootd      - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootm      - boot application image from memory
bootp      - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol
cmp        - memory compare
coninfo    - print console devices and information
cp         - memory copy
crc32      - checksum calculation
echo       - echo args to console
fatinfo    - print information about filesystem
fatload    - load binary file from a dos filesystem
fatls      - list files in a directory (default /)
go         - start application at address 'addr'
help       - print online help
iminfo     - print header information for application image
itest      - return true/false on integer compare
jade       -
loadb      - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode)
loads      - load S-Record file over serial line
loady      - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode)
loop       - infinite loop on address range
md         - memory display
mm         - memory modify (auto-incrementing)
mtest      - simple RAM test
mw         - memory write (fill)
nfs        - boot image via network using NFS protocol
nm         - memory modify (constant address)
pci        - list and access PCI Configuration Space
ping       - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host
printenv   - print environment variables
rarpboot   - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol
reset      - Perform RESET of the CPU
run        - run commands in an environment variable
saveenv    - save environment variables to persistent storage
saves      - save S-Record file over serial line
setenv     - set environment variables
sleep      - delay execution for some time
tftpboot   - boot image via network using TFTP protocol
USB        - USB sub-system
usbboot    - boot from USB device
version    - print monitor version
&lt;/pre&gt;

Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1,

the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for
hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS  routed  only  raw  hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt.  1:1 relationship between CPU  and hardware interrupts is present only on PC.

IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class.  PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant  to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain &quot;Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means&quot;. They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system.

Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No.  A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was &quot;abstract timer interrupt&quot;, used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea.

Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work?
 
Poseidon.library creates its &quot;Poseidon Event Task&quot; during RTF_COLDSTART -&gt; then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example.

You miss what happens next...
 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch().
 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible:
 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run.
 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list.

My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop.

There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures.

The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table.

The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :)

Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this:

        movw r0, #:lower16:label

        movt   r0, #:upper16:label

In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations.

There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to &quot;fake&quot; executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need.

Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. 

=== GPU ===

VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU.   Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute.

The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API.   The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf).   That's also the bad news.  Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much.  It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly.

The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated.   It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later.

Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC.  If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected.
 
have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled.

If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work.

L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled.

Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics.
 Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever.
 I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp).

    #warning &quot;TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory&quot;
        /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */
        for(x = 0; x &lt; 4096; x ++)
        {
            pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04);
        }

Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages?

Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device).

You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached)

    So ..
     
     pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | 2;

     
    should be enough?

No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80'

tell dosboot the correct defaults to use

Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead,  display  drivers  should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=&gt;instantiate itself. This   should   make  things way simpler. With this approach you only need  to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No
hardcoded stuff. 
Currently  VESA  and  VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it.

they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context).

AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent
years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that
they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them
from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy
code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM
marked as chip.

BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code?

Also, IIRC we have support for &quot;external memory allocators&quot;. Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox.

All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats.

trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET).
Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units.
The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ.

Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port?
It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port.  You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource.

You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs.

So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work.

Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this.

That should have done it.

If you set &quot;#define DEBUG 1&quot; in  arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output?

have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display?

Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting?
The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot

Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm.
 
To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen.
 
Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks).
 
have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress..

was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression.
Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. 
it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks.

Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS/OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs are a bit weird and far from optimal, especially MorphOS one, because it aims for m68k binary compatibility.
It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right)

The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place.  If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur.  I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian.  It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary.  They were both little-endian.
The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode).

 
What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest?
 
I have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems?
You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it.
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

I so far have -:
 
vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and  returns saying all is well
vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object.
vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise
vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer,
 
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback.  In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer.
don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses)

Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons.
This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP.
Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting.

As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there.

struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi.  AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol.

&lt;pre&gt;
redmask: 0x0000F800
greenmask: 0x000007E0
bluemask: 0x0000001F
alphamask: 0

redshift: 16
greenshift: 21
blueshift: 27
alphashift: 0
&lt;/pre&gt;

It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE

This stuff is a bit confusing.  The &quot;names&quot; of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory,
ignoring endianess. So for example:

ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines.

The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending
on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and
stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/).

With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine
to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag.
(RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to
be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG).

The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31).

The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered,
the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt-&gt;stdpixfmt) already in the system,
and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one.

In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the
gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use
HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt
tag list based on that.
15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5
(or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped).
 aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count.
But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses
in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc.

Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you
are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be.

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B.

read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment .
 
Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening.

The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red.

Why did usbromstartup become HW-specific ?
In  the  past i have done a big job separating kickstart into several parts. I have never got any responses, so i re-describe my idea.

For now it loads the hs otg chipset driver ..

The  idea  is  to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to
    make   user's  life  easier.  So,  the kickstart was split into 'base'
    (which  does  not  contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board
    Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff.
     This  way,  for  example, distribution makers can save up space on CD
    and  make  CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration
    would load the same base with different BSP's.
     Next  there  was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These
    are   filesystems.  Hosted  ports  do  not need them to boot up, so on
    hosted   they  are  left  out.  At  the  other  hand,  they  are  also
    architecture-agnostic.  So  i put them into 'FS' package (standing for
    'filesystem').

     Poseidon  is  one  more  big part. I made it into separate package in
    order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to
    run  on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon
    is  hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty
    standard).

It's mandatory on PI since there are no other interface types - so being a separate package is irrelevant/pointless.

Is Raspberry's USB controller non-HCI compliant? Actually i expect it to be compliant, then wouldn't it be better to make existing drivers discovering them? 
 
AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but I'm not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code.  Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running.  Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong.

Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side.  Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode &amp; switching modes once it's up and running.

Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup.

And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way...  u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot.

vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. 

 Framebuffer - basic display 

RasPi has to speak to the &quot;operating system&quot; which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls.

The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required.

The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and  composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied.

The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds).
must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. 
For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says &quot;interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer.&quot; so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data.

The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out).

openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface

To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits.


 USB 

* Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. 
* Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub.

Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components.

Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the &quot;virtual&quot; root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals.


The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”).

There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg].

The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code.

The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port).

Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider....

* Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile
* Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) )
* Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start.

the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB.

Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. 

After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. 

The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have &quot;prefixed&quot; it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. 


Trident saw this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

and this:

    Product     : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 255
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 1
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 60416
    DevVers   : 0200

and even this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;)

So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. 

[http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio]


 Audio 

[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI]

The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality

the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures

Analogue audio

Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 &amp; 1.4


 Ethernet 

10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket


 GPIO 

GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins)

Probably a resource rather than a device...

Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p


 GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration 

Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... 


 Miscellanous

hdmi issues

Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there.

You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal.

If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to &quot;set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode

Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options.

Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA.
If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost

composite video

changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box

Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't?

Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat  What's the result?

Put back config.txt What's the result?

for PAL mode   sdtv_mode=2

dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached
hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected

&lt;pre&gt;
# NOOBS Auto-generated Settings:
#hdmi_force_hotplug=1
#config_hdmi_boost=4
#overscan_left=24
#overscan_right=24
#overscan_top=16
#overscan_bottom=16
#disable_overscan=0
start_x=1
gpu_mem=128
&lt;/pre&gt;

tvservice -c &quot;PAL 4:3&quot;

&lt;pre&gt;
/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s   or tvservice -s 
state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA
Group CEA has 1 modes:
(native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT
Group DMT has 0 modes:
&lt;/pre&gt;

sudo amixer cset numid=3 1

forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in

config.txt

the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says

There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others.

What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground.

The wiring for the 4 pole are:

TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH)

RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW

Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way.

Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug.

Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one.


External devices

* Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&amp;nbsp;nm, peak at 880&amp;nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&amp;nbsp;nm wavelengths 
* Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - 
* Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle

N.B.  dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles.  It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board.  the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. 
The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible.  currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219.  The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd  be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. 
Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board.


== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662570</id>
      <parentid>4662563</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T18:40:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeff1138</username>
        <id>301139</id>
      </contributor>
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      <origin>4662570</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="82170" sha1="leds6q1y7bgqa3kp9553n6ffxdivqqe" xml:space="preserve">{{ArosNav}}

[[#Native]]

[[#Hosted]]

[[#Build]]

[[#Hardware]]

[[#Reference]]

==Introduction==

[[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3 Port]]

Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5  

The Raspberry Pi Foundation is a charity founded in May 2009 to promote the study of basic computer science in schools, and is responsible for developing a single-board computer called the Raspberry Pi.

The Foundation is supported by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Broadcom. Its aim is to &quot;promote the study of computer science and related topics, especially at school level, and to put the fun back into learning computing.&quot;

The original Raspberry Pi 1 Model B computer went on sale in February 2012 and set a new standard shattering the dominance of the PC in the home and education markets. Millions in the various formats, A, B, A+, B+ and Compute have since been shipped worldwide. The original concept of the Raspberry Pi was for a computer board providing Internet access with up to 1080p HD graphics at very low cost. The boards provide a platform for children and adults from any background to acquire computer science knowledge and help develop the future World-Wide-Web and all things internet (IOT hub and bridges out to home network to cloud of sensors).

Hobbyists and tech dabblers/tinkerers are the main purchases of the Pis (around half). The rest of the sales are split between education/industrial. While the Raspberry Pi boards were designed primarily for education, they have become very popular with manufacturers of embedded systems. The Raspberry Pi Foundation has ensured backwards compatibility with each 32bit and separately with 64bit revisions. The bare-bones Compute module is aimed specifically at the OEM industrial manufacturer. 


* Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 &quot;southbridge&quot; with VideoCore 7 
* Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 
* Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 

* Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 

&lt;pre&gt;
2008 Trustees collected for Foundation
2009 Charity status gained 
2010 
2011 First Raspberry prototypes 
2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835
2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 
2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 
2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 
2013 Over two million sold 
2014 Over three million sold 
2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 
2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 
2015 Over four million first gen pis sold  
2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 
2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 
2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 
2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 
2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 

2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 
2015 Over a million pi2s sold 


2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 
2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz - 1Gb - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n and a dual 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 
2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 
2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 
     1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 
2017 12 million pis sold in total 
2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 
2019 Over 15 million sold 
2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 
2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 
     1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 
2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 
2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge


2019 Pi 4 Model B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 1/2/4 GB ram 
2020 Silent Pi 4 upgrade with more USB-c psu support and PI400 1.8GHz inside keyboard 
2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm form factor with extra breakout IO board 
     CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM 
     CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite 
     CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite 
     CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules 
     CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc 
     CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite 
     CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc
2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - 
     CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite
     CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash
     CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite
     CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite
     CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 
2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 


2023 Pi 5 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k displays from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5V 5A psu 
2024 Pi 5 2GB version uses BCM2712D0 
2024 Pi-500 
2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board 
     CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
2025 Pi-500+


2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 


2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom  
2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 
2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 
2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 
2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, 
2026 
2027 


2028 Pi 6 
&lt;/pre&gt;


===Native===

* 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work
* 2013-05 Work put on hiatus 
* 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb
* 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support as well], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi]  
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 64bit]
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=jonx latest commits for pi 4] 
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5]


'''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot C Classes Developer etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 

64bit build works well on a single core and multicore may follow. There is no Bluetooth support for all amiga like OSs but [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] with the priviso [https://support.bluetooth.com/hc/en-us/articles/360049492171-What-are-the-requirements-to-use-the-Bluetooth-brand cannot use brand name or logo unless licence gained]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&amp;rowstart=60&amp;pid=13363#post_13363 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] 

*Waveshare Compute Module IO Board with PoE Feature and CM3 board does not boot. 
*RPi IO board and CM3 untested 


Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++  or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++. Press Save button 

Wifi setup needs the network prefs with Wireless tab completed with your router settings and main TCP/IP tab click add interface for bwfm.device as net0: as well. Please Save 

If it does not set to start at boot, settings are preserved. Instead, add this to the user-startup:
&lt;pre&gt;
execute sys:system/network/arostcp/s/startnet
run wirelessmanager device=bwfm.device &gt;nil:
&lt;/pre&gt;
Network will start automatically on boot. If you don't want the wirelessmanager icon on Wanderer desktop, just add 'nogui' to the wirelessmanager line

Youtube [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [], 


The status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD 


===Hosted===

On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+] 
AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port 

[http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] 


===Good sites to visit===

*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] 
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] 
*[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] 


Linux only
*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] 
*[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi]
*[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore]
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ pi OS Lite] 
*[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] 
*[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] 

*[ FydeOS]
*[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS]


Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS 
*[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] 
*[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4]
*[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] 
*[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] 
*[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] 
*[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] 
*[ HaikuOS]

*[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] 


==Build==

===64bit===


===32bit===


# download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/
# make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports
# make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf
# cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -:

&lt;pre&gt;
&gt;cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf
&gt;/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports
&gt;make
&gt;make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it.

You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi.

The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows ..
&lt;pre&gt;
./configure --target=raspi-armhf
make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder.

NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first

arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console &quot;emulation&quot; via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library

arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS.

The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load our arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom).

the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO)


==== Hosted ====

=====64bit=====


[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d84b9a337f9aa059154d9af69275935125166bdd some Apple Silicon support]


=====32bit=====

Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013]

 ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf  --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib

arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux)

*armel - many of the &quot;android&quot; machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. 
*armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP)

Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI.

Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets.

*needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target 
*as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes.

with—disable-crosstools  $AROS_CC  is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC  ?  If  so,  this  is  wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. 
Yes,  Android  port  will  build.  And  even  work. But it's not good because  the  port  will  not  be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example:

&lt;pre&gt;
enum test {foo, bar};
enum test testvar;
&lt;/pre&gt;

siseof(testvar)  will  be  equal  to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS)  and  sizeof(short)  on  Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example.

Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts.

Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS.

compiler=kernel  is  appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or  barebone  hardware,  if  we  talk  about  native).  This includes bootstraps,  their  linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations.

No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows,  Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work.

If  you  want  to  compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append  the  following  to  USER_INCLUDES  (or  USER_CFLAGS,  this  is effectively the same):

 -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

$(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to:

 -isystem  &lt;your_os_includes&gt;  -isystem  &lt;host_OS_gcc_private_includes&gt;
 -nostdinc

This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs.

If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH).

Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one.

Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types.

Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but &quot;./configure --target=raspi-armhf&quot; is enough to start, then &quot;make arosboot-raspi&quot; will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc).  It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output.

*armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, 
*armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise,

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armel' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
 ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \
             --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
    ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \
                --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is:

 make


* Hosted under ARM Linux which needs to be already installed [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.php current ABIv1] 


Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM

Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device.
Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error:

&lt;pre&gt;
    Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic
    configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x
    checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no
    checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no
    checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu
    checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c
    checking whether build environment is sane... yes
    checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip
    checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p
    checking for gawk... no
    checking for mawk... mawk
    checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes
    checking whether make supports nested variables... yes
    checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc
    checking whether the C compiler works... no
    configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic':
    configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables
    See config.log' for more details
    make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77
    [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512
    [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory
    make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10
    make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2
&lt;/pre&gt;


looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic

found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi
so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick
and the missing lib was built.

now the next stop is at
fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory
and
fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory
in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed?

fixed with adding
-I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
to where is missing on mmakefiles like
USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles.


Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again.

My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a &quot;template&quot; to compare to native compilation under arm linux.


Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild).
The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC.

For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script.

Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config&quot; and do make on &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build&quot; dir.

Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh


Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there:

#MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm

Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this.

Try adding this line (and the variant &quot;linklibs-armhf&quot; instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do &quot;linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick&quot;.
Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile

To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case.

With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with
&quot;cannot find -laeabi &quot; so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok.


== Hardware ==

===64bit===


====BCM2712====

With the Pi5 

Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] opefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 


====BCM2711====

With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 

the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c 

*[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different 
The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles.
The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same.

Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes.
Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation)
With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register.

the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction.
    the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions 

    the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of &quot;one read port, one write port&quot; to one &quot;two read ports, one write port&quot; block)

    The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhz
    But it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use.
    vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers.
    vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread.
    vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads.
    With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests.

    Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs.
    a fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible 
    The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer)
    Faster LPDDR4 memory.
    A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver.
    Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats.
    All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 

H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1
HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates 

Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs
If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised 

Possible maximum performance 
&lt;pre&gt;
VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s
VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s
VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s
&lt;/pre&gt;


====BCM2837==== 

With the Pi3 
* Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&amp;nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] 

The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has very slowly risen. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and might benefit from active cooling (ie fan) if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur.

Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 


ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. 


===32bit===

=== Core Kernel ===


====BCM2708(family)====
which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&amp;nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM)

*Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox 
*IRQ scheduler, etc 
*Arasan based SD Card controller 
*Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&amp;catid=45:raspberry-pi&amp;Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf],  [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], 
*[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip 
*CMOS RAM 
*VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc 
*Audio Driver 
*Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) 
*[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers]
*I2S 
*Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) 
*[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO]

BCM2836 
* For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board

*[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features],


 Implemented so far... 

# Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target.
# Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display.
# Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function.
# Implemented serial debug support
# Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc)
# Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers.
# Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer.
# Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media.
# Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The &quot;rom&quot; image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot.
# Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else.
# fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi ..


Improvements...

# Implement a USB chipset driver &quot;OR&quot; finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the &quot;virtual&quot; hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) 
# Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) 
# Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI]
# fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code
# Graphics depend on having a decent &quot;bcmdma.resource&quot; implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for &quot;blitting&quot;. 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver  - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 
# The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate.


 Boot up typical for most other OSs before a lot of open sourcing i.e. around 2017 onwards 

On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition.

The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks

*On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf 
*The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it
*configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU
*reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings)
*loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition
*activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image

The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU.

RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named &quot;kernel.img&quot; at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem)

Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf.

You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling.

At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules 

&lt;pre&gt;
?          - alias for 'help'
mtest      - simple RAM test
autoscr    - run script from memory
base       - print or set address offset
bbm        - BBM sub-system
bdinfo     - print Board Info structure
boot       - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootd      - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootm      - boot application image from memory
bootp      - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol
cmp        - memory compare
coninfo    - print console devices and information
cp         - memory copy
crc32      - checksum calculation
echo       - echo args to console
fatinfo    - print information about filesystem
fatload    - load binary file from a dos filesystem
fatls      - list files in a directory (default /)
go         - start application at address 'addr'
help       - print online help
iminfo     - print header information for application image
itest      - return true/false on integer compare
jade       -
loadb      - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode)
loads      - load S-Record file over serial line
loady      - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode)
loop       - infinite loop on address range
md         - memory display
mm         - memory modify (auto-incrementing)
mtest      - simple RAM test
mw         - memory write (fill)
nfs        - boot image via network using NFS protocol
nm         - memory modify (constant address)
pci        - list and access PCI Configuration Space
ping       - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host
printenv   - print environment variables
rarpboot   - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol
reset      - Perform RESET of the CPU
run        - run commands in an environment variable
saveenv    - save environment variables to persistent storage
saves      - save S-Record file over serial line
setenv     - set environment variables
sleep      - delay execution for some time
tftpboot   - boot image via network using TFTP protocol
USB        - USB sub-system
usbboot    - boot from USB device
version    - print monitor version
&lt;/pre&gt;

Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1,

the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for
hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS  routed  only  raw  hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt.  1:1 relationship between CPU  and hardware interrupts is present only on PC.

IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class.  PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant  to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain &quot;Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means&quot;. They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system.

Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No.  A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was &quot;abstract timer interrupt&quot;, used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea.

Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work?
 
Poseidon.library creates its &quot;Poseidon Event Task&quot; during RTF_COLDSTART -&gt; then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example.

You miss what happens next...
 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch().
 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible:
 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run.
 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list.

My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop.

There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures.

The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table.

The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :)

Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this:

        movw r0, #:lower16:label

        movt   r0, #:upper16:label

In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations.

There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to &quot;fake&quot; executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need.

Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. 

=== GPU ===

VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU.   Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute.

The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API.   The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf).   That's also the bad news.  Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much.  It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly.

The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated.   It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later.

Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC.  If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected.
 
have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled.

If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work.

L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled.

Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics.
 Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever.
 I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp).

    #warning &quot;TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory&quot;
        /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */
        for(x = 0; x &lt; 4096; x ++)
        {
            pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04);
        }

Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages?

Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device).

You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached)

    So ..
     
     pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | 2;

     
    should be enough?

No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80'

tell dosboot the correct defaults to use

Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead,  display  drivers  should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=&gt;instantiate itself. This   should   make  things way simpler. With this approach you only need  to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No
hardcoded stuff. 
Currently  VESA  and  VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it.

they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context).

AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent
years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that
they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them
from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy
code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM
marked as chip.

BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code?

Also, IIRC we have support for &quot;external memory allocators&quot;. Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox.

All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats.

trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET).
Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units.
The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ.

Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port?
It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port.  You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource.

You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs.

So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work.

Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this.

That should have done it.

If you set &quot;#define DEBUG 1&quot; in  arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output?

have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display?

Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting?
The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot

Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm.
 
To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen.
 
Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks).
 
have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress..

was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression.
Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. 
it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks.

Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS/OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs are a bit weird and far from optimal, especially MorphOS one, because it aims for m68k binary compatibility.
It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right)

The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place.  If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur.  I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian.  It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary.  They were both little-endian.
The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode).

 
What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest?
 
I have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems?
You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it.
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

I so far have -:
 
vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and  returns saying all is well
vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object.
vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise
vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer,
 
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback.  In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer.
don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses)

Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons.
This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP.
Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting.

As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there.

struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi.  AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol.

&lt;pre&gt;
redmask: 0x0000F800
greenmask: 0x000007E0
bluemask: 0x0000001F
alphamask: 0

redshift: 16
greenshift: 21
blueshift: 27
alphashift: 0
&lt;/pre&gt;

It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE

This stuff is a bit confusing.  The &quot;names&quot; of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory,
ignoring endianess. So for example:

ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines.

The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending
on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and
stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/).

With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine
to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag.
(RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to
be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG).

The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31).

The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered,
the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt-&gt;stdpixfmt) already in the system,
and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one.

In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the
gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use
HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt
tag list based on that.
15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5
(or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped).
 aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count.
But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses
in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc.

Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you
are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be.

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B.

read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment .
 
Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening.

The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red.

Why did usbromstartup become HW-specific ?
In  the  past i have done a big job separating kickstart into several parts. I have never got any responses, so i re-describe my idea.

For now it loads the hs otg chipset driver ..

The  idea  is  to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to
    make   user's  life  easier.  So,  the kickstart was split into 'base'
    (which  does  not  contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board
    Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff.
     This  way,  for  example, distribution makers can save up space on CD
    and  make  CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration
    would load the same base with different BSP's.
     Next  there  was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These
    are   filesystems.  Hosted  ports  do  not need them to boot up, so on
    hosted   they  are  left  out.  At  the  other  hand,  they  are  also
    architecture-agnostic.  So  i put them into 'FS' package (standing for
    'filesystem').

     Poseidon  is  one  more  big part. I made it into separate package in
    order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to
    run  on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon
    is  hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty
    standard).

It's mandatory on PI since there are no other interface types - so being a separate package is irrelevant/pointless.

Is Raspberry's USB controller non-HCI compliant? Actually i expect it to be compliant, then wouldn't it be better to make existing drivers discovering them? 
 
AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but I'm not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code.  Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running.  Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong.

Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side.  Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode &amp; switching modes once it's up and running.

Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup.

And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way...  u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot.

vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. 

 Framebuffer - basic display 

RasPi has to speak to the &quot;operating system&quot; which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls.

The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required.

The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and  composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied.

The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds).
must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. 
For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says &quot;interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer.&quot; so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data.

The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out).

openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface

To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits.


 USB 

* Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. 
* Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub.

Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components.

Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the &quot;virtual&quot; root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals.


The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”).

There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg].

The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code.

The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port).

Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider....

* Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile
* Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) )
* Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start.

the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB.

Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. 

After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. 

The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have &quot;prefixed&quot; it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. 


Trident saw this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

and this:

    Product     : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 255
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 1
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 60416
    DevVers   : 0200

and even this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;)

So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. 

[http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio]


 Audio 

[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI]

The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality

the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures

Analogue audio

Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 &amp; 1.4


 Ethernet 

10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket


 GPIO 

GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins)

Probably a resource rather than a device...

Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p


 GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration 

Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... 


 Miscellanous

hdmi issues

Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there.

You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal.

If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to &quot;set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode

Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options.

Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA.
If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost

composite video

changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box

Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't?

Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat  What's the result?

Put back config.txt What's the result?

for PAL mode   sdtv_mode=2

dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached
hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected

&lt;pre&gt;
# NOOBS Auto-generated Settings:
#hdmi_force_hotplug=1
#config_hdmi_boost=4
#overscan_left=24
#overscan_right=24
#overscan_top=16
#overscan_bottom=16
#disable_overscan=0
start_x=1
gpu_mem=128
&lt;/pre&gt;

tvservice -c &quot;PAL 4:3&quot;

&lt;pre&gt;
/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s   or tvservice -s 
state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA
Group CEA has 1 modes:
(native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT
Group DMT has 0 modes:
&lt;/pre&gt;

sudo amixer cset numid=3 1

forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in

config.txt

the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says

There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others.

What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground.

The wiring for the 4 pole are:

TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH)

RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW

Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way.

Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug.

Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one.


External devices

* Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&amp;nbsp;nm, peak at 880&amp;nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&amp;nbsp;nm wavelengths 
* Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - 
* Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle

N.B.  dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles.  It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board.  the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. 
The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible.  currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219.  The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd  be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. 
Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board.


== References ==

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[[#Native]]

[[#Hosted]]

[[#Build]]

[[#Hardware]]

[[#Reference]]

==Introduction==

[[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3 Port]]

Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5  

The Raspberry Pi Foundation is a charity founded in May 2009 to promote the study of basic computer science in schools, and is responsible for developing a single-board computer called the Raspberry Pi.

The Foundation is supported by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Broadcom. Its aim is to &quot;promote the study of computer science and related topics, especially at school level, and to put the fun back into learning computing.&quot;

The original Raspberry Pi 1 Model B computer went on sale in February 2012 and set a new standard shattering the dominance of the PC in the home and education markets. Millions in the various formats, A, B, A+, B+ and Compute have since been shipped worldwide. The original concept of the Raspberry Pi was for a computer board providing Internet access with up to 1080p HD graphics at very low cost. The boards provide a platform for children and adults from any background to acquire computer science knowledge and help develop the future World-Wide-Web and all things internet (IOT hub and bridges out to home network to cloud of sensors).

Hobbyists and tech dabblers/tinkerers are the main purchases of the Pis (around half). The rest of the sales are split between education/industrial. While the Raspberry Pi boards were designed primarily for education, they have become very popular with manufacturers of embedded systems. The Raspberry Pi Foundation has ensured backwards compatibility with each 32bit and separately with 64bit revisions. The bare-bones Compute module is aimed specifically at the OEM industrial manufacturer. 


* Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 &quot;southbridge&quot; with VideoCore 7 
* Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 
* Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 

* Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 
* Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 

&lt;pre&gt;
2008 Trustees collected for Foundation
2009 Charity status gained 
2010 
2011 First Raspberry prototypes 
2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835
2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 
2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 
2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 
2013 Over two million sold 
2014 Over three million sold 
2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 
2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 
2015 Over four million first gen pis sold  
2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 
2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 
2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 
2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 
2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 

2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 
2015 Over a million pi2s sold 


2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 
2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz - 1Gb - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n and a dual 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 
2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 
2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 
     1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 
2017 12 million pis sold in total 
2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 
2019 Over 15 million sold 
2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 
2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 
     1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 
2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 
2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge


2019 Pi 4 Model B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 1/2/4 GB ram 
2020 Silent Pi 4 upgrade with more USB-c psu support and PI400 1.8GHz inside keyboard 
2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm form factor with extra breakout IO board 
     CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM 
     CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite 
     CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite 
     CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules 
     CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc 
     CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite 
     CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc
2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - 
     CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite
     CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash
     CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite
     CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite
     CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 
2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 


2023 Pi 5 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k displays from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5V 5A psu 
2024 Pi 5 2GB version uses BCM2712D0 
2024 Pi-500 
2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board 
     CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
     CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite
2025 Pi-500+


2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 


2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom  
2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 
2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 
2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 
2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, 
2026 
2027 


2028 Pi 6 
&lt;/pre&gt;


===Native===

* 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work
* 2013-05 Work put on hiatus 
* 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb
* 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support as well], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi]  
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 64bit] 
* 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5]


'''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot C Classes Developer etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 

64bit build works well on a single core and multicore may follow. There is no Bluetooth support for all amiga like OSs but [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] with the priviso [https://support.bluetooth.com/hc/en-us/articles/360049492171-What-are-the-requirements-to-use-the-Bluetooth-brand cannot use brand name or logo unless licence gained]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&amp;rowstart=60&amp;pid=13363#post_13363 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] 

*Waveshare Compute Module IO Board with PoE Feature and CM3 board does not boot. 
*RPi IO board and CM3 untested 


Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++  or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++. Press Save button 

Wifi setup needs the network prefs with Wireless tab completed with your router settings and main TCP/IP tab click add interface for bwfm.device as net0: as well. Please Save 

If it does not set to start at boot, settings are preserved. Instead, add this to the user-startup:
&lt;pre&gt;
execute sys:system/network/arostcp/s/startnet
run wirelessmanager device=bwfm.device &gt;nil:
&lt;/pre&gt;
Network will start automatically on boot. If you don't want the wirelessmanager icon on Wanderer desktop, just add 'nogui' to the wirelessmanager line

Youtube [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [], 


The status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD 


===Hosted===

On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+] 
AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port 

[http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] 


===Good sites to visit===

*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] 
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] 
*[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] 


Linux only
*[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] 
*[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi]
*[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore]
*[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ pi OS Lite] 
*[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] 
*[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] 

*[ FydeOS]
*[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS]


Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS 
*[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] 
*[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4]
*[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] 
*[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] 
*[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] 
*[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] 
*[ HaikuOS]

*[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] 


==Build==

===64bit===


===32bit===


# download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/
# make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports
# make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf
# cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -:

&lt;pre&gt;
&gt;cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf
&gt;/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports
&gt;make
&gt;make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it.

You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi.

The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows ..
&lt;pre&gt;
./configure --target=raspi-armhf
make arosboot-raspi
&lt;/pre&gt;

That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder.

NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first

arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console &quot;emulation&quot; via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library

arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS.

The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load our arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom).

the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO)


==== Hosted ====

=====64bit=====


[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d84b9a337f9aa059154d9af69275935125166bdd some Apple Silicon support]


=====32bit=====

Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013]

 ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf  --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib

arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux)

*armel - many of the &quot;android&quot; machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. 
*armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP)

Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI.

Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets.

*needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target 
*as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes.

with—disable-crosstools  $AROS_CC  is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC  ?  If  so,  this  is  wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. 
Yes,  Android  port  will  build.  And  even  work. But it's not good because  the  port  will  not  be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example:

&lt;pre&gt;
enum test {foo, bar};
enum test testvar;
&lt;/pre&gt;

siseof(testvar)  will  be  equal  to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS)  and  sizeof(short)  on  Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example.

Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts.

Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS.

compiler=kernel  is  appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or  barebone  hardware,  if  we  talk  about  native).  This includes bootstraps,  their  linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations.

No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows,  Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work.

If  you  want  to  compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append  the  following  to  USER_INCLUDES  (or  USER_CFLAGS,  this  is effectively the same):

 -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

$(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to:

 -isystem  &lt;your_os_includes&gt;  -isystem  &lt;host_OS_gcc_private_includes&gt;
 -nostdinc

This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs.

If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH).

Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one.

Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types.

Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but &quot;./configure --target=raspi-armhf&quot; is enough to start, then &quot;make arosboot-raspi&quot; will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc).  It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output.

*armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, 
*armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise,

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armel' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
 ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \
             --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float 
&lt;pre&gt;
    sudo sh
    echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' &gt;&gt;/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch
    echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' &gt;/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list
    apt-get update
    apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
    ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \
                --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include
&lt;/pre&gt;

Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is:

 make


* Hosted under ARM Linux which needs to be already installed [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.php current ABIv1] 


Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM

Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device.
Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error:

&lt;pre&gt;
    Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic
    configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x
    checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no
    checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no
    checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu
    checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros
    checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c
    checking whether build environment is sane... yes
    checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip
    checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p
    checking for gawk... no
    checking for mawk... mawk
    checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes
    checking whether make supports nested variables... yes
    checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc
    checking whether the C compiler works... no
    configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic':
    configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables
    See config.log' for more details
    make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77
    [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512
    [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory
    make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10
    make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2
&lt;/pre&gt;


looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic

found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi
so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick
and the missing lib was built.

now the next stop is at
fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory
and
fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory
in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed?

fixed with adding
-I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf
to where is missing on mmakefiles like
USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES)

P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles.


Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again.

My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a &quot;template&quot; to compare to native compilation under arm linux.


Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild).
The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC.

For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script.

Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config&quot; and do make on &quot;toolchain-core-armhf-build&quot; dir.

Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh


Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there:

#MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm

Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this.

Try adding this line (and the variant &quot;linklibs-armhf&quot; instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do &quot;linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick&quot;.
Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile

To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case.

With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with
&quot;cannot find -laeabi &quot; so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok.


== Hardware ==

===64bit===


====BCM2712====

With the Pi5 

Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] opefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 


====BCM2711====

With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 

the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c 

*[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different 
The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles.
The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same.

Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes.
Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation)
With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register.

the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction.
    the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions 

    the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of &quot;one read port, one write port&quot; to one &quot;two read ports, one write port&quot; block)

    The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhz
    But it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use.
    vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers.
    vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread.
    vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads.
    With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests.

    Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs.
    a fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible 
    The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer)
    Faster LPDDR4 memory.
    A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver.
    Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats.
    All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 

H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1
HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates 

Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs
If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised 

Possible maximum performance 
&lt;pre&gt;
VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s
VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s
VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s
&lt;/pre&gt;


====BCM2837==== 

With the Pi3 
* Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&amp;nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] 

The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has very slowly risen. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and might benefit from active cooling (ie fan) if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur.

Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 


ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. 


===32bit===

=== Core Kernel ===


====BCM2708(family)====
which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&amp;nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM)

*Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox 
*IRQ scheduler, etc 
*Arasan based SD Card controller 
*Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&amp;catid=45:raspberry-pi&amp;Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf],  [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], 
*[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip 
*CMOS RAM 
*VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc 
*Audio Driver 
*Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) 
*[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers]
*I2S 
*Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) 
*[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO]

BCM2836 
* For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board

*[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features],


 Implemented so far... 

# Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target.
# Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display.
# Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function.
# Implemented serial debug support
# Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc)
# Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers.
# Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer.
# Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media.
# Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The &quot;rom&quot; image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot.
# Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else.
# fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi ..


Improvements...

# Implement a USB chipset driver &quot;OR&quot; finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the &quot;virtual&quot; hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) 
# Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) 
# Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI]
# fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code
# Graphics depend on having a decent &quot;bcmdma.resource&quot; implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for &quot;blitting&quot;. 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] 
# [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver  - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 
# The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate.


 Boot up typical for most other OSs before a lot of open sourcing i.e. around 2017 onwards 

On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition.

The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks

*On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf 
*The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it
*configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU
*reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings)
*loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition
*activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image

The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU.

RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named &quot;kernel.img&quot; at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem)

Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf.

You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling.

At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules 

&lt;pre&gt;
?          - alias for 'help'
mtest      - simple RAM test
autoscr    - run script from memory
base       - print or set address offset
bbm        - BBM sub-system
bdinfo     - print Board Info structure
boot       - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootd      - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd'
bootm      - boot application image from memory
bootp      - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol
cmp        - memory compare
coninfo    - print console devices and information
cp         - memory copy
crc32      - checksum calculation
echo       - echo args to console
fatinfo    - print information about filesystem
fatload    - load binary file from a dos filesystem
fatls      - list files in a directory (default /)
go         - start application at address 'addr'
help       - print online help
iminfo     - print header information for application image
itest      - return true/false on integer compare
jade       -
loadb      - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode)
loads      - load S-Record file over serial line
loady      - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode)
loop       - infinite loop on address range
md         - memory display
mm         - memory modify (auto-incrementing)
mtest      - simple RAM test
mw         - memory write (fill)
nfs        - boot image via network using NFS protocol
nm         - memory modify (constant address)
pci        - list and access PCI Configuration Space
ping       - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host
printenv   - print environment variables
rarpboot   - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol
reset      - Perform RESET of the CPU
run        - run commands in an environment variable
saveenv    - save environment variables to persistent storage
saves      - save S-Record file over serial line
setenv     - set environment variables
sleep      - delay execution for some time
tftpboot   - boot image via network using TFTP protocol
USB        - USB sub-system
usbboot    - boot from USB device
version    - print monitor version
&lt;/pre&gt;

Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1,

the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for
hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS  routed  only  raw  hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt.  1:1 relationship between CPU  and hardware interrupts is present only on PC.

IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class.  PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant  to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain &quot;Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means&quot;. They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system.

Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No.  A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was &quot;abstract timer interrupt&quot;, used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea.

Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work?
 
Poseidon.library creates its &quot;Poseidon Event Task&quot; during RTF_COLDSTART -&gt; then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example.

You miss what happens next...
 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch().
 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible:
 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run.
 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list.

My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop.

There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures.

The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table.

The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :)

Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this:

        movw r0, #:lower16:label

        movt   r0, #:upper16:label

In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations.

There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to &quot;fake&quot; executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need.

Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. 

=== GPU ===

VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU.   Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute.

The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API.   The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf).   That's also the bad news.  Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much.  It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly.

The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated.   It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later.

Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC.  If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected.
 
have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled.

If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work.

L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled.

Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics.
 Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever.
 I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp).

    #warning &quot;TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory&quot;
        /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */
        for(x = 0; x &lt; 4096; x ++)
        {
            pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04);
        }

Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages?

Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device).

You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached)

    So ..
     
     pagetable[x] = x&lt;&lt;20 | 2;

     
    should be enough?

No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80'

tell dosboot the correct defaults to use

Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead,  display  drivers  should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=&gt;instantiate itself. This   should   make  things way simpler. With this approach you only need  to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No
hardcoded stuff. 
Currently  VESA  and  VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it.

they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context).

AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent
years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that
they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them
from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy
code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM
marked as chip.

BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code?

Also, IIRC we have support for &quot;external memory allocators&quot;. Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox.

All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats.

trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET).
Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units.
The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ.

Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port?
It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port.  You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource.

You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs.

So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work.

Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this.

That should have done it.

If you set &quot;#define DEBUG 1&quot; in  arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output?

have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display?

Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting?
The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot

Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm.
 
To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen.
 
Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks).
 
have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress..

was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression.
Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. 
it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks.

Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS/OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs are a bit weird and far from optimal, especially MorphOS one, because it aims for m68k binary compatibility.
It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right)

The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place.  If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur.  I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian.  It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary.  They were both little-endian.
The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode).

 
What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest?
 
I have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems?
You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it.
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

I so far have -:
 
vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and  returns saying all is well
vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object.
vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise
vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer,
 
So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -&gt; so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer &quot;bitmap object&quot; myself - only as a result of being asked to.

The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback.  In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer.
don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses)

Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons.
This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP.
Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting.

As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there.

struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi.  AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol.

&lt;pre&gt;
redmask: 0x0000F800
greenmask: 0x000007E0
bluemask: 0x0000001F
alphamask: 0

redshift: 16
greenshift: 21
blueshift: 27
alphashift: 0
&lt;/pre&gt;

It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE

This stuff is a bit confusing.  The &quot;names&quot; of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory,
ignoring endianess. So for example:

ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines.

The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending
on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and
stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/).

With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine
to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag.
(RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to
be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG).

The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31).

The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered,
the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt-&gt;stdpixfmt) already in the system,
and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one.

In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the
gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use
HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt
tag list based on that.
15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5
(or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped).
 aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count.
But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses
in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc.

Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you
are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be.

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32)
0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (-&gt;entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32)

it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B.

read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment .
 
Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening.

The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red.

Why did usbromstartup become HW-specific ?
In  the  past i have done a big job separating kickstart into several parts. I have never got any responses, so i re-describe my idea.

For now it loads the hs otg chipset driver ..

The  idea  is  to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to
    make   user's  life  easier.  So,  the kickstart was split into 'base'
    (which  does  not  contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board
    Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff.
     This  way,  for  example, distribution makers can save up space on CD
    and  make  CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration
    would load the same base with different BSP's.
     Next  there  was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These
    are   filesystems.  Hosted  ports  do  not need them to boot up, so on
    hosted   they  are  left  out.  At  the  other  hand,  they  are  also
    architecture-agnostic.  So  i put them into 'FS' package (standing for
    'filesystem').

     Poseidon  is  one  more  big part. I made it into separate package in
    order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to
    run  on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon
    is  hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty
    standard).

It's mandatory on PI since there are no other interface types - so being a separate package is irrelevant/pointless.

Is Raspberry's USB controller non-HCI compliant? Actually i expect it to be compliant, then wouldn't it be better to make existing drivers discovering them? 
 
AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but I'm not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code.  Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running.  Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong.

Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side.  Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode &amp; switching modes once it's up and running.

Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup.

And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way...  u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot.

vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. 

 Framebuffer - basic display 

RasPi has to speak to the &quot;operating system&quot; which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls.

The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required.

The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and  composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied.

The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds).
must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. 
For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says &quot;interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer.&quot; so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data.

The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out).

openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface

To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits.


 USB 

* Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. 
* Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub.

Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components.

Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the &quot;virtual&quot; root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals.


The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”).

There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg].

The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code.

The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port).

Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider....

* Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile
* Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) )
* Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start.

the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB.

Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. 

After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. 

The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have &quot;prefixed&quot; it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. 


Trident saw this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

and this:

    Product     : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 255
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 1
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 60416
    DevVers   : 0200

and even this:

    Product     : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514
    Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp.
    SerialNumber: n/a
    /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200
    Class     : 9
    SubClass  : 0
    DevProto  : 2
    VendorID  : 1060
    ProductID : 38164
    DevVers   : 0200

What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;)

So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. 

[http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio]


 Audio 

[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI]

The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality

the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures

Analogue audio

Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 &amp; 1.4


 Ethernet 

10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket


 GPIO 

GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins)

Probably a resource rather than a device...

Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p


 GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration 

Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... 


 Miscellanous

hdmi issues

Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there.

You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal.

If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to &quot;set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode

Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options.

Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA.
If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost

composite video

changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box

Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't?

Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat  What's the result?

Put back config.txt What's the result?

for PAL mode   sdtv_mode=2

dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached
hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected

&lt;pre&gt;
# NOOBS Auto-generated Settings:
#hdmi_force_hotplug=1
#config_hdmi_boost=4
#overscan_left=24
#overscan_right=24
#overscan_top=16
#overscan_bottom=16
#disable_overscan=0
start_x=1
gpu_mem=128
&lt;/pre&gt;

tvservice -c &quot;PAL 4:3&quot;

&lt;pre&gt;
/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s   or tvservice -s 
state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA
Group CEA has 1 modes:
(native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive

/opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT
Group DMT has 0 modes:
&lt;/pre&gt;

sudo amixer cset numid=3 1

forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in

config.txt

the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says

There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others.

What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground.

The wiring for the 4 pole are:

TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL)

RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH)

RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW

Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way.

Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug.

Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one.


External devices

* Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&amp;nbsp;nm, peak at 880&amp;nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&amp;nbsp;nm wavelengths 
* Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - 
* Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle

N.B.  dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles.  It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board.  the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. 
The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible.  currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219.  The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd  be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. 
Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board.


== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>5a5daddhzt3evtpes3ic5ya9oynls8y</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>294674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662474</id>
      <parentid>4008172</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:08:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="19317" sha1="poh807qqj2gh2gocozd9rjufjv2at2y" xml:space="preserve">{{Split}}
{{TOCright}}
== Preface ==

This book is written for anyone who has studied a bit of Mathematics and has a working knowledge of basic algebra. It is ideally suited to A level or High School students of Physics and/or Maths and the intention is to explain the theories of Special and General Relativity as far as is possible using concepts and language appropriate to that level of knowledge.

== Contents ==
#[[#Introduction|Introduction]]
#*[[#The initial climb up|The initial climb up]]
#*[[#The River Race|The River Race]]
#[[/Time Dilation|Time Dilation]]	
#*[[/Time Dilation#The 1g rocket problem|The 1g rocket problem]]
#*[[/Time Dilation#At the top of the second hill|At the top of the second hill]]
#[[/Length Contraction|Length Contraction]]
#*[[/Length Contraction#The long straight|The long straight]]
#[[/Relative Velocity|Relative Velocity]]
#*[[/Relative Velocity#The big loop|The big loop]]
#[[/Simultaneity|Simultaneity]]
#*[[/Simultaneity#The switchback|The switchback]]
#[[/Adding speeds together|Adding Speeds Together]]
#*[[/Adding speeds together#The spiral|The spiral]]
#[[/The Doppler shift|The Doppler Shift]]
#*[[/The Doppler shift#The third hill|The third hill]]
#[[/Mass inflation|Mass Inflation]]
#*[[/Mass inflation#The second roller coaster|The second roller coaster]]
#[[/The Bending of Light|The Bending of Light]]
#*[[/The Bending of Light#Down we go again|Down we go again]]
#[[/Gravitational Time Dilation|Gravitational Time Dilation]]
#*[[/Gravitational Time Dilation#Oblivion|Oblivion]]
#[[/Black Holes|Black Holes]]
#*[[/Black Holes#The last encounter|The last encounter]]
#Appendices
#*[[/Appendix A|Appendix A: The 1g rocket problem]]
#*[[/Appendix B|Appendix B: Length Contraction]]
#*[[/Appendix C|Appendix C: Time on a distant star]]
#*[[/Appendix D|Appendix D: The addition of speeds]]
#*[[/Appendix E|Appendix E: Travelling 'faster than light']]
#*[[/Appendix F|Appendix F: Relativistic Kinetic Energy]]
#*[[/Appendix G|Appendix G: The relation between energy and momentum]]
#*[[/Appendix H|Appendix H: The Gravitational Potential at the surface of a star]]

==Introduction==

Books on Relativity generally fall into two categories. There are, of course, many undergraduate level text books which take the reader the whole way from simple concepts such as time dilation right through to Minkowsky diagrams and tensor theory. There are also a great number of books which try to explain Relativity without using a single equation (or perhaps just one!) . Regrettably, many of these are overly simplified and some are, frankly, wrong.  As Einstein himself said, 'you should explain your theories as simply as possible - but not more so.' For the mathematically literate student and general reader, neither of these approaches fit the bill. This little book is an attempt to fill the gap by explaining Einstein's theories using plenty of simple algebra and numerical examples but without introducing any mathematical techniques beyond some very simple calculus (which can, of course, be ignored if necessary).

So how much is it possible to achieve using just A level ideas? The answer is quite a lot. The fundamental theorem of special relativity (time dilation) requires nothing more than Pythagoras' theorem and the remaining theorems require as much mental agility as algebraic competence. All the proofs given have been chosen carefully and the proofs of the 1g rocket problem and the addition of velocities are new in the sense that I have not seen them proved this way elsewhere. The approach to the famous equation ''E'' = ''mc''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is also slightly novel and avoids the complications of quantum theory which is a very unsatisfactory feature of any proof which relies on the behaviour of a photon in a box. At each stage in the argument I have been careful to show how the relativistic expressions reduce to Newtonian ones when ''v'' is much less than ''c''.

When it comes to General Relativity, one can really only get as far as Einstein's 1911 paper in which he describes the bending of light and gravitational time dilation. The extra effects due to the distortion of space and time revealed in the full theory which appeared in 1917 is outside the scope of this book. Nevertheless, it is possible to calculate some of the predicted properties of those extraordinary objects known as black holes and even to start discussing the numerical properties of the universe as a whole.

There is a story about Sir Arthur Eddington who wrote many books explaining and popularising Einstein's theories. A journalist once remarked to him that he was one of only three people in the world who really understood the General Theory of Relativity. Eddington was silent. When asked why he did not say anything he replied &quot;I was just wondering who the third person might be.&quot;

In the century that has passed since Einstein's first publication the scientific world has gradually come to an acceptance that the General Theory of Relativity – at least on a large scale – is the way the world works and its predictions have now been verified countless times to an amazingly high degree of accuracy. But as to the number of people who really understand it, you can probably still  list their names on a single sheet of paper – and you won't find my name on the list! On the other hand, the basic ideas of Relativity and some of its bizarre consequences including the existence of Black Holes have become common knowledge and anybody with an inquiring mind will want to know something about how these claims are justified.
If you find the sheer number of equations and formulae in this book a bit daunting, it is well to remember that, as Galileo said, that the Book of Nature is written in the language of Mathematics and if we are to understand the world we live in, we must accept that fact and continue to practice our facility with that language even when we have left our formal mathematical education behind. Besides – equations have an important property which, like other theorems which occur in this book, is so important I shall print it in a fancy box:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:#CCFFCC;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''The Fundamental Principle of Reading Mathematical Books'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''All mathematical equations can be admired or ignored as required. All that you need is confidence in their veracity.''
|}

A mathematical proof is like the Title Deed to a house. It is very important that the Deed exists and that it is kept somewhere safe. When you first buy a house, you might be curious enough to glance through it to see what it says but you are unlikely to understand much of the legal language it is written in; nevertheless, you have employed a good solicitor to make sure that it is in order and you can, at least, admire the fancy paper on which it is written.

I urge you to regard the equations and proofs in this book in the same way. Have a glance through them; try to get to grips with a few of them but don't think you have to understand every equation – just sit back and admire them. Do take the trouble to get your calculator out and verify some of the figures though; otherwise you may find them difficult to believe. Then when you have finished the book you can put it in a safe place in your bedroom and go to sleep in the comfortable knowledge that even if you still can't really believe that clocks in motion go slow and that pennies bend when they accelerate, the proofs are quietly sitting there on your shelf so it must be true after all.

== The initial climb up ==

Let me take you on a roller coaster ride through Relativity. You will see many strange sights along the ride and hear many strange stories - many of which you will find hard to believe. But at the end of the ride, you will be able to look at the world about you and the stars above with a new and altogether deeper understanding. Have you got your ticket? Then let's get going . . .

Together we climb into the train and sit down. There is a clanging of bells and with a tremendous jerk, we are on our way.

''There's not much to hang on to'', you say.

No, you're right there. In front of us there is absolutely nothing except what looks like a single gear stick with a black knob on the end. On the knob there is some writing engraved in white which says simply: 'The Fundamental Principle of Special Relativity'.

That's all there is, I am afraid, and you have to hang on to it like glue. If ever you let go of this Principle, you are lost. The Principle itself is seemingly innocuous, almost self evident, and yet Einstein showed that it leads to an amazing series of almost incredible consequences. While the roller coaster climbs to the top of the first hill, let me tell you what this wonderful Principle is.

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:#CCFFCC;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''The Fundamental Principle of Special Relativity'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''The laws of Physics are identical for all observers in relative (uniform) motion with respect to each other.''
|}

''Is that it?'' you ask. ''I thought that was obvious''.
 
Well, yes, it is. After all, when you pour a cup of tea from a tea pot into a cup, it doesn‘t matter if you, the cup and the teapot are all hurtling down a (straight) railway line at a (constant) speed of 125&amp;nbsp;mph in a railway carriage. Nor does it matter that the whole train and indeed the whole Earth is hurtling round the sun at an (almost constant) speed of 30&amp;nbsp;km s-1, nor does it matter that the whole solar system is hurtling round the galaxy even faster than that! The laws of physics which govern the way the tea falls are just the same. Nor would you expect calculators to give different answers or musical instruments to make different sounds just because they were moving. Surely all the laws of physics are the same whether you are moving or not.

We can restate our Principle in an equivalent form like this:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:#CCFFCC;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !''It is impossible to carry out any experiment inside a closed laboratory which will detect whether or not the laboratory is moving. Absolute motion is meaningless, only relative motion can be measured..''
|}

Sounds very plausible, doesn't it?

''Sounds pretty obvious to me.''

I agree. But there is, perhaps, one way in which you just might be able to tell if you were moving or not. What if you were to measure the speed of light travelling in different directions? Suppose that you discovered that the speed of light measured in one direction was greater than the speed of light travelling in the opposite direction? What would you infer then? Surely it would be reasonable to suppose that your laboratory was in fact moving through space and in one direction the speed of light and the speed of the lab were adding together while in the other direction the two speeds were subtracting.

It is actually very difficult to do this experiment because you have to measure the speed of light very accurately but eventually, as we shall see later, a suitable experiment was performed by two physicists called Michelson and Morley, but the results were disappointing. The speed of light seemed to be constant in all directions.

While most scientists tried to explain this result away by means of various subterfuges, Albert Einstein merely accepted it as a necessary consequence of the Fundamental Principle namely:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:#CCFFCC;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !''The speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant and will always be the same even when measured by different observers in relative motion.''
|}

(It is worth noting that Einstein was not aware of the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment when he first worked on the theory of Special Relativity)
 
We have now cranked our way to the top of the first hill. Let's pause a minute and take a last look around at our cosily familiar world. Far below you can see your twin brother thumbing through what looks like a travel brochure. Later we will discover that he is planning a short holiday on Alpha Centauri. Away to your right you can see some workmen doing some maintenance on a large clock which towers over the rifle range. Studying the behaviour of the bullets will tell us something remarkable about how speeds add together. The shrieks of the children riding the Ghost Train catch your attention and you watch for a moment as the long train rushes into a tunnel. You notice the rear of the train vanish into the tunnel at the precise instant that the engine begins to emerge from the other end. A detailed consideration of this circumstance will turn everything we thought we knew about  time on its head. Down below you notice some children playing shove-halfpenny on a cracked old table and two boys tossing a couple of footballs. In the distance you can see a fast flowing river. Wait a minute - a race is about to begin...

== The River Race ==

Two friends, Albert and Beatrice if you like, have agreed to a rowing race on a fast flowing river. Albert is going to row 100m directly across the river and back again. He knows that in order to proceed at right angles to the flow he will have to aim upriver a bit and this will slow him down on both halves on the race, but he doesn't think he will be slowed down too much. Beatrice is planning to row to point B 100 m upstream and back again. She knows that it will be hard work rowing up stream but she reckons that she will be assisted just as much on the way home as she is hindered on the way out and that she will win the race overall.

Who do you think will win the race?

[[File:RiverRace.gif|right|thumb|400px|The River Race]]

You watch. As expected, Albert makes steady progress across the river and easily beats Beatrice, who is pulling hard upstream, to the first turn around point. But when Beatrice eventually reaches her turn-around the excitement and the cheering begins to mount because the current is rapidly carrying her back to the start while poor Albert is still struggling across the river. Nevertheless, Albert has gained too much of a head start and in spite of the assistance of the current, Beatrice cannot make up the lost ground and loses the race.

Why is this? Let’s work it out using some typical figures.

If we assume that the river is flowing at 1 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; and that both rowers row at 2 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; through the water, it is easy to use Pythagoras' theorem to see that Albert will move across the river at a resultant speed of √3 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; and that he will complete the race in 115 s.

Beatrice, on the other hand takes 100 s to get to the turning point (travelling at an effective speed of 2 - 1 = 1 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;) and in spite of the assistance of the stream, she cannot make it back in time to win the race because even at a speed of  2 + 1 = 3 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, the return journey takes her 33 s.

The difference in journey times is due to the different geometries of the two paths and of course it depends on the speed of the river. It is worth pointing out that if the river was flowing at 2 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, the same speed that Albert and Beatrice can row, neither rower would complete the race at all but it turns out that at speeds less than 2 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, Albert always wins.

What is the significance of this pretty little story? Well in 1887 a famous attempt to measure the speed of the Earth through the supposed æther was made by Michelson and Morley using a device called an interferometer. The apparatus looked (schematically) something like this:

[[File:MMexpt.gif|right|thumb|400px|The Michelson-Morley experiment]]

Light from a monochromatic light source is split by a half silvered mirror into two beams which travel out to two distant mirrors A and B (just like the two rowers Albert and Beatrice). When they return, the same half silvered mirror recombines the two beams into one again. If the two arms are of exactly equal lengths (and if the Earth is stationary) the two light beams will take exactly the same time to get to the mirror and back and will therefore arrive back exactly in phase and will interfere constructively (i.e. they will produce a strong interference fringe). If the Earth is moving, however, according to the æther theory of light, the beam which is travelling parallel to the direction of the Earth's motion through space will be delayed with respect to the other beam and the fringe pattern will shift, perhaps showing destructive interference instead of constructive interference. In order to eliminate the effect due to the inevitable slight difference in arm lengths, the whole apparatus was designed to be rotated slowly through 90° at a time.

Now the Earth moves round the Sun at about 30&amp;nbsp;km s&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; - that is about 0.01% of the speed of light. This makes the calculations a bit difficult because the important figures occur in the 10th decimal place and your calculator may not be accurate enough - but the result nonetheless is that Michelson and Morley expected to see a fringe shift of about ± half a wavelength. Not much, but easily detectable all the same.

Well, what did they see? They looked for a whole year and found precisely - nothing. No fringe shift at all. Whichever way you looked at it the experiment was either a triumphant failure or a dismal success - for it seemed to indicate that Earth wasn't moving at all!

Various theories were put forward to explain the result. It seemed incredible that the Earth was the only thing in the Universe with zero speed, so perhaps the Earth 'dragged' the æther around with it, or perhaps the arms of the apparatus changed in length according to how they were moving.

None of these are correct. The truth of the matter is, of course, that the result of the experiment does not need explaining! It is simply a fundamental fact about the universe we live in. The speed of light in a vacuum is a fundamental constant and will always be the same even when measured by observers in relative motion.

''I don't have a problem with that.''

You will.

''Why?''

The problems all arise when you consider measurement made of the speed of light by two different observers who are in relative motion. The first thing you will have to accept is:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:MistyRose;{{Text default color}};&quot; 
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''Bizarre consequence number 1'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''Moving clocks run slow.''
|}

The roller coaster gives a violent jerk and suddenly you are accelerating rapidly down the long descent. 'Hang on to that Principle' I shout as your arms flail around wildly trying to find something to grab hold of. As we gather speed I glance at the clock tower and note with satisfaction that the hands of the clock above the rifle range are not moving quite as fast as they were...

[[#Preface|Back to top ...]]

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Time Dilation|Next page ...]]

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      <text bytes="19162" sha1="0p5xg5rxy6z7rlao6buc5vdz3auapm7" xml:space="preserve">== Time Dilation ==

The simplest possible clock is a beam of light bouncing backwards and forwards between two parallel mirrors. If the mirrors are separated by a distance ''l'', the time for each 'tick' (i.e. there and back) is ''t = 2l'' / ''c'' (Of course you remember that ''speed = distance over time'' and that ''time is distance over speed'') It would be perfectly possible for an electronic circuit to count the number of ticks and provide a suitable display in hours, minutes and seconds. (I do not know if anyone has ever made such a clock. If the arm of the clock was 1 metre long, it would ‘tick’ at a rate of  6.7&amp;nbsp;GHz. This is not a lot faster than the clock speed of your average PC.)

Now suppose you are watching such a light clock passing by in a spaceship travelling at a sizeable fraction of the speed of light ''v''. (Of course you can't see the light beam but you can imagine it!) The arm of the clock is at right angles to the direction of motion of the ship so you have no difficulty in verifying that the arm has a length ''l'' as the ship goes by. On the other hand, you can see (imagine!) the light beam moving in a diagonal line like this:

[[File:LightClock.png|center|thumb|400px|A simple light clock]]

Now because of the Fundamental Principle, you see the light beam moving at the normal speed of light. This means that it is going to take longer for it to travel the distance ''l'' and back again just like Albert on the river (albeit for a slightly different reason). In fact the effective velocity across the ship is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{c^2-v^2}&lt;/math&gt; and the time taken for the return trip is &lt;math&gt;t={2l\over\sqrt{c^2-v^2}}&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the clocks on board the ship (and everything else as well) appear to me to run slow by a factor of&lt;math&gt;c\over\sqrt{c^2-v^2}&lt;/math&gt; or, as it is more usually written&lt;math&gt;1\over\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}&lt;/math&gt;. This factor is often called &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; (the greek letter gamma) and is always greater than one. It rises to &lt;math&gt;\infin&lt;/math&gt; as ''v'' gets closer and closer towards ''c''.

We can summarise what we have derived so far as follows. If it takes T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; seconds to boil an egg, it will appear to me that the eggs in the spaceship take T seconds where:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = \gamma T_0 = {1\over\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}} T_0&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

Let's put some figures into the formula and see what we get:

{| border=1 align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style=&quot;background:LightYellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !v (as a % of c)
  !&lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !50
  !1.15
|-
  !60
  !1.25
|-
  !70
  !1.40
|-
  !80
  !1.67
|-
  !90
  !2.29
|-
  !95
  !3.20
|-
  !96
!3.57
|-
  !97
  !4.11
|-
  !98
  !5.03
|-
  !99
  !7.09
|}

If we plot a graph of these figures we get this:

[[File:GammaGraph.png|center|thumb|400px|Graph of the relativistic gamma function]]

What this means is that if you travel at 50% of the speed of light, your clocks go 15% slower than clocks which are stationary. Travel at 80% of the speed of light and your clocks are 67% slower (ie at 3/5 of the rate of a stationary clock). Travel at 99% of the speed of light and every second of your time takes over 7 seconds of 'stationary clock' time!

''That’s just ridiculous!'' You say. ''I mean, what would it be like to live in a world in which all the clocks went 7 times slower than normal? It would be a crazy world! Everything would appear to be slowed down! Cars would crawl along at 10 miles per hour. A game of football would take all day! A falling stone would appear to fall like a feather!''

Hang on a minute, you are not thinking quite straight. If the clocks go 7 times slower, ...

''Oh! I see what you mean'': you interrupt. ''If the clocks go slower, stones will actually take 7 times fewer seconds to fall so everything will actually look as if it is happening faster! Is that it?''

No, no, that's not right either! The point is that it is not just clocks which go slow - everything goes slow, you might say that time itself goes slow. When you watch a falling stone and time it with a stop watch, the stone falls slowly, the clock ticks slowly and your own mental processes think slowly as well. When the stone reaches the ground, the clock reads exactly what you expect it to read and the process seems to have taken exactly the same time as usual. In short, the whole process looks perfectly normal to you. In fact it doesn't just look perfectly normal to you, it {{em|is}} perfectly normal to you. You must remember that time is only dilated ({{em|i.e.}}, stretched) from the point of view of someone else who is moving with respect to you. In your moving spaceship, everything looks normal to you. It is only me, on stationary Earth who sees your clocks going slow and your stones falling like feathers and your eggs which take ages to boil!

After a moment's thought you exclaim: ''That can't be right! and what's more, I can prove it!''

Go on then.

''Well, you say that the clocks in the spaceship appear to go slow because the spaceship is moving and you are stationary. But from my point of view in the spaceship, it would appear that it was the clocks on Earth which were going slow because, as you said yourself, all velocities are relative and you can't tell who is actually moving.''

Bravo! You really are beginning to think like a relativist!

''What do you mean, &quot;Bravo&quot;? Haven't I just disproved your theory?''

Well no, you haven't. What is wrong with both clocks appearing to go slow?

''Surely that's obvious. All you have got to do is put the clocks side by side and see which one is going slow!''

But how are you going to do that?

''Well, as I go past you we'll synchronise our clocks, and then a short while later we'll see which clock has gone slow.''

But by that time you'll be hundreds of miles away!

''Okay then, I'll send you a radio message with a time signal, and ...''

You can't. We'll disagree about how long it takes the radio signal to get back to me.

''Well ... then I'll have to stop the spaceship, turn it round, and ...''

A-{{em|ha}}! You're going to {{em|stop}} the spaceship! As soon as you do that, the motion of the ship stops being uniform and we must examine very carefully what happens when the motion of the clock changes. The slowing down of the ship introduces an asymmetry into the situation which means that when you bring the clocks back together, the clock that was in the spaceship will indeed be found to be slow compared to the clock which remained back on Earth.

''Are you sure?''

Sure I'm sure. Believe it or not, this experiment has actually been done using extremely accurate atomic clocks, and the results confirm Einstein's theories exactly. Mind you, the effect is incredibly small. Suppose you synchronise two clocks on the ground and then fly one of them round in a jet plane at a speed of 200 m·s&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; for say, 10 hours. What will the expected time difference due to special relativity be? (I must say special relativity, because in the real experiment the effects of general relativity have to be taken into account as well.)
The first thing we have to do is work out γ for a speed of 200 m·s&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;. If you try doing this on a calculator you will run into a problem. The velocity of light is very large. It is in fact 300,000&amp;nbsp;km every second or 3 x 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; m·s&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;. This means that and if you try subtracting this from 1, an ordinary calculator will just give you an answer of 1, because the number is far too small and the calculator does not have great enough precision.

If you know something about indices, you will know that the formula:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\gamma = {1 \over\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

can also be written as:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\gamma=(1-v^2/c^2)^{-1/2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now there is an exceedingly useful little theorem called the Binomial Theorem, which says that when x is much less than 1, the following holds true:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;(1+x)^n\approx(1+nx)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

If we apply this theorem to our formula, we arrive at a much simpler expression for &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; (but remember this is only true when ''v'' is a lot smaller than ''c'').

If you try calculating &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; using this formula with a calculator you will still run into difficulty when you add the 1 but you should still be able to confirm that for ''v'' = 200 m·s&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; = 1.00000000000022.

What this means is that every second as measured by the moving clock takes 1.00000000000022 s as measured by the stationary clock. In 10 hours, the difference amounts to 10 × 60 × 60 × 0.00000000000022 s, which equals
0.000000008 s  or  8 ns ... easily within the capabilities of an atomic clock.

Note that, because the moving clock runs slower than the stationary clock, when the two clocks are compared after the trip, the moving clock will read less than the stationary clock by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt;.

''Does this mean that if I travel to a distant star and back, everybody will be older than me when I return?''

You bet it does. Suppose in some future century you choose to visit Alpha Centauri, 4 light years away, travelling in a Thomson Astro-cruiser at 80% of the speed of light. To your twin brother left behind on Earth the journey will take (4 / 0.8 =) 5 years out and 5 years back, {{em|i.e.}} 10 years in all. From his point of view though (and his point of view is more special than yours because it is he who remains 'stationary' all the time) your clocks run 1.67 times more slowly, so you age by only 10/1.67 = 6 years.

''So how long does the journey actually take? 6 years or 10?''

Both. It takes 6 of your years and 10 of his! You can't really say which time it actually takes. Both points of view are equally valid. On the other hand, every pair of events has what is known as a proper time interval between them, this being the time as measured by a clock which travels between the two events at a constant speed (or as in the case of two events which occur at the same place, is stationary).

The journey under consideration involves three events:

Event A : departure from Earth

Event B : turn-around at Alpha Centauri

Event C : return to Earth

The proper time interval between A and B is the time as measured by your clock, {{em|i.e.}} 3 years. Likewise the proper time interval between B and C is also 3 years. But the proper time interval between A and C is not 6 years but 10 years ⁠— the time as measured by your stay-at-home twin. You can see that proper times do not necessarily add up. You could if you like define journey time to be the amount of time the voyager experiences, which is the sum of all the proper times for each section of the journey. In this case the journey time is 6 years and the proper time is 10 years, but by moving around fast enough you can make the journey time as small as you like. If you went to Alpha Centauri and back at 99% of the speed of light you could do the trip in just over a year (while your twin brother aged about 8 years); at 99.9% of the speed of light the trip would take less than 5 months. Here are some more examples:

{| border=1 align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style=&quot;background:LightYellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !speed

(% of c)
  !proper time

=distance / speed
  !journey time

=proper time / γ
|-
  !50%
  !16.0 years
  !14 years
|-
  !80%
  !10.0 years
  !6 years
|-
  !90%
  !8.9 years
  !4 years
|-
  !99%
  !8.1 years
  !1 year
|-
  !99.9%
  !8.0 years
  !131 days
|-
  !99.99%
  !8.0 years
  !41 days
|-
  !99.999%
  !8.0 years
  !13 days
|}

''Wow! Could you really get to Alpha Centauri and back in a fortnight's holiday? That's really cool!''

Well, you could spend two weeks of your time getting there and back, but your boss back on Earth would be hopping mad, since he will have had to wait eight years for you to return.

Also, the formula we have been using assumes you can accelerate a rocket all the way to 99.999% of the speed of light in no time at all. If you did that, everybody inside would be reduced to jelly! But it might be possible to accelerate a rocket at a more moderate acceleration for a long period of time and gradually build up a large enough speed. Let's look at this possibility.

== The  1 g rocket problem ==

Suppose we construct a rocket which can accelerate with a continuous acceleration of 1 g (10 m·s&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;). We set out from Earth, accelerating at 1 g until we are half way to the star we want to visit; turn round and decelerate at the same rate; have a look at the star for a while; accelerate back again for half the journey; turn round and decelerate all the way home. (Life on board a rocket like this would be just like life on Earth, because the acceleration would give the effect of artificial gravity.)

The formula for the time dilation effect in such an accelerated system is this:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{aT \over c} = \sinh \left({aT' \over c} \right)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where ''T''' is the proper time of the journey ({{em|i.e.}} the time as experienced by the space traveller) and ''T'' is the (longer) time experienced by those who stay at home; ''a'' is the acceleration of the ship and ''c'' is of course the velocity of light.
 
If we work in units of years and light years, the velocity of light c is, of course, 1 light-year per year.

By an extraordinary coincidence, the acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface g (10 m·s&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;) works out to be almost exactly 1 light-year per year&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Check out the working in the box below.

{| border=0 width=60% align=center style=&quot;background:#CCFFCC;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|- 
  !1 year = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 3.15 ×10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-
  !Light travels at 3.00 × 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; m·s&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; so
|-
  !1 light-year (ly) = 9.46 × 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-
  !The speed of light is, of course, 1 ly/year (ly·y&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
  !The acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface is 9.8 m·s&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
  !This is equal to 9.8 × (3.15 × 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; /9.46 × 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
  != 1.03 light years per square year (ly·y&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|}

So putting ''a'' = ''g'' = 1 ly·y&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; and ''c'' = 1 ly·y&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; our formula reduces to just

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = \sinh(T')&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where ''T'' (and ''T’'') is in years.

(For the proof of this and other interesting formulae connected with 1 g accelerated rockets see the [[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix A|Appendix A]] at the end of the book.)

When working out the time dilation effect we must remember that we must do the calculation for each quarter of the journey separately.

Here is a table which tells you how many years will pass on Earth during voyages of different lengths. Owing to the exponential nature of the sinh function, the figures rocket up dramatically and you can see that in principle it would be possible for a human being living now to return to Earth within 60 years to see what it will be like in 6½ million years time!

{| border=1 align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style=&quot;background:LightYellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !total time on ship (y)
  !¼ time on ship (y)
  !¼ time at home (y)
  !total time at home (y)
|-
  !6
  !1.5
  !2.4
  !9.4
|-
  !10
  !2.5
  !6
  !24
|-
  !20
  !4
  !74
  !297
|-
  !40
  !10
  !11,000
  !44,000
|-
  !60
  !15
  !1,600,000
  !6,500,000
|}

''That’s incredible! Could you really travel into the future just by building a fast enough rocket?''

Unfortunately, two practical difficulties stand in the way of this dream. Firstly, it will be necessary to build a rocket motor that can sustain an acceleration of 1g for many decades. Sadly, no known or even theoretically possible propulsion system comes anywhere near this requirement. Secondly, a spacecraft travelling at nearly the velocity of light would probably be destroyed by all the microscopic interstellar dust particles slamming into it at nearly the speed of light. As we shall see later, the kinetic energy of a particle the size of a grain of sand travelling at a speed at which &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; = 1,000,000 is equal to that of a 6 megaton bomb!

''I see what you mean. In any case – I still don’t really believe it''.

Well, you are not alone alone. For many years in the 1950's, respected scientists were still discussing the famous Twins Paradox and even now the internet is littered with postings purporting to show that the effect is neither possible nor logical. Believe me, though. It is.

== At the top of the second hill ==

The roller coaster has now nearly reached the summit of the second hill and as it slows down momentarily you get a chance to have a quick look round. Over on the right the hands of the big clock appear to be moving normally again but somehow, in the minute it has taken you to negotiate the first big dip, the clock, which appeared to you to run slow when we started the descent, has inexplicably skipped a couple of minutes ahead.

''That's funny. I thought that clock was going slow. How come my watch seems to have lost a few seconds?''

Yes, that is curious isn't it? It is another example of the twin's paradox. While we were careening down the slope, it seemed to us that everyone else's clocks were going slow. But of course, to everyone else, it was our clocks which were going slow. The difference only became apparent when we slowed down to a crawl again.

''Tell me again – why is it that it is our clocks which ended up being slower than theirs and not the other way around?''

Because it was we whose speed changed. An object which remains at rest or travels at uniform speed is in what is called an inertial frame. But our frame of reference was not inertial because we accelerated down the hill and slowed down as we went up again. The people who stay in an inertial frame always turn out to be older than the people who accelerate and decelerate.

''Yes - I think I get it.''

Have a look at this.

Looking down you can see one of the children playing shove-halfpenny give his coin a tremendous whack. All the other children's coins were too big to go down the crack but there is something different about this one. It doesn't seem round, it seems oval and, incredibly, it drops right through the crack!

''How did that happen?'' I hear you cry. The answer is that:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:MistyRose;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''Bizarre consequence number 2'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''Moving objects shrink along their direction of motion.''
|}

Hold on to that Principle! I shout. You are going to need it again! The roller coaster tips violently forward and we are plunging downwards again...

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#Time Dilation|Back to top ...]]

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Length Contraction|Next page ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Length Contraction</title>
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      <text bytes="6511" sha1="9s3m5qv2z2hajdfyphpqqv6kz0s969o" xml:space="preserve">== Length Contraction ==

Cast your mind back to the river race. Albert takes longer than usual to cross the river because he has to use part of his velocity aiming upstream. Beatrice, however, takes a lot longer because it is really hard work rowing directly upstream.

Now consider the Michelson-Morley experiment. In fact, suppose you are watching someone else performing the experiment in a fast spaceship travelling at nearly the speed of light. The photon which travels at right angles to the direction of motion is a photon clock and, like Albert, it is slowed down by a factor of

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\gamma={1 \over {\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The photon which moves parallel to the motion of the ship is like Beatrice and ought to be slowed down even more. But as we know, the Michelson-Morley experiment gives a ''null'' result - ie the two photons take exactly the same time for the journey. (Incidentally there can be no disagreement between you and the people on the space ship as to whether the photons arrive at the same time or not. It would be easy to rig up a device to blow up the ship if any difference was detected and it is not possible for you to disagree with your colleagues on the ship as to whether they are blown up or not. At least, not according to the Theory of Relativity. Now Quantum Theory... well that's another story!)

So how do we reconcile these two viewpoints? The answer is that the photon which moves parallel to the direction of motion of the ship does not have to go as far because lengths in that direction are contracted. Here is the formula (for the proof see [[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix B|Appendix B]]):

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;l={l_0 \over \gamma} = \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2} l_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}

We see that, while lengths perpendicular to the direction of motion remain unchanged, lengths parallel to the direction of motion must ''decrease'' by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; to preserve the constancy of the velocity of light.

Note that the length contraction factor is just the same as the time dilation factor but you have to divide rather than multiply. For example, if you travel at 80% of the velocity of light past someone at rest, your spaceship will appear to him as if it is only 60% of its ''proper'' length. Of course, ''he'' will claim that it is ''your'' spaceship that is squashed but that's relativity for you!

''Is that why the penny went down the crack?'' you ask.

Absolutely. The penny was going so fast that it became shorter than the crack and so fell down – see the diagram below:

[[File:ShoveHalfpenny.gif|right|thumb|250px|A game of relativistic shove halfpenny.]]
       
''Hey - wait a minute! Suppose I was a flea sitting on the penny! Wouldn't it be the crack that was shrunk and not me? I am prepared to accept that times and lengths might'' appear ''to extend and shrink but surely, either the penny goes down the crack or it doesn't! Ha! Ha! Got you now! I knew there was something wrong with this Relativity business!''

When you have quite finished crowing I will explain.

''You mean to say you have an answer to that one as well?''

Uh-uh.

''Well, what is it then?''

I am afraid you will find this even harder to believe than anything I have told you so far.

''Go on - try me''

Well. it is like this. From your point of view, as the penny begins to extend over the (contracted) crack, the front of the penny begins to move downwards ''before'' the back end leaves the table. Like this:

[[File:BendingPenny.png|center|thumb|400px|A penny falling through a crack which is shorther than the diameter of the penny.]]
      
''But the penny can't'' bend!

Well, it doesn't bend in a physical sense, no more than it contracts in a physical sense. But to the flea sitting on the penny, that's what ''appears'' to happen. Correction. To the flea sitting on the penny, that's what ''really'' happens. I am afraid we have to accept:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:MistyRose;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''Bizarre consequence number 3'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''Moving objects whose speed changes appear to bend.''
|}

''Well, I guess you were right after all.''

So you do believe it then?

''No. I don't believe it. But you were right when you said I wouldn't believe it!''

But you accept it?

''Yes. I suppose so. But I am getting so confused. Is there anything that two observers can actually agree on?''

Yes there is. In fact this is a rather important theorem which I shall call

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:LightCyan;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
! &lt;big&gt;'''Reassuringly normal consequence number 4'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
! ''Although two observers in relative motion can each argue that they are stationary and it is the other who is moving, they will '''both agree on their relative velocity'''.''
|}

== The long straight ==

After two hair-raising descents, the roller coaster levels out and enters a long straight section of track.

Beside the track is a spare train, identical to ours except that, of course, it looks shorter. As I get out my stop watch to time its passing, I notice my brother sitting in the other train with watch in hand timing us going past.

''I suppose he thinks that our train is shorter than his.''

Correct. Well done.

''So, when he calculates how fast we are going, he will get the wrong answer, won't he? Because he is using the wrong length.''

Er – no; he will just use the right wrong length.

''The right wrong length! Don't be ridiculous! How can the length be both right and wrong at the same time!''

Yes; I am sorry; I shouldn't have said that. What I meant was that he will be correct to use the relativistically contracted length to calculate the speed.

''Why? Surely to calculate the correct speed, you should use the correct length?''

Absolutely. But don't forget that, to my brother, the length of our train really is shorter. So that is the correct length to use.

''But if we do the calculation, won't we get a different answer since we are obviously going to use the real length of the train?''

OK, let's work out the details and see:

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#Length Contraction|Back to top ...]]

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Relative Velocity|Next page ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Relative Velocity</title>
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      <text bytes="4130" sha1="8a8nbrrg6vhbq6e975gwn6vzqoe8t60" xml:space="preserve">== Relative Velocity ==

Suppose my brother and I have two identical twin sister ships, each 100 m long when at rest. If we pass each other with a relative velocity of 80% of the velocity of light, to me my brother's ship appears to be only 60 m long. (g = 1.67 so l' = 100/1.67 = 60 m.)

[[File:Shuttle1.gif|center|thumb|300px|Measuring the speed of a (contracted) spacecraft]]
 
If I time his passing with an accurate clock I will find that he takes 0.25 µs to go by. Using the formula speed = distance / time I calculate his speed to be 60/(0.25 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt;) = 240,000,000 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;.

Of course, if my brother makes the same measurements on my ship he will come to exactly the same conclusion about my speed.

But what does ''he'' think of ''my'' measurements and I of his? Lets concentrate on the latter. I watch as he approaches my ship and observe him start his clock at the instant he passes the front of my ship and stop his clock at the instant he passes the back. His clock stops at 0.25 µs. So far so good.

[[File:Shuttle2.gif|center|thumb|300px|Measuring the speed of a passing clock]]
 
I observe him doing his calculations. He starts to press the 6 and the 0 buttons. 'No, that's wrong!' I exclaim. 'My ship is not 60 m long it is 100 m long!' Then I watch him divide by the time 0.25. 'No, that's wrong too,' I exclaim. 'Your clocks are running slow! You should be dividing by 0.417 not 0.25!' (0.417 is of course 0.25 x 1.67) Grabbing a calculator I perform the calculation for him - only to get... 100/(0.417 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt;) = 240,000,000 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;!
So it doesn't matter who does the calculations, we still get the same result. Each of us is convinced that the other has used the wrong data but we both agree about the answer!

== The big loop ==

''Well, I am glad about that!''

As I glance ahead I see that the roller coaster is hurtling towards one of those up-and-over loops.

''But there is still something puzzling me about the penny,'' you say. ''How can both ends of the penny start to fall at the same time in one frame of reference while the flea sees the front start to fall before the back? I don't get it.''

Over on the left, you hear the sound of a train. This one is really shifting and you watch it plunge into the tunnel. The train you saw before had just the same number of carriages and was the same length as the tunnel but you are not surprised now to see that this one seems a lot shorter and there is no sign of the engine emerging when the last carriage plunges out of sight.

Suddenly you hear a couple of loud explosions. Two large clouds of dust rise from the two ends of the tunnel on the railway line. Someone – a terrorist perhaps – has blown up the tunnel! A moment later, the engine of the train bursts through the heap of rubble at the exit of the tunnel and you watch, horrified, as coach after coach piles into the wreckage.

''Look at that! The whole train has been completely wrecked!''

Yes: it was going so fast, it was shorter than the tunnel.

''Yes, but – surely that's just a kind of illusion isn't it? The train is really exactly the same length as the tunnel so, it stands to reason that, at the instant the last carriage entered the tunnel, the engine must emerge from it. Rulers might shrink and clocks run slow – but surely, if two things happen at the same time – they, well, happen simultaneously, don't they?''

Not necessarily. Basically, the whole notion of simultaneity has to be abandoned and we must accept the brutal fact that:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:MistyRose;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''Bizarre consequence number 5'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''Events which occur at different places but at the same time to one observer may happen at different times according to another.''
|}

But just at that moment your world begins to turn upside-down…

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#Relative Velocity|Back to top ...]]

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Simultaneity|Next page ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/The Doppler shift</title>
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      <text bytes="10882" sha1="mrho1teukfpjqnw1xjs0wkgaom971d6" xml:space="preserve">== The Doppler Shift ==

When you hear an ambulance go by, the pitch of its siren falls. Since the ambulance is moving through the air and it is you who is stationary, this is due to the moving source effect. It works like this.

Suppose that the ambulance is moving away from you and its siren has a period ''T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''. During the time it takes for the siren to emit one complete wave, the wave front has moved towards you a distance ''cT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' but the ambulance has moved in the opposite direction a distance ''vT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''. The wave is therefore ''stretched'' to a total distance (''cT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' + ''vT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'')
 
Since this wave reaches me travelling at a speed of ''c'', the time ''T'' it takes for the wave to pass me is (''cT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' + ''vT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'')/''c''  ie:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T=T_0(1+v/c)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The apparent time period has been ''increased'' by a factor of (1 + ''v''/''c'').

(If you are a musician, you will know that a change of one semitone – which is 1/12th of an octave – is caused by a change in pitch of &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;√2 or 1.06 This means that an ambulance travelling at 45&amp;nbsp;mph (which is 6% of the speed of sound) will have its siren Doppler shifted by a whole tone as it goes by – a semitone up as it approaches and a semitone down as it recedes.)
 
Now exactly the same thing happens with light. Hadn't you noticed that in addition to the siren sounding lower, all the lights on the ambulance look redder too? No? Well I am not too surprised as the ambulance may be travelling at an appreciable fraction of the speed of sound, but it is not travelling anything like as fast as the speed of ''light'' so the effect is not going to be very noticeable.

The argument in light is exactly the same except that, in addition to the increase due to the wavelength stretching effect, we must also include the increase due to time dilation. All we have to do is replace ''T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' by &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt;''T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' ie:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T=\gamma T_0(1+v/c)={T_0(1+v/c) \over \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Multiplying top and bottom by ''c'' and cancelling a factor of √(''c'' + ''v'') leads finally to

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T=T_0 \sqrt{c+v \over c-v}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

''But I thought you said that there was only one Doppler effect in light. You seem to have found a formula for the  moving source effect – but what about the moving observer effect?''

OK. Consider the normal effect (in sound) first. Suppose you are blowing a whistle to attract the attention of the ambulance driver (who is still travelling away from you). The waves you send (which have a wavelength ''cT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'') are chasing the ambulance with a closing speed of (''c'' - ''v''). The time it takes for one wave to catch up the ambulance is going to be ''cT&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' / (''c'' – ''v'') so:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T={T_0 \over 1-v/c}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Again the time has been ''increased'' so the ambulance driver will hear a lower pitched whistle, but you will notice that the formula is not the same as the formula for the moving source effect which ''multiplies'' by (1 + v/c) rather than ''dividing'' by (1 - v/c).

Now we must be a little careful when applying the relativistic time dilation correction here. From our point of view, it is the ambulance man's clock which is going slow. So if it takes ''T'' of our seconds to reach the ambulance, it will take fewer of his. This means that we must ''divide'' by &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt;, not ''multiply''. Hence

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T={T_0 \over(1-v/c) \gamma} = {T_0 \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2} \over (1-v/c)}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

which, surprise, surprise, leads us to exactly the same formula!

Astronomers are usually more interested in changes in wavelength than changes in time period, but the formula is essentially the same as wavelength is proportional to period. ie:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\lambda=\lambda_0\sqrt{c+v \over c-v}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

I find it rather pleasing that the formula for the Doppler shift in light turns out to be the geometric mean of the two normal Doppler shift formulae. Plotting some graphs will help to sort out the differences.

[[File:DopplerShiftGraph.png|center|thumb|500px|Relativistic and non-relativistic Doppler shifts]]

From a physicists point of view, it is the ''Doppler shift factor'' here defined as &lt;math&gt;\lambda / \lambda_0&lt;/math&gt; which is of primary interest. From an astronomer's point of view, it is the ''change'' in wavelength &lt;math&gt;\lambda - \lambda_0&lt;/math&gt; which is generally measured and they usually quote a star's ''red-shift factor'' defined as &lt;math&gt;(\lambda - \lambda_0) / \lambda_0&lt;/math&gt;. It is easy to see that ''Red-shift factor'' = ''Doppler shift factor'' - 1

If the speed of the source is much smaller than the speed of light, we can simplify the formula using the binomial theorem as follows:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{\lambda \over \lambda_0} = \sqrt{c+v \over c-v} = \sqrt{1+v/c \over 1-v/c}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{\lambda \over \lambda_0} \approx (1+ \tfrac{1}{2} v/c)(1- \tfrac{1}{2} v/c) \approx 1+v/c&lt;/math&gt;
|}

hence:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt; \text{Red-shift} \approx v/c&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

Note that this expression can only be used in the range where the speed of the galaxy is less than 20% of the speed of light. The Andromeda galaxy, for example, shows a red-shift of -0.001 (ie it is in fact ''blue''-shifted) and is moving towards us at a speed of about 300&amp;nbsp;km s&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;. Don't worry about a collision though – at 2.5 million light years away it is going to take 2.5 billion years to reach us!

Quasars with very large red-shift factors have been observed – for example: quasar PC1247+3406 has a red shift of 4.897 therefore a Doppler shift factor of 5.897 and a recession speed of 94% of the speed of light. In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that all the distant galaxies were receding from us and subsequent measurements have indicated that there is a simple proportional relationship between speed and distance, with the edge of the observable universe at about 13.6 billion light years. If PC1247's red shift is due to the Doppler effect and nothing else, it would seem to indicate that it lies a staggering 12.8 billion light years away.

Of course, if a galaxy were to travel away from us at a speed equal or greater than that of light, it would be invisible because all light from it would be red-shifted out of existence.

''I suppose so – but surely the point is academic because you have already pointed out many times that nothing can travel faster than light.''

True – but as it happens, it is not inconceivable that a galaxy should recede from us at such a speed in spite of what we have said about the addition of velocities etc. Cosmologists believe that the distant galaxies show large red-shifts, not so much because they are moving away from us in an otherwise fixed space; they prefer to think of the galaxies themselves as being stationary – but the space in between them is expanding.

''What does that mean?''

Well, imagine a whole lot of ants crawling around on a balloon which is being blown up.

[[File:AntBalloon.gif|right|thumb|200px|The ant balloonn]]

The distance between the ants is increasing all the time – but the ants are not really moving at all. Also, at any given time, the rate at which the distance between two particular ants increases is directly proportional to the distance between them. Eventually, when the balloon gets large enough, there will be a pair of ants whose separation is increasing faster than the speed of light.

Our universe could be like this. There could indeed be galaxies out there which are moving away from us faster than the speed of light!

''Well, as I said before, the idea is academic because we could never see them or go there – even in principle.''

Yes – you are probably right, though there is a possibility that, if the expansion of the universe were to slow down, some of these galaxies might come into view again. The latest research seems to indicate that, in fact, the expansion of the universe is accelerating. If this is the case, some galaxies which we can see now will disappear over the horizon, never to be seen again. The truth is, we don't really know what kind of universe we are living in – mainly because astronomers are seriously divided on the question of how much matter it contains. But that is another story.

== The third hill ==

The roller coaster, still travelling at high speed, emerges from the spiral and shoots up a gentle rise. Once again, as it approaches the summit, you have a chance to catch your breath and look around.

''Hey! Look at those boys over there! That's really clever!''

You're right, it is. The boys are tossing a pair of footballs to each other – but instead of just playing catch, they are bouncing the balls off the other one so that they catch the one they have just thrown.

''That must be really difficult.'' you say. ''You have got to toss the ball with exactly the right speed so that it comes back to you. If you toss it too slowly it won't have enough momentum to bounce the other ball back to its owner.''

But you don't have time to watch much longer. The roller coaster is starting its third big descent. Hang on!

To your surprise you discover a football in your lap, just like the ones the boys were throwing. On a whim you toss it sideways out of the coaster. Just then, ahead of you, you see one of the boys throwing his ball towards the tracks. To your astonishment you realize that the two balls are on a collision course, but your ball seems to be travelling faster than his.
On the other hand, to the boy beside the tracks, it is you who are moving swiftly by and (because your actions are slowed down by time dilation) it seems to be his ball which is travelling faster than yours. Each of you predicts that the balls will bounce asymmetrically towards the other. What in fact happens is that the balls bounce off each other perfectly and the boy catches his ball while your ball lands in your lap! This all happens because of:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:MistyRose;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''Bizarre consequence number 12'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''Moving objects increase their mass''
|}

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#The Doppler Shift|Back to top ...]]

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Mass inflation|Next page ...]]
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  <page>
    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/The Bending of Light</title>
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      <text bytes="4967" sha1="p4yqzck3h5wodbiwo4zglfaan1kaeve" xml:space="preserve">== The Bending of Light ==

This is easy to understand. Imagine that you are in a rocket playing with a laser pen, pointing at a picture of Scooby-doo on the opposite wall. Suddenly, you see the laser beam bend downwards towards the back of the rocket. At the very same instant, the copy of the Hitch-hikers Guide to the Galaxy which had been quietly floating weightless in front of you careers off in the same direction. Of course the reason is obvious. The rocket is ''accelerating'' so that the book is, as it were, left behind. In the same way, in the time it took for the light to cross the width of the rocket, the rocket had moved an extra distance forwards causing the spot to hit the wall of the rocket further behind its original position.

[[File:BendingLight.png|right|thumb|250px|The bending of light in an accelerating rocket]]

If the rocket has a width of ''l'' and is accelerating with an acceleration of ''a'' then in the time it takes for light to cross the width of the rocket ''t'' (where ''t'' = ''l''/''c'') the rocket's speed will have increased by ''dv''  =  ''at''  =  ''al''/''c''. (It is here assumed that this increase is much smaller than the speed of light so we don't have to take any special relativity considerations into account)

The angle of deflection of the beam when it hits the wall (in radians) will therefore be approximately ''al''/''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

Now from the Fundamental Principle, what is true in an accelerating system is true in a gravitational field so it follows that when a beam of light crosses a gravitational field of strength ''g'' (= ''a''), it will bend through an angle &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; where:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\alpha = {lg \over c^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

It is also quite easy to show that the distance it will fall ''s'' is given by

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;s = \tfrac{1}{2} {l^2g \over c^2} &lt;/math&gt;
|}

Not surprisingly, this turns out to be rather small where the Earth's gravity is concerned. A laser beam shining horizontally over a distance of 1&amp;nbsp;km in the Earth's gravitational field falls by only 5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−11&lt;/sup&gt; m. That is about a quarter of the diameter of an atom!

On the other hand, when light from a distant star passes close to the surface of the sun, it is significantly deflected and, what is more, this deflection can fairly easily be measured. It causes the stars immediately behind the Sun to appear further away from the Sun than they really are.

[[File:BendingStarlight.png|center|thumb|400px|The bending of starlight round the Sun]]

The idea that gravity could bend light is not new, however. It would not have surprised Newton in the least who always thought light was a stream of particles which were influenced by gravity. On the other hand, the proponents of the wave theory of light, Huygens and, later, Maxwell, would have hotly denied the possibility. After all, gravity acts on mass, how could it possibly affect an ''electromagnetic wave''? And yet it does.

[I have to add a cautionary note here: in fact, gravity bends light by more than the amount calculated above. The flaw in our argument lies not in the approximation that the speed of the rocket is much less than the speed of light, but in the assumption that space and time are unaffected by the acceleration of the rocket (or, equivalently, the gravitational field). When the effect of the distortion of space and time is taken into account as well, the full General Theory predicts an angle of deflection of exactly twice the amount calculated above and the predictions of the full theory have been verified experimentally many times since Einstein first calculated the size of the effect.]

== Down we go again ==

''Well except for that bit about the bending being twice what it should be which I didn't understand, that was pretty easy. Doesn't this roller coaster have anything a bit more exciting to offer?''

Well yes, it does - but first we have another rather familiar hill to descend. Remember - just hang on to that Principle!

As we cruise over the crest of the hill the roller coaster tilts over sideways and we find ourselves looking down a deep shaft. At the bottom of the shaft there are floodlights and workmen with clocks and measuring sticks - but they don't seem to be working very quickly - and their measuring sticks look very short - and, for some reason, they seem to be using red floodlights.

But all too soon the roller coaster rights itself and begins to hurtle down the next slope towards:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:MistyRose;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''Bizarre consequence number 18'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''Clocks go slow and rulers shrink at the bottom of a well.''
|}

''Uh?''

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#The Bending of Light|Back to top ...]]

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Gravitational Time Dilation|Next page ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Gravitational Time Dilation</title>
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      <text bytes="15322" sha1="lsmf1wf7nybi0eoecgw1yf5txt7o7os" xml:space="preserve">== Gravitational Time Dilation ==

Suppose you are playing with your red laser pen in the accelerated rocket but instead of shining it across the rocket, you shine it straight towards the front of the rocket. What, if anything, will happen to the light then?

''I know the answer to that one! It will just go straight forwards at the speed of light!''

Well done! You have obviously learned your lessons well. But something happens, all the same.

''What​?''

Its ''colour'' changes. You see, by the time the light has travelled a distance ''h'' up the rocket (relative to you in the rocket, that is), the rocket has increased its speed by ''δv'' = ''ah''/''c''. What this means is that, in effect, the receiver at the front of the rocket is continually moving away from the source with speed ''ah''/''c''. Now if we restrict ourselves to small heights and small accelerations (ie if ''ah'' &lt;&lt; ''c'') this produces a Doppler shift equal to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\lambda = \lambda_0(1+ah/c^2)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now we know that the effects of gravity are exactly the same as the effects of acceleration so we must conclude that, when light climbs up through a gravitational field, its wavelength increases according to the formula:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\lambda = \lambda_0(1+gh/c^2)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where ''g'' is the gravitational field strength (assumed uniform over the distance ''h'')

I am sure you know that the gravitational potential energy of a mass ''m'' lifted a height ''h'' in a gravitational field of strength ''g'' is ''mgh''. You may also know that ''gravitational potential'' (&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;) is defined as the gravitational potential energy per unit mass. It follows that when you move up a distance ''h'' through a gravitational field ''g'', the change in gravitational potential &lt;math&gt;\delta \phi&lt;/math&gt; is equal to

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta \phi = {mgh \over m} = gh&lt;/math&gt;
|}

This means that we can write our equation for the Doppler shift more generally like this:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\lambda = \lambda_0(1+ \delta \phi /c^2)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The greater the gravitational potential difference which the light has to climb, the greater the Doppler shift which is produced. On the other hand, because of the ''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; term, the shift is very small indeed. The gravitational potential at the surface of a star of radius ''R'' and mass ''M'' is equal to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\phi = -{GM \over R}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

(The minus sign is necessary because the gravitational potential is defined to be zero at an infinite distance from the star. At the surface it is ''less'' than zero. For the proof of this formula see [[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix H|Appendix H]])

In rising from the star, a beam of light passes up through a change in gravitational potential equal to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta \phi = {GM \over R}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

so the formula for the gravitational red shift experienced by a beam of light emitted from the surface of a star of mass M and radius R is:

{|border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\lambda = \lambda_0 \left(1 + {GM \over Rc^2} \right)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

For the Sun, ''M'' = 2 x 10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; kg, ''R'' = 7 x 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; m so the expression ''GM''/''Rc''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; computes to 2 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt;. A Doppler shift of less than one part in a million is very small and corresponds to a recession speed of only 600 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; - much less than the Doppler shift in wavelength induced by the thermal motion of atoms on the surface of the Sun, which makes the effect difficult to detect. Nevertheless, the effect is real and, in the case of more massive stars, it should not be ignored. What is more important at the moment is the implication this analysis has on the rate of passage of time at the two ends of the rocket.

Suppose that instead of shining a laser pen towards the front of the rocket, you use it to send timing signals to a fellow astronaut situated at the front. If, by your watch, you send timing signals every T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; seconds, these will be Doppler shifted just like the light beam and your friend will receive timing signals every T seconds where:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = T_0(1+ \delta \phi/c^2)&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

What this means is that the clock at the back of the (accelerating) rocket goes slower than the clock at the front! It also means that a clock at the bottom of a well goes slower than a clock at the top! What is more, this effect has actually been demonstrated! Unbelievable though it may seem, the effect was observed at Harvard university in 1960 over a distance of 22.5 m. (if you are wondering why such a strange distance it is because that is the height of the stair well at the Jefferson Physical Laboratory!) A quick calculation shows that the Doppler shift over this distance is equal to 2.5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−15&lt;/sup&gt;. What the Harvard scientists, Pound and Rebka, did was to build a gamma ray source and a gamma ray detector so finely tuned that, if the frequency of the source changed by only this amount, the detector would reject the signal. The source and the detector were placed together at the bottom of the shaft and matched exactly. Then the detector was taken upstairs and, as expected, the signal was rejected. To confirm the effect absolutely, the source was raised at a steady speed towards the detector. The blue doppler shift caused by the speed was just sufficient to counteract the red shift caused by the gravity field and the detector sprang into life again. What was this speed? 2 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−15&lt;/sup&gt; times the speed of light, of course. You want me to calculate it for you? All right. It works out to be 2.7 millimetres ''per hour''!

The effect is also measurable using atomic clocks in a high flying aircraft. You may recall that the velocity time dilation effect of a jet plane flying at 200 ms&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; for 10 hours was 8 ns slow. Now suppose that the plane was flying at a height of 10,000 m during this time. The change in gravitational potential between this height and the ground is approximately ''gh'' = 10 x 10,000 = 100,000 J kg&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; so the clock in the plane will run faster than the clock on the ground by a factor of ''gh''/''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. For a period of 10 hours, this works out to be 40 ns, so the effect of gravitational time dilation in this case is actually larger, and in the opposite sense, to the effect of velocity time dilation.

The derivation of the gravitational time dilation formula presented so far has two disadvantages. Firstly, I have used an approximate formula for the Doppler shift only applicable for small values of ''h'' and ''a''. More seriously though, it ignores the second order effects of special relativity due to the fact that the increase in speed of the rocket during the time ''t'' (whose time ''t'' anyway?) is not exactly equal to ''at''. In order to generate a formula which is applicable to situations in which ''ah'' is large, we need to look at another way of producing artificial gravity.

Science fiction writers are fond of describing large futuristic space stations as a large spoked wheel, spinning slowly on its axis.

[[File:SpaceStation1.png|center|thumb|250px|A centrifugal space station]]

As the station spins, astronauts at the periphery subjectively feel an outward force, popularly (and correctly) known as the centrifugal force which feels to them just like gravity. From the point of view of an observer in a shuttle craft waiting to dock in the centre of the station, we can see that what is in fact happening is that the metal structure of the station is exerting an ''inward'' force on the astronauts which is giving them an ''inwards centripetal'' acceleration causing them to move in a circle.

Correction. I am not allowed to say that that is what is in fact happening. General Relativity tells us that the astronauts point of view is just as valid as ours. So what does the universe really look like from the point of view of the astronauts on board the space station? To them, the station is, of course, stationary. But the station is generating a rather strange form of gravity which is zero at the centre of the station and which ''increases'' steadily as you move towards the rim. Moreover, the force of gravity is ''outwards'', not inwards.

Now you know that the centripetal acceleration of a mass ''m'' rotating round in a circle of radius ''r'' with angular speed ''ω'' is equal to ''rω''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; so the strength of gravity at the rim will be: ''g'' = ''Rω''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (where ''R'' is the radius of the station) and the gravitational potential difference between the centre and the rim will be given by:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\Delta \phi = \int_{0}^{R} r \omega^2 \, dr = \tfrac{1}{2} R^2 \omega^2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

What about clocks placed at the centre and at the rim? From our point of view outside the station, we can see that the clock at the rim is going more ''slowly'' than the clock at the centre because the clock at the rim is moving while the clock at the centre is not. In fact we can write down the relation between the time as measured by the centre clock ''T''&lt;sub&gt;centre&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the time measured by the clock at the rim ''T''&lt;sub&gt;rim&lt;/sub&gt; as follows using the special relativity time dilation formula:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T_{centre} = {1 \over \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}} \, T_{rim} = {1 \over \sqrt{1 - R^2 \omega^2 /c^2}} \, T_{rim}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

More generally, by putting &lt;math&gt;R^2 \omega^2 = 2 \Delta \phi&lt;/math&gt; we can write down the general formula for the relativistic time dilation between two points where a gravitational potential difference exists as follows:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = {1 \over \sqrt{1 - 2 \Delta \phi /c^2}} \, T_0&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

(If you compare this formula with the similar formula we derived earlier on this page you will see that the latter is simply the binomial expansion of this one approximated to the second term.)

Now the astronauts on board the space station will observe exactly the same time dilation effect as we do - it is just that they will explain it differently.

(It is very important to note that, like velocity time dilation, gravitational time dilation is a ''relative'' phenomena which depends not on the local strength of gravity, but on the ''difference in gravitational potential'' between two points. At the very centre of the Earth, for example, there is no gravity - but clocks will still run more slowly there than they do on the surface.)

So much for clocks - what about rulers? This is where things start to get difficult. Suppose that, from our stationary birds eye view in the shuttle, we watch one of the astronauts measuring out the radius of the space station with a metre ruler. Since the ruler is always at right angles to its direction of motion, we can see that it remains the same length and his measurement of the radius agrees with ours, namely ''R''.

But what happens when he measures the circumference? We see that his ruler is contracted because of the speed and so, instead of getting the expected value of 2''πR'', he ends up with an answer that is bigger than this! What is he to make of this? Does gravity alter the fundamental mathematical constants like ''π''? No, I think that is going too far. What we can say is that gravity distorts the structure of space in such a way that, in a non-uniform gravitational field, the circumference of a circle is no longer equal to 2''π'' times the radius. In fact this is such an important conclusion that it deserves a box of its own.

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:MistyRose;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;big&gt;'''Bizarre consequence number 19'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
  !''In a non-uniform gravitational field, space is non-Euclidean; the circumference of a unit circle is not equal to 2π  and the angles of a triangle no longer add up to 180º.''
|}

''So what happens to rulers in a gravitational field? Do rulers shrink or what?''

Well I find it difficult to give a straight answer to that question. It is true that if I measure the radius and the circumference of a large star with a metre ruler (!) I will find that the circumference is less than 2''π'' times the radius. (The reason why it is less not more is that real gravity is an attractive force, unlike the centrifugal effect inside the space station which is an outward force.) This would appear to suggest that as you take the ruler down to deeper and deeper depths inside the star - ie to lower and lower gravitational potentials - the ruler shrinks. And because gravitational potential is a scalar quantity, the ruler has to shrink in all directions, not just parallel or perpendicular to the local gravitational field. However, if a ruler shrinks in all directions, what sense does it make to say that it shrinks at all? The truth is that the effect of gravity is far more subtle than just a question of shrinking rulers. No, gravity actually distorts the space in which the rulers exist. But to go any further along that road requires the use of mathematical concepts far beyond my competence.

== Oblivion ==

''Wow! That was a bit weird'' you shout as the roller coaster shoots up to the top of the next hill. ''Where do we go now?''  you ask.

I don't have time to tell you about the last bizarre consequence because the roller coaster track ahead of us goes horizontally for a few meters and then - just stops!

As the train reaches the end of the track it tilts over 90° and, for an instant we are suspended over the most terrifying sight. Below us is a deep, interminable shaft. Along the sides of the shaft are electric lights at regular intervals but as we look down the shaft, the lights in the distance get redder and redder until they fade from view completely. At the bottom of the shaft - no, there is no bottom - there is just an aching blackness.

Suddenly we are in free fall; the lights are flashing past us faster and faster; as we look up, the shining blue sky which we left behind is turning first violet, then ultra violet, and now begins to bathe us in X-rays and even g-rays; and then the aching blackness which we saw from above appears to grow in size until it is all around us, even above us. The bright patch of gamma-rays which was our home on Earth is vanishing fast and suddenly, it is gone. We are completely alone in the darkness with nothing to tell us where we are or how fast we are travelling except that we begin to experience a very unpleasant sensation of being stretched and squashed at the same time. Rapidly the stretching and squashing increases to the point where our bodies are dismembered and pulled into long thin strands, but we are past pain - we have passed into oblivion . . .

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#Gravitational Time Dilation|Back to top ...]]

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Black Holes|Next page ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Black Holes</title>
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      <text bytes="10341" sha1="tckod65ppoe3dt2vx3dqrwhhvi48qak" xml:space="preserve">== Black Holes ==

In 1783, the Rector of Thornhill parish church in Yorkshire, a man called John Michell wrote to the Royal Society with an extraordinary idea. Newton had showed that for every planet there was a critical speed called the escape velocity which it was necessary to achieve if you were to throw a rock off the surface of the planet into space and it is easy to show that, for a planet (or star) of mass ''M'' and radius ''R'', the escape velocity ''v'' is given by the formula:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;v_{escape} = \sqrt{2GM \over R}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Michell's idea was this. What if a star was either so massive, or alternatively, so small that the escape velocity was equal or greater than that of light? According to the corpuscular theory of light which was still popular at that time, at least in England, light would never be able to escape from such a star and even though it was burning brightly, it would look to us completely black. The radius of such a 'black star' would be equal to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;R = {2GM \over c^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The idea did not catch on. Within a couple of decades, Thomas Young had shown pretty conclusively that light was in fact a wave and therefore probably immune to gravity. Nevertheless, we have now shown that light is indeed susceptible to gravity and that, as it climbs away from the surface of a star, it is not slowed down - it is red-shifted instead.

The modern equivalent of Michell's idea is therefore this. Is it possible for a star to be so massive that light is red-shifted all the way to infinite wavelength (or zero frequency)? In which case it would become completely invisible just like Michell's corpuscles. To answer this question we must use the accurate formula for gravitational time dilation:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = {1 \over \sqrt{1 - 2 \Delta \phi/c^2}} \, T_0&lt;/math&gt;
|}

and ask ourselves under what circumstances will ''T'' (the observed rate of flow of time on the surface of the star) to become infinite. The answer is of course when:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;1-2 \Delta \phi /c^2 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;2 \Delta \phi / c^2 = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now, the gravitational potential at the surface of a star is (see [[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix H|Appendix H]])

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\phi = -{}GM \over R&lt;/math&gt;
|}

so putting ''Δφ'' = -''φ'', we get

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{2GM \over Rc^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
|}

and hence

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;R_s = {2GM \over c^2}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

which happens to be exactly the same formula that Michell proposed in the first place!

This is the radius of a Black Hole - the so called Schwarzschild radius. (As we have seen, the actual radius, ie the distance from the centre to the edge, is in general larger than this and for a black hole it is probably infinite. The radius used here is defined as being the circumference divided by 2''π''.)

For a black hole with the same mass as the Sun, ''R''&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; turns out to be almost exactly 3&amp;nbsp;km. It is clear that our own Sun is a long way from being a black hole but theoretical physicists and astronomers are now fairly convinced that most stars with a mass greater than about 5 solar masses will end their lives by turning into a black hole. Moreover the existence of supermassive black holes at the centres of galaxies is widely accepted and the existence of tiny mini-black holes is a possibility.

What would the mass of a black hole the size of an atom be? The answer is an incredible 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; kg which is about the mass of an iron meteorite 32&amp;nbsp;km across. If the Earth were to encounter one of these, it would either cause a massive explosion big enough to obliterate all life on Earth, or, more likely, it would drill a neat hole through the Earth and come out the other side!

The gravitational field strength at the surface of a black hole (or the Event Horizon as it is more properly called) is equal to

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;g_s = {GM \over R_s^2} = {c^2 \over 2R_s}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

What this means is that really big black holes have very modest gravitational field strengths at their event horizons. For example, a black hole with a mass of 1.5 trillion solar masses (that is about a thousand galaxies) would have a Schwartzchild radius of about half a light year and a gravitational field strength at the surface of 10 ms&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; – the same as Earth. If you wandered close to or even inside this black hole, you would not feel anything that you do not feel every day here on Earth – but, of course, you wouldn't be able to get out, however hard you tried!

It is instructive, when considering the possibility of black holes of varying sizes, to consider the density of the material inside the hole. (For our purposes here we shall assume that the hole is 'filled' with a material on uniform density up to its event horizon.) Putting

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;M = \tfrac{4}{3} \pi R_s^3 \rho&lt;/math&gt;
|}

we obtain

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;R_s = {8 \pi R_s \rho G \over 3 c^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

so

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;R_s = \sqrt{3c^2 \over 8 \pi \rho G} = {1.26 \times 10^13 \over \sqrt{\rho}}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

What this means is that the smallest black hole which can be made with ordinary matter (eg iron of density 7000&amp;nbsp;kg m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt;) will have a radius of 1.5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; m. By coincidence, this happens to be exactly the same as the orbital radius of the Earth. So imagine the whole of the solar system out to the Earth filled with iron and you have a simple black hole. It would have a mass of 51 million Suns and a gravitational field at the surface of 30,000 ''g''!

Actually this scenario is quite academic because, as I have said earlier, it only needs about 5 solar masses of ordinary matter to make a black hole owing to the inability of ordinary matter to withstand the crushing effect of gravity. On the other hand, if we choose to make a black hole out of very rarefied matter, then the 'pressure' at the centre does not have to be very great at all. In fact, we could be living inside a black hole right at this very moment! If so, the last formula quoted above could be telling us something very important about the relation between the amount of matter in the universe and the density of material that it contains.

Current theories about the size of the universe suggest that it might have a 'radius' of about 15 billion light years or 1.4 x 10&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt; m. Plugging this figure into the formula gives an average density for the universe of about 8 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−27&lt;/sup&gt; kg m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt;. Now the mass of a single hydrogen atom is 1.7 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−27&lt;/sup&gt; kg, so this density corresponds to about 5 hydrogen atoms per cubic metre.

It is exceedingly difficult to estimate the average density of the universe but the best present day estimates of the average density of all the observable matter in the stars and galaxies is about 0.3 x 10&lt;sup&gt;−27&lt;/sup&gt; kg m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt;, that is one thirtieth of the required value. When you consider by what disparate routes the two figures were arrived at in the first place, it is surprising that it comes anywhere close at all. What it means is this. If the average density of the universe is ''less'' than the critical density, we are living in what is known as an open universe. The universe is expanding now and will continue to expand for ever. If, on the other hand, our estimates are wrong and/or we discover other sorts of matter which we have not included so far and the density of the universe is ''greater'' than the critical density, then we are effectively living inside a black hole; the universe will one day stop expanding and will fall back in on itself.

The most satisfying result would be that the universe has exactly the right critical density to make it into a perfect black hole - not an atom more, not an atom less.

If this is the case, it will not be by coincidence. Just as it is no coincidence that everyone agrees on the speed of light or that gravitational mass is exactly equal to inertial mass, there will have to be some over-arching principle of cosmology which makes the following conclusion inevitable:

{| border=1 width=75% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:LightCyan;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
! &lt;big&gt;'''Profound consequence of the (as yet unknown) Fundamental Principle of Cosmology'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
! ''Every viable universe has a density exactly equal to its critical density''
|}

Perhaps some 21st century Einstein will come up with a brilliant new principle which will transform our understanding of the universe we live in and explain why things are as they are.

Are you that person?

You never know – perhaps you are!

Don't forget – even Einstein failed his exams on occasions too!

== The Last encounter ==

. . . but just when we can stand it no more, the stretching and squashing begin to ease and a violet light appears ahead of us which appears to spread wider and wider turning bluer and bluer. The electric lights appear again but they are not like our lights. The aching blackness recedes and suddenly we tumble out into a graceful landscape with a blue sky, green grass and distant purple-headed hills.

''What the **** happened then?'' you say. (You always were prone to colourful language.)

It is true that there is something strange and unfamiliar about everything. The grass has a strange feel and the sky is not quite the right colour. I pick up a stone and let it drop.

''Well the laws of Physics seem to be much the same here.''

As we look round we find that we are standing on the edge of a vertical shaft. Peering down we see the electric lights reddening in the distance and that aching void again.

We have fallen through a wormhole into another universe.

Turning suddenly, we see a strange figure standing nearby with an outstretched hand.
&quot;Welcome&quot; he says, &quot;Are you from Earth? Visitors from your planet do drop in from time to time . . .&quot;

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#Black Holes|Back to top ...]]
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  <page>
    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix A</title>
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      <text bytes="7665" sha1="e0r036urcuijtcb1c8nsnz3tvcjfl68" xml:space="preserve">== The 1''g'' rocket problem ==

Consider a rocket accelerating from rest at a constant acceleration of 1''g''. What do we actually mean by this, taking relativistic effects into account? Obviously the rocket cannot go on increasing its speed at a constant rate (from the point of view of someone who remains at rest), because it would eventually travel faster than light. What happens is that the rocket approaches the speed of light exponentially like this.

[[File:RelativisticAcceleration.png|center|thumb|400px|Relativistic and Newtonian acceleration]]

So what do we mean by constant acceleration? Well, from the point of view of the astronauts on board, what we mean is that they experience a constant artificial gravity field which is produced by the steady thrust of the continuously firing rocket motors, which feels exactly like 1''g'' back on Earth. To them, the spacecraft is permanently stationary but the universe outside the ship appears to be passing by faster and faster in the same way as in the illustration above.

Now it might appear that we need to use the ideas of General Relativity here, but that is not necessary. We just need to define carefully what we mean by this sort of acceleration. In a Newtonian world, if an object travelling at a speed ''v'' accelerates with an acceleration ''a'' for a small time ''δt'', the final speed is given by

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;v + \delta v = v + a \delta t &lt;/math&gt;
|}

In a relativistic world, however , we must use the relativistic formula for the addition of velocities (see appendix *), ie:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;v + \delta v = {v + a \delta t \over 1 + va \delta t /c^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

This leads to

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;(v + \delta v)(1 + va \delta t/c^2) = v + a \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;v + v^2 a \delta t/c^2 + \delta v + va \delta v \delta t/c^2 = v + a \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Eliminating the second order term we get:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta v = a \delta t - v^2a \delta t/c^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta v = a \delta t(1-v^2/c^2)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now all we have to do is to integrate this expression to find out how v varies with t.
First separate the variables:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{\delta v \over (1-v^2/c^2)} = a \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{\delta v \over (c^2-v^2)} = {a \over c^2} \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now integrate:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\int {1 \over (c^2-v^2)} \, dv = {a \over c^2}t&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Fortunately this is a standard integral which my maths book tells me is:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{1 \over c} \tanh^{-1}{v \over c} = {a \over c^2}t&lt;/math&gt;
|}

(Since ''v'' = 0 at ''t'' = 0, there is no constant of integration). A bit of simple manipulation leads us to the first result:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;v = c \tanh {a \over c}t&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

NB the time ''t'' referred to here is the ''integral'' of the proper time, which is the ''journey'' time - ie the time as experienced on board ship. So this formula tells you how fast you will be going after you have been travelling for a time ''t''.

Next it would be nice to know how far you get in this time. To do this we must take into account the fact that the faster you go, the more contracted the miles that pass by are! In a Newtonian world the distance ''δs'' travelled in a short time ''δt'' at a speed ''v'' is:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta s = v \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|}

but in a relativistic world, you actually get a lot further because all the distances outside your ship are length contracted by a factor of ''γ'' so:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta s = \gamma v \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta s = {v \over \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}} \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Substituting our formula for the speed of our ship after a time ''t'' we get:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta s = {c \tanh at/c \over \sqrt{1-(\tanh at/c)^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta s = c \sinh {at \over c} \delta t&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Integrating this expression leads to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;s = {c^2 \over a} \cosh{at \over c} + K&lt;/math&gt;
|}

We can't ignore the constant of integration this time because at ''t'' = 0, ''s'' = 0 but cosh(0) is 1 not zero. The final result is therefore:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;s = {c^2 \over a} \left( \cosh{at \over c} - 1 \right)&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

The third thing we should like to know is how old will our friends be when we get back! Well, for every second we travel at a speed v our stay-at-home friends will age ''γ'' seconds ie:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\delta t_{\text{home}} = {\delta t \over \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;t_{\text{home}} = \int{1 \over \sqrt{1-(\tanh at/c)^2} \, dt}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;t_{\text{home}} = \int{\cosh {at \over c}} \, dt&lt;/math&gt;
|}

from which we obtain:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
   !&lt;math&gt;t_{\text{home}} = {c \over a} \sinh {at \over c}&lt;/math&gt;   
|}

(the constant of integration is zero because sinh(0) = 0 as required)

I find it particularly pleasing that the solution to the problem of the 1''g'' rocket has such simple and elegant answers, particularly when we work in years and light years. In these units, both ''a'' and ''c'' are equal to 1. If we think of a round trip which is to take ''T'' years (as measured on board), the outward journey will consist of two phases, an acceleration for ''T''/4 years, and a deceleration phase of the same length. The return journey will be just the same.

The maximum speed reached will be:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;v = \tanh(T/4)&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

The distance you get to will be:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;S = 2 \left( \cosh(T/4) -1 \right)&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

and the age of your newborn baby son when you get back will be:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T_{\text{home}} = 4\sinh(T/4)&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

To give you an idea of what these expressions look like in practice, here is a table of results:
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style=&quot;background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|- align=center
! Journey time (y) !! Max speed (% of ''c'') !! Distance (ly) !! Age of son (y)
|- align=center
| 0 || 0|| 0|| 0
|- align=center
| 1|| 24|| 0.1|| 1
|- align=center
| 2|| 46|| 0.3|| 2
|- align=center
| 3|| 64|| 0.6|| 3
|- align=center
| 4|| 76|| 1.1|| 5
|- align=center
| 5|| 85|| 2|| 6
|- align=center
| 6|| 91|| 3 || 9
|- align=center
| 7 || 94|| 4|| 11
|- align=center
| 8 || 96|| 6|| 15
|- align=center
| 9|| 98|| 8 || 19
|- align=center
| 10|| 99|| 10|| 24
|}

It is worth noting that a return journey to a star 10 light years away would (theoretically) only take 10 years of astronaut time (24 years back at home). If you are prepared to journey for 20, 30 or 40 years, you could get to stars 150, 1800 and 22,000 ly away respectively (that is a quarter of the way across the galaxy!) and if you are not bothered about coming home you could travel to the edge of the known universe in a mere 47 years (although whether there would be any universe left by the time you got there is another matter!).

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#The 1g rocket problem|Back to top ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix B</title>
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      <text bytes="1493" sha1="tshbwmpt7fxeprc5fu7y1vld1hdc4cp" xml:space="preserve">== Length Contraction ==

Using the context of the river race, if we see Albert and Beatrice arrive back at exactly the same instant and knowing that ''Beatrice cannot row faster than Albert'', we must conclude that Beatrice has a shorter distance to row.

How much shorter? Suppose that Albert rows a distance ''l''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; and Beatrice rows ''l''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;.

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\text{Time for Albert to finish} = {2l_A \over \sqrt{c^2-v^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\text{Time for Beatrice to finish} = {l_B \over c-v} + {l_B \over c+v} = {2l_Bc \over c^2-v^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now these must be equal so:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{2l_A \over \sqrt{c^2-v^2}} = {2l_Bc \over c^2-v^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

from which we get:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;l_B = \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2} \, l_A&lt;/math&gt;
|}

What this means is that from the point of view of a stationary observer, a rod of ''proper length'' ''l''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; (ie whose length is ''l''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; when at rest) will have a length ''l'' given by

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;l = \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2} \, l_0 = l_0/\gamma&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

when it moves with a velocity ''v'' in a direction parallel to its length. (It will always appear to have the same length ''l''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; perpendicular to the direction of motion.)

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#Length Contraction|Back to top ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix C</title>
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      <text bytes="2565" sha1="3vimlbbh8rdbflwy3pff1czah0pyzlz" xml:space="preserve">== Time on a distant star ==

How would you synchronise two clocks which are at rest but in different places?

One way to do it would be this:

* measure the distance ''d'' between the clocks
* set clock A to zero (but do not start it)
* set clock B to read time ''d''/''c'' (but again do not start it)
* start clock A and simultaneously send a pulse of light towards clock B
* when the pulse of light reaches B, start clock B

[[File:SynchronisingClocks.png|center|thumb|400px|Synchronising two clocks]]

The two clocks will now be synchronised, at least to an observer at rest with respect to the two clocks.
But what if I were to watch you synchronising a pair of clocks like this while you sailed by me (in the direction B to A) at a speed v? I would disagree about your calculation in two ways. Firstly the distance between the clocks would be contracted by a factor of ''γ''. Secondly, while the light beam was travelling from A to B at what is to me a constant speed ''c'', B would be racing towards the light beam at a speed ''v''. To me, the light beam would be gaining on the clock at a relative speed of ''c'' + ''v'' so the time taken for the beam to get from A to B would be:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = {\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}~d \over c+v}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

This can be rearranged and simplified as follows:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = {l \over c}{\sqrt{c^2-v^2} \over c+v}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = {l \over c}\sqrt{(c+v)(c-v) \over (c+v)(c+v)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;T = {l \over c}\sqrt{c-v \over c+v}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

What this means is that while you set clock B to read ''l''/''c'', I think you should have set it to the ''smaller'' time above. To put this another way, it seems to me that all your supposedly synchronised clocks ahead of you are running behind the true time and all those behind you are running ahead of the true time.

Now the ''difference'' in the two times is equal to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\Delta T = {l \over c} - {l \over c}\sqrt{c-v \over c+v}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

We can simplify this formula considerably if we assume that ''v'' is a lot smaller than ''c''. First we rewrite the formula as follows:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\Delta T = {l \over c}(1-(1-v/c)^{1/2}(1+v/c)^{1/2})&lt;/math&gt;
|}

hence using the Binomial Theorem we get:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\Delta T = {lv \over c^2}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

[[A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity|Back to the introduction ...]]

[[#Time on a distant star|Back to top ...]]
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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix D</title>
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      <text bytes="3130" sha1="jivviifiofgy99nd8m0p3basswl2yls" xml:space="preserve">== The Addition of Speeds ==

Consider a spaceship A of length ''l''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; travelling past you at a speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; passing a second spaceship B of length ''l''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; travelling in the opposite direction at a speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; (both speeds measured with reference to you). The question we need to answer is what speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; does B appear to be going past the astronauts in A?

We need to consider two vital events; first contact, when the nose cones of the two spaceships meet and second contact when the two tails part.

[[File:TwoRocketsPassing.gif|center|thumb|500px|Two rockets passing each other]]

What is more, let us suppose that these two events occur ''at the same place'' from your point of view. This means that the spaceships have to be just the right length so that they both pass you in the same time. Note that from your point of view, both ships are contracted by the factors ''γ''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; and ''γ''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; respectively.

Now what does the commander of ship A see? He sees ''you'' travelling past at a speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; and also ship B travelling past at some greater speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt;.

Note that to the occupants of ship A, B is length contracted by a factor ''γ''&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt;.

Now commander A can calculate the time between first and second contact in two ways. First he sees you travelling a distance ''l''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; at a speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;. Secondly, he sees ship B (whose length is contracted to ''l''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;/''γ''&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt;) travel a distance equal to ''l''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; + ''l''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;/''γ''&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; at a speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt;. It follows that:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;{l_A \over v_A} = {l_A+l_B/\gamma_X \over v_X}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;l_A v_X = l_A v_A +l_B v_Z/\gamma_X&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;l_A(v_X - v_A)  = l_A v_B/\gamma_X&lt;/math&gt;
|}

An identical argument from commander B's point of view leads to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;l_B(v_X-v_B)  = l_B v_A/\gamma_X&lt;/math&gt;
|}

(It should be pointed out that because of the invariance of velocity, if commander A sees ship B moving at a speed ''v''&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; then commander B will see ship A moving at exactly the same speed and contracted by the same γ factor.)

Now multiplying the two equations together eliminates the lengths of the two ships and leaves us with a relation between the three velocities. The rest is just algebra.

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;(v_X-v_A)(v_X-v_B) = v_Av_B/\gamma_X^2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\gamma_X={1 \over \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

so:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;1/\gamma_X^2 = 1-v_X^2/c^2 = (c^2-v_X^2)/c^2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

hence:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;(v_X - v_A)(v_X - v_B) = v_A v_B (c^2-v_X^2)/c^2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

from which we obtain by straightforward algebra the result we desire:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;v_x = {v_A + v_B \over 1 + v_A v_B/c^2}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

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    <title>A Roller Coaster Ride through Relativity/Appendix G</title>
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      <text bytes="2468" sha1="ha6hgowjvesy6wxjxtzwt9ccvruxgzh" xml:space="preserve">== The relation between Energy and Momentum ==

The total relativistic energy ''E'' and the relativistic momentum ''p'' of a body are given by the following expressions:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;E = \gamma M_0 c^2 = {M_0 c^2 \over \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;p = \gamma M_0 v = {M_0 v \over \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}&lt;/math&gt;      
|}

We wish to eliminate ''v'' from these equations.
First square and multiply across:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;E^2(1-v^2/c^2) = M_0^2 c^4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;p^2(1-v^2/c^2) = M_0^2 v^2&lt;/math&gt;      
|}
Now for a diabolically cunning move, multiply the second equation by ''c''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and subtract!

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;(E^2 - p^2 c^2)(1-v^2/c^2) = m_0^2 c^4(1 - v^2/c^2) &lt;/math&gt;    
|}

from which we obtain:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;E^2 - p^2c^2 = M_0^2 c^4&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

An alternative (and in my opinion better) way of writing this equation is:

{|border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;E^2 - E_0^2 = p^2 c^2&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

where ''E''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the rest-mass energy of the body.

It is instructive to compare this expression with the non-relativistic relation between energy and momentum which is calculated as follows

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;KE = \tfrac{1}{2} M v^2 ~~~\text{and}~~~p = Mv&lt;/math&gt;    
|}
so

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;KE = {p^2 \over 2M}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

It is not easy to see, at first, how the relativistic expression will reduce (as it must) to the non-relativistic one when v is small, but it does. Watch!

Since

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;E^2 - E_0^2 = p^2 c^2&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

we can write

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;(E - E_0)(E + E_0) = p^2 c^2&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

Now (E - E0) is just the relativistic kinetic energy ''KE''&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; which, at low speeds approximates to the ordinary kinetic energy ''KE''.

At low speeds, the total relativistic energy ''E'' and the rest-mass energy ''E''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; are virtually equal and equal to ''Mc''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; so:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;KE~.~2 M c^2 = p^2 c^2&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

from which it is easy to see that

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;KE = {p^2 \over 2M}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

as expected.

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      <text bytes="1187" sha1="5eazaed51k7sbm6c506cjjj6zemv7v3" xml:space="preserve">== The Gravitational Potential at the surface of a star ==

[[File:GravitationalPotential2.png|right|thumb|250px|Gravitational Potential]]

The force of gravity on a mass ''m'' at a distance ''r'' away from a star of mass ''M'' is equal to:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;F = {GMm \over r^2}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

The work done in pulling the mass from the surface of the star out to infinity is therefore:

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;W = \int_{r}^{\infty}{GMm \over r^2} dr&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

This works out to be

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;W = {GMm \over r}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

and therefore the gravitational potential difference ''Δφ'' between the surface and ∞ is

{| align=center
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\Delta \phi = {w \over m} = {GM \over R}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

Now by definition, the gravitational potential at ∞ is zero so the potential at the surface is negative, hence:

{| border=1 width=25% align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=10 style=&quot;background:PapayaWhip;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|-
  !&lt;math&gt;\phi_s = - {GM \over R}&lt;/math&gt;    
|}

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      <text bytes="206659" sha1="7sp3gt226e1rvg695xjestamrebqu2l" xml:space="preserve">{{DISPLAYTITLE:&lt;span style=&quot;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif&quot;;&quot;&gt;Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century&lt;/span&gt;}}


&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;&quot;&gt;

:'''Dani Eder,'''

:''The Seed Factory Project,''

:''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213''

:''email: danielravennest@gmail.com''


:'''Aug 2026'''


'''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more  detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set.


&lt;div class=&quot;nonumtoc&quot;&gt;{{TOCright}}&lt;/div&gt;


=='''0.0 - Summary'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige.  Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations.  Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high.  Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort.

&amp;emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it.  It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''.  Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials.  This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory.

&amp;emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting.  Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations.  Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant.  With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment.

&amp;emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns.  Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high.

&amp;emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs.  What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods.  This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea.

=='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige.  While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations.  They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology.


:'''Outdated Assumptions'''


&amp;emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''.  Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''.  The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''.  In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not.  In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the &quot;mission&quot; approach includes a number of assumptions:


* It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. 
* Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources.
* Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth.
* High cost limits mission mass.  So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions.


&amp;emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other.


:'''High Cost'''


&amp;emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control.  Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard.  Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain.  Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings.  

&amp;emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval.  The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses.  Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project.  This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work.  The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets.  The result is a few big &quot;can't fail&quot; projects.  Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence.  So projects must be conservative, slowing progress.


:'''Low Returns'''


&amp;emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended.  Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth.  Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them.

&amp;emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions.  High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies.  To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive.  Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms.  The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades.  Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly.  


:'''Focus on the Moon and Mars'''


&amp;emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth.  So it was a natural first destination for human exploration.  Venus and Mars are the closest major planets.  Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity.  However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere.  Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination.

&amp;emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish.  At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies.  For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay.

&amp;emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish.  But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth.  For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica.  At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other locations in space.  Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth.  The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth.  A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake.  They are large, interesting, and can be useful.  So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places.

&amp;emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above.  It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century.  It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System.  That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects.  Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth.

=='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources.  We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources.  Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with &quot;Smart Tools&quot; is key among these.  Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment.  
 

==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter.  Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere.  So they would only be used locally.  Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells.  These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year.

&amp;emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources.  Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood.  Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons.  So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System.

&amp;emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth.  They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier.


:'''Material Resources'''
  

&amp;emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance.  Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are &quot;on the way there&quot; in terms of solar distance.  In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids.  The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails.  The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction.

&amp;emsp;This has changed dramatically.  As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''.  The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them.  These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth.  Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count.  11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total.  The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']).  124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun.  Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth.  

&amp;emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars.  Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist.  They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done.  Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials.  Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects.

&amp;emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million.  This is about 780 times what was known in 1950.  The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating.

[[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]]  

&amp;emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System.  The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them.  The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers.  Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope.  So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances.  But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times.  So there are many more smaller objects still to be found.

&amp;emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''.  These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see.  This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes.  The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones.  As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones.   

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely.  Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&amp;commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''.  Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found.  Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System.  The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them.

[[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] 

&amp;emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones.  Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving.  We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability.  Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade.  As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made.  But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible.    


:'''Energy Resources'''


&amp;emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today.  That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it.  Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy.  This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies.

&amp;emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time.  For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight.  Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer.  Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets.  So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. 

&amp;emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts.  Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''.  Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System.  Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher.

&amp;emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and location.  These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind.  On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere.  The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways.  The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment.


:'''The Illusion of Scarcity'''


&amp;emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth.  The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface.  The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used.  Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer.

&amp;emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or a ratio of one part in 2 billion.  At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface.  If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches).  If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up.  Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed.  Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area.

&amp;emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow.  Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it.  In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet.  When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth.

&amp;emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible.  On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep.  Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through.  The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today.  Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used.

==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future.  These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed.  This is in addition to more standard existing technology.
  

:'''Seed Factories'''

 
&amp;emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially.  Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient.

&amp;emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''.  They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds.  Seed factories can improve in several ways:
 

* Making parts for additional copies of current equipment.
* Making new types of items not in the starter set, and 
* Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.).
  

&amp;emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory.  Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally.

&amp;emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made.  Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential.  The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources.  A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures.  Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere.

&amp;emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets.  These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process.  Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost.  It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better.


:'''Locations and MakerNets'''


&amp;emsp;When we refer to &quot;locations&quot; we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily.  On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area.  In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport.  Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects.

&amp;emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things.  The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks.  A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost.

&amp;emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network.  To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs.  So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials.


:'''Space Technologies'''


&amp;emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans.  These include:


* '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets.  Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. 
* '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them.  Production methods for them have also improved.
* '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology.


&amp;emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications.

&amp;emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed.  This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them.  MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations.  Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects.  Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer.

=='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''==
&amp;emsp;


&amp;emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects.  But we do not expect it to all be under centralized government direction.  Instead it would also include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, and other project methods.

&amp;emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach.  The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details.  This is a work in progress.  It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design.  It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies.  We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed.  Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas.


:&lt;u&gt;'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''&lt;/u&gt;


&amp;emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige.  They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities.  Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space.  About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate.  So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult.

&amp;emsp;Competition and profit incentives have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them.  If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond agency budgets.  The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget.

&amp;emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space.  But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere.  If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too.  The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same.  

&amp;emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas.  These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them.  Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes.  In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use.  Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire.  

&amp;emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs.  They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology.  Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build.  They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate.  

&amp;emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth.  This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas.  The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used.  This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation.  These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. 

&amp;emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category.  Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel.  


:&lt;u&gt;'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''&lt;/u&gt;


&amp;emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth.  Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space.  There are several reasons for this: 
 

* Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth.

* Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption.  Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade.  

* Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment.  

* There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created.  Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space.


&amp;emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment.

&amp;emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence.  Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations.  Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry.  Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations.

&amp;emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long.  So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment.  Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons.  Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed.

&amp;emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources.  So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth.  Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed.  Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society.


:&lt;u&gt;'''Program Advantages'''&lt;/u&gt;


&amp;emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages:


* It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving.  So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects.

* Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth.  It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space.  The combined result is much cheaper space projects.  Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable.

* In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be.  Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites.

* A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions.  A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly.  Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems.

* Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used.  Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth.  Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk.  Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions.  Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth.


==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects.  There are several reasons for this:


* The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources.  They will need different designs suited to them.

* We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones.  It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise.

* New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects.  This will not happen all at once.  Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable.

* We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when.  Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now.  Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches.


[[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]]  

&amp;emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1).  For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere.  The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones.  We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...).  

[[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]]  

&amp;emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases.  It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read.  Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant.  Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations.  For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet.  Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade.  The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in sections 4 through 9.  
 

==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goal from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond.  We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here.  So the first four phases apply to Earth.

&amp;emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades.  Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space.  It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves.

&amp;emsp;This program would widen participation from the U.S. national space program, or a joint effort of several national programs, to all of civilization.  The NASA budget is about 0.025% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth.  Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end.  The first four phases are:


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''&lt;/u&gt; - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&amp;D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space.  It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations.  The R&amp;D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for.  Some later R&amp;D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 1: Starter Locations &amp; Network'''&lt;/u&gt; - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process.  Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable.  Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces.  A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items.  New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements.  Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing machines to make parts for larger machines.  This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations.  At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products.  At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets.  But they can still coordinate on projects and products.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; -  This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today.  They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult.  Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places.  New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments.  Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay.     

:&amp;emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space.  This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface.  We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down.  This enables many times more usable volume and materials.


==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth.  It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems which can make more such systems.  It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3.  This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations.  The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space.

&amp;emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical space, energy, and material resources beyond Earth.  Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment.  It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet.

&amp;emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations.  Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones.  The three later main phases are:


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies.  This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies.  The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant.

:&amp;emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places.  We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the &quot;debris belt&quot; of discarded space hardware.  Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces.  The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets.  Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun.  These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase.  Mars is part of this phase, but has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars.  This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time.  A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unkown.  We see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached.  For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go.  But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for.

=='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of self-improving production from starter sets (seed factories), so it deserves some details here.  More on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology.


&amp;emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Humans have always been able to use tools to make more tools.  This goes as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when hammerstones were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools.  In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products.

&amp;emsp;What is new about seed factories are starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more equipment to improve the set.  This can include supplying its own energy and raw materials to operate.  There are several ways to improve:


* &lt;u&gt;Replication&lt;/u&gt; - making copies of existing parts and equipment,
* &lt;u&gt;Diversification&lt;/u&gt; - making parts for new equipment not in the current set,
* &lt;u&gt;Quality&lt;/u&gt; - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and
* &lt;u&gt;Scaling&lt;/u&gt; - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones.


&amp;emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products.  This can include parts for new starter sets.  A starter set may not be able to copy most of its own parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment.  After following a planned series of upgrades, though, it can gain the ability to reproduce the original set.  

&amp;emsp;This approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory.  On Earth this reduces the cost to get started.  For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier.  With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work.  However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory.


:'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production'''


&amp;emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''.  First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment.  These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task.  For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine.  

&amp;emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory.  We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows.  But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy.  If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies.  This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring.

&amp;emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves.  At first they will lack all the right equipment.  Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or too rare locally.  Those need to be supplied from elsewhere.  Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating.

&amp;emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work.  With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required.  Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely.  So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis.  The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed.  What's important is they can work together to make desired products.
 

:'''Operations and Functions'''

 
&amp;emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes. A seed factory may not do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades.  They include:  


* &lt;u&gt;Control of operations&lt;/u&gt; - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment.
* &lt;u&gt;Supply power&lt;/u&gt; - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources.
* &lt;u&gt;Extract materials&lt;/u&gt; - mining and harvesting raw materials.
* &lt;u&gt;Process materials&lt;/u&gt; - converting raw materials to usable inventory.
* &lt;u&gt;Fabricate parts&lt;/u&gt; - use inventory stock to produce finished parts.
* &lt;u&gt;Storage and protection&lt;/u&gt; - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed.
* &lt;u&gt;Assemble elements&lt;/u&gt; - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products.
* &lt;u&gt;Grow organics&lt;/u&gt; - such as food and timber.  These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production.


&amp;emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines.  In developed areas these can come from outside sources.  In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult.  Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply.  Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials.  They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms.

&amp;emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out.  These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed.  Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself.  In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out.  It also needs enough supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items it can't make.

&amp;emsp;We don't expect to reach 100% self-sufficiency.  Some items will come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others.  We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology.  Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do.  Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control equipment remotely.


=='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&amp;D)'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The rest of this report describes our program phases and sub-phases in more detail.  It does not cover detailed plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet.  We also can't claim this is the best possible program.  We present it as a &lt;u&gt;possible&lt;/u&gt; path that leverages self-improving production methods.  Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help.  Where next steps have been identified, we note them here, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents.

&amp;emsp;This first R&amp;D phase is numbered zero because it is preparation to make the later phases possible.  The sub-phases would be numbered according to the later phases the work applies to.  So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&amp;D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations.


:'''R&amp;D Goals'''


&amp;emsp;Our program needs research and development first because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement.  This will need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space.  So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs.  Since R&amp;D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones.  Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills.

&amp;emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones.  Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&amp;D work, but can start with existing ones.  Testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments than building simulators.  So some later R&amp;D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space.


:'''Production by R&amp;D Phase'''


&amp;emsp;Despite not being the main goal, some production will happen in the course of setting up R&amp;D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows.  But these are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use.

&amp;emsp;Some of the equipment built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&amp;D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process.  Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&amp;D can get sold or traded to fund further R&amp;D work.  Feedback from such items can help improve the designs. 

&amp;emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful.  So earlier prototypes should last longer than the time needed to test them.  Ones with remaining useful lives can be delivered to other locations for later phases and projects.  Lastly, the R&amp;D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment.  These can be used directly in later phases.  


:'''Sharing Our Results'''


&amp;emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people.  We plan to open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them.  Individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally.

&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs.  We would also make such new developments available for others to use.  An example is full resource accounting, which tracks all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money.  In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes.  If possible they should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. 


:'''R&amp;D Tasks and Projects'''


&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it.  Items used by  multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for.  Later phases start at different times.  So the R&amp;D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed.

&amp;emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase.  So we expect R&amp;D work will continue for the whole life of our program.  In addition to internal R&amp;D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program.  So part of the R&amp;D phase is staying current with outside developments so improved designs and methods can be developed later.  The growth of locations, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization.  Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements.  All of these are reasons to continue the R&amp;D process.

&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D work is also grouped into individual projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use.  So far we have started the Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what is needed for Phase 1 locations and networks.

&amp;emsp;Future R&amp;D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs.  Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not identified specific ones to start yet.  There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization.  We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge.


=='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Once the R&amp;D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases.  But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills.  Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use.  So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences.

&amp;emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call &quot;Moderate&quot;.  This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others environment conditions.  We list them in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult.  Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live.  Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities.  These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started.  So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in.  The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation.  They are 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial.


==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop networks among local sites and different locations.  Network members can trade physical items as needed, and coordinate their work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places.

&amp;emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases.  This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available.  (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests.  They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects.  (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site.


:'''Starting Points'''
 

&amp;emsp;Projects in general need tools, resources, energy, and knowledge to complete, or &quot;TREK&quot; for short.  Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&amp;D work.  To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed.

&amp;emsp;An early project example is setting up for a hobby or home improvement.  Such projects don't have to be completed all at once.  They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more as skills accumulate.  Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves.  If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed.  Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time.  So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged.

&amp;emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services.  Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive.  This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups.  Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items.  They can be housed in space they already have, or can build or rent without too much difficulty.  
  
&amp;emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative.  Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole is intended to grow and improve.


:'''Later Improvements'''


&amp;emsp;Improvements can come new R&amp;D work. personal experience, more copies existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales.  As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell.  Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food.

&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment.  These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as packaged sets.  Later projects can then start self-improving faster.  A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built.

&amp;emsp;Examples of future R&amp;D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets.  The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator.  Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed.  That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost.  Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance.  Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions.


==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation.  


:'''Evolution'''


&amp;emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment.  Some sites will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity.  This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network.  The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets.

&amp;emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well.  This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment.  Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn.  Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need.  A comprehensive large node (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common.  So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places.

&amp;emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries.  For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first.  So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate.


:'''Ownership'''


&amp;emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity.  The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs.  The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills.  

&amp;emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people.  They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves.  To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant.  If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference.  Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor.  But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment.  Rather they just work less time or more efficiently.

&amp;emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting.  New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production.  They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries.  Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares.  Either way they have more security as owners.


==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production capacity by additional growth in scale and specialization.  Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2.  


:'''Growth and Specialization'''


&amp;emsp;Industrial nodes can evolve from distributed small business or commercial nodes by continuing self-improvement and growth.  They can also be built as new nodes of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network.  In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds.  Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding.

&amp;emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products.  For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal.  The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big location that can satisfy all of them.

&amp;emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers.  The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide.  Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase.

&amp;emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition.  Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case.  Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else.  In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out.  Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products.

&amp;emsp;The overall network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs.  So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do.  This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between.  It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed.

&amp;emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types.  A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have.  If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation.


=='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goal'''


&amp;emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development.  The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle.  This needs more physical resources and energy.  But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress.


:'''Method'''


&amp;emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems.  These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources.  Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance.  Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water.  Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster.  Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials.


:'''New Locations'''  


&amp;emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations.  So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments.  New designs and processes will be needed for such areas.  So a new program phase with added R&amp;D is started.

&amp;emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line.  Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified.  We define the &quot;normal&quot; (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live.  Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range.

&amp;emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category.  Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there.  More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. 

&amp;emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state.  So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact.  An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches.  The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact.  But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects.

&amp;emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases.  These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available.  So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do.  Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy.  A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity.  

&amp;emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services are for local use.  Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically.  Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones.  The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth.


==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter.  This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint.  The &quot;Difficult&quot; environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter.  10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is.  The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are:


&amp;emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs.  The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C).  A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both.  The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C).  Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C.  The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes.  The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth.

&amp;emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers.  Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination.  Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster.  The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year.  Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or &lt;0.185  and &gt;3.15 meters/year.  The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall.  Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay.

&amp;emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa).  For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi).  The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude)  Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level).  These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters.  Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are.  Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range.

&amp;emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa).  These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult.  For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads.  The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa.  Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa.  The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock.  High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse.  The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths).  Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters

&amp;emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2.  Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable.  Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy.  Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are.

&amp;emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce.  Biofuels may be produced sustainably.  Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation.  They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply.

&amp;emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity.  If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines.  High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult.  The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2.  Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere.

&amp;emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments.  On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions.  Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants.  High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items.

&amp;emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year.  Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition.  But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding.  Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below.  In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year.

&amp;emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr.  People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects.  Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population.

&amp;emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult.  Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation.  Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult.  Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level.  Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs.

&amp;emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms).  Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity.  There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition.

&amp;emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people.  There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people.  The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth.  This parameter becomes more important in space.  The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms.  That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance.

&amp;emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people.  Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people.  High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials.  Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less.  Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel.  The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach.  Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days.

&amp;emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years.  People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time.  Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover.  The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable.  It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time.  In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services.

&amp;emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan.  Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth.  Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years.  Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations.

&amp;emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg).  For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity.  Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy.  High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation.

&amp;emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates.  Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas.  Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be.  Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods.  It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits.


&amp;emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development.  For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled.  Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult.  It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&amp;D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with.


==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range.  This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in.  The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&amp;D to develop them.  We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization.  The parameter values are:


&amp;emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C).  The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts.

&amp;emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert.  The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests.

&amp;emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters.  These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground.

&amp;emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa.  These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock.

&amp;emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface.  High values of energy supply are not a difficulty.

&amp;emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur.

&amp;emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (&gt;25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically.

&amp;emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip.  This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable.

&amp;emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach.  This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation.

&amp;emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations.

&amp;emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg.  This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used.


=='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

[[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]]

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The main goals of the later phases are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems that can't be handled any other way.  

&amp;emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating space station, made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top.  This would heat a fluid to produce power, since solar cells were not well developed at the time.  We show it as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time.  Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 70 years in the future.  Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed.


:'''Approach'''


&amp;emsp;Sections 8, 9, and 10 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order.  Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments.  Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space.  Planetary system locations (Phase 5) share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth.  Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from.  The local environments are also different on and around these bodies.  

&amp;emsp;We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times, but overlap and continue in parallel once started.  Phase 6 (Interstellar) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance.  It is expected to be last in time.  It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used.  So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work.


:'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry'''
 

&amp;emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return.  So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry.  According to UN records there were over 8200 satellites orbiting the Earth at the start of 2022.  Of these, about 4850 were active.  There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent to the Moon and beyond, some of which are still operating.  The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''.  The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving.  

&amp;emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $386 billion as of 2021, split between government and private projects.  But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth.  This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology.  In turn that should lower costs.  

&amp;emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity.  Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them.  So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations.  What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale.  '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and well over a thousand '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space.  Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level.  

&amp;emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use.  The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first.  Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total.  Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued.  The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight.  

&amp;emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life.  This adds to the cost of operating in space.  Refueling, maintenance, and repair of equipment in space is very limited.  New production, upgrades, and recycling is limited to non-existent.  Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated.  In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism.  


:'''Long-Term Sustainability'''


&amp;emsp;As of 2021 fossil fuels supplied about 77% of global primary energy.  Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization.  But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects.  They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it.

&amp;emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat.  Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea.  Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun.  The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere.  Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is.

&amp;emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant low-grade sources.  New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead.  These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract.  However, high-grade ores are in limited supply.  If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out.  So the current state of civilization is unsustainable.  It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both.  

&amp;emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of full development.  Such development demands even more energy and materials.  It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them.  A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster.  Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes.  This would have less impact on Earth, but it does not reduce it to zero.  


:'''Civilization-Level Risks'''


&amp;emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks.  One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops.  This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels.  Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting.  Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost.  Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release.

&amp;emsp;Another risk is from asteroids.  Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage.  There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does.  So it is worth trying to reduce the risks.  Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent.

&amp;emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two.  Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war.  It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible.  Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery.


==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space.  If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores.

&amp;emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground.  Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference.  The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather.  So the energy to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher.

&amp;emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids.  These have been &quot;pre-mined&quot; in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose.  Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high.  The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry.  The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above.


:'''Lowering Space Operations Cost'''


&amp;emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits.  But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics.  For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much.  Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency.  Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much.  This shows how much room there is for improvement.  

&amp;emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced.  Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them.  Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these.  As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need.

&amp;emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use.  This is a major contributor to high costs.  Improved designs can allow reuse and repair.  Conventional rockets are also inefficient.  They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy.  The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%.  Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. 

&amp;emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%.  The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio.  If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down.  

&amp;emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate.  The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there.  So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise.  The combination of all these methods would get much closer to &quot;potato cost&quot;.


:'''Space Development Process'''


&amp;emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth.  In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ.  Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated.  So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials.  A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock.

&amp;emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production.  Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth.  Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence.  

&amp;emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location.  So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth.  As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally.  Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets.  These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions.

&amp;emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare.  Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth.  By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden.  This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost.

&amp;emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it.


:'''General Space Environment Features'''


&amp;emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits.  They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun.  The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce.

&amp;emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions.  So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases.  We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth.  Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity.

&amp;emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B).  The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters.  Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them.  The general ranges are noted here.  Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below.  Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''.


* '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature.  It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C).  Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings.  Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature.

* '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth.  But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice.  Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the &quot;frost line&quot; around 3 AU, where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum.

* '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies.  Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres.

* '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength.  Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids.  It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets.

* '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; beyond Neptune.  Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this.  Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters.  Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy.

:&amp;emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies.  Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon.  Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors.

* '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets.  Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it.  Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure.

* '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth.  Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset.

:&amp;emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields.  Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons.  On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest.  Transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding.  Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks.

* '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System.  Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays.  On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet.

* '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region.  It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface.  Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades.

* '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit.  Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station.  With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years.

* '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location.  This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit.  It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low.  More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. 


==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F.  We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions.  Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions.  The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one.  They would develop in parallel once started.  

&amp;emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them.  We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future.  So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon.


:'''Low Orbit Features'''


&amp;emsp;Earth orbits form a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant.  We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude.  Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases.  Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''.

&amp;emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reduceing available energy.  The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side.  Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time from the Earth's surface is fairly short.  Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult.  But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time.  So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite.  This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay.

&amp;emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbits and extend past them to high orbits.  Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels.  So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially.

&amp;emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit.  They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages.  The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small.  Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting.  Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial.  Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below.  Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring.  Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface.  Government uses include research, such as the Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security.

&amp;emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, and payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations.  Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets.  It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up.  We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others.

&amp;emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up.  We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. 


:'''Transport from Earth'''


&amp;emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported.  Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses.  As noted in section 8.1,  self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites.

&amp;emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency.  They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth, neither of which is changing.  A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost.  But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&amp;D cost in the face of existing rocket systems.  There are many possible launch technologies.  See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list.  We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities.  

[[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]]


&amp;emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1).  They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware.  This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices.

&amp;emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces.  These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food.  Outdoor barrels measured in km rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures.  But they are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people.  Those would use other kinds of transportation.  Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on the mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch.  

&amp;emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient.  This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere.  The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods.  Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets.

&amp;emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets.  The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate.  It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times.  The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times.  Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch.  The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets.  A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit.  There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth.


&amp;emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example.  Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part.  Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges.  Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit.  A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option.

&amp;emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&amp;D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built.  Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step.  It would then be supplemented with a low R&amp;D system like a hypersonic gun.  Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&amp;D can then make economic sense.


:'''Mining and Production'''


&amp;emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials.  That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time.  But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items.  For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems.  The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures.  Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there.

&amp;emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing.  At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to &quot;scoop mine&quot; the upper atmosphere.  A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor.  A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow.  This makes up for drag from the scoop.  The remaining air is stored in tanks.

&amp;emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot.  The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life.  As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end.

&amp;emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit.  It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's &quot;debris belt&quot;.  This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources.  The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products.  Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse.

&amp;emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines.  The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise.  Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit.  The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere.  It can be efficiently delivered &quot;downhill&quot; using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''.  Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere.


==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''High Orbit Features'''


&amp;emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''.  For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable.  This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape.  That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as you increase distance.

&amp;emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit.  It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km.  Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface.  Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations.

&amp;emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon.  Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold Cosmic Background, but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat.  Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long.  Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy.

&amp;emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data.  The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment.  Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state.  The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used.  This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation.  So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion.  Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts.

&amp;emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up.  One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''.  These are stable regions, but not singular points.  The Sun's gravity and the Moon's orbit not being circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun cause some motion around the points.

&amp;emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region.  Future activity can include supplying fuel and other supplies from space sources back to low orbit and to early interplanetary locations.  These and other possible future activities depend on bringing costs down to affordable levels.  This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels.

&amp;emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with.  If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used.  They let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum.  This would help cool the planet.  Large solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead.  This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit.  An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts.

&amp;emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today.  The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 250 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling.  With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources can make civilization sustainable for a very long time.


:'''Transport from Other Orbits'''


&amp;emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials.  So they must be imported from elsewhere.  Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then more chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits.  Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years.

&amp;emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html NREL Efficiency Chart]''').  The engines are low thrust, which would expose people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts.  So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets.  Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, the penalty for less efficient transport can be reduced.

&amp;emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1) are not time- or radiation-sensitive.  They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips.  Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period.  Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed.

&amp;emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults.  Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life.  If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high.  From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing.  There are about five major &quot;ore types&quot; of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic.  Using all of them would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products.


:'''High Orbit Production'''


&amp;emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products.  High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/year.  It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors.  Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather.  Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''.  Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, and active refrigeration if needed.

&amp;emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses.  Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit.  The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials.  The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit.  Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. 

&amp;emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment.  This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection.  Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection.  Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit.  Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling.  To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth.

&amp;emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material.  This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors.  Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants.  This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon.  They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust.  Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies.

&amp;emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars.  They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy.  A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes.

&amp;emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth.  Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space.  Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts.  Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools.  New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. 

&amp;emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds.  These are are very high strength-to-weight.  Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction.  

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region.  Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels.  These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels.  '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures.  Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially.  They are used in all kinds of industrial processes such as furnaces and cooling systems for thermal processing of materials.

&amp;emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth.  The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth.  Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight.  Importing them is easier than trying to make them.


:'''Living in High Orbit'''
   

&amp;emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry.  But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth.  Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once.  The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities.

&amp;emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time.  Growth can be linear or in layers, like an onion.  Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each.  The ring can be spun for artificial gravity.  Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels.

&amp;emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells over compartments outside the previous ones.  The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding.  Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment.  Then comes living quarters and a central open space.  The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity.  As new layers are added, items are moved outwards to fill the larger space.  Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed.


==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Inner Interplanetary Features'''


&amp;emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and go around the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times.  They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun to 1.8 AU.  This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts.  It excludes Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, and orbits around them.

&amp;emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance.  Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones.  Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used.  These save fuel, but usually require extra time.

&amp;emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding.  Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite.  The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side.  

&amp;emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are nearly 32,000 known NEOs as of April 2023, and the number is currently increasing by 10% a year.  There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average.  The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth.  So total material resources in this region is large.

&amp;emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies.  Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits.  Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time.  The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions.  

&amp;emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time.  About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far.  Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region.  They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2).  Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs.  About 75% of discovered  asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size.  This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time.  30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition.  This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion.  A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces.  

&amp;emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling.  Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed.  As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining.  Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally.


:'''Inner Interplanetary Transport'''


&amp;emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs.  They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant.  This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed.  Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion.

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions.  Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use.  This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit.

&amp;emsp;Over time, a network of &quot;transit habitats&quot; can be built up.  These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations.  They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles.  They can self-supply from nearby asteroids.  This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region.

&amp;emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]'''  can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes.  The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing.  The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use.  Natural asteroids, production &quot;slag&quot; (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose.  If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal.

&amp;emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another.  Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time.  Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space.


:'''Inner Interplanetary Production'''


&amp;emsp;Global primary energy consumption on Earth was 18 TeraWatts in 2021.  This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials.  So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average.  We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power.  That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits.

&amp;emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery.  Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ.  With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels.  Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios.  They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it.

&amp;emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space.  This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones.  As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids.  These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with.

&amp;emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts.  This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain civilization.


:'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit'''


&amp;emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies.  The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms.  In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time.

&amp;emsp;It isn't yet clear if a &quot;hunter-gatherer&quot; or &quot;sedentary&quot; lifestyle would be more effective.  The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the it stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it.  Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time.  So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy.


==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials.


:'''Mid-Interplanetary Features'''

[[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]]


&amp;emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1).  As of 2023 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.18 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 5600 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 12,500 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet.  It does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (Section 9.4).

&amp;emsp;There are around 450 known comets in the region.  The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU.  So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find.  Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds.  So water is the most common compound of two elements.  Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of it.

&amp;emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects.  Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth.  Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones.  Travel time from Earth is months to years on minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people.  Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including a relay to avoid a direct path through the Sun.

&amp;emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year.  About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia.  Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history.  Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth.  So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them.  The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future.  Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable mining and transport to earlier locations as early activities.  Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation.  When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation.  There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization.


:'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport'''


&amp;emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region.  The main difference is adding reflectors to solar panels to make up for the lower solar intensity.  Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits.  If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, they also don't need propellant.  Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency.


:'''Mid-Interplanetary Production'''


&amp;emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly.  In the outer regions, solar panels benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity.  Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats.  Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather.  Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region.  It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out.  The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials.

&amp;emsp;Asteroids are covered in a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes.  This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction.  In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be &quot;gravel piles&quot;, with no solid central body.  Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations.  So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance.  Alternately the mining area or the whole asteroid can be covered to contain loose material.

&amp;emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds.  These can be extracted separately by heating.  Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs to factories for later production steps.  For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid, keeping gas and dust contained.  Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed.  The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter.
 

==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials.


:'''Outer Interplanetary Features'''


&amp;emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis.  The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded.  They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}.  As of 2023 there are over 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects.  These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also thousands of known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 3800 in this region.  Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''.  The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them.  There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered.  

&amp;emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values.  This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun.  Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from 160 to 50K for black objects, and lower for lighter ones.  Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours.

&amp;emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon.  With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula.  So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals.  The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the smaller ones 'minor planets'.


:'''Outer Interplanetary Activities'''


&amp;emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology.  Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions.  When  other activities would start and what they will be is undertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today.  The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun.  So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them.  

&amp;emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods.  The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels.  If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, they can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available.  If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced.

&amp;emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of.  Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance.  So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions.  Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility.  It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region.

&amp;emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first.  Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts.  Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories.  If there is enough demand, a &quot;pipeline&quot; of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end.  The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use.  Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule.  

&amp;emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation.  We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop.


==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets.  This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'.


:'''Distant Orbit Features'''


&amp;emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's dominance at about 100,000 AU.  As of 2023 there are about 1200 known asteroids and comets in the region.  It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a similar number of 
'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets.

&amp;emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''.  For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable.  This is roughly 100,000 AU.  The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence.  Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years.  Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass.  There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region.

&amp;emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun.  So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date.  We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve.  Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit.

&amp;emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K.  Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries.  Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years.  


:'''Distant Orbit Activities'''


&amp;emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor.  So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future.  When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use.  One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region.  Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens.

&amp;emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion.  Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up.  Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology.  Transport that uses it remains speculative at present.  Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production.  Production must remain speculative at present.


=='''9.0 - Planetary System Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other.  Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each.  First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity.  Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets.

&amp;emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments.  As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment.  So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time.


==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System.  It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report.  We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3.  The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it.  We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets.


:'''Lunar Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km .  These are close enough to be relatively stable.  Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable.  The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1).  The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']).

&amp;emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same.  Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle.  Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; by location.

&amp;emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth.  So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's.  Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them.  Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s.  Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area.  Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area.

[[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map.  Near side on left, far side on right.]]

&amp;emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass.  So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center.  Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars.  Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same.  

&amp;emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us.  It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface.  So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time.  The two hemispheres are called the &quot;near&quot; and &quot;far&quot; sides.  There is no &quot;dark&quot; side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day.  

&amp;emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region.  Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits.  Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower.  Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels.  This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources.  Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit.  This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth.

&amp;emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''.  This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts.  Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements.

&amp;emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere.  With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes.  The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times.  It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects.  There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport.  Science and exploration activities are already in progress.  Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it.  The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits.  For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon.  It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits.    

&amp;emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits.  The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon.  It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020.  Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs.  In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment.

&amp;emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility.  If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit.  Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it.  There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable.  So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space.


:'''Lunar Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure.  They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface.  At first, all propellants would come from Earth.  Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth.  Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water.  These can be reformed chemically to CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; and O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and fully replace Earth supplies.  How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. 

&amp;emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods.  As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit.  Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing.  High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach.  Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location.  
 
&amp;emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers.  These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit.  Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon.  If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel.  A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude.  It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls.

&amp;emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it.  Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible.  Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit.  If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change.  If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency.

&amp;emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem.  A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding.  With these people can live comfortably and safely.  They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time.  Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times.


:'''Lunar Production'''


&amp;emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo.  But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere.  A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth.  Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth.  So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves.

&amp;emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support.  These don't need a lot of complex equipment.  More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and  '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith.  Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export.  As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease.

&amp;emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production.  Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power.  However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable.  So other energy sources may be useful.

&amp;emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium.  The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth).  Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon.  Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg.  So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore.

&amp;emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power.  Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation.  The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night.


:'''Living in Lunar Locations'''


&amp;emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity.  An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters.  Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time.

&amp;emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0.  We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity.  So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research.  Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface.  People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control.

&amp;emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding.  One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface.  Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&amp;D is needed to figure out which work best.


==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there.  It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies.  So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between.


:'''Mars Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes  up to 340,000 km (100 radii).  Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance.  Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth.  Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth).  Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin.

&amp;emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun.  Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding.

&amp;emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region.  Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape.  This ratio holds for orbits around any body.  Escape energy is 20% that of Earth.  Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region.  Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or 97% of Earth's land area.  Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years.  Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used.  When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way.

&amp;emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius.  They have mean diameters of  22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes.  They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining.  This is a significant orbital resource.  They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition.

[[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]]

&amp;emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases.  Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin.  The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth.  Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles.  Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season.  Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass.

&amp;emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost.  It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4).  The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control.  Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis.  Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids.  

&amp;emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people.  Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit.  This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available.

&amp;emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy.  Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this.  Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions.  So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth.


:'''Mars Transport'''


&amp;emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing.  To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits.  These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists.  Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit.

&amp;emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit.  The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity.  At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new &quot;Mars Transfer Station&quot;, and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc.  They also establish a greenhouse to produce food.  When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more.

&amp;emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered.  Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves.  The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip.  Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs.

&amp;emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit.  The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids.  Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface.

&amp;emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface.  In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that.  These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it.  Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems.

&amp;emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up.  Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way.  To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes.  Mixed use of both systems is also possible.  It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient.  In the long run something better would be preferred.


:'''Mars Production'''


&amp;emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment.  Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed.  This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production.  The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries.

&amp;emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions.  Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop.  Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first.


:'''Living in Mars Locations'''


&amp;emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both.  There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources.  Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters.  Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things.  Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats.

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth.  Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get.  When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense.  Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier.

&amp;emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors.  Internal pressure would be much higher than outside.  So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground.  Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass.  These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection.  


==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars.  They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot.  There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with.


:'''Venus and Mercury Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively.  Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons.  So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them.  Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU.

&amp;emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin.  The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect.  Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion.  A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period.  Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes.

&amp;emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars.  Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury.  Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury.  Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively.

&amp;emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space.  The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases.  While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude.  Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S.  Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures.  Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility.  In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable.  Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation.  In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed.

&amp;emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible.  There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially.  If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry.

&amp;emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters.  This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers.  These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively.  If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively.  So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun.


:'''Venus and Mercury Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them.  Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently.  Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun.  Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions.  The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant.  But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow.

&amp;emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2.  This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail.  This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction.  This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth.  A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines.  


:'''Venus and Mercury Production'''


&amp;emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity.  The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy.  Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit.  There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it.  This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away.

&amp;emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with.  Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate.  The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time.


:'''Living at Venus and Mercury'''


&amp;emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design.  The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term.  If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term.


==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region.  It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury.


:'''Jupiter System Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km.  It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer.  As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size.  The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system.  

&amp;emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region.  Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years.  Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time.  Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations.

&amp;emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts.  This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics.  Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard.  Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones.  Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface.  The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases.  Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit.

&amp;emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits.  They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth.  They have negligible atmospheres.  All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days.  Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth.

&amp;emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds.  The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces.  Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D.  There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass.  Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones.  The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group.  So they don't represent new technical challenges.

&amp;emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon.  They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition.  Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions.  Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere.  Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant.  High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics.  Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility.


:'''Jupiter System Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules.  High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency.  Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet.  Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option.  Those sections are used when when close to the planet.  We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required.  The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts.


:'''Jupiter System Production'''


&amp;emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries.  The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water.  Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons.  Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat.


:'''Living in the Jupiter System'''


&amp;emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun.  Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface.  The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding.  Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it.


==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy.  This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around.
 

:'''Outer Giant Features'''


&amp;emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun.  These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6).  Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars).

&amp;emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''.  Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter.  Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter.  The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists.  All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems.  Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby.

&amp;emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth.  Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels.  Nuclear power may be more effective.  Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions.  Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge.  Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits.  Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips.

&amp;emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions.  Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics.  It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus.  Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System.

&amp;emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface.  Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher.  The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune.  All three have small amounts of trace gases.  Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s.  Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use.  Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible.  The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials.  The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; kg, or 2.34 times the Moon.  This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed.  Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them.  Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now.  

&amp;emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels.  Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy.  Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel.  Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research.  

&amp;emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants.  All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope.  The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time.


:'''Outer Giant Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient.  As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency.  Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed.  Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical.

&amp;emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power.  The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway.  The same shielding can protect from both sources.  Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors.  It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be.


:'''Outer Giant Production and Living'''


&amp;emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels.  Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question.


=='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations.  The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved.  This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time.  Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance.  

&amp;emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms.  We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work.  We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems.  Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order.  


==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Interstellar Features'''


&amp;emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity.  There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology.  Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun.

&amp;emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s.  This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s.  As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year &quot;Solar Neighborhood&quot;.  Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average.

&amp;emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube.  That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them.  We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System.

&amp;emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7).   Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is.

 
:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses.  The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization.  Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities.


:'''Interstellar Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types.  The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s).  An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source.  It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them.  When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it.  Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development.

&amp;emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer.  Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor.  Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for.  If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue.

&amp;emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination.  Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus.  Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations.  We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now.
  

:'''Interstellar Production'''


&amp;emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials.  So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them.  If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades.


==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Stellar System Features'''


&amp;emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years.  The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU.  This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them.

&amp;emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment.  In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid.  We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars.  Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits.

&amp;emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023.  59 of them are within 20 light years.  Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years.  Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies.  More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars.


:'''Exostellar Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section.  Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources.


:'''Exostellar Production'''


&amp;emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens.  Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars.  A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere.  However the details will depend on what resources are available.


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      <text bytes="206933" sha1="6dot4gbuifp98znh0z8jw5wpmd9ylsz" xml:space="preserve">{{DISPLAYTITLE:&lt;span style=&quot;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif&quot;;&quot;&gt;Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century&lt;/span&gt;}}


&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;&quot;&gt;

:'''Dani Eder,'''

:''The Seed Factory Project,''

:''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213''

:''email: danielravennest@gmail.com''


:'''Aug 2026'''


'''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more  detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set.


&lt;div class=&quot;nonumtoc&quot;&gt;{{TOCright}}&lt;/div&gt;


=='''0.0 - Summary'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige.  Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations.  Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high.  Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort.

&amp;emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it.  It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''.  Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials.  This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory.

&amp;emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting.  Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations.  Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant.  With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment.

&amp;emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns.  Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high.

&amp;emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs.  What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods.  This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea.

=='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige.  While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations.  They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology.


:'''Outdated Assumptions'''


&amp;emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''.  Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''.  The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''.  In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not.  In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the &quot;mission&quot; approach includes a number of assumptions:


* It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. 
* Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources.
* Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth.
* High cost limits mission mass.  So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions.


&amp;emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other.


:'''High Cost'''


&amp;emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control.  Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard.  Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain.  Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings.  

&amp;emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval.  The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses.  Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project.  This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work.  The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets.  The result is a few big &quot;can't fail&quot; projects.  Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence.  So projects must be conservative, slowing progress.


:'''Low Returns'''


&amp;emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended.  Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth.  Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them.

&amp;emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions.  High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies.  To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive.  Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms.  The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades.  Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly.  


:'''Focus on the Moon and Mars'''


&amp;emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth.  So it was a natural first destination for human exploration.  Venus and Mars are the closest major planets.  Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity.  However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere.  Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination.

&amp;emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish.  At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies.  For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay.

&amp;emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish.  But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth.  For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica.  At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other locations in space.  Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth.  The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth.  A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake.  They are large, interesting, and can be useful.  So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places.

&amp;emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above.  It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century.  It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System.  That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects.  Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth.

=='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources.  We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources.  Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with &quot;Smart Tools&quot; is key among these.  Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment.  
 

==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter.  Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere.  So they would only be used locally.  Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells.  These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year.

&amp;emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources.  Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood.  Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons.  So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System.

&amp;emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth.  They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier.


:'''Material Resources'''
  

&amp;emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance.  Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are &quot;on the way there&quot; in terms of solar distance.  In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids.  The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails.  The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction.

&amp;emsp;This has changed dramatically.  As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''.  The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them.  These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth.  Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count.  11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total.  The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']).  124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun.  Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth.  

&amp;emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars.  Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist.  They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done.  Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials.  Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects.

&amp;emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million.  This is about 780 times what was known in 1950.  The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating.

[[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]]  

&amp;emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System.  The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them.  The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers.  Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope.  So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances.  But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times.  So there are many more smaller objects still to be found.

&amp;emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''.  These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see.  This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes.  The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones.  As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones.   

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely.  Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&amp;commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''.  Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found.  Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System.  The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them.

[[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] 

&amp;emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones.  Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving.  We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability.  Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade.  As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made.  But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible.    


:'''Energy Resources'''


&amp;emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today.  That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it.  Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy.  This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies.

&amp;emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time.  For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight.  Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer.  Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets.  So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. 

&amp;emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts.  Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''.  Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System.  Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher.

&amp;emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and location.  These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind.  On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere.  The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways.  The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment.


:'''The Illusion of Scarcity'''


&amp;emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth.  The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface.  The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used.  Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer.

&amp;emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or a ratio of one part in 2 billion.  At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface.  If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches).  If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up.  Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed.  Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area.

&amp;emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow.  Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it.  In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet.  When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth.

&amp;emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible.  On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep.  Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through.  The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today.  Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used.

==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future.  These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed.  This is in addition to more standard existing technology.
  

:'''Seed Factories'''

 
&amp;emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially.  Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient.

&amp;emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''.  They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds.  Seed factories can improve in several ways:
 

* Making parts for additional copies of current equipment.
* Making new types of items not in the starter set, and 
* Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.).
  

&amp;emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory.  Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally.

&amp;emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made.  Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential.  The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources.  A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures.  Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere.

&amp;emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets.  These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process.  Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost.  It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better.


:'''Locations and MakerNets'''


&amp;emsp;When we refer to &quot;locations&quot; we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily.  On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area.  In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport.  Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects.

&amp;emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things.  The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks.  A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost.

&amp;emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network.  To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs.  So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials.


:'''Space Technologies'''


&amp;emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans.  These include:


* '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets.  Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. 
* '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them.  Production methods for them have also improved.
* '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology.


&amp;emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications.

&amp;emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed.  This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them.  MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations.  Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects.  Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer.

=='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''==
&amp;emsp;


&amp;emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects.  But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction.  Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods.

&amp;emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach.  The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details.  This is a work in progress.  It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design.  It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies.  We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed.  Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas.


:&lt;u&gt;'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''&lt;/u&gt;


&amp;emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige.  They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities.  Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space.  About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate.  So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult.

&amp;emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them.  If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets.  The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget.

&amp;emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space.  But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere.  If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too.  The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same.  

&amp;emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas.  These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them.  Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes.  In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use.  Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire.  

&amp;emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs.  They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology.  Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build.  They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate.  

&amp;emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth.  This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas.  The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used.  This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation.  These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. 

&amp;emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category.  Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel.  


:&lt;u&gt;'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''&lt;/u&gt;


&amp;emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth.  Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space.  There are several reasons for this: 
 

* Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth.

* Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption.  Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy  

* Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment.  

* There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created.  Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space.


&amp;emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment.

&amp;emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence.  Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations.  Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry.  Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations.

&amp;emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long.  So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment.  Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons.  Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed.

&amp;emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources.  So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth.  Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed.  Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society.


:&lt;u&gt;'''Program Advantages'''&lt;/u&gt;


&amp;emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages:


* It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving.  So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects.

* Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth.  It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space.  The combined result is much cheaper space projects.  Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable.

* In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be.  Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites.

* A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions.  A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly.  Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems.

* Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used.  Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth.  Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk.  Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions.  Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth.


==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects.  There are several reasons for this:


* The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources.  They will need different designs suited to them.

* We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones.  It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise.

* New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects.  This will not happen all at once.  Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable.

* We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when.  Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now.  Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches.


[[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]]  

&amp;emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1).  For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere.  The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones.  We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...).  

[[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]]  

&amp;emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases.  It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read.  Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant.  Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations.  For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet.  Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade.  The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below.  
 

==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond.  We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here.  So the first four phases apply to Earth.

&amp;emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades.  Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space.  It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves.

&amp;emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization.  Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth.  Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end.  The first four phases are:


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''&lt;/u&gt; - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&amp;D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space.  It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations.  The R&amp;D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for.  Some later R&amp;D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space.  Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&amp;D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order.  Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 1: Starter Locations &amp; Network'''&lt;/u&gt; - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process.  Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable.  Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces.  A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items.  New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements.  Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones.  This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations.  At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products.  At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets.  But they can still coordinate on projects and products.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; -  This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today.  They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult.  Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places.  New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments.  Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay.     

:&amp;emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space.  This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface.  We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down.  This enables many times more usable volume and materials.


==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth.  It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems which can make more such systems.  It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3.  This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations.  The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space.

&amp;emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical space, energy, and material resources beyond Earth.  Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment.  It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet.

&amp;emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations.  Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones.  The three later main phases are:


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies.  This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies.  The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant.

:&amp;emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places.  We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the &quot;debris belt&quot; of discarded space hardware.  Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces.  The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets.  Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun.  These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase.  Mars is part of this phase, but has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions.


:&amp;emsp;&lt;u&gt;'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''&lt;/u&gt; - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars.  This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time.  A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unkown.  We see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached.  For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go.  But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for.

=='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of self-improving production from starter sets (seed factories), so it deserves some details here.  More on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology.


&amp;emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Humans have always been able to use tools to make more tools.  This goes as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when hammerstones were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools.  In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products.

&amp;emsp;What is new about seed factories are starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more equipment to improve the set.  This can include supplying its own energy and raw materials to operate.  There are several ways to improve:


* &lt;u&gt;Replication&lt;/u&gt; - making copies of existing parts and equipment,
* &lt;u&gt;Diversification&lt;/u&gt; - making parts for new equipment not in the current set,
* &lt;u&gt;Quality&lt;/u&gt; - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and
* &lt;u&gt;Scaling&lt;/u&gt; - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones.


&amp;emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products.  This can include parts for new starter sets.  A starter set may not be able to copy most of its own parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment.  After following a planned series of upgrades, though, it can gain the ability to reproduce the original set.  

&amp;emsp;This approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory.  On Earth this reduces the cost to get started.  For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier.  With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work.  However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory.


:'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production'''


&amp;emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''.  First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment.  These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task.  For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine.  

&amp;emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory.  We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows.  But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy.  If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies.  This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring.

&amp;emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves.  At first they will lack all the right equipment.  Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or too rare locally.  Those need to be supplied from elsewhere.  Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating.

&amp;emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work.  With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required.  Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely.  So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis.  The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed.  What's important is they can work together to make desired products.
 

:'''Operations and Functions'''

 
&amp;emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes. A seed factory may not do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades.  They include:  


* &lt;u&gt;Control of operations&lt;/u&gt; - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment.
* &lt;u&gt;Supply power&lt;/u&gt; - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources.
* &lt;u&gt;Extract materials&lt;/u&gt; - mining and harvesting raw materials.
* &lt;u&gt;Process materials&lt;/u&gt; - converting raw materials to usable inventory.
* &lt;u&gt;Fabricate parts&lt;/u&gt; - use inventory stock to produce finished parts.
* &lt;u&gt;Storage and protection&lt;/u&gt; - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed.
* &lt;u&gt;Assemble elements&lt;/u&gt; - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products.
* &lt;u&gt;Grow organics&lt;/u&gt; - such as food and timber.  These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production.


&amp;emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines.  In developed areas these can come from outside sources.  In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult.  Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply.  Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials.  They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms.

&amp;emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out.  These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed.  Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself.  In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out.  It also needs enough supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items it can't make.

&amp;emsp;We don't expect to reach 100% self-sufficiency.  Some items will come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others.  We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology.  Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do.  Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control equipment remotely.


=='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&amp;D)'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The rest of this report describes our program phases and sub-phases in more detail.  It does not cover detailed plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet.  We also can't claim this is the best possible program.  We present it as a &lt;u&gt;possible&lt;/u&gt; path that leverages self-improving production methods.  Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help.  Where next steps have been identified, we note them here, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents.

&amp;emsp;This first R&amp;D phase is numbered zero because it is preparation to make the later phases possible.  The sub-phases would be numbered according to the later phases the work applies to.  So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&amp;D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations.


:'''R&amp;D Goals'''


&amp;emsp;Our program needs research and development first because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement.  This will need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space.  So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs.  Since R&amp;D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones.  Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills.

&amp;emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones.  Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&amp;D work, but can start with existing ones.  Testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments than building simulators.  So some later R&amp;D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space.


:'''Production by R&amp;D Phase'''


&amp;emsp;Despite not being the main goal, some production will happen in the course of setting up R&amp;D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows.  But these are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use.

&amp;emsp;Some of the equipment built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&amp;D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process.  Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&amp;D can get sold or traded to fund further R&amp;D work.  Feedback from such items can help improve the designs. 

&amp;emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful.  So earlier prototypes should last longer than the time needed to test them.  Ones with remaining useful lives can be delivered to other locations for later phases and projects.  Lastly, the R&amp;D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment.  These can be used directly in later phases.  


:'''Sharing Our Results'''


&amp;emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people.  We plan to open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them.  Individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally.

&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs.  We would also make such new developments available for others to use.  An example is full resource accounting, which tracks all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money.  In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes.  If possible they should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. 


:'''R&amp;D Tasks and Projects'''


&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it.  Items used by  multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for.  Later phases start at different times.  So the R&amp;D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed.

&amp;emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase.  So we expect R&amp;D work will continue for the whole life of our program.  In addition to internal R&amp;D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program.  So part of the R&amp;D phase is staying current with outside developments so improved designs and methods can be developed later.  The growth of locations, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization.  Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements.  All of these are reasons to continue the R&amp;D process.

&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D work is also grouped into individual projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use.  So far we have started the Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what is needed for Phase 1 locations and networks.

&amp;emsp;Future R&amp;D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs.  Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not identified specific ones to start yet.  There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization.  We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge.


=='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Once the R&amp;D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases.  But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills.  Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use.  So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences.

&amp;emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call &quot;Moderate&quot;.  This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others environment conditions.  We list them in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult.  Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live.  Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities.  These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started.  So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in.  The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation.  They are 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial.


==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop networks among local sites and different locations.  Network members can trade physical items as needed, and coordinate their work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places.

&amp;emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases.  This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available.  (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests.  They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects.  (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site.


:'''Starting Points'''
 

&amp;emsp;Projects in general need tools, resources, energy, and knowledge to complete, or &quot;TREK&quot; for short.  Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&amp;D work.  To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed.

&amp;emsp;An early project example is setting up for a hobby or home improvement.  Such projects don't have to be completed all at once.  They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more as skills accumulate.  Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves.  If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed.  Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time.  So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged.

&amp;emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services.  Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive.  This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups.  Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items.  They can be housed in space they already have, or can build or rent without too much difficulty.  
  
&amp;emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative.  Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole is intended to grow and improve.


:'''Later Improvements'''


&amp;emsp;Improvements can come new R&amp;D work. personal experience, more copies existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales.  As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell.  Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food.

&amp;emsp;The R&amp;D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment.  These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as packaged sets.  Later projects can then start self-improving faster.  A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built.

&amp;emsp;Examples of future R&amp;D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets.  The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator.  Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed.  That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost.  Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance.  Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions.


==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation.  


:'''Evolution'''


&amp;emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment.  Some sites will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity.  This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network.  The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets.

&amp;emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well.  This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment.  Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn.  Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need.  A comprehensive large node (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common.  So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places.

&amp;emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries.  For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first.  So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate.


:'''Ownership'''


&amp;emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity.  The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs.  The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills.  

&amp;emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people.  They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves.  To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant.  If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference.  Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor.  But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment.  Rather they just work less time or more efficiently.

&amp;emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting.  New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production.  They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries.  Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares.  Either way they have more security as owners.


==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production capacity by additional growth in scale and specialization.  Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2.  


:'''Growth and Specialization'''


&amp;emsp;Industrial nodes can evolve from distributed small business or commercial nodes by continuing self-improvement and growth.  They can also be built as new nodes of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network.  In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds.  Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding.

&amp;emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products.  For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal.  The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big location that can satisfy all of them.

&amp;emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers.  The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide.  Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase.

&amp;emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition.  Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case.  Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else.  In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out.  Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products.

&amp;emsp;The overall network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs.  So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do.  This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between.  It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed.

&amp;emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types.  A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have.  If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation.


=='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

:'''Goal'''


&amp;emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development.  The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle.  This needs more physical resources and energy.  But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress.


:'''Method'''


&amp;emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems.  These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources.  Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance.  Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water.  Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster.  Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials.


:'''New Locations'''  


&amp;emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations.  So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments.  New designs and processes will be needed for such areas.  So a new program phase with added R&amp;D is started.

&amp;emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line.  Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified.  We define the &quot;normal&quot; (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live.  Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range.

&amp;emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category.  Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there.  More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. 

&amp;emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state.  So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact.  An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches.  The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact.  But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects.

&amp;emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases.  These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available.  So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do.  Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy.  A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity.  

&amp;emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services are for local use.  Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically.  Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones.  The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth.


==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter.  This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint.  The &quot;Difficult&quot; environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter.  10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is.  The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are:


&amp;emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs.  The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C).  A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both.  The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C).  Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C.  The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes.  The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth.

&amp;emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers.  Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination.  Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster.  The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year.  Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or &lt;0.185  and &gt;3.15 meters/year.  The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall.  Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay.

&amp;emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa).  For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi).  The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude)  Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level).  These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters.  Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are.  Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range.

&amp;emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa).  These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult.  For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads.  The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa.  Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa.  The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock.  High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse.  The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths).  Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters

&amp;emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2.  Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable.  Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy.  Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are.

&amp;emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce.  Biofuels may be produced sustainably.  Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation.  They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply.

&amp;emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity.  If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines.  High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult.  The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2.  Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere.

&amp;emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments.  On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions.  Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants.  High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items.

&amp;emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year.  Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition.  But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding.  Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below.  In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year.

&amp;emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr.  People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects.  Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population.

&amp;emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult.  Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation.  Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult.  Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level.  Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs.

&amp;emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms).  Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity.  There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition.

&amp;emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people.  There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people.  The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth.  This parameter becomes more important in space.  The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms.  That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance.

&amp;emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people.  Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people.  High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials.  Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less.  Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel.  The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach.  Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days.

&amp;emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years.  People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time.  Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover.  The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable.  It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time.  In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services.

&amp;emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan.  Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth.  Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years.  Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations.

&amp;emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg).  For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity.  Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy.  High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation.

&amp;emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates.  Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas.  Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be.  Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods.  It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits.


&amp;emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development.  For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled.  Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult.  It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&amp;D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with.


==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range.  This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in.  The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&amp;D to develop them.  We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization.  The parameter values are:


&amp;emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C).  The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts.

&amp;emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert.  The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests.

&amp;emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters.  These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground.

&amp;emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa.  These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock.

&amp;emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface.  High values of energy supply are not a difficulty.

&amp;emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur.

&amp;emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (&gt;25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically.

&amp;emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip.  This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable.

&amp;emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach.  This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation.

&amp;emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations.

&amp;emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg.  This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used.


=='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

[[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]]

:'''Goals'''


&amp;emsp;The main goals of the later phases are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems that can't be handled any other way.  

&amp;emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating space station, made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top.  This would heat a fluid to produce power, since solar cells were not well developed at the time.  We show it as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time.  Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 70 years in the future.  Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed.


:'''Approach'''


&amp;emsp;Sections 8, 9, and 10 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order.  Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments.  Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space.  Planetary system locations (Phase 5) share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth.  Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from.  The local environments are also different on and around these bodies.  

&amp;emsp;We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times, but overlap and continue in parallel once started.  Phase 6 (Interstellar) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance.  It is expected to be last in time.  It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used.  So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work.


:'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry'''
 

&amp;emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return.  So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry.  According to UN records there were over 8200 satellites orbiting the Earth at the start of 2022.  Of these, about 4850 were active.  There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent to the Moon and beyond, some of which are still operating.  The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''.  The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving.  

&amp;emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $386 billion as of 2021, split between government and private projects.  But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth.  This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology.  In turn that should lower costs.  

&amp;emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity.  Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them.  So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations.  What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale.  '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and well over a thousand '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space.  Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level.  

&amp;emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use.  The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first.  Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total.  Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued.  The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight.  

&amp;emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life.  This adds to the cost of operating in space.  Refueling, maintenance, and repair of equipment in space is very limited.  New production, upgrades, and recycling is limited to non-existent.  Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated.  In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism.  


:'''Long-Term Sustainability'''


&amp;emsp;As of 2021 fossil fuels supplied about 77% of global primary energy.  Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization.  But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects.  They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it.

&amp;emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat.  Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea.  Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun.  The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere.  Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is.

&amp;emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant low-grade sources.  New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead.  These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract.  However, high-grade ores are in limited supply.  If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out.  So the current state of civilization is unsustainable.  It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both.  

&amp;emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of full development.  Such development demands even more energy and materials.  It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them.  A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster.  Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes.  This would have less impact on Earth, but it does not reduce it to zero.  


:'''Civilization-Level Risks'''


&amp;emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks.  One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops.  This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels.  Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting.  Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost.  Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release.

&amp;emsp;Another risk is from asteroids.  Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage.  There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does.  So it is worth trying to reduce the risks.  Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent.

&amp;emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two.  Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war.  It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible.  Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery.


==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space.  If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores.

&amp;emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground.  Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference.  The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather.  So the energy to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher.

&amp;emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids.  These have been &quot;pre-mined&quot; in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose.  Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high.  The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry.  The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above.


:'''Lowering Space Operations Cost'''


&amp;emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits.  But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics.  For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much.  Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency.  Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much.  This shows how much room there is for improvement.  

&amp;emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced.  Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them.  Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these.  As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need.

&amp;emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use.  This is a major contributor to high costs.  Improved designs can allow reuse and repair.  Conventional rockets are also inefficient.  They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy.  The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%.  Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. 

&amp;emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%.  The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio.  If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down.  

&amp;emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate.  The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there.  So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise.  The combination of all these methods would get much closer to &quot;potato cost&quot;.


:'''Space Development Process'''


&amp;emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth.  In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ.  Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated.  So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials.  A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock.

&amp;emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production.  Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth.  Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence.  

&amp;emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location.  So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth.  As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally.  Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets.  These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions.

&amp;emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare.  Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth.  By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden.  This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost.

&amp;emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it.


:'''General Space Environment Features'''


&amp;emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits.  They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun.  The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce.

&amp;emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions.  So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases.  We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth.  Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity.

&amp;emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B).  The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters.  Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them.  The general ranges are noted here.  Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below.  Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''.


* '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature.  It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C).  Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings.  Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature.

* '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth.  But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice.  Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the &quot;frost line&quot; around 3 AU, where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum.

* '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies.  Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres.

* '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength.  Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids.  It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets.

* '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; beyond Neptune.  Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this.  Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters.  Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy.

:&amp;emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies.  Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon.  Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors.

* '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets.  Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it.  Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure.

* '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth.  Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset.

:&amp;emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields.  Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons.  On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest.  Transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding.  Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks.

* '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System.  Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays.  On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet.

* '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region.  It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface.  Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades.

* '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit.  Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station.  With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years.

* '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location.  This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit.  It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low.  More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. 


==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F.  We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions.  Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions.  The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one.  They would develop in parallel once started.  

&amp;emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them.  We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future.  So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon.


:'''Low Orbit Features'''


&amp;emsp;Earth orbits form a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant.  We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude.  Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases.  Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''.

&amp;emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reduceing available energy.  The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side.  Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time from the Earth's surface is fairly short.  Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult.  But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time.  So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite.  This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay.

&amp;emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbits and extend past them to high orbits.  Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels.  So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially.

&amp;emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit.  They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages.  The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small.  Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting.  Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial.  Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below.  Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring.  Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface.  Government uses include research, such as the Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security.

&amp;emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, and payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations.  Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets.  It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up.  We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others.

&amp;emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up.  We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. 


:'''Transport from Earth'''


&amp;emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported.  Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses.  As noted in section 8.1,  self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites.

&amp;emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency.  They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth, neither of which is changing.  A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost.  But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&amp;D cost in the face of existing rocket systems.  There are many possible launch technologies.  See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list.  We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities.  

[[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]]


&amp;emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1).  They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware.  This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices.

&amp;emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces.  These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food.  Outdoor barrels measured in km rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures.  But they are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people.  Those would use other kinds of transportation.  Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on the mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch.  

&amp;emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient.  This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere.  The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods.  Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets.

&amp;emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets.  The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate.  It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times.  The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times.  Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch.  The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets.  A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit.  There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth.


&amp;emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example.  Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part.  Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges.  Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit.  A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option.

&amp;emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&amp;D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built.  Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step.  It would then be supplemented with a low R&amp;D system like a hypersonic gun.  Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&amp;D can then make economic sense.


:'''Mining and Production'''


&amp;emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials.  That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time.  But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items.  For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems.  The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures.  Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there.

&amp;emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing.  At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to &quot;scoop mine&quot; the upper atmosphere.  A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor.  A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow.  This makes up for drag from the scoop.  The remaining air is stored in tanks.

&amp;emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot.  The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life.  As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end.

&amp;emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit.  It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's &quot;debris belt&quot;.  This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources.  The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products.  Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse.

&amp;emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines.  The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise.  Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit.  The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere.  It can be efficiently delivered &quot;downhill&quot; using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''.  Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere.


==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''High Orbit Features'''


&amp;emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''.  For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable.  This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape.  That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as you increase distance.

&amp;emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit.  It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km.  Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface.  Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations.

&amp;emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon.  Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold Cosmic Background, but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat.  Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long.  Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy.

&amp;emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data.  The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment.  Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state.  The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used.  This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation.  So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion.  Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts.

&amp;emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up.  One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''.  These are stable regions, but not singular points.  The Sun's gravity and the Moon's orbit not being circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun cause some motion around the points.

&amp;emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region.  Future activity can include supplying fuel and other supplies from space sources back to low orbit and to early interplanetary locations.  These and other possible future activities depend on bringing costs down to affordable levels.  This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels.

&amp;emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with.  If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used.  They let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum.  This would help cool the planet.  Large solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead.  This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit.  An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts.

&amp;emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today.  The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 250 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling.  With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources can make civilization sustainable for a very long time.


:'''Transport from Other Orbits'''


&amp;emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials.  So they must be imported from elsewhere.  Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then more chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits.  Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years.

&amp;emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html NREL Efficiency Chart]''').  The engines are low thrust, which would expose people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts.  So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets.  Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, the penalty for less efficient transport can be reduced.

&amp;emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1) are not time- or radiation-sensitive.  They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips.  Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period.  Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed.

&amp;emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults.  Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life.  If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high.  From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing.  There are about five major &quot;ore types&quot; of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic.  Using all of them would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products.


:'''High Orbit Production'''


&amp;emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products.  High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/year.  It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors.  Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather.  Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''.  Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, and active refrigeration if needed.

&amp;emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses.  Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit.  The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials.  The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit.  Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. 

&amp;emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment.  This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection.  Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection.  Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit.  Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling.  To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth.

&amp;emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material.  This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors.  Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants.  This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon.  They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust.  Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies.

&amp;emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars.  They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy.  A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes.

&amp;emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth.  Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space.  Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts.  Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools.  New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. 

&amp;emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds.  These are are very high strength-to-weight.  Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction.  

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region.  Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels.  These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels.  '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures.  Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially.  They are used in all kinds of industrial processes such as furnaces and cooling systems for thermal processing of materials.

&amp;emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth.  The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth.  Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight.  Importing them is easier than trying to make them.


:'''Living in High Orbit'''
   

&amp;emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry.  But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth.  Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once.  The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities.

&amp;emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time.  Growth can be linear or in layers, like an onion.  Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each.  The ring can be spun for artificial gravity.  Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels.

&amp;emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells over compartments outside the previous ones.  The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding.  Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment.  Then comes living quarters and a central open space.  The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity.  As new layers are added, items are moved outwards to fill the larger space.  Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed.


==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Inner Interplanetary Features'''


&amp;emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and go around the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times.  They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun to 1.8 AU.  This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts.  It excludes Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, and orbits around them.

&amp;emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance.  Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones.  Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used.  These save fuel, but usually require extra time.

&amp;emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding.  Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite.  The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side.  

&amp;emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are nearly 32,000 known NEOs as of April 2023, and the number is currently increasing by 10% a year.  There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average.  The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth.  So total material resources in this region is large.

&amp;emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies.  Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits.  Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time.  The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions.  

&amp;emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time.  About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far.  Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region.  They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2).  Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs.  About 75% of discovered  asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size.  This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time.  30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition.  This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion.  A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces.  

&amp;emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling.  Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed.  As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining.  Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally.


:'''Inner Interplanetary Transport'''


&amp;emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs.  They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant.  This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed.  Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion.

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions.  Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use.  This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit.

&amp;emsp;Over time, a network of &quot;transit habitats&quot; can be built up.  These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations.  They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles.  They can self-supply from nearby asteroids.  This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region.

&amp;emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]'''  can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes.  The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing.  The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use.  Natural asteroids, production &quot;slag&quot; (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose.  If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal.

&amp;emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another.  Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time.  Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space.


:'''Inner Interplanetary Production'''


&amp;emsp;Global primary energy consumption on Earth was 18 TeraWatts in 2021.  This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials.  So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average.  We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power.  That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits.

&amp;emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery.  Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ.  With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels.  Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios.  They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it.

&amp;emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space.  This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones.  As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids.  These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with.

&amp;emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts.  This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain civilization.


:'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit'''


&amp;emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies.  The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms.  In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time.

&amp;emsp;It isn't yet clear if a &quot;hunter-gatherer&quot; or &quot;sedentary&quot; lifestyle would be more effective.  The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the it stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it.  Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time.  So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy.


==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials.


:'''Mid-Interplanetary Features'''

[[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]]


&amp;emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1).  As of 2023 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.18 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 5600 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 12,500 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet.  It does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (Section 9.4).

&amp;emsp;There are around 450 known comets in the region.  The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU.  So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find.  Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds.  So water is the most common compound of two elements.  Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of it.

&amp;emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects.  Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth.  Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones.  Travel time from Earth is months to years on minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people.  Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including a relay to avoid a direct path through the Sun.

&amp;emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year.  About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia.  Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history.  Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth.  So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them.  The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future.  Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable mining and transport to earlier locations as early activities.  Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation.  When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation.  There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization.


:'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport'''


&amp;emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region.  The main difference is adding reflectors to solar panels to make up for the lower solar intensity.  Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits.  If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, they also don't need propellant.  Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency.


:'''Mid-Interplanetary Production'''


&amp;emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly.  In the outer regions, solar panels benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity.  Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats.  Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather.  Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region.  It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out.  The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials.

&amp;emsp;Asteroids are covered in a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes.  This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction.  In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be &quot;gravel piles&quot;, with no solid central body.  Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations.  So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance.  Alternately the mining area or the whole asteroid can be covered to contain loose material.

&amp;emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds.  These can be extracted separately by heating.  Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs to factories for later production steps.  For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid, keeping gas and dust contained.  Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed.  The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter.
 

==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials.


:'''Outer Interplanetary Features'''


&amp;emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis.  The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded.  They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}.  As of 2023 there are over 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects.  These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also thousands of known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 3800 in this region.  Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''.  The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them.  There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered.  

&amp;emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values.  This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun.  Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from 160 to 50K for black objects, and lower for lighter ones.  Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours.

&amp;emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon.  With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula.  So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals.  The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the smaller ones 'minor planets'.


:'''Outer Interplanetary Activities'''


&amp;emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology.  Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions.  When  other activities would start and what they will be is undertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today.  The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun.  So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them.  

&amp;emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods.  The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels.  If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, they can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available.  If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced.

&amp;emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of.  Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance.  So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions.  Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility.  It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region.

&amp;emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first.  Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts.  Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories.  If there is enough demand, a &quot;pipeline&quot; of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end.  The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use.  Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule.  

&amp;emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation.  We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop.


==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets.  This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'.


:'''Distant Orbit Features'''


&amp;emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's dominance at about 100,000 AU.  As of 2023 there are about 1200 known asteroids and comets in the region.  It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a similar number of 
'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets.

&amp;emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''.  For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable.  This is roughly 100,000 AU.  The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence.  Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years.  Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass.  There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region.

&amp;emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun.  So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date.  We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve.  Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit.

&amp;emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K.  Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries.  Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years.  


:'''Distant Orbit Activities'''


&amp;emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor.  So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future.  When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use.  One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region.  Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens.

&amp;emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion.  Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up.  Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology.  Transport that uses it remains speculative at present.  Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production.  Production must remain speculative at present.


=='''9.0 - Planetary System Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other.  Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each.  First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity.  Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets.

&amp;emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments.  As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment.  So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time.


==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System.  It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report.  We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3.  The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it.  We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets.


:'''Lunar Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km .  These are close enough to be relatively stable.  Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable.  The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1).  The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']).

&amp;emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same.  Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle.  Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; by location.

&amp;emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth.  So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's.  Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them.  Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s.  Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area.  Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area.

[[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map.  Near side on left, far side on right.]]

&amp;emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass.  So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center.  Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars.  Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same.  

&amp;emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us.  It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface.  So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time.  The two hemispheres are called the &quot;near&quot; and &quot;far&quot; sides.  There is no &quot;dark&quot; side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day.  

&amp;emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region.  Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits.  Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower.  Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels.  This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources.  Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit.  This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth.

&amp;emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''.  This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts.  Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements.

&amp;emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere.  With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes.  The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times.  It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects.  There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport.  Science and exploration activities are already in progress.  Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it.  The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits.  For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon.  It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits.    

&amp;emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits.  The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon.  It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020.  Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs.  In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment.

&amp;emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility.  If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit.  Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it.  There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable.  So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space.


:'''Lunar Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure.  They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface.  At first, all propellants would come from Earth.  Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth.  Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water.  These can be reformed chemically to CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; and O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and fully replace Earth supplies.  How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. 

&amp;emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods.  As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit.  Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing.  High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach.  Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location.  
 
&amp;emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers.  These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit.  Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon.  If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel.  A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude.  It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls.

&amp;emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it.  Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible.  Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit.  If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change.  If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency.

&amp;emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem.  A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding.  With these people can live comfortably and safely.  They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time.  Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times.


:'''Lunar Production'''


&amp;emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo.  But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere.  A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth.  Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth.  So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves.

&amp;emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support.  These don't need a lot of complex equipment.  More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and  '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith.  Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export.  As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease.

&amp;emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production.  Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power.  However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable.  So other energy sources may be useful.

&amp;emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium.  The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth).  Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon.  Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg.  So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore.

&amp;emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power.  Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation.  The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night.


:'''Living in Lunar Locations'''


&amp;emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity.  An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters.  Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time.

&amp;emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0.  We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity.  So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research.  Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface.  People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control.

&amp;emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding.  One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface.  Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&amp;D is needed to figure out which work best.


==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there.  It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies.  So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between.


:'''Mars Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes  up to 340,000 km (100 radii).  Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance.  Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth.  Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth).  Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin.

&amp;emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun.  Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding.

&amp;emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region.  Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape.  This ratio holds for orbits around any body.  Escape energy is 20% that of Earth.  Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region.  Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or 97% of Earth's land area.  Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years.  Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used.  When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way.

&amp;emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius.  They have mean diameters of  22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes.  They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining.  This is a significant orbital resource.  They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition.

[[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]]

&amp;emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases.  Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin.  The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth.  Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles.  Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season.  Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass.

&amp;emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost.  It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4).  The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control.  Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis.  Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids.  

&amp;emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people.  Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit.  This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available.

&amp;emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy.  Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this.  Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions.  So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth.


:'''Mars Transport'''


&amp;emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing.  To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits.  These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists.  Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit.

&amp;emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit.  The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity.  At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new &quot;Mars Transfer Station&quot;, and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc.  They also establish a greenhouse to produce food.  When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more.

&amp;emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered.  Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves.  The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip.  Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs.

&amp;emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit.  The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids.  Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface.

&amp;emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface.  In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that.  These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it.  Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems.

&amp;emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up.  Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way.  To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes.  Mixed use of both systems is also possible.  It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient.  In the long run something better would be preferred.


:'''Mars Production'''


&amp;emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment.  Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed.  This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production.  The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries.

&amp;emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions.  Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop.  Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first.


:'''Living in Mars Locations'''


&amp;emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both.  There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources.  Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters.  Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things.  Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats.

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth.  Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get.  When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense.  Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier.

&amp;emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors.  Internal pressure would be much higher than outside.  So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground.  Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass.  These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection.  


==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars.  They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot.  There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with.


:'''Venus and Mercury Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively.  Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons.  So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them.  Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU.

&amp;emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin.  The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect.  Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion.  A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period.  Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes.

&amp;emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars.  Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury.  Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury.  Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively.

&amp;emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space.  The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases.  While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude.  Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S.  Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures.  Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility.  In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable.  Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation.  In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed.

&amp;emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible.  There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially.  If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry.

&amp;emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters.  This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers.  These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively.  If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively.  So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun.


:'''Venus and Mercury Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them.  Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently.  Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun.  Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions.  The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant.  But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow.

&amp;emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2.  This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail.  This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction.  This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth.  A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines.  


:'''Venus and Mercury Production'''


&amp;emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity.  The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy.  Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit.  There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it.  This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away.

&amp;emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with.  Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate.  The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time.


:'''Living at Venus and Mercury'''


&amp;emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design.  The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term.  If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term.


==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region.  It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury.


:'''Jupiter System Features'''


&amp;emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km.  It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer.  As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size.  The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system.  

&amp;emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region.  Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years.  Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time.  Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations.

&amp;emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts.  This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics.  Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard.  Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones.  Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface.  The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases.  Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit.

&amp;emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits.  They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth.  They have negligible atmospheres.  All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days.  Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth.

&amp;emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds.  The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces.  Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D.  There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass.  Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones.  The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group.  So they don't represent new technical challenges.

&amp;emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon.  They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition.  Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions.  Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere.  Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant.  High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics.  Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility.


:'''Jupiter System Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules.  High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency.  Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet.  Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option.  Those sections are used when when close to the planet.  We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required.  The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts.


:'''Jupiter System Production'''


&amp;emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries.  The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water.  Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons.  Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat.


:'''Living in the Jupiter System'''


&amp;emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun.  Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface.  The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding.  Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it.


==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy.  This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around.
 

:'''Outer Giant Features'''


&amp;emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun.  These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6).  Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars).

&amp;emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''.  Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter.  Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter.  The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists.  All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems.  Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby.

&amp;emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth.  Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels.  Nuclear power may be more effective.  Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions.  Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge.  Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits.  Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips.

&amp;emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions.  Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics.  It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus.  Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System.

&amp;emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface.  Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher.  The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune.  All three have small amounts of trace gases.  Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s.  Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use.  Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible.  The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials.  The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; kg, or 2.34 times the Moon.  This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed.  Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them.  Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now.  

&amp;emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels.  Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy.  Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel.  Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research.  

&amp;emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants.  All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope.  The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time.


:'''Outer Giant Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient.  As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency.  Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed.  Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical.

&amp;emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power.  The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway.  The same shielding can protect from both sources.  Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors.  It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be.


:'''Outer Giant Production and Living'''


&amp;emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels.  Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question.


=='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''==
&amp;emsp;

&amp;emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations.  The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved.  This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time.  Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance.  

&amp;emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms.  We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work.  We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems.  Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order.  


==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Interstellar Features'''


&amp;emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity.  There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology.  Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun.

&amp;emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s.  This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s.  As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year &quot;Solar Neighborhood&quot;.  Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average.

&amp;emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube.  That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them.  We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System.

&amp;emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7).   Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is.

 
:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses.  The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization.  Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities.


:'''Interstellar Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types.  The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s).  An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source.  It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them.  When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it.  Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development.

&amp;emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer.  Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor.  Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for.  If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue.

&amp;emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination.  Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus.  Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations.  We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now.
  

:'''Interstellar Production'''


&amp;emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials.  So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them.  If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades.


==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''===
&amp;emsp;

:'''Stellar System Features'''


&amp;emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years.  The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU.  This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them.

&amp;emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment.  In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid.  We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars.  Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits.

&amp;emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023.  59 of them are within 20 light years.  Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years.  Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks.


:'''Economic Uses'''


&amp;emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies.  More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars.


:'''Exostellar Transport'''


&amp;emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section.  Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources.


:'''Exostellar Production'''


&amp;emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens.  Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars.  A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere.  However the details will depend on what resources are available.


&lt;/div&gt;</text>
      <sha1>6dot4gbuifp98znh0z8jw5wpmd9ylsz</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Peugeot/VIN Codes</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>367360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662518</id>
      <parentid>4618959</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:32:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JustTheFacts33</username>
        <id>3434282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Peugeot's VIN format */</comment>
      <origin>4662518</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9633" sha1="16o428vzqyx4nhy0ipbgg6il9k6a4ol" xml:space="preserve">{{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}}

== Peugeot's VIN format ==

Only for models produced in 2009 or later, also valid for Citroens

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Position
!Sample
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Description
|-
|1
|V
|rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[#Peugeot WMIs|WMI]]
|rowspan=2|[[#Country of origin|Country of origin]]
|-
|2
|F
|-
|3
|3
|[[#Manufacturer|Manufacturer]]
|-
|4
|8
|rowspan=&quot;6&quot;|[[#Vehicle Descriptor Section|VDS]]
|[[#Model Line|Model Line]]
|-
|5
|D
|[[#Body Type|Body Type]]
|-
|6
|R
|rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[#Engine Type|Engine Type]]
|-
|7
|H
|-
|8
|R
|-
|9
|H
|[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check Digit]]
|-
|10
|B
|rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|[[#Vehicle Identifier Section|VIS]]
|[[#Manufacturing Year (position 10)|Production Year]]
|-
|11
|L
|[[#Assembly Plant (position 11)|Manufacturing Plant Code]]
|-
|12
|0
|rowspan=6|Sequential Number
|-
|13
|6
|-
|14
|7
|-
|15
|4
|-
|16
|6
|-
|17
|2
|}

==Peugeot WMIs (positions 1-3) ==
* VF3 = Peugeot France (passenger vehicle)
* VGA = Peugeot France (motorcycle)
* VR3 = Peugeot France (passenger vehicle) (under Stellantis)
* VS8 = Peugeot Spain
* LDC = Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën (China)
* PNA = Peugeot (Naza - Malaysia)
* SDB = Peugeot UK (formerly Talbot)
* 8AD = Peugeot Argentina
* 8AE = Peugeot Argentina van
* 8GD = Peugeot Chile (Automotores Franco Chilena)
* 936 = Peugeot Brazil
* 9V8 = Peugeot Uruguay (Nordex)
* NAA = Iran Khodro

===Country of origin (positions 1-2)===
* VF = France
* VG = France
* VR = France
* VS = Spain
* L = China
* PN = Malaysia
* SD = United Kingdom
* 8A = Argentina
* 8G = Chile
* 93 = Brazil
* 9V = Uruguay
* NA = Iran

===Manufacturer (position 3)===
* 3 = Peugeot SA, France
* 6 = Peugeot Brazil
* 8 = Peugeot SA, Spain
* 8 = Peugeot made by Nordex in Uruguay
* A = Naza, Malaysia
* A = Iran Khodro, Iran
* B = Peugeot UK (formerly Talbot)
* C = Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën (China)
* D, E = Peugeot Latin America

==Vehicle Descriptor Section==
===Model Line (and Transmission '90-'92) (position 4)===
* A = Peugeot 604
* B = Peugeot 505 ('81-'89)
* B = Peugeot 505 w/5-spd. manual ('90-'92)
* C = Peugeot 504
* C = Peugeot 505 w/4-spd. automatic ('90-'92)
* D = Peugeot 405 ('89)
* D = Peugeot 405 w/5-spd. manual ('90-'92)
* E = Peugeot 405 w/4-spd. automatic ('90-'92)

* 2 = Peugeot 206
* 8 = Peugeot 406/508
* 6 = Peugeot 407
* 9 = Peugeot 308
* 4 = Peugeot 308
* B = Peugeot Expert
* C = Peugeot 208
* D = Peugeot 301
* 3 = Peugeot 307 
* 7 = Peugeot 306 / Partner
* U = Peugeot 2008
* M = Peugeot 3008

===Body Style (position 5) 1981-1989===
* A = 4-door sedan 
* D = Station wagon 
* F = Station wagon 3-row ('88-'89 SW8)
* Y = Station wagon Taxi
* Z = 4-door sedan Taxi

===Engine (position 5) 1990-1992===
* A = XU9J2 1.9-liter SOHC 8v gas 4-cyl. ('90-'92 405 DL, S) Federal emissions
* B = XU9J4 1.9-liter DOHC 16v gas 4-cyl. ('91-'92 405 Mi16) Federal emissions
* C = XU9J2 1.9-liter SOHC 8v gas 4-cyl. ('90-'92 405 DL, S) California emissions
* D = XU9J4 1.9-liter DOHC 16v gas 4-cyl. ('91-'92 405 Mi16) California emissions
* E = N9TEA 2.2-liter (2155cc) OHC turbo intercooled gas 4-cyl. w/electronically controlled wastegate ('91 505)
* F = ZDJL 2.2-liter (2165cc) OHC gas 4-cyl. ('91-'92 505)

===Engine (position 6) 1981-1989===
* 1 = XN6 2.0-liter OHV gas 4-cyl. ('81-'87 505)
* 1 = XU9J2 1.9-liter SOHC 8v gas 4-cyl. ('89 405 DL, S)
* 2 = XD2 2.3-liter OHV diesel 4-cyl. ('81-'83 505, '81-'82 504)
* 2 = XU9J4 1.9-liter DOHC 16v gas 4-cyl. ('89 405 Mi16)
* 4 = XD2S 2.3-liter OHV turbodiesel 4-cyl. ('81-'85 505, '82-'84 604)
* 5 = N9T 2.2-liter (2155cc) OHC turbo gas 4-cyl. ('85 505)
* 6 = XD3T 2.5-liter OHV turbodiesel 4-cyl. ('85-'87 505) 
* 7 = N9TE 2.2-liter (2155cc) OHC turbo intercooled gas 4-cyl. ('86-'87 505)
* 7 = N9TEA 2.2-liter (2155cc) OHC turbo intercooled gas 4-cyl. w/electronically controlled wastegate ('88-'89 505)
* 8 = ZDJL 2.2-liter (2165cc) OHC gas 4-cyl. ('87-'89 505)
* 9 = ZN3J 2.8-liter OHC gas 90° PRV V6 ('87-'89 505)

===Body Style (position 6) 1990-1992===
* B = 505 w/5-spd. manual
* C = 505 w/4-spd. automatic
* D = 405 w/5-spd. manual
* E = 405 w/4-spd. automatic

===Restraint System (position 7)===
* 1 = Active (manual) Seat Belts
* 2 = Passive fixed point Seat Belts (505)
* 3 = Passive motorized Seat Belts (405)

===Series (and Transmission '81-'89) (position 8)===
* 2 = 604 turbodiesel w/manual trans. ('84)
* 2 (w/6 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S turbodiesel w/manual trans. ('86)
* 5 = 504 w/manual trans. ('81-'82)
* 5 = 505 (base model) w/manual trans. ('81-'83)
* 5 = 505 GL w/manual trans. ('84-'85)
* 5 (w/5 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo w/manual trans. ('85)
* 5 (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GL w/manual trans. ('86)
* 5 (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GL Turbo w/manual trans. ('86)
* 6 = 505 S, STI w/manual trans. ('81-'85)
* 6 (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S w/manual trans. ('86)
* 6 (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo w/man. trans. ('86)
* 9 (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STI w/manual trans. ('86)
* A = 505 GL wagon turbodiesel w/auto. trans. ('84-'85)
* B = 505 S wagon turbodiesel w/auto. trans. ('84-'85)
* E = 504 w/auto. trans. ('81-'82)
* E = 505 (base model) w/auto. trans. ('81-'83)
* E = 505 GL w/auto. trans. ('84-'85)
* F = 505 S, STI w/auto. trans. ('81-'85)
* F = 604 turbodiesel w/auto. trans. ('84)
* R (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STI w/auto. trans. ('86)
* Y (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S w/auto. trans. ('86)
* Y (w/6 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S turbodiesel w/auto. trans. ('86)
* Y (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GL Turbo w/auto. trans. ('86)
* Z (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GL w/auto. trans. ('86)
* Z (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo w/auto. trans. ('86)

* E (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Liberte w/auto. trans. ('87)
* E (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo w/auto. trans. ('87) 
* E (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GL w/auto. trans. ('87)
* E (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 DL w/auto. trans. ('88-'89)
* F (w/6 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GLS turbodiesel w/auto. trans. ('87)
* F (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo S w/auto. trans. ('87-'88)
* F (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo w/auto. trans. ('89)
* F (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 SW8 Turbo w/auto. trans. ('89)
* F (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GLS w/auto. trans. ('87-'88)
* F (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S w/auto. trans. ('89)
* F (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 SW8 w/auto. trans. ('88-'89)
* F (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GLX V6 w/auto. trans. ('88)
* F (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S V6 w/auto. trans. ('89)
* J (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STX V6 w/auto. trans. ('87-'89)
* R (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STI w/auto. trans. ('87-'88)
* R (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STI V6 w/auto. trans. ('87)
* 5 (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo w/man. trans. ('87)
* 5 (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GL w/man. trans. ('87)
* 5 (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 DL w/man. trans. ('88-'89)
* 6 (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo S w/man. trans. ('87-'88)
* 6 (w/7 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 Turbo w/man. trans. ('89)
* 6 (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GLS w/man. trans. ('87-'88)
* 6 (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S w/man. trans. ('89)
* 6 (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 SW8 w/man. trans. ('88-'89)
* 6 (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 GLX V6 w/man. trans. ('88)
* 6 (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 S V6 w/man. trans. ('89)
* 7 (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STX V6 w/man. trans. ('87-'89)
* 9 (w/8 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STI w/man. trans. ('87-'88)
* 9 (w/9 in 6th position of VIN) = 505 STI V6 w/man. trans. ('87)

* A (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 405 DL w/auto. trans. ('89)
* B (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 405 S w/auto. trans. ('89)
* 1 (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 405 DL w/man. trans. ('89)
* 2 (w/1 in 6th position of VIN) = 405 S w/man. trans. ('89)
* 2 (w/2 in 6th position of VIN) = 405 Mi16 w/man. trans. ('89)

* 1 = 505 DL ('90-'92)
* 2 = 505 S ('90)
* 5 = 505 Turbo ('90)
* 7 = 505 SW8 ('90-'92)
* 8 = 505 SW8 Turbo ('90-'91)
* 1 = 405 DL ('90-'92)
* 2 = 405 S ('90-'92)
* 3 = 405 Mi16 ('90-'92)

===Assembly Plant (position 11)===
* S = Sochaux, France (All US market Peugeots were made in Sochaux)

Other plant codes (2010-)
* B = Porto Real, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil
* E = Madrid-Villaverde, Spain
* G = El Palomar, Buenos Aires province, Argentina
* G = Gliwice, Poland (Opel plant) (Boxer)
* G = Gurun, Kedah state, Malaysia
* J = Vigo, Spain
* L = Rennes, France
* N = Mangualde, Portugal
* P = Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) (RCZ)
* R = Kolin, Czech Republic (TPCA plant) (107, 108)
* T = Trnava, Slovakia
* U = Mizushima plant, Kurashiki, Okayama prefecture, Japan (Mitsubishi Motors plant) (4007, iOn)
* U = Bursa, Turkey (Tofaş plant) (Expert)
* W = Poissy, France
* Y = Mulhouse, France
* Z = Sevel Nord plant, Lieu-Saint-Amand, France (Expert/Traveller)
* Z = Okazaki plant, Okazaki, Aichi prefecture, Japan (Mitsubishi Motors plant) (4007, 4008)
* 2 = Sevel Sud plant, Atessa, Italy (Boxer)
* 3 = Shenzhen, Guangdong province, China (Shenzhen Baoneng Motor Co., Ltd. plant) (Landtrek)
* 4 = Zaragoza plant, Figueruelas, Zaragoza province, Spain (Opel plant) (208)
* 5 = Kenitra, Morocco (208)
* 7 = Luton, England, UK (Vauxhall plant) (Expert/Traveller)
* 8 = Bursa, Turkey (Tofaş plant) (Bipper)
* 8 = Ellesmere Port, England, UK (Vauxhall plant) (Partner)
* 9 = Betim, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (Fiat plant) (Partner Rapid)

==External links==

Online [https://vinfax.site/en/maker/peugeot/ Peugeot VIN decoder]

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Computing/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Webpage Design/HTML &amp; style sheets</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>367636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662435</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:35:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="18422" sha1="0z1ubqvlfe6d4qlz7dpijmjgdy3td96" xml:space="preserve">&lt;NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{CPTPageNavigationU2|
 | Prev = Web page construction
 | Next = Webpage design}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Webpage Design: HTML &amp; style sheets}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{Dbox|[[Cascading Style Sheets|Style sheet]]|a collection of rules about how to present an HTML document}}

In HTML it is possible to add colours, fonts and other styles to the web pages that you build, however this is not recommended and '''HTML should be used for structure only'''.  To add colours, fonts, etc. we will use Cascading Style Sheets, also known as CSS.

== Style rules ==
A style sheet is made up of Style Rules.  Each Style Rule has three parts, a selector, a property and a value:
{{CPTRuleTab}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property : value}&lt;/code&gt;
{{CPTRuleEnd}}
For multiple properties you separate them using a semicolon;
{{CPTRuleTab}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property1 : value1; property2 : value2}&lt;/code&gt;
{{CPTRuleEnd}}

== Selectors ==
{{Dbox|selectors| &quot;select&quot; the elements on an HTML page that are affected by the style rule(s)}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property : value}&lt;/code&gt;
You need to know three types of selector:
* '''type''', selects all elements of a certain type on the page e.g. &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : green}&lt;/code&gt; selects all the heading 1s and turns them green
* '''class''', selects all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements &lt;code&gt;.classname { color : red}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''ID''', selects the item with the single ID that you have specified &lt;code&gt;#idname { color : blue }&lt;/code&gt;.  You can only apply an ID once in an HTML document
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! CSS Property !! Description !! CSS Values !! Example for Heading 1 !! Output
|-
| font-style: || Changes the font style of text elements || normal, italic, oblique || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-style : italic }&lt;/code&gt; || ''Hello''
|-
| font-weight: || Define how bold text is || bold, normal, 400 || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-weight : bold }&lt;/code&gt; || '''Hello'''
|-
| background-color: || Define page or item background colour || green, brown, yellow || &lt;code&gt;h1 { background-color : yellow }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;background-color:yellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| text-align: || horizontal position of text || center, left, right || &lt;code&gt;h1 { text-align : center }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| font-family: || define the font of page text || &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, Arial, Helvetica || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-family : &quot;Times New Roman&quot; }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-familt:Times New Roman;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span &gt;
|-
| font-size: || define the size of page text || 100%, 250%, 50% || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-size : 250% }&lt;/code&gt; || {{CPTh2|Hello}}
|-
| color: || changes the foreground colour of an element || green, brown, orange || &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : green }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| (EXTENSION) text-decoration: || Allows for underlining, strikethrough etc. || overline, underline, line-through || &lt;code&gt;h1 { text-decoration : underline }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;u&gt;Hello&lt;/u&gt;
|}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS rules}}
{{CPTQuestion|Write CSS rules to do the following:&lt;br /&gt;
Turn all heading 3s blue:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h3 { color : blue}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Turn all paragraphs red and itallic:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
p { color : red; font-style : italic}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=Turn all class=bbold: bold and blue}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.bbold { color : blue; font-weight: bold}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=Turn all class=uit: underlined and italic}}
{{CPTAnswer| 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.uit { text-decoration : underline; font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the three components of a CSS style rule:}}
{{CPTAnswer| 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
selector {property: value}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the three different types of selector and describe each:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* '''type''', selects all elements of a certain type on the page e.g. &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : red}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''class''', selects all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements &lt;code&gt;.classname { color : white}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''ID''', selects the item with the single ID that you have specified &lt;code&gt;#idname { color : blue}&lt;/code&gt;
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Describe the difference between HTML and CSS:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* '''HTML''' - Used for page structure
* '''CSS''' - a collection of rules about how to present an HTML document
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

=== Type ===
{{Dbox|Type rules|select all elements of a certain type on the page and apply styles to them}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt; h1 { color : green }&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

&lt;p&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is! &lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;Seriously!&lt;/p&gt;


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As we probably know, this would build the following page:
{{Webpage|My Website|{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This is my amazing website, look how great it is!

I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.

Seriously!}}
You might think my claims are a little over the top, but we could try to make the site better by adding some colour to the title using the following CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { color : green }
p { color : red; font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
We can't just place this directly into the page, we have to create a new section inside the &lt;code&gt;&lt;head&gt; &lt;/head&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tags, this is called embedding CSS, we'll look at another method, External Style Sheets later:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;style TYPE=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
    &lt;!--
    h1 { color : green }
    p { color : red; font-style : italic }
    --&gt;
    &lt;/style&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

&lt;p&gt; This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;Seriously!&lt;/p&gt;


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

What this will do is change the heading to green, and change each paragraph to red and italic:
{{Webpage|My Website|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:green&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;''This is my amazing website, look how great it is!''

''I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.''

''Seriously!''&lt;/span&gt;}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS Type Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website2&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h2 { color : red }
h1 { color : blue; text-decoration : underline }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|&lt;u&gt;Contact Details&lt;/u&gt;}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

1010101@10100101.com}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
p { font-weight : bold }
h1 { font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website2|''{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
'''Please use the details below to get in contact'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Home: 0101010101010'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Mobile: 1010101010101'''

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

'''1010101@10100101.com'''}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write rules to produce the following output:
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

1010101@10100101.com}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { color : red; }
h2 { text-decoration : underline}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write rules to produce the following output:
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:yellow;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:red;&quot;&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:red;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { background-color : yellow; }
h2 { text-decoration : underline }
p { background-color : red}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{Robox/Close}}

=== Class ===
{{Dbox|Class rules|select all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;.classname {property1 : value1; property2 : value2}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take another look at the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


    &lt;p class=&quot;texts&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


    &lt;p class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

As you can see there are classes attached to some of the HTML tags, namely the 'textb' and 'texts' classes.  On their own they don't do anything, we need to write some CSS style rules to make them come to life, remember that a class selector starts with a (.).
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.textb { color : red; text-decoration : underline }
.texts { font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Webpage|My website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

''I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.''

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Seriously!&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS Class Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of the CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website3&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;txtt&quot;&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;h2 class=&quot;txtg&quot;&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p class=&quot;txtt&quot;&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p class=&quot;txtg&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.txtg { color : blue }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|1=
note that class=&quot;txtt&quot; does nothing as the CSS doesn't define it.
{{Webpage|My Website3|{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.txtg { color : red }
.txtt { text-decoration : underline; color : green }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website3|2=&lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

=== ID ===
{{Dbox|ID rules|select the item with the single ID that you have specified. '''You can only apply an ID once in an HTML document.'''}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;#idname { color : blue }&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take yet another look at the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;A Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p id=&quot;para1&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


    &lt;p id=&quot;para2&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


    &lt;p id=&quot;para3&quot;&gt;Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, I have assigned an id to each of the paragraphs, this means that I can now style them separately from each other. Remember that an ID selector starts with a #.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#para1 { color : red }
#para2 { color : white }
#para3 { color : blue }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Webpage|A Website|
{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:white&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;Seriously!&lt;/span&gt;}}
Each id rule applies to a different paragraph, unfortunately I set #para2 to white, so you can't see it!
{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS ID Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of the CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website3&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 id=&quot;main&quot;&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;h2&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p id=&quot;txthighlight&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#main{ color : green }
#txthighlight{ background-color : yellow }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website3|
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:green&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:yellow;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write the CSS to produce the following:
{{Webpage|My Website3|2=
''{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/div&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#main{ font-style : italic }
#txthighlight{ text-align : center }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{Robox/Close}}

== Style sheets (Cascading Style Sheets or CSS) ==
You should be pretty comfortable with the use of CSS rules, we are now going to look how these rules are linked with the HTML.  As we know the style (CSS) of a web page’s contents should to be separated from its structure (HTML), and when these two things come together, it creates the page that you see in your web browser.  There are two methods of linking style to structure that you need to know:

* '''Embedded style''', blocks of CSS information inside the HTML document
* '''External style sheets''', i.e., a separate CSS file referenced from the HTML document

=== Embedded style ===
Blocks of CSS information inside the HTML document. You can see that inside the head tag we have a block of CSS that applies to the HTML below it:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;style type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
    &lt;!--
    h1 { font-weight : 900 }
    .highlight {color : yellow }
    --&gt;
    &lt;/style&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== External style sheets ===
External style sheets use a separate file to store the style information (a .css file) and link the file from inside the HTML document.
----
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;home.html&lt;/div&gt;
----
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;link href=&quot;style.css&quot; rel=&quot;stylesheet&quot; type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
----
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;style.css&lt;/div&gt;
----
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { font-weight : 900 }
.highlight {color : yellow }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
----
As you can see above the HTML file links to the CSS file through the line:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;&lt;link href=&quot;style.css&quot; rel=&quot;stylesheet&quot; type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;.  You could get an HTML page to link to multiple CSS files and link a CSS file from multiple HTML files.
[[File:CPT-Web-CSS-external.svg|center|300px]]
External style sheets are a better way of linking CSS to HTML than embedding CSS in HTML as you can:
{{Plus|Link one CSS file to many HTML files to reuse the same style without needing to retype it}}
{{Plus|When changing the style of a website you only need to change the style information in one location and it'll filter through to all pages}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Types of style sheet}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the two different style sheets:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* external
* embedded
* (there is also inline but it's not pretty to use and not in the syllabus)
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Why might you prefer to use external style sheets on a large web site?}}
{{CPTAnswer|You can link the same style sheet from multiple pages and changes to the site style would only require changes to that one style sheet}}
{{Robox/Close}}

{{ExampleRobox|theme=6|title=Extension:CSS3}}
[[File:Html5 css3 styling.svg|thumb|center|100px]]
There is an awful lot more to learn about CSS and a new version is currently being released alongside HTML5.  Don't get left behind, learn all about [http://www.w3schools.com/css/default.asp CSS2] and [http://www.w3schools.com/css3/default.asp CSS3] at w3schools.
{{Robox/Close}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>0z1ubqvlfe6d4qlz7dpijmjgdy3td96</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662440</id>
      <parentid>4662435</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662440</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18514" sha1="hfn321hqbov6tomoyonjifkboybta2x" xml:space="preserve">&lt;NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{CPTPageNavigationU2|
 | Prev = Web page construction
 | Next = Webpage design}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Webpage Design: HTML &amp; style sheets}}
&lt;/NOINCLUDE&gt;
{{Dbox|[[Cascading Style Sheets|Style sheet]]|a collection of rules about how to present an HTML document}}

In HTML it is possible to add colours, fonts and other styles to the web pages that you build, however this is not recommended and '''HTML should be used for structure only'''.  To add colours, fonts, etc. we will use Cascading Style Sheets, also known as CSS.

== Style rules ==
A style sheet is made up of Style Rules.  Each Style Rule has three parts, a selector, a property and a value:
{{CPTRuleTab}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property : value}&lt;/code&gt;
{{CPTRuleEnd}}
For multiple properties you separate them using a semicolon;
{{CPTRuleTab}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property1 : value1; property2 : value2}&lt;/code&gt;
{{CPTRuleEnd}}

== Selectors ==
{{Dbox|selectors| &quot;select&quot; the elements on an HTML page that are affected by the style rule(s)}}
&lt;code&gt;selector {property : value}&lt;/code&gt;
You need to know three types of selector:
* '''type''', selects all elements of a certain type on the page e.g. &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : green}&lt;/code&gt; selects all the heading 1s and turns them green
* '''class''', selects all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements &lt;code&gt;.classname { color : red}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''ID''', selects the item with the single ID that you have specified &lt;code&gt;#idname { color : blue }&lt;/code&gt;.  You can only apply an ID once in an HTML document
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! CSS Property !! Description !! CSS Values !! Example for Heading 1 !! Output
|-
| font-style: || Changes the font style of text elements || normal, italic, oblique || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-style : italic }&lt;/code&gt; || ''Hello''
|-
| font-weight: || Define how bold text is || bold, normal, 400 || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-weight : bold }&lt;/code&gt; || '''Hello'''
|-
| background-color: || Define page or item background colour || green, brown, yellow || &lt;code&gt;h1 { background-color : yellow }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;background-color:yellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| text-align: || horizontal position of text || center, left, right || &lt;code&gt;h1 { text-align : center }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| font-family: || define the font of page text || &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, Arial, Helvetica || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-family : &quot;Times New Roman&quot; }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-familt:Times New Roman;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span &gt;
|-
| font-size: || define the size of page text || 100%, 250%, 50% || &lt;code&gt;h1 { font-size : 250% }&lt;/code&gt; || {{CPTh2|Hello}}
|-
| color: || changes the foreground colour of an element || green, brown, orange || &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : green }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;Hello&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| (EXTENSION) text-decoration: || Allows for underlining, strikethrough etc. || overline, underline, line-through || &lt;code&gt;h1 { text-decoration : underline }&lt;/code&gt; || &lt;u&gt;Hello&lt;/u&gt;
|}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS rules}}
{{CPTQuestion|Write CSS rules to do the following:&lt;br /&gt;
Turn all heading 3s blue:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h3 { color : blue}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Turn all paragraphs red and itallic:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
p { color : red; font-style : italic}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=Turn all class=bbold: bold and blue}}
{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.bbold { color : blue; font-weight: bold}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=Turn all class=uit: underlined and italic}}
{{CPTAnswer| 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.uit { text-decoration : underline; font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the three components of a CSS style rule:}}
{{CPTAnswer| 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
selector {property: value}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the three different types of selector and describe each:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* '''type''', selects all elements of a certain type on the page e.g. &lt;code&gt;h1 { color : red}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''class''', selects all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements &lt;code&gt;.classname { color : white}&lt;/code&gt;
* '''ID''', selects the item with the single ID that you have specified &lt;code&gt;#idname { color : blue}&lt;/code&gt;
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Describe the difference between HTML and CSS:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* '''HTML''' - Used for page structure
* '''CSS''' - a collection of rules about how to present an HTML document
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

=== Type ===
{{Dbox|Type rules|select all elements of a certain type on the page and apply styles to them}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt; h1 { color : green }&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

&lt;p&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is! &lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;Seriously!&lt;/p&gt;


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As we probably know, this would build the following page:
{{Webpage|My Website|{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This is my amazing website, look how great it is!

I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.

Seriously!}}
You might think my claims are a little over the top, but we could try to make the site better by adding some colour to the title using the following CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { color : green }
p { color : red; font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
We can't just place this directly into the page, we have to create a new section inside the &lt;code&gt;&lt;head&gt; &lt;/head&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tags, this is called embedding CSS, we'll look at another method, External Style Sheets later:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;style TYPE=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
    &lt;!--
    h1 { color : green }
    p { color : red; font-style : italic }
    --&gt;
    &lt;/style&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

&lt;p&gt; This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;Seriously!&lt;/p&gt;


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

What this will do is change the heading to green, and change each paragraph to red and italic:
{{Webpage|My Website|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:green&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;''This is my amazing website, look how great it is!''

''I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.''

''Seriously!''&lt;/span&gt;}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS Type Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website2&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h2 { color : red }
h1 { color : blue; text-decoration : underline }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|&lt;u&gt;Contact Details&lt;/u&gt;}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

1010101@10100101.com}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
p { font-weight : bold }
h1 { font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website2|''{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
'''Please use the details below to get in contact'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Home: 0101010101010'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Mobile: 1010101010101'''

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

'''1010101@10100101.com'''}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write rules to produce the following output:
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

1010101@10100101.com}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { color : red; }
h2 { text-decoration : underline}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write rules to produce the following output:
{{Webpage|My Website2|&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:yellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:red;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:red;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { background-color : yellow; }
h2 { text-decoration : underline }
p { background-color : red}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{Robox/Close}}

=== Class ===
{{Dbox|Class rules|select all elements of the class you have specified and applies the style to only those elements}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;.classname {property1 : value1; property2 : value2}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take another look at the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


    &lt;p class=&quot;texts&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


    &lt;p class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

As you can see there are classes attached to some of the HTML tags, namely the 'textb' and 'texts' classes.  On their own they don't do anything, we need to write some CSS style rules to make them come to life, remember that a class selector starts with a (.).
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.textb { color : red; text-decoration : underline }
.texts { font-style : italic }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Webpage|My website2|&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh2|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

''I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.''

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Seriously!&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS Class Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of the CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website3&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;txtt&quot;&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;h2 class=&quot;txtg&quot;&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p class=&quot;txtt&quot;&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p class=&quot;txtg&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.txtg { color : blue }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|1=
note that class=&quot;txtt&quot; does nothing as the CSS doesn't define it.
{{Webpage|My Website3|{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
.txtg { color : red }
.txtt { text-decoration : underline; color : green }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website3|2=&lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}
{{Robox/Close}}

=== ID ===
{{Dbox|ID rules|select the item with the single ID that you have specified. '''You can only apply an ID once in an HTML document.'''}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;#idname { color : blue }&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Take yet another look at the HTML behind a simple website:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;A Website&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 class=&quot;textb&quot;&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p id=&quot;para1&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


    &lt;p id=&quot;para2&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


    &lt;p id=&quot;para3&quot;&gt;Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, I have assigned an id to each of the paragraphs, this means that I can now style them separately from each other. Remember that an ID selector starts with a #.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#para1 { color : red }
#para2 { color : white }
#para3 { color : blue }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Webpage|A Website|
{{CPTh1|Welcome}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:red&quot;&gt;This is my amazing website, look how great it is!&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:white&quot;&gt;I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:blue&quot;&gt;Seriously!&lt;/span&gt;}}
Each id rule applies to a different paragraph, unfortunately I set #para2 to white, so you can't see it!
{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: CSS ID Selectors}}
{{CPTQuestion|1=For the HTML code below, show what the output would be for each set of the CSS rules:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website3&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1 id=&quot;main&quot;&gt;Contact Details&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Please use the details below to get in contact&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;h2&gt;Telephone&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
         Mobile: 1010101010101&lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;h2&gt;Email&lt;/h2&gt;
      &lt;p id=&quot;txthighlight&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
What would these two rules produce?
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#main{ color : green }
#txthighlight{ background-color : yellow }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;}}

{{CPTAnswer|
{{Webpage|My Website3|
&lt;span style=&quot;color{{=}}:green&quot;&gt;{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;span style{{=}}&quot;background-color:yellow;{{Text default color}};&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/span&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTQuestion|1=Write the CSS to produce the following:
{{Webpage|My Website3|2=
''{{CPTh1|Contact Details}}''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{CPTh2|Telephone}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Home: 0101010101010&lt;br /&gt;
Mobile: 1010101010101

{{CPTh2|Email}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1010101@10100101.com&lt;/div&gt;}}
}}

{{CPTAnswer|
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
#main{ font-style : italic }
#txthighlight{ text-align : center }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

{{Robox/Close}}

== Style sheets (Cascading Style Sheets or CSS) ==
You should be pretty comfortable with the use of CSS rules, we are now going to look how these rules are linked with the HTML.  As we know the style (CSS) of a web page’s contents should to be separated from its structure (HTML), and when these two things come together, it creates the page that you see in your web browser.  There are two methods of linking style to structure that you need to know:

* '''Embedded style''', blocks of CSS information inside the HTML document
* '''External style sheets''', i.e., a separate CSS file referenced from the HTML document

=== Embedded style ===
Blocks of CSS information inside the HTML document. You can see that inside the head tag we have a block of CSS that applies to the HTML below it:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;style type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
    &lt;!--
    h1 { font-weight : 900 }
    .highlight {color : yellow }
    --&gt;
    &lt;/style&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== External style sheets ===
External style sheets use a separate file to store the style information (a .css file) and link the file from inside the HTML document.
----
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;home.html&lt;/div&gt;
----
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;My Website&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;link href=&quot;style.css&quot; rel=&quot;stylesheet&quot; type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;h1&gt;Welcome&lt;/h1&gt;
    

This is my amazing website, look how great it is!


I doubt you could find a better one anywhere on the web.


Seriously!


  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
----
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;style.css&lt;/div&gt;
----
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;css&quot;&gt;
h1 { font-weight : 900 }
.highlight {color : yellow }
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
----
As you can see above the HTML file links to the CSS file through the line:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;&lt;link href=&quot;style.css&quot; rel=&quot;stylesheet&quot; type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;.  You could get an HTML page to link to multiple CSS files and link a CSS file from multiple HTML files.
[[File:CPT-Web-CSS-external.svg|center|300px]]
External style sheets are a better way of linking CSS to HTML than embedding CSS in HTML as you can:
{{Plus|Link one CSS file to many HTML files to reuse the same style without needing to retype it}}
{{Plus|When changing the style of a website you only need to change the style information in one location and it'll filter through to all pages}}

{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Types of style sheet}}
{{CPTQuestion|Name the two different style sheets:}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* external
* embedded
* (there is also inline but it's not pretty to use and not in the syllabus)
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Why might you prefer to use external style sheets on a large web site?}}
{{CPTAnswer|You can link the same style sheet from multiple pages and changes to the site style would only require changes to that one style sheet}}
{{Robox/Close}}

{{ExampleRobox|theme=6|title=Extension:CSS3}}
[[File:Html5 css3 styling.svg|thumb|center|100px]]
There is an awful lot more to learn about CSS and a new version is currently being released alongside HTML5.  Don't get left behind, learn all about [http://www.w3schools.com/css/default.asp CSS2] and [http://www.w3schools.com/css3/default.asp CSS3] at w3schools.
{{Robox/Close}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>hfn321hqbov6tomoyonjifkboybta2x</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>An Internet of Everything?/Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>368539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662520</id>
      <parentid>4509598</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:34:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662520</origin>
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      <text bytes="354294" sha1="bhy4pj583ire3w4mv1n1klzs3zjk3dc" xml:space="preserve">We have our own resources including financial and '''operators''' dedicated to this task. We had to get to his phone and hack his device. When he connected to his home (net) he simply send our program to every devices connected to this net. Now if person wants to use any (:Http:,html source) it will always redirect to our fake websites created for this purpose. That's how we control whole browsing even basic function of this devices. Every day we are showing some context on '''random''' pages (which is particularly similar with some actions in his life), or even his own medical condition. In devices PRA-LX1 we operate over 1year and we can (delete emails, send '''emails'''&lt;nowiki&gt; to random contacts, download and create any data we need for our task). We demand to cover additional cost. You have already done some damages to our cause. {{crossref|printworthy=y|For more details on parser &lt;/nowiki&gt;'''functions'''&lt;nowiki&gt; that relate to page names and namespaces, see: {{section link|meta:Help:Page name#Variables and parser. &lt;/nowiki&gt;

calls using named parameters).

* They can be [[WP:Transclusion|transcluded]], even variables &quot;about the current page&quot;. This is ensured by the parsing order.
* Instead of magically transforming into HTML instructions, {{tag|[[help:wikitext#Nowiki|nowiki]]|o}} tags remove this magic so a magic word can itself be displayed (documented)

=Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age=

==Introduction==
This chapter of [[An Internet of Everything?]] cores and discusses main concepts and ideas of the [[#Public Sphere Definition|Public]] and [[#Private Sphere Definition|Private]] Spheres in the [[#Digital Age Definition|Digital Age]]. The main question to ask is how far the usage of internet influences our private sphere and if individuals can still decide where the public sphere begins and where the private sphere ends. This change in private and public spheres is created by an evolution of the Internet and emergence of digital media which include specific [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|characteristics]]. An important effect of this evolution can be described as  [[#Uncoupling of Space and Time|uncoupling of space and time]] because of content from all over the world which is available at every time. The Internet as a hybrid medium creates and enhances [[#Publicity Online|publicity online]] and is driven by the process of impression management which appears in several forms, as discussed in [[#Narrative of the Self|Narrative of the Self]]. This chapter will although prove how far the activities in the internet can be describes as [[#Anonymity in the Private Sphere|anonymous]] as there are many arguments for an anonymous web but although many against it looking on [[#Hackers and Hacktivism|Hackers]] and  [[#Trolling|Trolling]]. As a consequence of the blurring of the private and public sphere online and the visibility [[#Privacy on digital media|privacy]] and [[#Security and Sphere Invasions|security as well as sphere invasion]] is becoming an issue.

This chapter also talks about [[#Online-activism by Citizens|Online-activism by Citizens]] which had an important impact on past event such as the [[#Arab Spring|Arab Spring]]. Therefore it will look on how [[#The Rise of Digital and Social Media in Political Activity|social media can be used in a political way]].

Finally, the concepts of public and privates sphere are discussed by several [[#Theorists|Theorists]] such as [[#Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]] who wrote about the ideal of a public sphere which would contain discussions in public to influence political decisions and [[#John Thompson|John Thompson]] who belongs to Habermas main critics saying that there is a new form of mediated publicness and [http://mfarchive.plymouthart.ac.uk/journalvol1/papers/hamid-van-koten.pdf Hamid van Koten] who talks about [http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/clc/414417 McLuhans] temperature scale.

== Disambiguation ==
Before presenting the main concepts of [[w:public sphere|public]] and [[w:private sphere|private spheres]] in the [[w:Information Age|digital age]], a [[w:Word-sense disambiguation|disambiguation]] of the title's three key terms shall give an overview and avoid misunderstandings.

=== Private Sphere Definition ===

In Greek philosophy,&lt;ref&gt;http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Public_sphere.aspx#3-1O88:pblcsphrvrssprvtsphrdstnc-full&lt;/ref&gt; the difference between private and public sphere was based on a public world of politics and a private world of family and economic relations. In modern sociology, the distinction is normally used in reference to a separation of home and employment. The private sphere has always been associated with the family or home. It serves to enforce a binary opposition between public and private spheres.

Additionally it is also associated with [[w:privacy rights|privacy rights]]. [[w:Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]] argued that it was through the private sphere where one can truly express themselves. The use of the private sphere by the individual is primarily a secure space where he or she can be alone – but not lonely, or isolated – and can present themselves however they want.

Furthermore, the private sphere is inclusive of the home, but as Raymond Williams&lt;ref&gt;Private Sphere, Papacharissi, Chapter 5&lt;/ref&gt; notes the term of [[w:mobile privatisation|&quot;mobile privatisation”]] society can now travel, and experience the world, through the comfort of their couch. Technology has made it easier to share our experiences, but it has made it difficult to keep them private as well.

The private sphere in digital media is were the individual can guarantee themselves a certain level of authority. This is why on most Social Network Sites (SNSs), they all contain a [[w:privacy|privacy]] option, to make the user feel more secure an din control of their online usage.

=== Public Sphere Definition ===

[[w:Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]] defined the public sphere as a “''virtual or imaginary community, which does not necessarily exist in any identifiable space. In its ideal form, the public sphere is &quot;made up of private people gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state''”

The idea of a public sphere was generated in the eighteenth century yet there is not doubt that it has a modern relevance and is essentially a way for civil society to articulate its interests. It has been argued that the internet has facilitated the phenomenon of the public sphere as it acts as a forum where public opinion is shaped. But what is the role of the public sphere in the cyber age?

The internet has made way for individuals to have direct access to a global forum where they are able to express their arguments and opinions without censorship. Moreover, we have seen that the emergence of the electronic mass media have radically changed the eighteenth century definition of the public sphere, and the idea is still very much alive in the network society today. Furthermore, even though the public sphere is alive and well recent technological advances mean it will never be the same again. Its future lies with digital media which is an exciting concept. Habermas' classical argument regarding the public sphere being inherently threatened by power structures is correct, as digital media platforms make way for individuals to feel empowered.

=== Digital Age Definition ===
{{Quote|text=&quot;Last time I checked, the digital universe was expanding at the rate of five trillion bits per second in storage and two trillion transistors per second on the processing side.&quot;}}
{{Quote|&quot;I don't know a single person who is not immersed in the digital universe. Even people who are strongly anti-technology are probably voicing that view on a Web site somewhere. Third-world villagers without electricity have cellphones.&quot;|| [[w:George Dyson|&lt;small&gt;George Dyson&lt;/small&gt;]]}}

After technological innovation such as the [[w:Steam engine|Steam engine]] firstly determined society during the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] in the 18th century, the second &quot;machine age&quot; started in the middle of the 20th century by the development [[w:computer|computers]] and their integration and networking. The resulting information and communication technology lead to information societies since the beginning of the third millennium - according to Lemke and Brenner this is the digital age.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot;&gt;Lemke, C., Brenner, W. (2015). '' Einführung in die Wirtschaftsinformatik, Band 1: Verstehen des digitalen Zeitalters'', pp. 11-51. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. Retrieved 03/08, 2016 from http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783662440643-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1486970-p176975505&lt;/ref&gt;

However, [[w:Thomas Friedman|Thomas Friedman]] describes the digital age as the [[w:Thomas Friedman#Globalization|''globalisation 3.0'']]: According to him the technological progress in the 18th century lead to globally acting countries, conquering the world politically and economically. Following till year 2000 ''globalisation 2.0'' let multinational company groups arise, reinforced by the ([[w:hardware|hardware]]) technological development. Finally the still lasting third globalisation allows every single person to act internationally and thereby shape and influence technological improvement; the world has shrunk to a ''flat platform''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Friedman 2006&quot;&gt;Friedman, T.L. (2008). ''Die Welt ist flach: Eine kurze Geschichte des 21. Jahrhunderts''. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp Verlag.&lt;/ref&gt;

Representative for the digital age, which is strongly connected with the [[w:information age|information age]], is, that information is mostly saved and transferred in a digital form. &quot;The multiple possibilities of [[w:Digitizing|digitalization]] and [[w:Computer network|networking]] of information, data and applications as well as the mobility and miniaturizing of infrastructure and hardware determine during the digital age developments in society as a whole and will decide about mechanisms of a globalized world, about social structures and about economic relationships in future.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot; /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{| style=&quot;align:center; text-align:center&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | '''Evolutionary stages of the digital age'''&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot; /&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: grey; color: white;
|| 1st stage
|| 2nd stage
|| 3rd stage
|| 4th stage
|-
| [[#first|Emergence and dispersal]]
| [[#second|General acceptance and daily mobile usage]]
| [[#third|General maturing and Internet of Things]]
| [[#fourth|Complete mergence of the real and digital networked world]]
|-
| 1990 - 2000
| 2000 - ca. 2015
| 2015 - ca. 2030
| 2030 - ?
|}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
The conceptional framework of the digital age can be traced down to [[w:Alan Turing|Alan Turing]] and [[w:Vanavar Bush|Vanavar Bush]]. The first one introduced the [[w:Turing machine|Turing Machine]], a model, that pictures the principles of a computer's operation in a very simple and mathematical analysable way. Vanvar Bush however predicted in his famous article [http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/303881/ &quot;As we may think&quot;] kinds of digital media invented after his publishing. He describes an imaginary so-called [[w:Memex|''memex'']] machine, with which each of us would operate from a ''desktop'' enabling us to store, access and share information with each other &lt;ref name=&quot;Bush 1945&quot;&gt;[http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/303881/] Bush, V. (1945). As We May Think. ''Atlantic Monthly''. Retrieved 02/28, 2016 from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/303881/&lt;/ref&gt; - the basis for i.e. [[w:personal computers|personal computers]], the [[w:internet|Internet]], [[w:hypertext|hypertext]] and the [[w:World Wide Web|world wide web]].

The development of [[w:Personal Computer|Personal Computers (PC)]], especially those affordable for the greater population, set the course for the digital age. The inventor of the first PC is disputed; after the a contest one agreed on John Blankenbaker’s [[w:Kenbak-1|Kenbak-1]] from 1970 as the first PC,&lt;ref name=&quot;CHM 2016&quot;&gt;[http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/personal-computers/17/297], Computer History Museum. (2016). ''Personal Computer''. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/personal-computers/17/297&lt;/ref&gt; but there are records of [[w:Edmund Berkeley|Edmund Berkeley]] presenting his [[w:Simon (computer)|Simon]] earlier in 1949. The Blinkenlights Archeological Institute gives a good [http://www.blinkenlights.com/pc.shtml overview] about the first introduced personal computers.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Turing machine.png|thumb|left|Operating concept of a Turing machine]]&lt;/div&gt;
{|class=wikitable
|-
|&lt;small&gt;Computers evolved primarily for military, scientific, government, and corporate users with substantial needs…and substantial budgets. They populated labs, universities, and big companies. Homes? Small businesses? Not so much.&lt;br&gt;Over time, however, costs dropped. Equally important, computers grew sophisticated enough to hide their complex, technical aspects behind a user-friendly interface. Individuals could now afford and understand computers, which dramatically changed everyday life.&lt;ref name=&quot;CHM 2016&quot; /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;
|}
&lt;div id=&quot;first&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
Starting from this point Lemke and Brenner's evolutionary ladder describe and predict past, current and future changes in digital age. The networking of computers is the focus of the first phase. The invention of the Internet followed by its [[w:user interface|user interface]], [[w:Tim Berners-Lee|Berners-Lee]] [[w:World Wide Web|World Wide Web]], for the first time enabled a non-scientific use and (distant) access to online and computational resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot; /&gt; The first website ever was republished a couple years ago and is still accessible [http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html here].&lt;ref name=&quot;Cern 2014&quot;&gt;[http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html], Cern. (2014). ''World Wide Web''. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html&lt;/ref&gt; A more detailed introduction to the characteristics of the Internet and the WWW can be found [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|further below]].

Important for the digital Age is that information is handled as a resource and good, commonly managed, networked and accessible through the new media and finally changing societies into knowledge-based and information infrastructures. Accordingly Rheingold states:

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Internet of Things.svg|thumb|right|Technological Roadmap: Internet of Things]]&lt;/div&gt;
{|class=wikitable
|-
|&lt;small&gt;The most successful recent example of an artificial public good is the Internet. [...] The internet is both the result of and the enabling infrastructure for new ways of organising and collective action via communication technology. This new social contract enables the creation and maintenance of public goods, a commons for knowledge resources. &lt;br /&gt;The personal computer and the Internet would not exist as they do today without extraordinary collaborative enterprises in which acts of cooperation were as essential as microprocessors.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rheingold 2002&quot;&gt;Rheingold, H. (2002).  Technologies of Cooperation. ''Smart mobs : the next social revolution''. Cambrige, MA: Basic Books.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/small&gt;
|}

&lt;div id=&quot;second&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
It were changes like this and the constant craving for innovation such as the invention of the smartphone, that has deeply embedded mobile and online networking in our society and even led to an always-on culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot; /&gt; &lt;div id=&quot;third&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; Finally the concept of the [[w:Internet of Things|Internet of Things]] slowly replaces personal computers trough ''intelligent items'' that should support one's activities unconsciously.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vermesan 2013&quot;&gt;Vermesan, O., Friess, P. (2013). ''Internet of Things: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems''. Aalborg: River Publishers. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;div id=&quot;fourth&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; In combination with advances in [[w:Virtual reality|virtual reality]] technologies the fourth evolutionary stage predicted by Lemke and Brenner is heralded. The question left open is how the digital age will change in future and when will it end in order to give space to a new era?

== Characteristics of Digital Media ==
In order to exemplify what influence '''digital media''' has on [[w:private sphere|private]] and [[w:public sphere|public]] spheres, the characteristics of this media type have to be determined first, specifically how it differs from [[w:Old media|traditional media types]] like [[w:print media|print medias]] (i.e. newspapers, magazines, printed books) or [[w:analog signal|analogue]] medias (i.e. film and audio tapes, radio, television). As this book focuses on the '''Internet''', there will also be a closer look to the characteristics of this specific medium.

As [[w:Digital media|digital media]] all media types are counted which are based on digital information and communication technology (i.e. the Internet) as well as technical devices for 
*[[w:digitalization|digitalization]]
*[[w:Digital recording|recording]]
*processing and calculation
*retention/[[w:Data storage device|storage]]
*presentation and
*distribution
of digital content and final products such as digital arts or music.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kossek 2012&quot;&gt;Kossek, B., Peschl, M.F. (2012). ''Digital Turn?''. Vienna: V&amp;R unipress GmbH.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;floatleft&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; boader=&quot;no&quot; |'''Examples for digital media'''
|-style=&quot;background: grey; color: white;&quot;
| Type || Examples
|-
| Storage Medium &amp;nbsp;
| CD, DVD, Disk, USB Stick, FlashCard
|-
| Devices
| 
*Keyboard, Camera, Microphone
*MP3-Player, PC, Navigation System &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Networking
| Internet, Mobile Network, Social Media
|-
|  ||  ||
|}


One can also say: &quot;Digital media is the product of digital data processed electronically, stored as a file, and transmitted within computer systems and across networks.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Tasstudent.com&quot;&gt;Tasstudent.com (n.d.) ''Purpose and Characteristics of Digital Media.'' Retrieved: 03/02, 2016, from http://www.tasstudent.com/characteristics-of-digital-media/&lt;/ref&gt;
 
Digital information is coded in a binary system using the only signs off='''0''' and on='''1'''. Digital information of all different kinds can be presented through the application of this arithmetic and can be copied perfectly as many times as wanted with no degradation of quality. But therefore firstly a digitising devices is necessary to convert [[w:Analog signal|analogue signals]] into [[w:Digital signal|digital data]] &lt;ref name=&quot;Tasstudent.com&quot; /&gt; and as well as device for reception and manipulation afterwards.

Although often used as a synonym for Internet, the World Wide Web is only the Internet's [[w:User interface|user interface]] established by [[w: Tim Berners-Lee|Tim Berners-Lee]]. Berners-Lee determined, that each website in the network is assigned to and accessible through a unique address, the [[w:Uniform Resource Locator|Uniform Resource Locator]] (URL). Content then could be connected through cross references, the [[w:Hyperlink|hyperlinks]], which contains the URL.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot;&gt;Bleicher, J.-K.(2010). ''Internet''. Konstanz: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Berners-Lee 1999&quot;&gt;Berners-Lee, T. (1999). ''Der Web-Report. Der Schöpfer des World Wide Webs über das grenzenlose Potential des Internets''. München: Econ.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Motivation for creating the World Wide Web.webm|thumb|right|Development and concepts of the World Wide Web]]&lt;/div&gt;
This non-linear so-called [[w:hypertext|hypertext]] structure enhances the interactivity over the Internet, thereby being primarily a pull medium with content, which can be accessed time - and place – independently as well as self-determined. Generally, this approach is available on every part of the Internet, but [[w:Web search engine|search engines]] can help users selecting it. This differs from traditional media such as the [[w:television|television]], which follows a time-dependent programme &lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; and is only receivable in the reach of the broadcasting frequencies.

Nowadays the Internet connects people all over the world on a communicative but also interpersonal level. Via offers like [[w:Instant messaging|instant messaging]], [[w:Social media|social media]], [[w:email|email]] or [[w:blog|webblogs]], people can communicate one-to-one, one-to-many or many-to-many,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; meaning varying between [[w:interpersonal communication|interpersonal communication]] and [[w:mass communication|mass communication]]. Additionally, communication on the Internet is reciprocal and interactive; sender and receiver can exchange roles without time delay. And basically everyone with [[w:internet access|Internet access]] can present their own content (even [[w:Anonymity|anonymously]]), known as [[w:User-generated content|user-generated content]]. In contrast, the press and broadcasting are institutionally organized; interactions are therefore media initiated (i.e. via letters to the editor) and the reactions of the audience is time delayed.

[[w:Marshall McLuhan|McLuhan’s]] theory says, that the new media contain the old ones &lt;ref name=&quot;McLuhan 1994&quot;&gt;McLuhan, M. (1994). ''Die magischen Kanäle''. Dresden/ Basel: Verlag der Kunst.&lt;/ref&gt; and no medium does this more obviously than the Internet: Countless crossmedial offers like [[w:Web television|web TV]], [[w:Video on demand|video-on-demand]] or [[w:Online newspaper|online newspaper]] are mostly just digitalised offers of the traditional medias. The digital content form on the Internet asks for technical aids for the reception (Computers, mobile final products) &lt;ref name=&quot;Hickethier 2003&quot;&gt;Hickethier, K. (2003). ''Einführung in die Medienwissenschaft''. Stuttgart/ Weimar: Verlag J.B. Metzler.&lt;/ref&gt; but it also holds a higher reproducibility and possibility of saving.

=== Uncoupling of Space and Time ===
{| class= &quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; font-size:90%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;| '''Space and Presence between Analog and Digital Media'''&lt;ref name=&quot;analog&quot;&gt;[http://www.media-ecology.org/publications/MEA_proceedings/v12/8_time.pdf] Kweon,S. et al. Time and Space Perception on Media Platforms in ''Proceedings of the Media Ecology Association'', Vol. 12, 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: grey; color: white;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|Analog 
|Digital
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Media Space
|Type of Time Space
|
* Space biased 
* Synchronous
* One point to multipoint
* One way
|
* Spatiotemporal biased 
* Asynchronous
* Multipoint to multipoint
* Interactivity
|-
|Relationship in Space
|
* Sender orientation
* World society
|
* Communicator orientation
* Network
|-
|Mode of Presence
| Presence Method
|
* Atom
* Electronics
* Linear
* Sound &amp; Image
|
* Bit
* Wire, wireless, hybrid
* Non-linear
* Convergent
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Society 
|
* Modern 
* Construct 
* State oriented
* Simulation 
|
* Post-modern
* De-construct
* Post-state
* Cybernetics
|}

Firstly introduced by Thompson,&lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot;&gt;Thompson, J. B. (1995). ''The media and modernity: A social theory of the media. Cambridge: Polity.''&lt;/ref&gt; this term is used to indicate new [[w:Convergent Technologies|convergent technologies’]] ability to bend the [[w:Spacetime|space-time continuum]]. In its most specific forms, it signifies the ability for media users and produced information not to be constrained by geographical and temporal boundaries. While this is not a new event in the history of technologies, the development of Internet-based media has certainly accelerated and further separated this two concepts from each other. Indeed, while in nature the where is inextricably linked to the when, the modern era has firstly disrupted some of this limitation:&lt;ref name=&quot;Giddens 1990&quot;&gt;Giddens, A. (1990). ''The consequences of modernity.'' Cambridge: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt; TV broadcasts, telegraphs, telephones and radios first permitted to spread a message to further 'where' and not necessarily at the same 'when', with pre-recorded programs and advertisements but the medium itself had to have a fixed and public 'where' such as a broadcasting station.

Notably, it's only in the new digital world that the perception and cognition of time and space as two tied notions has been allowed complete separation, while also changing the experience that we have of them in our social and everyday life. In fact, transformation of these two concepts is fundamental to understanding the interrelation of a public and a private sphere, both among humans interactions and the way we make sense of the world for ourselves through news outlets and information acquisitions.

For instance, we no longer need to be physically present to a [[w:Public space|public place]] to attend an event but we can do so from our own private and personal sphere, which is geographically restricted to i.e. our home or office. We can also attend simultaneous events through access to Internet [[w:Livestream|livestreams]], with always more websites providing this service even in a non-[[w:Pay-per-view|pay-per-view]] format, such as [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC4R8DWoMoI7CAwX8_LjQHig YouTube #Live].

Likewise, we can get public information and news from all over the world in real time without accessing [[w:Mainstream media|mainstream media]] institutions but relying on people who themselves are geographically based there. At the same time, we can too invite the public into our private sphere and entertain quasi-face-to-face interactions within our sphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot;&gt;Papacharissi, Z. A., (2013). Private Sphere: Democracy in ''A Digital Age''. Cambridge, Malden, MA: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

Similarly, the digital age also makes us less bound by time. Events that formerly required our physical presence at ''a certain time'', can nowadays be recorded and as [[w:Digital data|digital information]], which is easily copied and distributed, and can be watched delayed and multiple times.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; Accordingly, whenever people invite others into their private sphere, it is not necessary that all parties are present at the same time, but messages and information can be stored by digital media&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; and accessed with a time shift.  Consequently publicity through digital media does neither need the physical nor the simultaneous presence of all parties.

However, even on media with time-invariant programmes, such as television, broadcasting services can send small filming teams to live events and then air the programme time-delayed and repeatedly (see [[w:Broadcast delay|broadcast delay]]). This is enhanced through digital recording possibilities, which are nowadays accessible for private customers as well, and the possibility to reproduce and upload digital information without degraded quality to a wide spectrum of digital broadcasting platforms. For instance, the app [https://www.periscope.tv/ Periscope] allows private users to broadcast to their followers anywhere in the world whichever event, protest, scene that is happing near them. The broadcast is also recorded and can be seen from anyone who looks up its title for up to 24h. Commenting on it, the creators explicitly said that they wanted to build the closest thing to tele-transportation. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2015/12/010/what-is-twitters-new-periscope-app/]

Therefore, whichever the message, senders both institutional or private, can get into the public sphere and target their public audience more precisely: 
#They are less time-bound even on traditional media platforms. 
#They can choose the right time and right media platform either convenient for them or for the audience. 
#They reach a high coverage through greater [[w:Advertising media selection#Frequency|OTS]].

Concluding, the way these two spheres, the public and private, whose interconnection has characterised our lives for centuries, bear now a new appearance thanks to the disruption between temporal and spatial constraints.

=== Mobile Privatization ===
[[w:mobile privatisation|Mobile Privatization]] describes the connection between an individual and a mobile device that connects it to his private environment and creates a feeling of a 'comfortable zone' within the usage of that device. The term mobile can be seen as a non-geographical setting of privatization as people can transfer their home, which is originally seen as a building with four walls in each room, to every place that is connected to the internet.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Lee Myung-Bak and Ji So-Yun.jpg|thumb|Former South Korean President Lee Myung-Bak and footballer Ji So Yun]]&lt;/div&gt;
[[w:Zizi Papacharissi|Zizi Papacharissi]] describes in his book &lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; that 'within this private sphere, the citizen is alone, but not lonely or isolated. The citizen is connected, and operates in a mode and with political language determined by him or her.'
This act of privatization can take place everywhere the individual uses the device with a private reason. This can be a phone-call or even a photo which is being shared on Facebook.

Sharing and filming plays an important role in the current ongoing privatization of public places. A reason for that might be the 'uncoupling of space of time' argues [[w:John Thompson (sociologist)|John Thompson]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot; /&gt;
Content can be watched everywhere and everytime so that people don't need to meet anymore to know what the other is doing.
[[w:Raymond Williams|Raymond Williams]] describes the term of mobile privatization as 'the ability media offer audiences to simultaneously stay home and travel places'.

This movement started with [[w:Selfie|Selfies]] when people took photos of themselves in order to share it with their friends. This conflict between of private photos made public using a device that can connect to the [[w:world wide web|World Wide Web]].
The next developments are [[w:Video blog|Vlogs]] in which people start documenting their lives using a camera and upload their videos to a public sphere such as YouTube. This form of mobile privatization can be seen critical as people can decide which parts of their private life can be seen online but on the other hand they have no control of who can see these videos.

Castells &lt;ref name=&quot;Castells&quot;&gt;Castells, Fernandez-Ardevol, Linchuan Chiu &amp; Sey 2006&lt;/ref&gt; explains that 'The mobility of this private sphere further permits that everyday routines be interlaced in ways that render the individual reachable anywhere and anytime, in a way that may &quot;revolutionalize&quot; control of everyday life'.

Therefore mobile privatization can be a fitting description for an ongoing movement in the society but although a threat of losing control about our everyday life.

=== Digital Photography and Picture Sharing ===

With the advent of [[w:Digital photography|digital photography]], public and private spheres are becoming interchangeable and what used to be intimate and private is becoming public. For instance, as [[w:Smartphone|smartphones]] are becoming accessible to anyone, people can take pictures or video wherever they are, thus breaking the boundaries of other people’s privacy. People can take photos of strangers or of themselves and then show these pictures on websites like [[w:Flickr|Flickr]] or [[w:Deviantart|Deviantart]], making them available to strangers. As this kind of practice is becoming very popular, the concern about privacy issues related to it has attracted media attention.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lasen 2009&quot;&gt;[http://www.academia.edu/446728/Digital_Photography_and_Picture_Sharing_Redefining_the_Public_Private_Divide] Lasén, A., &amp; Gómez-Cruz, E. (2009). ''Digital Photography and Picture Sharing: Redefining the Public/Private Divide''. Knowledge, Technology &amp; Policy, 22(3), 205-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12130-009-9086-8&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Kamako native taking pictures at ASG arrival (7175918542).jpg|thumb|left]] &lt;/div&gt;

Despite there is not a general [[w:Photography and the law|law]] that forbids people from taking pictures of people in public and subsequently publish them (unless the person photographed is identifiable), people involved in this practice against their will might feel like their privacy (or private sphere) has been invaded.&lt;ref name=&quot;Otago 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.otago.ac.nz/law/research/journals/otago036267.pdf] Knewstubb, E. (2007). ''Photography in Public Places and the Privacy of the Individual (Bachelor of Laws (Honours)''. University of Otago.&lt;/ref&gt;
From a research carried out by Edgar Gomez on Flickr, we can clearly see how taking pictures of a stranger without a consent from that person might generate conflicts. The girl whose photo was taken without her knowing it, in fact, got upset when she found out that Flickr users had started a forum conversion with two photos of her with the title: &quot;''Someone Knows Her?''&quot;.[https://www.flickr.com/groups/49503016789@N01/discuss/72157600082355441/#comment72157602203711401] From her point of view they were breaking her privacy even though she was in a public space when the photo was taken. This is also a relevant point regarding social media and pictures being posted without the consent of the person actually in them.

According to [[w:Alan Westin|Alan Westin]], when people are in a public place, they are still seeking for '''anonymity''' and they try to find freedom from identification and [[w:Surveillance|surveillance]].&lt;ref&gt;Westin, A. (1967). ''Privacy and freedom''. New York: Atheneum.&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore being in a public space does not mean that everything we do is public, on the contrary, we still expect some privacy and we do not think that we will become the focus of attention or that someone will record us and publish picture of us on the web.&lt;ref name=&quot;Otago 2007&quot;/&gt; However, the users of the internet, used to the big amount of self-portraits and to the related disclosing facilitated by new technologies, apps and social networks, do not find sharing their private lives with strangers a problem,&lt;ref name=&quot;Lasen 2009&quot;/&gt; hence they feel free to break into other people’s lives.

One popular social network recently created has been [[w:Snapchat|Snapchat]]. It is an application on smartphones where people can take [[w:selfie|&quot;selfies&quot;]] and videos of anything they wanted. On some levels, Snapchat could be considered private. Videos and photos can’t last more than 10 seconds, and after that the video or photo disappears. However in those 10 seconds, the recipients of the Snapchats can quickly take a screenshot and thus invading someone’s trust and privacy.

When Snapchat was first created, it had no option to reply anything people sent to another. As it grew and developed so did its options, and the medium evolved and a reply function was added. This therefore can allow any one to repeat a Snapchat as many times as it wants. Thus losing its purpose of the original idea of the app. Furthermore, Snapchat can be seen as one of the most private social networks due to the fact that others may only follow you on it if you give them your unique username. It is far harder to be found on Snapchat than it is on more public sites such as Facebook, thus meaning that the limited audience on Snapchat is something that you create yourself.

Different from [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] where anyone can find yourself with just your first and last name. With digital media it is very difficult to find a site that is completely private. Snapchat can be seen as more private than others because it’s most likely that only your closest peers will have access to your Snapchat, so only a handful of people have access to the videos and photos posted. However, under the [[w:Terms and Conditions|&quot;Terms and Conditions&quot;]] of Snapchat it has been noted that Snapchat can keep anything posted, and use it.

=== User-generated Content ===
User-generated content (UGC) (also known as user-created content or user-driven content) comprise all digital content that is created, edited and published by the users of websites instead of the website´s publisher. This includes &quot;any form of content such as blogs, wikis, discussion, forums, posts, chats, tweets, podcasts, digital images, video, audio files, advertisements and other forms of media that was created by users […]&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2014&quot;&gt;Chua, T.; Juanzi, L.; Moens, M. (2014). Mining user generated content. Chapman and Hall/CRC. p. 7. {{ISBN|9781466557406}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Right before the internet was mainstreamed the content was pre-selected and edited by publishers of the mass media and their recipients only consumed the content in a one-sided, passive way.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsner 2012&quot;&gt;Elsner, M.(2012). Essay I: Spreading the Word – Assessing the Factors that Determine the Popularity of User-generated Content”, In ''Marketing im globalen Wettbewerb'' - Marketing &amp; Global Competition, Volume 2 : Information Propagation on the Web 2.0 : Two Essays on the Propagation of User-Generated Content and How It Is Affected by Social Networks, p. 21. Peter Lang AG, Frankfurt. ProQuest ebrary., Web. 9 March 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; 
But the fast diffusion of the Internet in the early 21 century and der rise of Web 2.0 driven technologies &lt;ref name=&quot;Elsner 2012&quot; /&gt; have mainly enabled the development of the web to a “participative web“.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.oecd.org/sti/38393115.pdf] Chua, T.; Juanzi, L.; Moens, M. (2007) OECD (2007). PARTICIPATIVE WEB: USER GENERATED CONTENT. DSTI/ICCP/IE(2006)7/FINAL. p. 8.&lt;/ref&gt; As part of this fundamental change towards user-driven technologies, the phenomenon of user-generated contents occurs and leads to a shift or new trend concerning the supplier of content online. In the early years of the internet, the majority of the content was coordinated and created by paid and professional administrators of websites. Due to this, the usage of the internet was limited to a passive use of the existing content. This form of one-sided publishing is still relevant and is applicable to a majority of the content that is provided online. Emphasised through the emergence of social networks and further user-driven platforms in 2005&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2014&quot; /&gt; the user-generated content phenomenon was pushed with the effect that the content is merely “pulled“ by users rather than “pushed” on them.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsner 2012&quot; /&gt; Nowadays internet users produce and share content at a high rate and do not merely consume it as several surveys reveal. “&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt;

The [http://www.oecd.org/ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)] has defined central characteristics that outline three criteria that user-generated content needs to fulfil:&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt;
# '''publication requirements''' state that the work must be published in some context on a publicly accessible website or a one that is only accessible to a selected group (e.g. social media sites) 
# '''creative effort''' implies that that users must add their own creative effort and value by creating content. This also includes if users are adapting existing content to make it a new one as a kind of collaborative work 
# '''Creation outside of professional routines and practices''' emphasis that work should not content any institutional or commercial market context


There are different formats of user-generated content that can be divided into four categories:&lt;ref name=&quot;Bauer 2011&quot;&gt;Christian A. (2011). User Generated Content – Urheberrechtliche Zulässigkeit nutzergenerierter Medieninhalte. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 6-8&lt;/ref&gt; texts, photo and images, audio and music as well as video and film. The most common format of user-generated content is the text type. Thereby the users create original texts, poems, novels, quizzes or jokes or just expanding the existing work and share this with the community. Most of the content are published on blogs, social networks or on websites as a kind of review. In this case, the phenomenon of [[w:Fan fiction|fan fiction]] is important. Further increasingly important types are user-created photos and images. Most of them are taken with digital cameras or smartphones and shared on platforms like [http://instagram.com Instagram], [http://snapchat.com snapchat], [http://pinterest.com Pinterest], [http://flickr.com Flickr] or [http://facebook.com Facebook].&lt;ref name=&quot;Cooper 2012&quot;&gt;[http://qubemedia.net/social-media/rise-photographs-social-media/] Cooper, N.. (2012). The growing importance of digital photo sharing to brand&lt;/ref&gt; Those uploads are maybe manipulated with several photo editing software. Self-created music, mash-ups or remixes of existing songs to a single track as well as podcasts belong to user-generated audio and music content. Besides of photos user also produce or edit video and film content. User provide homemade video content, remixes of pre-existing works or combine those two forms. The most important hosting platforms in Europe are Blip.tv, VideoEgg, Dailymotion, YouTube, Veoh and Google Video.&lt;ref name=&quot;Harvey 2006&quot;&gt;[http://www.lightreading.com/cable-video/video-services/top-ten-video-sharing-websites/d/d-id/630759] Harvey, P. (2006). Top Ten Video Sharing Websites. Retrieved from&lt;/ref&gt;

The distribution of user-generated content takes place on many different platforms and serve different purposes. The following chart shows a selection of distribution platforms for user-generated content and their characteristics.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kolbitsch, Maurer 2006&quot;&gt;Kolbitsch, J.&amp; Maurer, H (2006). The Transformation of the Web: How Emerging Communities Shape the Information we Consume in ''Journal of Universal Computer Science'', Vol. 12, No. 2 (2006), pp. 187-213.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;left; margin-right: 10px;&quot;
! Platform
! Description of the user-generated content
! Examples
|-
| Blogs
| Blogs contain newsgroup-like articles that were updated at frequent intervals. Postings consist text, photos, audio, video, or a combination. Blogs resemble a cross between diaries, newspaper editorials, and hotlists where owners write down information important to them
| [http://blogger.com Blogger], [http://tumblr.com Tumblr], [http://WordPress.com WordPress], [http://nucleuscms.org/ Nucleus CMS], [http://movabletype.com Movable Type]
|-
| Wikis and other collaboration formats (text)
| Websites where user add, remove, or otherwise edit and change content collectively 
| [http://Wikipedia.com Wikipedia], [http://Wikibooks.com Wikibooks], [http://PBWiki.com PBWiki], [http://JotSpot.com JotSpot], [http://SocialText.com SocialText], [http://Writely.com Writely]
|-
| Forums 
| Platform where people talk about different topics
| [http://2channel.com 2channel], [http://Yahoo!_groups.com Yahoo! Groups], [http://phpBB.com phpBB]
|-
| Group-based aggregation
| Collecting links of online content and rating or tagging collaboratively
| [http://digg.com Digg], [http://reddit.com reddit], [http://buzzfeed.com BuzzFeed]
|-
| Podcasting and video sharing
| 
*Distribution of a multimedia file over the Internet using syndication feeds, for playback on mobile devices or personal computers
*Posting and sharing of self-made or remixed video clips
|
*[http://iTunes.com iTunes], [http://feedbruner.com FeedBruner], [http://ipodderx.com iPodderX], [http://winamp.com WinAmp],
*[http://YouTube.com YouTube], [http://vimeo.com vimeo]
|-
| Social network sites
| Sites allowing the creation of personal profiles and where users interact with other people in terms of chatting, writing messages, or posting images or links
| [http://Facebook.com Facebook], [http://Twitter.com Twitter], [http://Instagram.com Instagram], [http://vk.com VK], [http://snapchat.com snapchat]
|-
|}

The user creation movement, in addition, influences the way how [[An Internet of Everything?/Access to Knowledge and Data in Everyday Life#User-Generated Content in Professional Media|traditional mass media work]] and emerges new forms of participatory journalism.&lt;ref name=&quot;McNair, B.; Heinrich, A.; Volkmer, I; Firdaus, A.; Graham, T 2013&quot;&gt;McNair, B.; Heinrich, A.; Volkmer, I; Firdaus, A.; Graham, T. (2013). “Part 2: Participatory forms of Journalism”, In Peters, C.; Broersma, M. (eds.) Rethinking Journalism, pp. 73-128. Routledge, Oxon. {{ISBN|978-0-203-10268-8}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Despite its originally non-commercial context, user-created content has already changed to be an important economic phenomenon, too.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt; Companies try to develop and establish successful business models based on UGC, like the video-sharing website YouTube. In cooperation with really successful YouTube stars, they connect the user-generated videos with advertisements and generates more than $200 million ad dollar per year. 
 
==== Ownership of User-Generated Content ====
One of the issues with the internet is the ability of people being able to take content such as literary work, art, music or videos and upload or repost it without the artist's credit. The internet also gives them the opportunity to take credit for these works. [[w:Copyright|Copyright laws]] state that this is in fact, illegal, for 'the author of any work is the first owner'.&lt;ref&gt;Copyright, designs and patterns act 1988&lt;/ref&gt; This includes work that is posted online.&lt;ref&gt;Stokes, 2014&lt;/ref&gt; However, despite these laws the internet has made it extremely easy to bypass these regulations. There are thousands of instances where artists online, such as photographers, have to put watermarks on their images, lower the resolution and size or confront art thieves in order to protect their work. There are [http://www.artpromotivate.com/2012/02/online-art-theft-what-to-do-about-it.html websites] which tell artists that they have the right to start a lawsuit, however, this is often an expensive and long process and may not always be a feasible solution. It is difficult to locate thieves of small, online-artists and writers and file law-suits against them. That could mean tracking them down via an IP address which could come from anywhere in the world, followed by high costs in lawsuits. The internet has therefore made it increasingly difficult to legitimize the credits that certain creators deserve, regardless of the copyright laws.

However, it is more difficult than just having art stolen, for the lines of copyright are very blurred when it comes to things such as parodied videos, images from television shows that have been altered, fanart and other [[w:fan labor|fan labor]]. In fact, people have profited off of the art and literary work they have produced inspired or including ideas from books, TV-shows and films, such as [[w:Fity Shades of Grey|Fifty Shades of Grey]]. Certain fan-art forms are seen as theft, such as taking clips from a TV-show.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lothian, 2009&quot;&gt;Lothian, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Creative commons licenses can offer some leeway in these situations, but that is not always the case. Here it becomes difficult to decide what counts as theft and what counts as artistic expression. On the one hand, the original content of such an art form is not made by the user itself, but because they transform the art and create a new kind of art, new user-generated content has been created. There are organizations that support the idea that these transformed artworks are indeed legitimate content that should be credited to the user.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lothian, 2009&quot;/&gt; However, the debate remains difficult to whom the art truly belongs to; the original artist, or the user who altered it.

== Narrative of the Self ==

=== Dramaturgical Representation of the Self, Ancient Greek Theatre Notion of Persona ===

The word [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/persona#Latin persōna] is the [[w:Latin|Latin]] equivalent of the [[w:Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] word [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/πρόσωπον πρόσωπον]([[w:Prosopon|Prosopon]]). The Greek word itself is composed by the preposition pros- which stands for ‘towards’ and the word ops- which usually is translated with the words hole or eye. Hence, Prosopon can be translate as face (that which is before our eyes), front, character and appearance but it can also mean [[w:Mask|mask]], [[w:Personality|personality]]. &lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Mask youngster Louvre S3044.jpg|thumb|right|Theatre Mask Representing A Young Man. Louvre Museum.]] &lt;/div&gt;

Even though the etymological tie between these two words is conjectural, the modern conception of persona still relies on its original Greek meaning.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sasso 2001&quot;&gt;Sassi, M. (2001). The science of man in ancient Greece. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.&lt;/ref&gt; In fact, when we talk about the concept of [[w:Persona|Persona]], we usually link its meaning back to the [[w:Theatre of ancient Greece|Theatre of ancient Greece]] and to the notion of mask. In the Classical Greek period, the word Prosopon was used to mean both the mask that actors wore in order to play different characters on the stage and the human face.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vovolis 2009&quot;&gt;[http://www.academia.edu/1086294/Prosopon.The_Acoustical_Mask_in_Greek_Tragedy_and_in_Contemporary_Theatre]
Vovolis, T. Prosopon.The Acoustical Mask in Greek Tragedy and in Contemporary Theatre. Academia.edu. Retrieved 9 March 2016, from http://www.academia.edu/1086294/Prosopon.The_Acoustical_Mask_in_Greek_Tragedy_and_in_Contemporary_Theatre&lt;/ref&gt;

The mask’s function was to depict the main characteristics of specific characters so that the [[w:Audience|audience]] could understand the characters’ role.&lt;ref&gt;Kostera, M. (2012). Organizations and archetypes. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.&lt;/ref&gt; In an open-air theatre, like the [[w:Theatre of Dionysus|Theatre of Dionysus]], the very intense, extroverted expressions of the masks with wide-open mouths were able to bring the characters’ face closer to the spectators, thanks to their features.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vovolis,Zamboulakis 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html] Vovolis, T., &amp; Zamboulakis, G. (2007). The Acoustical Mask of Greek Tragedy. Didaskalia, 7(1). Retrieved from http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, the shape of the mask itself formed a resonance chamber which not only allowed the audience members in the distant seats to hear the characters better, but also created a connection between the character and the theatre. Furthermore, it lead the human body behind the mask to a metamorphosis, hence the human face became the mask.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vovolis,Zamboulakis 2007&quot;/&gt;

During the theatrical [[w:Performance|performance]], the actor had to vanish into the role of the character. The actor had to become the character in order to establish a particular kind of [[w:Social relation|interaction]] with the public. Starting from this concept of theatrical performance, [[w:Erving Goffman|Erving Goffman]] compared the way people construct their own identity in everyday life with the way actors perform characters.

In ''[[w:The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life|The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life]]'', Goffman employs a [[w:Dramaturgy (sociology)|dramaturgical]] approach in his studies about human interaction. Interaction is viewed as a performance and it depends on time, place and audience; human beings therefore act accordingly to some cultural beliefs depending on their environment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barnhart 2003&quot;&gt;[http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/Presentation%20of%20Self.htm] Barnhart, A. (2003). Erving Goffman. Web.pdx.edu.&lt;/ref&gt;

One of Goffman’s key concepts is the distinction between private and public, which are represented by the '''back region''' and the '''front region'''. The back region can be considered as a private or hidden space where individuals can be themselves and where they do not need to act in a certain way or conform to social norms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ritzer 1992&quot;&gt;Ritzer, G. (1992). Sociological theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/ref&gt; Whereas the front region corresponds to a public space where people have to perform a specific identity and where performers are on guard, careful not to give the wrong impression to the audience.&lt;ref name=&quot;Aspling 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:431462/FULLTEXT01.pdf] Aspling, F. (2011). The private and the public in online presentations of the self A critical development of Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective (1st ed.). Stockholm. Retrieved from http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:431462/FULLTEXT01.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

In the Digital Age, it is not only physical spaces, such as a classroom or the stage of a theatre, that fall into this category, but also social networks and online communication. The way human beings perform their identity online is not too different from the way they perform the self in real life situations. In fact, nowadays, people can influence the impressions others have of them in many different ways online. For instance, individuals can decide not to share some information like their age or location on their [[w:Social networking service|Social Network]]; can set their privacy settings so that different people will only see certain things on their social media accounts; and can manipulate their pictures so that others will have a specific opinion of them and view them in a certain way. This [[w:Consciousness|conscious]] or [[w:Subconscious|subconscious]] process was already present in face-to-face interactions and it is known as [[w:Impression management|Impression Management]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Aspling 2011&quot;/&gt;

Goffman coined this term, which can also be associated with the concept of self-presentation. According to him, impression management is about “successfully staging a character”. In order to create a perfect theatrical character, actors “must subscribe to a variety of concerns to foster a desired impression before their audience”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Grove and Fisk 1992&quot;&gt;[http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/7341/volumes/v19/NA-19] Grove, S., &amp; Fisk, R. (1992). The Service Experience As Theater. Advances In Consumer Research, 19, 455-461. Retrieved from http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/7341/volumes/v19/NA-19&lt;/ref&gt; Goffman adopted the term '''Personal Front''' in order to describe one of these concerns, which consists of items needed to perform, items “that we most intimately identify with the performer himself and that we naturally expect will follow the performer wherever he goes”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Goffman 1959&quot;&gt;Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.&lt;/ref&gt;
Presumably, Goffman had in mind the Theatre of ancient Greece,&lt;ref name=&quot;D'hondt, Östman,Verschueren 2009&quot;&gt;D'hondt, S., Östman, J., &amp; Verschueren, J. (2009). The pragmatics of interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.&lt;/ref&gt; as the performance he described recalls the performance typical of the ancient Greek Drama where the use of the mask was crucial in order to stage and become a character.

=== Different Personas for Different Audiences: Jungian Conception of Mask ===

With all the advantages that social media and other forms of online communication offer us, there also comes a certain pressure to 'perform' online; to present a version of yourself to the internet and subsequently the public. This is something psychologist [[w: Carl Jung|Carl Jung]] defined as a [[w:Persona (psychology)|persona]], or a 'mask', that is explored in [[w: Two Essays on Analytical Psychology|Two Essays on Analytical Psychology]].

Indeed, Jung identified the persona as the mean through which the individual establishes a relationships between himself and the outside world. However, it constitutes a partial way of connection because it does not have to necessarily match a person's self and [[w: ego|ego]]. This is the reason it is often referred to as a mask: although it retains properties of the person who wears it, is mainly functional in relation to the social role that it is meant to entertain. According to Jung, is perfectly normal from a psychological point of view to have a persona and it is indeed fundamental for the development of the individual and the society which he is part of. In fact, it represents a compromise between the high demands that sophisticated social relationships require and what the person wishes they would be or they wish they could appear to be. Therefore, it is a system of behaviour that is partially dictated by society and partially dictated by the expectations and wishes of oneself regarding oneself.&lt;ref name=&quot;partially&quot;&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyi7THb2Wvs] Jung on Persona&lt;/ref&gt;
It is easy to see why the notion of masquerading fits so well with the performance individuals stage online, all playing different roles at once.

Human beings are complex, meaning no one form of social media allows us to express every persona or element of our personality that we can exhibit in real life. The invisible and often anonymous nature of online communication means that people can present any persona of their choosing and this can be liberating for some. Theorist Adrian Athique's arguments tie into those of Jung. Athique comments in his book [http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0745662285.html Digital Media and Society: An Introduction] that the &quot;social norms guiding group interaction had the potential to break down online, primarily due to the loss of visual cues that defined the social hierarchy.&quot; 
This is a noteworthy argument. For many, there is nothing holding people back online. People who are perhaps introverted and anxious in public and social interactions can find a sense of freedom online, a chance to put on the 'mask' that they are not able to do in real life and say things on the internet that they feel they can't in person.

Jung sees the persona as a real and honest way to both free an individual and also conceal their 'true nature'. The way that we navigate our online worlds and present these personas online, however, is complicated. 
Audiences, both in person and on the internet, will all receive a slightly different persona from one another. You probably would not feel comfortable speaking to your employer the same way that you would speak to close friends. Social media can be restrictive in this way. Having not only your friends, but also family members and both current and potential employers on networking sites such as [https://en-gb.facebook.com/login/ Facebook] means that is unlikely you will can truly be yourself, as you have a variety of audiences to please and entertain using only one or two of your 'masks' and online personas.

The internet can often restrict the image you present of yourself on any one social media site. This can be why people usually have multiple online accounts on a variety of sites, from [https://www.tumblr.com/ Tumblr] to [https://uk.pinterest.com/ Pinterest]. Different sites are aimed at different audiences and can often limit people to only one of their personas. You are encouraged to share and explore different elements of both your personality and your life in different spaces online. What people express on [https://twitter.com/login?lang=en-gb Twitter] they may not feel like they can post on [https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook]. Different groups of the public require a different mask, from professional to personal. Networking sites purely for job hunting and professional pursuits are emerging, a popular site being [https://gb.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. These kinds of audiences obviously would be presented with a different persona than the ones exhibited on more casual social media sites. Jung himself observed that every different profession and occupation require a different set of characteristics and personas.

Our social identities are fluid and evolving, and it appears sometimes that the nature of certain social media sites does not allow for us to present all of our 'personas' at once. 
Social media allows people to create an online space, privately or publicly, to be whoever they want to be and to wear whichever mask they want to wear. Different audiences in different areas of our lives all receive a different interpretation of ourselves in real life, and this does not change online. Different masks suit different situations both online and off, and your online persona may be closer to your true self than the image you portray to people in the real world. 
Nonetheless, Jung warns us, it must be maintained that identification with oneself’s persona is detrimental; the subject must be conscious that he/she is not identical to the way in which they appear through their persona. If not, that is if this persona freely controls a subject unconsciously, a discrepancy might arise between the way one appears in different contexts and in the way in which one perceives himself in relation to others. This too can happen online, with equally serious consequences.

=== Narcissism and Asceticism ===

The mythological character [[w: Narcissus|Narcissus]] was seen as an example to avoid, especially in Ancient Greece where the self-absorption and selfishness on the citizens’s was seen as detrimental for public values of community, democracy and political participation. Indeed, although self-expression was considered a powerful tool for people to contribute their opinion in public places such as the [[w:Ecclesia|Ecclesia (ancient Athens)]], a self-centred opinion was not accepted.

Time has passed, but [[w:narcissism|narcissism]] is still often described in negative terms. However, Papacharissi,&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; drawing from [[w:Richard Sennett|Richard Sennett]] and [[w:Christopher Lasch|Christopher Lasch]] work, argues that in a social media context narcissism does not necessarily retain its pathological and pejorative characteristics. Indeed, it works along side of post-modern values of autonomy, self-expression and control and itself favours a need for introspection and self-centredness that relies on the rapidity with which the subject can shift or merge the private and public sphere. 
That is because, unlike in ancient times, narcissism of this form is self-directed and self-based but it is not in itself pathologically selfish. Namely, while it does favour auto-promotion and presentation, the social media tools of which the subject makes use through personalisation are not by themselves intended to benefit the subject directly: recognition happens through others.
Other issues might emerge from the amount of possible personalisations of a topic in terms of reliability within a democratic debate, but these narcissistic practices, whether they take the shape of blogs entries on [https://it.wordpress.com/ WordPress], [https://en-gb.facebook.com/login/%20Facebook Facebook] profiles or [https://twitter.com/login?lang=en-gb%20Twitter Twitter] updates, they are fundamentally part of a search for contact among different subjects.

However, contrary to the opinions expressed in the ecclesia, what social media users announce from their pulpit is not finalised at contributing to the public sphere; these opinions might be used to monitor civic engagement and to a certain degree they do constitute a form of political and social expression of one’s thoughts, but first of all they are based on self-fulfilling evaluation of content by those who produce them. 
Similarly, according to Lasch these tendencies, unlike pathological behaviour, arise from a sense of insecurity and self-interrogation that cross the boundaries of public and private and which cannot in this sense be oriented to exclusively selfish desire. Notably, this form of narcissism arises from desperation in a society that does not provide a clear distinction between public and private &lt;ref name=&quot;Lasch 1991&quot;&gt;Lasch, C. (1991). The Culture of Narcissism: American life in an age of diminishing expectations. New York,: W. W. Norton, 26-33&lt;/ref&gt;

This can be explanatory of the recent phenomenon of [[w:Selfie|Selfie]], where just the name itself speaks for values of self-referentiality and self-absorption. However, despite several critiques about selfies promoting narcissistic behaviour and [[w:hubris|hubris]] in those who post them,&lt;ref name=&quot;hubris&quot;&gt;[http://www.theguardian.com/media-network/media-network-blog/2014/mar/13/selfie-social-media-love-digital-narcassism] Premuzic,T. Sharing the (self) love: the rise of the selfie and digital narcissism in ''The Guardian'', 13 March 2014&lt;/ref&gt; the phenomenon has also been identified as a form of re-assessing and re-assuring self-esteem through sharing with others. This presents this interpretation of narcissism as something far from disorder and more as new way through with the self projects itself into the world by a self-controlled mediation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fosco 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/molly-fosco/taking-a-selfie-has-more-_b_4901315.html] Fosco, Molly. Taking a Selfie Has More to Do With Self Worth Than You Realize in ''The Huffington Post'', 5 June 2014&lt;/ref&gt; Analyzing why people post 'selfies' can take away from the fundamental fact that in many ways they are a form of expression. For many, a 'selfie' is an act of self expression, celebration, liberation and autonomy, rather than a ploy for attention or praise.

At the same time, Sennett identifies narcissism in this sense as a form of [[w:asceticism|asceticism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;&gt;Sennett, R. (1977). The fall of public man. N.Y., Knopf.&lt;/ref&gt; Drawing from [[w:Heinz Kohut|Heinz Kohut]] work in psychology, Sennett suggests that narcissism is less a clinical condition and more a preoccupation that one has of his self-hood and the role of the self “as a source of initiative, intentionality and unity for the personality” plays.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;
What Narcissus is looking for when he drowns, Sennett argues, is certainly his self-image but at the same time this self and its depth is an alluring form of “Other”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;/&gt; That is, the reflected image presents a self that is more deep, interesting and seductive than the original one. The Image, that Narcissus sees and construct of himself exits the inside world and wants to reach out to him and be apprehended, drawn, out of the water. Therefore, self-absorption  is not selfishly fixated on psychological interiority and magnification, but rather it concentrates on that surfacing image which appears more likeable and intriguing. This is the image that Narcissus wants the outside to see and the one he wants to be recognised for. 
Despite a sense of lack within the self, Sennet identifies the ability of the self to take interiority as a starting point for withdrawal from its own self in search for a better image as a form of asceticism.
Namely, the subject who retreats ''from'' its self manages self-examination and reflection ''on'' itself, thus promoting self-understanding and autonomy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;/&gt;
Nonetheless, Narcissus, as preclusively closed and stagnant towards activities that do not revolve around the self and its characterisation in the ways explained above, eludes an active public sphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;/&gt;

=== Private spheres as an environment of autonomy, control and self-expression ===

“Participating in a MoveOn.org online protest, expressing political opinion on blogs, viewing or posting content on YouTube, or posting a comment in an online discussion group represents an expression of dissent with a public agenda, determined by mainstream media and political actors. It stands as a private, digitally enabled, intrusion on a public agenda determined by others.”&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;

In this digital age, society have been given the tools to speak freely on the internet. Once users have gained access to posting within a [[w:Private sphere|private sphere]] online, individuals gained the control over their audiences. On sites like [[w:Instagram|Instagram]], [[w:Twitter|Twitter]] and [[w:Facebook|Facebook]], users have the autonomy to craft a public image to a select audience. The privacy settings on these sites allows users to privatise posts, and gives them a sense of control over their own content. These social media sites are the only place people can exhibit and experience total self control as they can choose what they say and how they present themselves.

Photos posted online are a good example of the images people can construct of themselves and their lives and then present online. For example, on Instagram there are many filter options and ways to edit a photo being posted, as well as. If photo is edited in some way, it could mean that the portrayal of the user's life is edited for the public eye online. People can choose to omit certain details of their lives online. Facebook profile pictures are chosen to show the best angles, and is the photo that represents users to their &quot;friends&quot; and any other strangers who may click on their account. The privacy of Facebook means users have the control over who they are friends with, and in turn who sees their posts. However, even profile pictures and cover photos are outwith the private sphere of this website, so, when choosing these photos people tend to have the idea of the public sphere in their mind, and thus having control over how the public sees them as well as their audience. Many of the photos and opinions that people post on social media may not be suitable for every one of their online audiences, which is something to take in to consideration regarding the subject of self expression.

In relation to the previously mentioned quote, using online forums for personal expression is another way in which the private sphere can be used. The possibility of becoming anonymous on a website and giving opinions could be considered part of the private sphere, as anonymity is protects personal image. The private sphere gives people the chance to express themselves in a digitally enabled community. This aspect of anonymity can be liberating for many people, who may be reluctant to speak out freely if they had to do so in public. This sense of confidentiality can be encouraging in both negative and positive senses. Negative, as people are more willing to be rude or 'troll' other people online when they know they will not be caught out. Positive, as it may give people a sense of confidence to express their beliefs.

For many, social media accounts may be the only place that a lot of people get to exhibit and experience total self control. They can choose what they say and how they present themselves and are able to create private online area that can encourage creativity and self-acceptance. The public and private versions of individual's online selves can differ, meaning that many social media users begin to 'craft' a version of themselves to present to their online audiences.

The way in which people can present themselves among their peers within a mediated environment could potentially mean an issue with realism. Creating personas on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram can be construed as painting a false image of yourself and also what real life looks like. Despite the positives behind posting on a private page, within a gated community, it can be argued that people are still using this as a way to create false personas to impress their followers.

It can also be argued, however, that it is within these online gated communities that people are often able to express their true selves and communicate with people that they believe to be more on their wavelength than the people they know in real life. Depending on the audience they may be catering to online, it can be believed that many people do not seek out a place online to 'perform' or show off, but a place that they have created themselves where they feel safe enough to present an image and persona that is closer to who they truly are than the one they exhibit in day to day life.

=== Identity Performance and Management of the Impressions of the Self ===
As [[w:Goffman|Erving Goffman]] explains,&lt;ref name=&quot;Goffman 1959&quot;/&gt; the individual who is part of a social group and in the immediate presence of other becomes at once initiator and part of a staged performance. Within this performance, the individual will intentionally or unintentionally express himself, and the other individuals of the group will in return be impress in various way by him. While the impression that the individual gives off cannot be entirely predicted in the way it will be received, the main interest for the subject is that to try and construct and impression that is consistent with the way in which the subject wishes to be seen.

That is, the subject works to influence, in its formulation, impression directed at others in the attempt to have them receive the impression that was meant to be conveyed, thus also shaping the situation which the recipient finds himself in. However, sometimes a subject might. In addition, the degree to which the subject disclose certain aspects of their life, thus censoring some information and making available others through a form of “crafting” of the represented-self, enormously shapes the perception given. Within this performance, the observes too have a role that doesn't comply with merely observing, The spectator, whom is part of the spectacle, knows that he's being allowed to perceive and knows the his perception serves the performance, but at the same time, even more if he's a performer himself, he knows that something is being hidden. However, his role is confined to the front region and he cannot access the subject’s backstage. Nonetheless, if the observer is enough close to the subject, he might disrupt, even unintentionally, the constructed impression that the subject has tried to give to themselves, thus resulting in the subject embarrassment. This could be the case when, for instance, pictures in which the subject has been tagged on SNS differs a lot from the staged self-presentation that the latter has crafted.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot;/&gt;

The [[w:impression management|Impression Management]] process that the subjects controls, therefore, inevitably concerned with the dialectic of social relations. For this reason, the subject has to satisfy his desire for control with regard to the situation and ways in which his own self-representation will be perceived by others. However, just like he has under-played and over-played some aspects of their representation, so have done others too in the role of subjects, especially in the way they feel about him. Therefore, all the relevant social data about other in order for a complete control are unavailable. In their absence, the individual tends to employ cues, tests, hints, expressive gesture, status symbols that works as predictable devices for his characterisation in others’ minds. 
Indeed, to avoid a by-product impression of his representation, the subject has the option to reframe their representation in a way that the observer will be manipulated by those cues, [[w:signs|Sign]] and [[w:symbols|Symbol]] in his interpretation. 
That is, a sign can be employed by the subject in the absence of knowledge of what the observer’s interpretation of the sign’s signified would be. For this reason, a convincing impression is not necessarily concerned with what the subject is or has but these elements can be engineered enough to convince, in their absence, the observer that they are indeed possessed.

In regards to presentation of the self and impression management, Goffman has stated: “people give a ‘performance’ when they allow themselves to be photographed, in the sense that they make allowance for a public that will ultimately see the photograph.” He uses the term ‘performance’ to refer to ‘all the activity of a given participant on a given occasion which serves to influence in any way any of the other participants’. The 21st century has brought the introduction of Internet and therefore new [[w:Social Networks|Social Networks]], such as [[w:Facebook|Facebook]]. Through websites such as these, society has managed to use photographs unconsciously and consciously to express themselves in various forms.

There are many contributing factors that go into taking and choosing photographs that one may decide to put online. A process has been used in Chalfen’s Snapshot Versions of life (1987):

- [[w:Planning|Planning]]

- [[w:Shooting (on-camera)|Shooting (on-camera)]]

- [[w:Shooting (off-camera)|Shooting (off-camera)]]

- [[w:Editing|Editing]]

- [[w:Exhibition|Exhibition]]

However, after analyzing Mendelson and Papacharissi’s “Look at us: Collective Narcissism in Facebook Photos”,&lt;ref&gt;Networked Self, Papacharissi, Chapter 12&lt;/ref&gt; there is more than just planning, posing, shooting, that goes behind uploading a picture on any Social Network Sites (SNSs). Media gives the opportunity for people to express themselves in various forms. 
“While people are purportedly presenting themselves, they are presenting a highly selective version of themselves. Social Network Sites (SNSs) present the latest networked platform enabling self-presentation to a variety of interconnected audiences.” (Mendelson and Papacharissi) SNSs allow people to present themselves different for different audiences. For example, in some cases people create multiple versions of Facebook, one for their parents and one for their peers. As well, people edit their photographs according to who their audience may be. Consciously and unconsciously people work to define the way they are perceived by others, hoping to cause a positive impression. For this to happen, have to put effort in their appearance, the way they act, and try to hide their flaws. Uploading a profile picture, or any photo, is a process because it represents who a person is. A deciding influence to choosing a photo to upload is the thought of who will be seeing it. For example, having your grandmother on Facebook stops one from posting photos from a social night that only your social group would find amusing.

Donath and Boyd define SNSs as: “online environments in which people create a self-descriptive profile […] Participants in social networks sites are usually identified by their real names and often include photographs; their network of connections is displayed as an integral piece of their [[w:self-presentation|self-presentation]].” The more personalized photographs individuals take emphasize how they wish their lives to be remembered. Consciously and unconsciously individuals transform themselves before the camera; portraying a version of ourselves we hope to be. In networked environments that blend private and public boundaries, like SNSs, Facebook, inadvertently communicate content of a performative nature to a variety of audiences.

=== Celebrity Culture ===
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:left; text-align: center;&quot;
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&lt;big&gt;'''Facebook and Twitter News Use is on the Rise'''&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;''% of users who get there news there'' &lt;ref name=&quot;journalism.org&quot;&gt;http://www.journalism.org/2015/07/14/the-evolving-role-of-news-on-twitter-and-facebook/&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot;| Twitter
| colspan=&quot;5&quot;| Facebook
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|&amp;nbsp;||2013||&amp;nbsp;||2015||&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;||2013||&amp;nbsp;||2015||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
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&lt;/div&gt;

The demand for celebrities to be part of the ‘always-on’ culture is continuing to grow. The demand is ever increasing from fans for interaction with celebs. An interesting quote completely sums up this point about the effects which [[w:social media|social media]] has on celebrities:

{{Quote|text=&gt;&gt;The most important thing about a technology is how it changes people.&lt;&lt;|| &lt;small&gt;John Lanier&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2010&quot; /&gt;}}

This demonstrates the matter that once celebs become successful, technology is the first tell-tale of their identity, their social morals and how their success impacts them as people.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2010&quot; /&gt;
In fact, many celebrities have built their entire careers around 'always-on' culture and the power of social media as a platform that encourages celebrity culture. Nowadays, 'celebrities' are developing through sites such as [https://www.youtube.com/ YouTube], [https://www.snapchat.com/ SnapChat] and [https://vine.co/ Vine].

Due to every celebrity’s massive succession, fans feel the need to have a constant connection to their idols. This puts a constraint on celebs to be always available and connected to their fans, providing what is deemed to be appropriate content. Celebs face massive challenges involving the type of content which they post online and what is seen to be the ‘right’ opinion.

This can result in people losing their sense of identity and conform to society's ideology - post appropriate content, always looking ‘perfect’, have the ‘right’ opinion and convey a positive image. Although social media provides many advantages for us to reach many different people, it is still limited to time and amount of attention we have at one moment.&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot;/&gt;

A key point to be made here is that technology is less political and more about [[w:Power (social and political)|power]] and [[w:social status|social status]]. Technology becomes the centre to influence of succession and technology acts as a base to build social status across the globe, key to all celebs. Celebrity dominance over all aspects of social media has led to a noticeable imbalance of power, and encourages the belief that celebrities are deities rather than human beings who make mistakes online.

This can also lead to a [[w:narcissism|narcissistic]] image of celebrities. The attention which celebs receive on a daily basis is massive and so it is likely a transition will take place: a change from a ‘normal’ everyday user to an obsession of self-image and a focus shifted to them and who they portray. The mediation on images and publications is so selective and the majority of the time it is not in the control of the celebrity but in the hands of their manager.

As expressed by Lanier, newspapers are in decline so more value is now being placed on the internet, which could be problematic.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2006&quot;&gt;Lanier, J. (2006) DIGITAL MAOISM: The Hazards of the New Online Collectivism, Edge&lt;/ref&gt; People are much more likely to check social media above any other source according to a report by the Pew Research Centre.&lt;ref name=&quot;journalism.org&quot;/&gt; The priority which social media takes for news is a rising issue for celebrities as major platforms are notorious for spreading news either correct or not.

Trolling is one of the biggest issues connected to celebrities and their privacy online. Particularly on social media, trolling is extremely common. Either fan bases or the opposition could pose to be a celebrity and therefore create a fake account or page based upon this person. This is problematic as celebs personal information is up for interpretation and this is also how spread - leaving the celebrity with no control or privacy rumours. This can lead to misrepresentation and becomes much more personal online.

A common theme among celebrities due to social media and access to information and data is leaking of harmful content. This is a growing problem for celebrities as journalists and media users are abusing there power in order to gain hidden content. An example of the way that the internet can be used to abuse the platform that celebrities have been given is the hacking of female celebrities and subsequent leaking of nude and private images. Women in the limelight are targeted and violated by different forms of media and have their private property stolen and leaked online, where the images will last forever.

&quot;The incredible amount of activity in contemporary culture that explores the boundaries of the personal, the private, the intimate, and the public resembles the discourse of celebrity but expands pandemically beyond that realm because it deals with the general population.&quot; - &lt;small&gt;David Marshall&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall 2014&quot;&gt;Marshall, P. David. Celebrity and Power : Fame in Contemporary Culture. Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

Social media also instigates 'stalking' on celebrities. The ability to access open pages, interpretative pages of a celeb and profiles creates a path for celebrities to be stalked, with all of their information at major risk. In a study of stalking and psychological behaviour, it was made clear that the main access and vocal point of stalking is media. “Stalkers of celebrity figures are the sensation of the popular media, particularly if they have threatened or been violent toward the object of their pursuit.” &lt;ref name=&quot;Meloy 2008&quot;&gt;Meloy, J. Reid, and Sheridan, Lorraine. Stalking, Threatening, and Attacking Public Figures : A Psychological and Behavioral Analysis. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, USA, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

Celebrities convey this [[w:celebrity culture|idealised culture]]; a culture which in many ways is desired by others and is that of luxury and high style. However, in other ways celebrities do attempt to show a 'normal' life narrative; make them more human. This narrative may include instances where celebrities pose doing activities which the average person might or associating themselves with brands which the 'common' person may like. But, what really distinguishes celebrities from the average person is the level of publicity they receive and this is out of their control. Once someone has delved into the deep end of celebrity culture, all privacy is out of the window.

=== Online Identity - Pushing the Boundaries of Public and Private ===

Our [[w:Online identity|online identity]] and the identity we take online can change our usage of the Internet; this narrative of us changes the functions of the digital media. The narrative of self is important to create boundaries of public or private in our online usage. The self that we choose to create and display online is beginning to place boundaries on the public and private functions of the Internet and due to our growing society, has changed our perceptions of public and private.

One form which our online identity can take and is most popular is that of [[w:open source|open source]]. This means that our profiles are available with lots of information about us published, pushing the boundary of private. This factor can make being private more difficult because of the amount of information the user has allowed online. Additionally part of our online appearance is out of our control, i.e. shared information, that companies [[#Nothing Created or Destroyed|track down]]. And as characteristically digital data is easily copyable,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; one cannot restraint, that these companies or people, we shared content with, spread these further - our private sphere is extended to a part, that is invisible to us.
Another point of concern is perhaps the inherent nature of sharing on [[w:social media|social media]], in that we can never truly control what circulates on these sites about our private lives. Often information is published on social media by both individuals and larger companies without our permission. To a large extent we have no control over the images that are posted of us without our knowledge or consent. It is in this way that our online identities are shaped into something that we perhaps do not recognize or support.

So our perception of public means that we believe our information to be available to everyone, and anyone can view our content. However, since this is becoming more acceptable, it needs to be made more aware of the dangers of being public online. This is pushing the boundaries of public as the type of user we choose to be alters this public stance.

Online identity is the make- up of our character online and who we choose to be online. The choice of sharing real life information can alter [[w:Privacy|privacy]] or oppose it; can change the [[w:Publicity|publicity]] as we may choose to reserve certain information thus making our profile more private. The information that we choose to make either public or private about ourselves online can shape the identity that we create and then present to our online audiences. [[#Altered Narratives of the Self|''(see section 1.7.2: Altered Narratives of the Self)'']]

So, this brings about the question to what extent our identity defines privacy? Are we really private if we still have information online? This question highlights the boundaries to which social media pushes privacy and shows that despite being private on [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] for example, we still need a profile picture and basic information.

This can also be linked to key theorist [[#Hamid Van Koten|Hamid Van Koten]] who suggests a link between identity and culture. He implies that what we choose to display about ourselves and choice of public or private says a lot about us as people and our identities and our culture.&lt;ref name= &quot;Van Koten 2009&quot;&gt;Van Koten, H (2009). The Digital Image and the Pleasure Principle: the Consumption of Realism in the Age of Simulation in ''Digital Visual Culture: Theory and Practice''. Bristol: Intellect Books. p89-92.&lt;/ref&gt;

As society evolves, we become more controlling over our social media and we gain more agencies over our own profiles and the way we use and display our information online. This raises issues of responsibility online. Since we have so much control, are we fully to blame when something goes wrong?

The problematic issue of fraud can be very common among users with reports in America in 2014 showing almost 50% of people are being [http://money.cnn.com/2014/05/28/technology/security/hack-data-breach/ hacked] into a year.  Social media programmes are changing so much that the company itself is moving away from being the first to blame and more the [[w:User|user]]. So, in turn it works two ways – the user gains more control and power but in return, they are responsible almost entirely for their problems online.&lt;ref&gt;http://money.cnn.com/2014/05/28/technology/security/hack-data-breach/index.html&lt;/ref&gt;

== Publicity Online ==

Whereas the radio needed over 30 years to reach 50 million receivers, the Internet succeeded that in less than 5 years (see [http://visual.ly/reaching-50-million-users infographic]).&lt;ref name=&quot;Köhler 2001&quot;&gt;Köhler, M., Arndt, H.-W., Fetzer, T. (2001). ''Recht des Internet''. 7th ed. Heidelberg: C.F. Müller.&lt;/ref&gt; With that in mind the question is, how the Internet as a hybrid medium &lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; creates and enhances publicity and what effect this has on the private and public sphere.
In our discussion we need to consider the following dimensions of publicity:
*Publicity in the sense of a public room anyone can enter
*Publicity through [[w:Public communication|public communication]] and public communication systems
*Publicity as in [[w: Public opinion|public opinion]]

The demand for publicity came up historically as a monitoring tool for and legitimation of political decisions. Therefore a sphere has to be created open for any topic and where everyone can equally, reciprocal express his/her opinion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot;&gt;Schulz, W. (2008). ''Politische Kommunikation: Theoretische Ansätze und Ergebnisse empirischer Forschung''. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.&lt;/ref&gt; The Internet like no other medium offers through various information channels a forum for (political) discourse, that in theory anybody can access. Additionally, the roles of speakers and recipient are changing continuously especially on social media platforms and the variety of examined issues is huge.
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Creating such a room also means creating a [[w:Communications system|communication system]], that in earlier days could be a marketplace: Public communication, closely related to [[w:mass communication|mass communication]], is aimed to be transparent and therefore accessible for anyone. Normally they imply a huge and anonymous audience,&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; which makes the [[w:Reach (advertising)|reach]], reflection and impact of the message immeasurable and uncontrollable, but with online tracking tools and the possibility to immediately reply on i.e. [[w:social media|social media]] the possibility to verify the online audience increases. However, as the Internet connects people all over the world, the audience is nowadays more disperse. According to Schulz this are in fact real public spheres, as they are international in comparison to presence public sphere, which are only segmented public spheres, likewise the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt;

Public communication differs from private or secret communication, as the access to the message of communication or the communicating situation is openly accessible&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; – but facilitated by the high copyability of digital media&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; private messages can be published to a bigger audience even without each other’s consents.

A public opinion is in commons sense the dominant opinion, which is enforced through public communication. This has to be distinguished from a published opinion, an opinion expressed in public, making it especially online accessible for everyone.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; Mass media can mirrors the public opinion, but with [[w:Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann|Noelle Neumann's]] [[w:spiral of silence|spiral of silence]] in mind, this does not has to be the thinking of the majority.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hill 2002&quot;&gt;Hill, C. (2002). ''Öffentlichkeit im Internet''. München: Grin Verlag.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Noelle-Neumann 1996&quot;&gt;Noelle-Neumann, E. (1996). ''Öffentliche Meinung: die Entdeckung der Schweigespirale''. Berlin: Ullstein.&lt;/ref&gt;

However, the premise for publicity online is the that every group of interest has access to that sphere. But the [[w:digital divide|digital divide]] precludes that, because not everyone has a technical devices with Internet access, nor the time and ability to deal with the technology ([[w:digital analphabetism|digital analphabetism]]) or [[w:information overload|information overload]]; the latter hinders the finding of websites, that are not [[w: search engine optimization|search engine optimized]].

=== Public Displays of Connection ===
People displaying that they are connected to other people isn't a new thing that has come with the digital age, it has been around for years as we are always eager to let people know that we have friends. In recent years showing our connections has changed however, with the introduction of [[w:Social networking services|social networks]].
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[[w:Facebook|Facebook]] in particular, with the introduction of tagging people in photos, has made it easy for users to showcase their friends/connections to the world. This has been around for a lot longer however, even on the internet, if we refer back to [[w:Bebo|Bebo]] users had the choice not only to choose their top friends but also to choose an &quot;other half&quot;. [[w:Myspace|Myspace]] allowed users to choose their top friends,  in the article Public Displays of Connection &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;&gt;boyd, d. Donath, J. (2004). Public Displays of Connection accessed 03/10 from http://www.danah.org/papers/PublicDisplays.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; look to find what these displays mean and what they represent in the modern era. The article talks about first the public displays of connection we use in the &quot;real&quot; or &quot;physical&quot; world which includes introducing our friends to each other, because we either think they will become friends with each other or admire each other, which in turn means they will admire you for having a friend like them. This could be through hosting a party and bringing your friends together or even by something as simple as name dropping.

On websites like [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] there is the ability to tag in photo's but also displaying &quot;mutual friends&quot; is a huge part of the site. When a user adds you as a friend, you can see what mutual friends you have together. This may be the first thing users look for when deciding whether or not to accept someone as a friend, as you can see how many similar friends you have and if you're likely to know them or meet them in the future. [[w:Twitter|Twitter]] also introduced this with the &quot;Followers You Know&quot;, followers are similar to friends on Facebook however someone can follow you and you do not need to follow them back and vice versa. The &quot;followers you know&quot; feature displays all of the users that you follow who follow them also, which, like the Facebook mutual friends may affect your decision on whether or not you follow them back. Research by Konstantin Besnosov, Yazan Boshmaf, Pooya Jaferian and Hootan Rashtian of the University of British Columbia &lt;ref name=&quot;Beznosov, K. Boshmaf, Y. Jaferian, P. Rashtian, H. (Date Not Available&quot;&gt;Beznosov, K. Boshmaf, Y. Jaferian, P. Rashtian, H., To Befriend or Not? A Model of Friend Request Acceptance on Facebook, University of British Columbia. Accessed 03/10 from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2d3d/f8c0923dd249f370f287a1b236af1ecf0934.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; showed that whether not the user had mutual friends and the closeness of the mutual friends was one of the most important factors in deciding to accept their friend request.

Although closeness of the mutual friends is an important aspect in deciding whether or not to accept someone's friend request it is difficult to distinguish the relationships between the mutual friend and the person who has sent you a friend request. As boyd and Donath &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; talk about in their article just by looking at mutual friends there is no real way of knowing the connection. A mutual friend could range from a best friend, family member, partner to a relative stranger who they perhaps have only met once or twice, if at all.

Tagged photo's can be a more effective way of finding out a persons solid, real life relationships with your mutual friends. Tagged photos give a user a better idea of the kind of person someone is, what social circles they belong to and if they are someone that they either know, are likely to meet at some point or perhaps want to know. Tagged photos and photo's in general are a huge part of displaying your connections to your digital circle. In their research Beznosov, Boshmaf, Jaferian and Rashtain &lt;ref name=&quot;Beznosov, K. Boshmaf, Y. Jaferian, P. Rashtian, H. (Date Not Available&quot;/&gt; found that the very first thing someone looks for when accepting a friend request is their profile picture.

Most people would look for a profile picture with them in it, however the rest of the photo's available on their profile are also hugely important. Picture's, specifically tagged ones, can prove the authenticity of a person and their profile and can basically prove or at least convince someone that they are &quot;real&quot;. boyd and Donath &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; talk about this and say that displaying connections on your profile is a way of verifying your personal identity.The more connections someone has, mutual friends, tagged photos etcetera makes them seem more like a real person. With the rise of [[w:Catfishing|catfishing]] [[#Catfishing|''(see section 1.7.2.3)'']]this is something that has became more of a concern, increasing the importance of connections being displayed on social media profiles.

boyd and Donath also talk about how these connections could also help showcase &quot;incompatible&quot; connections &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; meaning you could look at someone's mutual friends and tagged photos to quickly see who they are and who they assosciate with, and if you do not like what you see you are able to make the informed decision of declining their friend request. The opposite of this is also true.

You could also look at displaying connections on your profile as a way to assure other people that you are popular and have friends. Many people will not only tag themselves in photos, but also with the addition of Twitter's &quot;@&quot; tagging method you can tag your friends in general posts on Facebook and start public conversations with them using this over Twitter. People display their public connections in this way because they want people to know how many friends they have and who they are. Public displays of connection mainly are not about who your friends are but are always trying to reinforce the idea of who ''you'' are.

=== Democratic but not Democratising ===
[[#Characteristics of Digital Media|The characteristics of digital media]], which shape the new relationship between the private and public sphere, also touch upon the concept of [[w:democracy|democracy]] and [[w:citizenship|citizenship]]. Indeed, a private sphere enabled with mobile privatisation, de-spatialised simultaneity and that integrates values of [[#Private spheres as an environment of autonomy, control and self-expression|self-expression, control and autonomy]] inevitably interplays with the concerns of the public sphere. 
We can identify two major trajectories among the ways in which digital media influence and at the same time are conditioned by civic life.&lt;ref name=&quot;Carlisle and Patton 2013&quot;&gt;[http://www.jstor.org/stable/23612065 link ] Carlisle, J. E., &amp; Patton, R. C. (2013). Is social media changing how we understand political engagement? An analysis of Facebook and the 2008 presidential election in ''Political Research Quarterly'', 66(4), 883-895.&lt;/ref&gt;
The first one considers how the internet is a communication tool that can be used in [[#Public and Private Spheres on Social Media and Political Agendas|campaigns by parties and candidates and thus serving certain political agendas]]. The second, instead, seeks to understand the role and the effects of new media on one’s private sphere and participation to public sphere, that is one’s individual civic and political behaviour within a democratic society. Understanding the relationship between these elements is important and is currently the object of research.

Putman explains that an individual’s participation in offline social networks, such a bowling team, not only fosters interpersonal trust and cooperation but also offers to the people that are part of this network the chance to discuss and exchange political, social and economic opinions and beliefs that ultimately, on a larger scale, serve values of community and democracy in the real world.&lt;ref name=&quot;Putman 1995&quot;&gt;Putnam, Robert. (1995a). Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital in ''Journal of Democracy'' 6 (1): 65-78.&lt;/ref&gt;
Here, we can easily see the intended comparison between offline and online social networks and also notice that this activities are transported in the online world. However, the way in which this transfer actually takes place is controversial. 
For instance, Bimber argues that that while new media lower the cost of accessibility and divulgation of political information, therefore potentially giving more people the possibility to engage in a civic debate, on the internet the same disparities of the real world are often replicated: engagement comes from those who already have the means to both afford access to internet sources and the knowledge required to be engaged in a political or economic argument.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bimber 2003&quot;&gt;Bimber, Bruce, and Richard Davis. (2003). Campaigning Online: The Internet in U.S. Elections. New York: Oxford University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

In this sense it worth mentioning [[#Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]]’ interpretation of the internet’s commonality. Initially, in [[w:The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere|The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]] Habermas too falls into the trap of thinking that the internet is free from the real world’s disparities. In fact, he attempts a historical comparison between the public sphere of the [[w:Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] in the 18th and 19th centuries and the internet. While he does explain that subsequent consolidation of [[w:hegemony|hegemony]] within the bourgeoisie has changed this decision-making procedure, he founded his analogy with the internet as based on the bourgeois’s public sphere’s openness to all and its formal principle of disregarding class hierarchies in the name of arguments that prevailed because of better argumentations rather than because of coercion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1989&quot;/&gt;

Salter dismisses this comparison.&lt;ref name=&quot;McCaughey &amp; Ayers 2003&quot;&gt;Salter, L. Democracy, New Social Movements and the Internet in McCaughey, M. (2003). Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice. New York, NY; London: Routledge&lt;/ref&gt; Firstly, it only remarks both the internet’s and bourgeoisie acceptance of disparities: indeed, the public sphere of the bourgeois was only formally open to all, as for example women where excluded from participating. This is certainly in accord with disparities which the internet and social media have been already accused of. For instance, boyd and Hargittai explain how even social networks like [http://www.facebook.com Facebook], although accessible by almost everyone, have a built-in demographic bias, both because internet access and literacy is required to be part of it and because, from the beginning, Facebook had as user-base constituted by academics from privileged american institutions and thus has a fundamental american-bourgeois element to it.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;

Secondly, while the bourgeois’s public sphere was intentioned to find a political common will, the internet seems to fragment or question the idea of universality and common interest, hence facilitating the exact opposite: a pluralism of wills.&lt;ref name=&quot;McCaughey &amp; Ayers 2003&quot;/&gt;
Papacharissi too argues in favour of this interpretation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;
She explains that the interrelation of private and public sphere, facilitated by digital media, allows for values of autonomy,control and expression to determine our social-networked conduct and to let us blend with the public space. However, the degree to which these values serve democracy is questionable. In fact, because they satisfy ego-centred needs and function as an expression of personal opinions and beliefs,  they are potentially and always more easily (unlike within the 18th bourgeoisie) applicable by everyone to everything. Therefore, they progressively distance themselves from a 'common will'. That is, while they might be democratic in affordance, they do not inherently make society better unless the pluralism of self-serving private spheres that broadcast themselves onto the public sphere actually come together to serve the public sphere selflessly.

=== Public and Private Spheres As A Political Power ===
Government intervention within media channels and legislation impacting on networks has created discourses concerning its political validity and judgement of power use. Such discourses include the reasoning regarding the control of a libertarian networked environment and employed strategies used within the media framework that serve to uphold a political perspective or agenda.

==== Political Power and the Public Sphere: The Media ====
There are three distinct concepts of mediation that governments use to serve vested interests or uphold perceived standards as set by a political power. These concepts are:
* '''Authoritarian Concept'''. This concept dates back to [[w:Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg's]] invention of the printing press and is the oldest media concept. Under this concept the press are subject to direct or implied control from the state. Forms of diversity are harmful and irresponsible to a countries development, and any gathered news must not criticize or challenge leadership in any way.
* '''Communist Concept'''. Under control from this concept, published news has to concentrate on nation building and the goals and policies of a society set by leadership. The characteristics of this concept included the press being one-party, incoming and outgoing news are heavily controlled, news must be positive and further party goals rather than refle|cting interests of the people and, it is a means of exercising control over the people aided by secret police.
* '''Developmental Concept'''. Traditionally used in underdeveloped and poorer countries. The Developmental Concept states that mass communication should aid with nation building and fighting illiteracy and poverty, media should follow government rather than challenge it, each country may restrict flow of news between borders in an attempt to limit incoming information from western countries that may threaten cultural traditions, and have control over content about themselves.&lt;ref name=&quot;Anonymous&quot;&gt;Anonymous. ''Government controlled media''. Retrieved 06/03/2016 from http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/STUDENTS/McCormick/govern.htm.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Political Power and the Private Sphere: The Network ====
Since the 1970s governments have heavily monitored online activity in an attempt to halt criminal activity. However, within the last two decades the objectivity of criminal activity has been blurred and replaced, in some societies, by the subjectivity of a leadership's definition. Even with influential figures such as [[w:Vint Cerf|Dr. Vint Cerf]] -one of the fathers of the internet- stating that government control over the Internet will fail,&lt;ref name=&quot;Khalip, A, 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.reuters.com/article/us-internet-cerf-idUSN1420689320071114?sp=true] Khalip, A. (2007). Cerf sees government control of Internet failing&lt;/ref&gt; this has not hindered governments from inducting their own policies regarding how individuals and groups can use the network, most notably the Chinese government. 
In 1993 the Chinese government initiated the [[w:Golden Shield Project|Golden Shield Project]] in an attempt to legislate and control access to the internet within the Chinese mainland. A variety of methods were implemented with the aim of censoring the internet which included:&lt;ref name=&quot;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S, 2012&quot;&gt;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S. (2012). ''Regulation, Policy and Convergent Media. In: Media Convergence: Networked Digital Media in Everyday Life.'' Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 172-96.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Schmidt, Eric, E, 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/12/opinion/the-future-of-internet-freedom.html] Scmidt, Eric, E. (2014). ''The Future of Internet Freedom.''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zittrain, J &amp; Edelman, B, 2003&quot;&gt;Zittrain, J &amp; Edelman, B. (2003). ''Empirical Analysis of Internet Filtering in China.'' Berkman Center for Internet &amp; Society Harvard Law School. Retrieved 05/03/2016.&lt;/ref&gt;

*'''Blocking IP addresses'''. Certain IP addresses will be denied and effects protocols such as HTTP, FTP and POP.
*'''Filtering and redirection of DNS'''. Certain domain names are blocked or incorrect IP addresses are returned via DNS hijacking.
*'''Portal Censorship and search result removal'''. Major portals such as search engines are effectively blocked. The Chinese government have censored access to Google. In 2006 Google launched Google.cn in an effort to maintain a presence within China, however due to increasing demands over censorship and Google being the subject of hacking by the Chinese Government, Google ended its Google.cn service in 2010.

While China practices extreme measures of censorship, further measures have been taken by other nations. In 2011 Egypt disconnected itself entirely from the network in an effort to reduce the power of protesters rallying against the [[w:Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak]] regime. Such action was deemed necessary after an uprising in Tunisia which has been dubbed the [[w:Twitter Revolution|Twitter revolution]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S, 2012&quot; /&gt; The actions of censorship and complete network disconnection exhibited by the Chinese and Egyptian Governments are political tactics that maintain asymmetrical power as the aforementioned actions do not benefit society as a whole,&lt;ref name=&quot;Fuchs, C, 2014&quot;&gt;Fuchs, C. (2014). ''What is a Critical Introduction to Social Media. In: Social Media: a Critical Introducion.'' London: Sage. pp. 7-25.&lt;/ref&gt; and only proves that despite the political rhetoric, governments do possess the power to control the internet and intervene within the sectors of society that individuals are granted control over.

The Chinese and Egyptian government's intrusion into the private sphere has effectively expanded the reach of the public sphere by disarming users of the network control over produced and viewed content. A prominent example is the banning of Facebook and Youtube by the Chinese government. Both sites operate within the private sphere as they allow for virtually unmediated control of produced content by outside organisations. They subsequently now fall under the domain of the public sphere; controlled so heavily they are completely inaccessible. Further impositions include regulation of internet cafes, as these establishments now enforce age restrictions. Users must be over the age of 21, and a log book is required to be signed by each user. Once online, activity is heavily monitored. Such restrictions have brought about the conception of underground internet cafes, where underage users can freely access the network. However, access to the network is the only element of control experienced by users, even within the confines of an underground establishment, content is still heavily mediated and monitored.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S, 2012&quot; /&gt;

==== Public and Private Spheres on Social Media and Political Agendas ====


===== Political Agendas and Digital/Social Media =====

In Politics, the rise of Digital media and [[w:Social media|Social media]] usage has allowed for politicians and [[w:Political party|political parties]] to pursue, promote, and campaign for certain [[w:Political agenda|political agendas]]. Due to the nature of digital and social media creating their own unique concepts of private and public spheres, politicians and political parties now utilise these spheres in order to pursue their chosen agenda(s).&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2009&quot;&gt;Papacharissi, Z. (2009). The virtual sphere 2.0: The Internet, the public sphere, and beyond. Routledge handbook of Internet politics, 230-245.&lt;/ref&gt;

Political [[w:Website|websites]], [[w:Email|e-mails]] and social media platforms are now [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235632721_Social_Media_and_Political_Communication_-_A_Social_Media_Analytics_Framework some of the most common methods of political communication]. In order to inform individuals of their agenda, for example a [[w:Manifesto|manifesto]], party policy or campaign, the first place this is now published is usually on the party website, and advertised further through e-mails to party members, supporters, and volunteers. Internet technologies like this are the main ways in which parties and politicians now spread information amongst their members and supporters.&lt;ref name=&quot;Römmele 2003&quot;&gt;[http://ppq.sagepub.com/content/9/1/7.short],Römmele, A. (2003). Political parties, party communication and new information and communication technologies. Party Politics, 9(1), 7-20.&lt;/ref&gt;

Whilst other, more traditional methods are still widely used to spread a political message, such as [[w:News program|news programmes]], [[w:Flyer (pamphlet)|leaflets]], and [http://campaignhandbook.gef.eu/canvassing-door-to-door face to face communication],&lt;ref name=&quot;Zetter 2007&quot;&gt;Zetter, L. (2007). The Political Campaigning Handbook: Real life lessons from the front line. Harriman House Limited.&lt;/ref&gt; the fastest way to do this is via an online medium, i.e. the internet. This can be done through a number of methods;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Method
! Description
! Example
|-
| Party Website
| A dedicated website domain for a certain political party, organisation, or politician. usually where information is first posted, where individuals can go to to find out information about a party/politician, political agenda, campaign, or issue. Also where individuals can register to join or support a party or politician.
| [http://www.labour.org.uk]

|- 
| [[w:Facebook|Facebook]]
| A dedicated public page for a party or politician to share information about themselves or a political agenda, and where other Facebook users can 'like' the page to show support, and 'share' information from the page to their timeline.
| [https://www.facebook.com/theSNP The Official [[w:Scottish National Party|Scottish National Party (SNP)]] Facebook page]

|- 
| [[w:Twitter|Twitter]]
| A social networking site where parties or politicians can have their own Twitter feed to promote their agendas, and where they can further promote their agendas by creating a hashtag for users to follow. Other Twitter users can engage publicly by sending a tweet to the party, or privately through Direct Messaging.
| [https://twitter.com/unitetheunion Official Twitter of the [[w:Trade union|trade union]] [[w:Unite the Union|Unite]]

|- 
| [[w:Online petition|Online Petitions]]
| Various websites which allow any individual, including politicians and political parties, to start a petition in order to campaign about and raise public support for an issue.
| [https://www.change.org Change.org], A website which allows users to start, sign, and share petitions online.
|}


Although politicians and political parties use all of these methods, as social media has such a large audience which is not restricted to just members and supporters, this approach is becoming increasingly popular.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shirky 2011&quot;&gt;Shirky, C. (2011). The political power of social media. Foreign affairs, 90(1), 28-41.&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, much of the information on any political agenda is then spread by the party or politician themselves, members and activists on social media. This can be an extremely successful method of promoting a political agenda.&lt;ref name=&quot;McNair 2011&quot;&gt;[http://blogs.unpad.ac.id/teddykw/files/2012/05/An-Introduction-to-Political-Communication.pdf], McNair, B. (2011). An introduction to political communication. Taylor &amp; Francis.&lt;/ref&gt;

Viral spreading of information online is another method used both socially and politically to reach wider audiences, and this is done so through platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr and other popular social media sites. This is a method of spamming, which can be done through consistent advertising, whether that is paid for or spread by [[w:Internet celebrity|online celebrities]] to reach a wider audience. Social examples of viral spreading include youtube videos e.g. Anything posted by the notoriously known 'viral video creator', [https://www.youtube.com/user/tommcflytwitter Tom Fletcher], or shocking and exciting images that were perhaps posted online in order to become 'viral'. As it seems, contemporary audiences of political announcements tend to discuss or voice their opinions online via social media, therefore this viral spreading of political messages will be best received through such platforms.

===== Working Tax Credits =====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Stop-the-tax-cuts.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[w:Labour Party (UK)|The Labour Party]] campaign material for the Working Tax Credit campaign. Credit: The Labour Party UK]]&lt;/div&gt;
Take for example the [http://press.labour.org.uk/post/130387490714/labour-launches-national-campaign-to-stop-tory-tax recent campaign against cuts to [[w:Working tax credit|Working Tax Credits]] in the United Kingdom], organised by [[w:The Labour Party (UK)|The Labour Party]] in opposition to the [[w:Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party's]] plans. The vast majority of the work to mobilise individuals and communicate information in this campaign was through social media platforms, e-mails, and an [http://www.labour.org.uk/page/s/tory-tax-credit-cut online petition]. This allowed the campaign to become very widely known and supported in a short period of time. The outcome of this campaign was that [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34915218 the Conservatives had to scrap their plan] to cut the Working Tax Credits scheme.

=====Public and Private Spheres in Relation to Political Agendas=====

Peter Dahlberg argues that there are a number of different Internet based public spheres which contribute to modern political communication, including;

{|style=&quot;background:lightyellow;width:750px;margin:none;border:1px solid lightgrey&quot; align=center
|- 
| style= &quot; text-align: center; padding: 10px 0 0 0&quot;| 1. Versions of ''e-government'', usually with a top-down character, where government
representatives interact with citizens and where information about governmental
administration and services is made available. While interaction may be
relatively constricted, it can still at times serve as a sector of the public sphere.
This sector is sometimes distinguished from e-governance, which emphasizes
horizontal civic communication and input for government policy.

2. The ''advocacy/activist domain,'' where discussion is framed by organizations with
generally shared perceptions, values, and goals—and geared for forms of political
intervention. These include traditional parliamentarian politics, established
corporate and other organized interest group politics (e.g., unions), and the new
politics of social movements and other activists.

3. The vast array of ''diverse civic forums'' where views are exchanged among citizens
and deliberation can take place. This is generally understood as the paradigmatic
version of the public sphere on the Net, but it would be quite erroneous to
neglect the others.

4. The ''prepolitical or parapolitical domain'', which airs social and cultural topics
having to do with common interests and/or collective identities. Here politics is
not explicit but always remains a potential. Clearly, there is no absolute way in
which the boundary between the nonpolitical and the parapolitical can be drawn,
since it is always in part discursively negotiated and changeable.

5. The ''journalism domain'', which includes everything from major news organizations
that have gone online (e.g., newspapers and news programs) to Net-based news organizations
(usually without much or any original reporting) such as [[w:Yahoo!|Yahoo! News]]
News, alternative news organizations, as
well as one-person weblog sites (also known as [[w:Blog|“bloggers”]]). Interestingly, the
research literature has tended to focus mainly on deliberative interaction in terms
of online public spheres and/or mass media journalism. We should not forget
that the online journalism sector is a core element of the public sphere on the
Internet.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2005&quot;&gt;[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10584600590933160], Dahlgren, P. (2005). The Internet, public spheres, and political communication: Dispersion and deliberation. Political communication, 22(2), 147-162.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}


It is the activist/advocacy domain and civic forums where political agendas and the utilisation of the public and private spheres of social media come into play the most. In particular, the contrast between campaigns which are shaped by the party or politicians, and campaigns which are shaped by 'ordinary' individuals. The way in which political parties and politicians manipulate what they share on private and public spheres and the influence this has on the promotion of political agendas is of particular importance.


The Working Tax Credits campaign was not only successful due to the high profile social media campaign, but also because it used the private and public spheres of the internet and social media to its advantage. By informing members and supporters with key information an tools through e-mails, the face of this campaign became 'ordinary people' being helped by a party, not just a Party campaign, and this became what is commonly known as a [[w:Grassroots|'grassroots campaign']]. These types of campaigns are normally more supported by individuals, as it is seen as more authentic and trustworthy than a slick political machine type campaign.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fieldhouse 2009&quot;&gt;[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007123409000726], Fieldhouse, E., &amp; Cutts, D. (2009). The effectiveness of local party campaigns in 2005: combining evidence from campaign spending and agent survey data. British Journal of Political Science, 39(02), 367-388.&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''Publicly''', due to the amount of 'ordinary' people sharing and supporting the campaign on social media, and all activities being run by ordinary people, this was outwardly a very grassroots campaign which won over the electorate.
* '''Privately''', this campaign was run by The Labour Party just like any other political campaign, as they provided activists with all the materials, information, and instructions they needed to successfully front the campaign. This tactic is just one example of how public and private spheres on the internet and social media can influence political agendas.


This utilisation of how individuals perceive political agendas, especially through Internet mediums, is also used in more sinister fashions by political parties and politicians in order to promote an agenda. The most prominent example of this behaviour is [[w:Smear campaign|political smear campaigns]]. This is where a certain party or politician will 'leak' information from a private sphere, i.e an individual's personal life, in order to discredit that individual, be it another party or politician, and promote an agenda within that expose. This leaked information is often untrue or taken out of context to suit an agenda, and therefore why it is a 'smear'. A privately orchestrated smear campaign can also be exposed by individuals, again in order to discredit the individual who planned the campaign and promote a political agenda. The use of smear campaigns and the exposing of a smear campaign are two similar yet different practices which show how political parties can promote an agenda through manipulating private and public spheres online.

=====John McCain's 'Illegitimate' Child=====

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:John McCain.jpg|thumbnail|right|x150px|John McCain, Republican Party. Credit:[[w:Federal government of the United States|US Government]].]]&lt;/div&gt;

In 2000 during the [[w:Republican Party presidential primaries#2000|Republican Presidential Nomination]] race, [[w:John McCain|John McCain]] was set to to win the state of South Carolina against [[w:George W. Bush|George W. Bush]]. This was thwarted however by one of Bush's strategists, [[w:Karl Rove|Karl Rove]], who orchestrated a [[w:Whispering campaign|'whispering' campaign']] via an anonymous [[w:Open access poll#Online poll|online poll]] to voters which asked the question &quot;Would you be more or less likely to vote for John McCain…if you knew he had fathered an illegitimate black child?&quot; McCain was at the time campaigning with his dark-skinned daughter, Bridget, adopted from Bangladesh.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Nittle |first=Nadra Kareem |date=2016-01-08 |title=Racist Republican Smear Campaigns in the 21st Century |url=http://racerelations.about.com/od/diversitymatters/tp/Racist-Republican-Smear-Campaigns-In-The-21st-Century.htm |newspaper=About News |access-date=2016-03-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; This campaign was a huge contributor to the result of this, which was that Bush did indeed win the state and go on to secure the Republican nomination.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Banks |first=Ann|date=2008-01-14 |title=﻿ Dirty Tricks, South Carolina and John McCain |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/dirty-tricks-south-carolina-and-john-mccain |newspaper=The Nation |access-date=2016-03-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By circulating this untrue information into the public sphere online, Rove successfully manipulated the lines between public and private spheres via the Internet and managed to help Bush pursue his political agenda.

==== The Rise of Digital and Social Media in Political Activity ====

This political campaign tactic of manipulating public and private spheres online has become widely popular due to the rise of social media in political communication. Social media is now not only one of the main forms of distributing political information, but has also [http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/10/19/social-media-and-political-engagement become a major tool for political engagement].&lt;ref name=&quot;Rainie&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Rainie |first=Lee |date=2012-10-19 |title='Social Media and Political Engagement' |url=http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/10/19/social-media-and-political-engagement |access-date=2016-03-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; Through social networking sites such as [[w:Facebook|Facebook]], [[w:Twitter|Twitter]], and even [[w:YouTube|YouTube]], politicians and political organisations are employing creative and more accessible methods of engaging with individuals.

* {{font color||yellow|'''Facebook'''}}
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:FBshareLC.png|thumbnail|right|The Facebook 'share' function.]]&lt;/div&gt;
:Facebook is [http://www.adweek.com/socialtimes/largest-social-networks-worldwide/504044 the largest social networking site on the Internet],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Bennett |first=Shea |date=2014-12-24 |title='The 10 Biggest Social networks Worldwide' |url=http://www.adweek.com/socialtimes/largest-social-networks-worldwide/504044 |newspaper=Social Times |access-date=2016-03-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; sitting at approximately [http://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users 1.55 billion users as of January 2016]. Increasingly, Facebook has become the place where more and more people are getting the majority of their political information from. According to a study by the [[w:Pew Research Center|Pew research Center]], the percentage of Facebook users who classed the site as their main source of news had risen from 47% in 2013, to 63% in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Barthel |first=Michael |date=2015-07-14 |title='The Evolving Role of News on Twitter and Facebook' |url=http://www.journalism.org/2015/07/14/the-evolving-role-of-news-on-twitter-and-facebook |access-date=2016-03-10}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, around 66% of Facebook users are reported to participate in [[w:Civic engagement|civic]] or [[w:Political campaign|political activities]] through this channel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rainie&quot;/&gt;

:* {{font color||thistle|Public engagement}}
:: There are a number of ways in which [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] allows politicians and political party's to engage with individuals in a public sphere online. On a very simplistic level, Facebook pages allow an individual to connect with certain parties and politicians, keeping them up to date with political information through [[W:Facebook features#Like|'liking']] the page and therefore seeing anything that page posts on their [[w:Facebook features#News Feed|personal 'news feed']] - similar to a [[w:Home page|homepage]] on a website. The act of 'liking' a page or post by a political party or politician also enables an individual to publicly show support for that particular party/politician or agenda. More complex functions of political engagement which can be constructed through Facebook include Facebook [[w:Q&amp;A|Q&amp;A sessions]] with politicians, [http://www.facebook.com/poll Facebook polls] which allows users to express a public opinion on certain issues and inform the [http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/O/op_original_poster.html original poster] of this opinion, and also [[w:facebook features#Facebook groups|&quot;Open&quot; Facebook groups]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/help/220336891328465 |title= 'What are the Facebook Group Privacy Settings?'}}&lt;/ref&gt; which are extremely useful  mediums where any user can join, see discussions and engage with - political types of these groups are useful for communicating information and campaign material, and also provide a valuable political [[w:Political criticism|debating/discussion]] platform for individuals.

:* {{font color||MistyRose|Private engagement}}
:: Privately, Facebook offers a [[w:Personal message#Social media|private messaging service]], [[w:Facebook Messenger|Facebook Messenger]], where users can create a private discussion space through what is usually a public forum. This is particularly useful as it can allow political parties, politicians, and individuals to have more detailed, personal conversations about political issues, as there is less fear and risk of judgement from the public sphere.

:: Referring back to the concept of Facebook Groups, Facebook also allows [[w:Facebook features#Networks and groups|'Closed' and 'Secret' groups]]. Again, the extra level of privacy granted by these [[w:Privacy issues of social networking sites#Facebook|settings]] often allows individuals to be more comfortable discussing political issues. Furthermore, this also allows for political groups themselves to easily organise, share materials, and communicate in a singular pace, without fear of [[w:Entryism|'infiltration']] by those who seek to do them harm.

* {{font color||yellow|'''Twitter'''}}
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
:* {{font color||thistle|Public engagement}}
:: Similar to Facebook, [[w:Twitter|Twitter]] offers a public platform for individuals to engage with political parties and politicians. Any user can send a [[w:Twitter|'tweet']] to another user, including political parties. Twitter is useful as it limits each tweet to 140 characters, and therefore questions can be asked and answered very quickly, and political debates are very fast-paced.

:: Twitter also pioneered with [[w:Hashtag|'hashtags']] which users can follow. By typing in '#[insert text]' in a tweet, an individual can contribute to a mass discussion on the same issue. Also, by searching the hashtag on Twitter, users can follow any discussion surrounding that topic. This makes Twitter one of the most accessible and fast-growing social networking sites for political communication and agenda promotion.

:: &lt;u&gt;Example; [[#Hong Kong's Umbrella Revolution|The Hong Kong 'Umbrella Revolution']] - #UmbrellaRevolution &lt;/u&gt;

:* {{font color||MistyRose|Private engagement}}

:: Twitter is much less limited with what it allows users to do privately. Direct Messaging (DM's) is Twitter's private messaging service, and this serves the same function for political engagement that Facebook Messenger does. Although, it does also have the 140 character limit, which can make it difficult to communicate detailed information.&lt;ref&gt;Al-Deen, H. S. N., &amp; Hendricks, J. A. (2011). Social media: usage and impact. Lexington Books.&lt;/ref&gt;

* {{font color||yellow|'''YouTube'''}}
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Logo Canale YouTube (2013-2017).jpg|thumbnail|right|x100px|Current YouTube Logo. Credit:[[User:Ash-03]]]]&lt;/div&gt;
:YouTube, the Internet's [http://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2?IR=T largest video sharing platform],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Dickey |first=Megan Rose |date=2013-02-13 |title='The 22 Key Turning Points in the History of YouTube' |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2?IR=T}}&lt;/ref&gt; is now becoming more popular as a platform for political agendas to be promoted in the online public sphere, with YouTube now even [http://techcrunch.com/2010/06/03/youtube-launches-campaign-toolkit-for-politicians launching a political toolkit for campaigners an politicians].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Rao |first=Leena |title='YouTube Launches Campaign Toolkit for Politicians' |newspaper=TechCrunch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:* {{font color||thistle|Public engagement}}
:: Videos on YouTube can be seen by millions of individuals. As videos are shared from YouTube to other social network sites also, it can make the possibility for political persuasion phenomenal. YouTube videos also allow for discussion and debate to take place via a [[w:YouTube#User comments|comments]] section on videos which are [[w:YouTube#Uploading|uploaded]].

:: Example; The [[w: United States presidential election, 2012|2012 presidential campaign in the US]].
:: In this election, YouTube was extremely prominent in voter persuasion and encouraging political engagement. Both [[w:Barack Obama|Barack Obama]] and [[w:Mitt Romney|Mitt Romney's]] teams were posting [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJ8c28lmnoM creative, tailored video content] online, and videos containing the tags 'Obama' and 'Romney' were viewed approximately 2.7 billion times.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Krashinsky |first=Susan |date=2012-11-02 |title='How YouTube has transformed the 2012 presidential election' |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/us-election/how-youtube-has-transformed-the-2012-presidential-election/article4871244 |newspaper=The Globe And Mail}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:* {{font color||MistyRose|Private engagement}}
:: Similar to Twitter, YouTube has sparse private engagement methods. There is again a private e-mail service, but that is about it. YouTube does however allow for any video to be made public or private, so the user does have some manual control over who they share the video with.

==== Political Communication Online ====
Following Maletzke's definition of [[w:Mass communication|mass communication]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Maletzke 1963&quot;&gt;Maletzke, G. (1963). ''Psychologie der Massenkommunikation: Theorie und Systematik''. Hamburg: Hands-Bredow-Institut.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:Lasswell's model of communication|Lasswell's model of communication]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Lasswell 1948&quot;&gt;Lasswell, H. D. (1948). ''The Structure and Function of Communication in Society.'' in The Communication of Ideas. A Series of Addresses. Bryson, L. (ed.). New York: Norton.&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Political communication|political communication]] is that kind of communication, where [[w:Player (political)|political players]] construct messages, which are transmitted by means of technically instrumental media to a disperse audience and which are used by the latter and provoke an effect on those. But political communication can also go into the opposite direction, meaning citizens communicating to political players, or horizontally, between players or between citizens.

The strongest form of political communication is information with persuasion as a special form, which tries to influence the political [[w:Participation (decision making)|participation]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; Hence, political information uses the public sphere to influences the public opinion and finally the opinion of individuals in their private sphere. This section therefore focusses on the forming of public opinion through political communication online.

On the Internet the presentation modes are multifaceted in comparison with many other media types: Information is mediated with under through Youtube-videos, newsletters, Wikipedia or online journal articles, social media posts or pictures - adapting to different user preferences to acquire information. For instance, texts can be received slower than videos.

The crucial part of all offers are their [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|digital characteristics]]. Not only does it facilitates the storage of information [[#Uncoupling of Space and Time|uncoupled of space and time]], but it also enables the reproduction of the messages and an immediate (interpersonal) response by the audience, i.e. in discussion forums (see [[#User-generated Content|user-generated content]]). Consequently the public disperse audience and its public discussion are enlarged and networked: People can get in touch with opinions that they would never get to know in their physical public sphere and they can do so without moving out of their physical private sphere.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Two step flow of communication.png|thumb|left|Concept of the Two step flow of communication]]&lt;/div&gt;
Catalysed by the possibility for everyone to become an author, public information is not filtered by traditional [[w:Gatekeeper|gatekeepers]] (i.e. journalists), but normal citizens can post about topic. On one hand they increase the diversity of opinions, but as they can become opinion leaders and as they often pick up information from mass media, they thereby create a double filtering of the public opinion (“[[w:Two-step flow of communication|Two-Step-Flow of Communication]]”).&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; Additionally the growing participation online worsens the information overload, so that search engines are asked to filter and manage the amount. Everything that is not registered by them belongs to the invisible web &lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; - consequently search engines have a huge effect on formation of public opinions as well.

With regard to [[w:Wikileaks|Wikileaks]], one may think, that the transparency of the public sphere increases online, but it might actually worsen the [[w:spiral of silence|spiral of silence]]:&lt;ref name=&quot;Noelle-Neumann 1996&quot; /&gt; Through public measurement tools, i.e. &quot;clicks&quot; or &quot;[[w:Like button|likes]]&quot;, a public opinion is emphasised as highly supported, although it in fact he might be not.

Additionally, this kind of political communication is  unproven in quality and validity (in comparison with institutional [[w:Journalism|journalism]]; i.e. in Germany newspapers are only allowed to publish information, proven by two separate news agencies).

Finally the biggest weakness of the internet is, that it is a pull-medium.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; Hence one can only reach those, who are already interested in and looking for an issue, that they have heard about before. The danger is, that people are informed one-sided and in combination with various possibilities to filter the information overload, they could be kept in an [http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/05/facebook-keeping-you-political-bubble &quot;''political bubble''&quot;].&lt;ref name=&quot;Bohannon 2015&quot;&gt;[http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/05/facebook-keeping-you-political-bubble] Bohannon, J. (2015). Is Facebook keeping you in a political bubble? '' American Association for the Advancement of Science''. Retrieved 03/06, 2016, from http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/05/facebook-keeping-you-political-bubble&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:Knowledge gap hypothesis|knowledge gap hypothesis]] adds, that people with a higher-education and political interest can receive information faster than people without these preconditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bentele 2003&quot;&gt;Bentele, G., Brosius, H. B., Jarren, O. (2003). ''Öffentliche Kommunikation: Handbuch Kommunikations- und Medienwissenschaft''. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag GmbH.&lt;/ref&gt; In combination with [[w:digital divide|digital divide]] and digital analphabetism, through which a certain part of the world's population is excluded from &quot;public&quot; online discussions, the knowledge gap increases: Higher-educated and political interested people with access to and competence to deal with (controversial) political communication cultivate more and more, whereas people without these basis get less antithetic stimuli resulting in them staying in their political bubble. Therefore political communication strategies should be applied cross-medial, for instance [[w:Agenda-setting theory|setting an agenda]] in push media first to encourage as much citizens as possible to inform themselves further through online research.

=== Online-activism by Citizens ===
Online-activism, also known as [[w:Internet activism|Internet activism]] is commonly identified as a practice where politically motivated citizens use the internet and various online technologies to achieve certain goals. 
As explained by Sandor Vegh,&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot;&gt;Vegh,S. Classifying Form of Online Activism in McCaughey, M. (2003). ''Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice''. New York, NY; London: Routledge.&lt;/ref&gt; the strategies implied can be either ''internet-enhanced'' or ''internet-based''. The former indicates a situation where the internet is used to enhance traditional techniques for protests, such as spreading awareness on a topic, creating e-petitions on websites like [https://www.change.org/en-GB/petitions Change.org] and call for action, either online or offline. The latter indicates form of activism that only happen online, like [[#Hackers and Hacktivism|hackers's activities]] identified as [[w:hacktivism|hacktivism]], targeting or protests against [[#Online Piracy and S.O.P.A|internet-related bans]].

Online-activism generally divides in three categories, each of them emphasising different aspects of protests against someone or something, the people involved and the methods applied:&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt;

*'''''Awareness/advocacy:''''' this category characterises the type of people who produce and receive information. The goal of activists in this part of the process is that to divulge information regarding certain topics through a distribution networks made of online petitions, Facebook pages, blogs or email lists. In this case, content producer are most likely to be individual citizens or independent organisation and they have as their main goal that of sharing and putting out for public condemnation those information which might have gone underreported or not reported at all, concealed by mainstream media because of an undemocratic regime, or internal cases such as breach of human rights. Similarly, online advocacy involves both spreading awareness and promoting a certain way of action. Indeed, it can focus on both asking for intervention on a singular case or for continual effort for a future and long-distant goal about a great issue, such as [[w:climate change|climate change]]. A form of advocacy is identified in [[w:lobbying|lobbying]] which differs accordingly to the target of a lobbyist’s action. For instance, [http://www.arthritis.org/new-york/state-advocacy/e-advocates.php e-Advocates] are groups of activist that offer lobbying on behalf of organisation and individuals that lack the internet knowledge and practices to successfully involve people in campaigns. This form of online-activism increases the scale of people that can be potentially informed and consequentially involved, either online or offline. Likewise, it is time- and cost- saving as it allows to use the internet to virtually spread a message. Moreover, through discussion pages and social media people can exchange information [[#Uncoupling of Space and Time|asynchronously and despite geographical constraints]].


*'''''Organisation/Mobilisation:''''' this category includes two different ways of proceeding in regard to how the internet can be used for activist mobilisation. Firstly, it can be used to call for offline action, meaning that information will be provided regarding the place and time at which a protest or demonstration will happen. In this case the trajectory is online → offline. Secondly, it can be used to encourage actions that traditionally happen offline but that would have a better outcome if done online, such as requesting explanations and stating demands through emails, petitions and tweets with a specific person or company as receiver. Here, the trajectory becomes offline → online


*'''''Action/Reaction:''''' this category includes activism that can only happen online and often takes the form of hackers attacks, massive spamming campaigns and [[w:smurf attacks|Smurf attack]] that aim at taking down or saturate the servers of entities identified as detrimental.


All these forms and steps of online-activism, especially if combined, can help bring about cultural, social and political changes. The degree of efficacy and duration of these changes remains debatable.

==== Forms and Platforms ====
As explained in [[#Online-activism by Citizens|Online-activism by Citizens]] there are two ways in which online activism occurs: ''internet-enhanced'' and ''internet-based'' activism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot;/&gt; 
Related to those forms are different kind of platforms where the citizen can participate to achieve the certain goal of the activism. Certain platforms can give ordinary people a voice to express their opinions and can encourage change. Therefore, each platform provides specific characteristics that can advance or even strengthen the outcome and purpose of the action. This section discusses several platforms and their usage as a kind of 'promoter', nevertheless this represents only a fraction of the most widely used platforms that are related to online activism practices.
 
Social networks are merely used as an additional communicative tool for arising awareness or to coordinate the traditional, off-line protest forms. Especially the usage of the two largest social media platform [http://facebook.com Facebook](59 billion monthly active users)&lt;ref&gt;Company Info | Facebook newsroom. (2004, February 4). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://twitter.com/ Twitter](320 million monthly active users).&lt;ref&gt;Company | About. (2016). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from Twitter, https://about.twitter.com/company&lt;/ref&gt; Users and activists can exchange text messages, video or audio files, photos and other information on their profiles. Word spreads quickly online and online fundraising can raise a staggering amount of money in a very short period of time if enough people back the cause and spread the information on social media. Additionally, activists on Facebook can join common-interest user groups, spread specific content and organise off-line protests or strategies for the action. Twitter and Facebook are separated in their opportunities for information sharing as Twitter is a micro-blogging platform, where user can declare messages with a maximum amount of 140 characters. The interconnected nature of Facebook and Twitter leads to an easier way of information sharing and can generate a huge amount of traffic&lt;ref name=&quot;Lewis 2014&quot;&gt;Lewis, K. &amp; Gray, K. &amp; Meierhenrich, J. (2014). “The Structure of Online Activism.” In ''Sociological Science'' 1: 1-9. DOI: 10.15195/v1.a1&lt;/ref&gt; in a less time and cost-consuming way as well as up-to-date status.&lt;ref&gt;Reesh, Anna. (2013). Digital and Online Activism. Retrieved from https://en.reset.org/knowledge/digital-and-online-activism&lt;/ref&gt; 
A development related to the online activism on social networks and one of the strongest tools is the so-called [[w:Hashtag activism|hashtag activism]] as the use of them can coordinate the traffic and, in addition, function as a measurement tool. A research by Emily Vraga reveals that videos “can be shared easily, quickly, and effectively through a variety of other mechanisms, including e-mail, other social media, and even print media, and then watched at the viewer’s leisure”&lt;ref name=&quot;Vraga 2013&quot;&gt;Vraga, Emily K. (2013). The Rules of Engagement: Comparing Two Social Protest Movements on YouTube in ''CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING.'' DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0117&lt;/ref&gt;  via the platform [http://youtube.com YouTube]. 
It further emphasis, that videos related to a political action can serve a “communal resource, informing, motivating, and connecting like-minded others”&lt;ref name=&quot;Thorson 2013&quot;&gt;Thorson K, Driscoll K, Ekdale B, et al. (2013). YouTube, Twitter, and the occupy movement connecting content and circulation practices in ''Information, Communication, and Society'' 2013; 16:421–451.&lt;/ref&gt;  as well as target new audiences precisely and boost viewership. Video sharing platforms provide tools to catch people´s attention as moving images have a more emotional driven effect. Such tools and platforms are also used for cause-related activism such as [[w:Lobbying|lobbying]] and [[w:Fundraising|fundraising]].

Online-petitions (also known as e-petitions or internet petitions) are an extended tool of the traditional petitions as they are less time and cost-consuming and include the opportunity to reach and participate a bigger group of people. Those internet-based petitions also follow the purpose to protest against and urge for positive policy changes on any topic by sending them to the government or organisations. Thereby e-petition can be implemented through two forms: e-mail and world wide web.&lt;ref name=&quot;Earl 2006&quot;&gt;Earl J. (2006). Pursuing Social Change Online: The Use of Four Protest Tactics on the Internet in ''Social Science Computer Review'', Vol. 24 n 3&lt;/ref&gt; The former sends petitions or certain information to subscribers or members of a website or platform based on [[w:Electronic mailing list|electronic mailing list systems]] (so-called [[w:LISTSERV|Listserv]]). The latter indicates websites like [https://www.change.org/ Change.org] or [http://front.moveon.org/ Moveon.org] where people can address a petition. When a website hosts a petition, visitors have to sign in electronically and are often required to give personal data like their name and e-mail. Furthermore, petitions like those on [http://change.org change.org] or [http://moveon.org moveon.org] could be integrated with social media channels and as a consequence achieve a higher participation. Since 2015, citizens in the UK are able to petition against the policy of their government nearly 7,190 petitions were registered and even 20 of them were debated in parliament.&lt;ref&gt;UK Government and Parliament. Petitions. Retrieved from https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions&lt;/ref&gt; Many NGOs or charities use online petitions, too, to reach their goals in environmental issues like [https://secure.greenpeace.org.uk/page/content/sta-time-is-running-out greenpeace.com].

In addition, the mostly negatively associated form of hacktivism belongs to online activism. Originally this kind of activism “is a politically motivated single-incident online action, or a campaign thereof, taken by nonstate actors in retaliation to express disapproval or to call attention to an issue advocated by the activists.”&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt;
Hackers make use of [[w: denial-of-Service attacks|denial-of-service attacks]] to get access to private or secret governmental information. As nearly all spaces of the public and private sphere depend on technologies that are driven by computer networks, attacks become more and more threatening. Regarding Sandor Vegh, hackers are divided into “wired activists”, just adapting the internet to their strategy and “politicised hackers”, adopting political causes as the justification of their acting.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt;

==== Effects ====
Some experts argue that the rise in activism online has caused a negative effect regarding the amount of activism that is done in real life. This so-called [[w:Slacktivism|Slacktivism]] causes people to do less for their community as they feel 'satisfied by their participation in the low-cost online activism'.&lt;ref&gt;[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.416.6446&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf], Reference Required&lt;/ref&gt; Because of this, there is less activism in the public sphere outside of the online communities because people feel as if they have been doing their good deeds online. Furthermore, there are experts who argue that it is oversimplified to say that technology is the reason that certain activist movements are so effective.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rahaghi, 2012&quot;&gt;Rahaghi, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; An online revolution often does not help a revolution in the real world; face-to-face action is needed to help a cause move forward. Online communities are too impersonal and do not have the influence that a mob of demonstrating participants may have.

However, it can be argued that online activism has positive effects as well. It has become easier to use your voice through various websites such as [https://twitter.com/ Twitter], [https://www.change.org/start-a-petition change.org], [http://www.tumblr.com Tumblr] and [http://www.facebook.com Facebook] people are able to spread information and news about activism quicker than ever before. The effect of this is that a larger audience is brought into contact with views, issues and campaigns that are associated with certain online activist movements. In large protest movements, a great number of people can be contacted online and made aware of this movement, as the examples in the next sub-section will discuss. Though it might be difficult to join a demonstration in a city far away from you or help with a campaign in a different country, online-activism provides a platform for many people to have their voice heard regardless. It's a cost-effective way of spreading a message and creating dialogues; people are able to discuss, exchange ideas and offer different perspectives on the subject, and that without having to start an expensive, wide-spread campaign via for example radio or television. This can lower barriers for minority voices, creating a platform for a more diverse, large group of people.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rahaghi, 2012&quot;/&gt;

What online activism also changes is the way people protest. For example, people are less likely to go to a sit-in or to a demonstration, but they are more likely to sign petitions or tweet, e-mail or message celebrities, government officials or institutions or other important figures.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jstor.org/stable/40376135 link] Reference Required&lt;/ref&gt; Important figures in the public have to be more careful what they post online, as a wave of comments on their tweets and Facebook posts is inevitable. This [[w:Fourth-wave of Feminism|call-out culture]] is a key effect that online-activism has had. Everything that a public figure may post online is challenged or confronted if it is problematic in some way, causing them to be more careful and more aware of activist movements. This happens with people in every-day life, too; discussions on social media about political movements and social activism. Some people may deem this as a negative development considering it is difficult to post views online without it being commented on, others may argue that this way the online society can move forward and be more considerate of individuals and aware of different movements.

Lastly, online-activism can offer a different perspective from mainstream media. Considering that [[w:Corporate Media|corporate media]] is an issue that causes companies to have influence in the media, the goals and stories of certain news articles cannot always be trusted. There are instances in which social media showed an incredibly different view of an event than mainstream media, for example with the #blacklivesmatter&lt;ref&gt;http://www.wired.com/2015/10/how-black-lives-matter-uses-social-media-to-fight-the-power/&lt;/ref&gt; movement. Online movements can provide information to those who do not trust the stories of the main news channels, or at the very least provide a different perspective from people posting live from events. Therefore, online-activism has created a different news outlet, and an individual information source when it comes to countless movements and organisation.

==== Past Events ====

===== ''Arab Spring'' =====
At the end December 2010 the Arab world saw an unprecedented series of social movements, protests and revolutions overall identified as [[w:Arab Spring|Arab Spring]]. 
{{Rquote|left|Blogs and forums fueled the changes in the Arabian world, [[w:new media|new media]] became the means for self empowerment. Still: The [[w:Revolution|revolution]] took place on the streets. |The German news magazine &quot;[[w:Der Spiegel|Spiegel]]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;El Difraoui 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.bpb.de/internationales/afrika/arabischer-fruehling/52420/die-rolle-der-neuen-medien?p=all], El Difraoui, A. (2011). ''Die Rolle der neuen Medien im Arabischen Frühling.'' Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Retrieved 02/27, 2013 from http://www.bpb.de/internationales/afrika/arabischer-fruehling/52420/die-rolle-der-neuen-medien?p=all&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Numerous considerations and studies have been made regarding the role and relationship between uprisings and social media networks for their diffusion and coordination. Namely, people interacted with each other and the world through various platforms that ultimately made the message uncontrollable by their regimes. Although the causes of people’s resentment toward their governments had already economic and political foundation, the triggering event happened and propagated online: [[w:Mohamed Bouazizi|Mohamed Bouazizi]], a street vendor, on the 17th December in [[w:Sidi Bouzid|Sidi Bouzid]], [[w:Tunisia|Tunisia]] set himself on fire in front of a government’s office in protest against officials violence, humiliation and the seizing of his goods and cart. Videos recorded on mobile phones were quickly posted on the internet, from where they spread across [https://en-gb.facebook.com/login/%20Facebook Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/login?lang=en-gb%20Twitter Twitter] gathering thousands of protesters first in the small town and eventually in the capital. The [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jHw_auqod6Y video], together with those of the spontaneous uprisings just few hours after Mohamed's self immolation [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qP0ZGsAD_6M][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6chjIV--QlI], reached even satellite news channels like [[w:Al Jazeera|Al Jazeera]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Mackey 2011&quot;&gt;[http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/22/video-that-triggered-tunisias-uprising/] Mackey, R. (2011). Video That Set Off Tunisia’s Uprising in ''The New York Times'', 22 January 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

In similar circumstances, six months before the blogger and activist [[w:Khaled Saeed|Khaled Saeed]] was beaten to death by the police while being taken from a cybercafe in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]].
Photos of his disfigured corpse were taken by his brother while visiting the morgue and shared online. After five days from his death, an anonymous activist created a page on Facebook titled [https://www.facebook.com/ElShaheeed We Are All Khaled Saeed] and divulged the pictures. By the 15th of July more than 130,000 had joined the page, making it the biggest dissent page in Egypt ever.&lt;ref name=&quot;Preston 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/06/world/middleeast/06face.html] Preston, J. (2011). Movement Began With Outrage and a Facebook Page That Gave It an Outlet in ''The New York Times'', 5 February 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
Following these events, on December 18 youth activist [[w:Asmaa Mahfouz|Asmaa Mahfouz]] posted on [http://www.youtube.com YouTube] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIuiWLTMonY video appeal] to urge her fellow citizens to protest [[w:Tahrir Square|Tahrir Square]] with her on 25 January against the regime of [[w:Hosni Mubarak|Hosni Mubarak]].

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:2011 Egyptian protests Facebook &amp; jan25 card.jpg|thumb|right|Social Media and their extensive usage in the Arab Spring]]&lt;/div&gt;
While it is difficult to isolate the amount of importance that each of these events from the way that they were shared, there is no doubt that how they were circulated online gave ordinary, non-activist people a way to connect with battles for human rights against government’s oppression and police abuse of power. Notably, “social media carried a cascade of messages about freedom and democracy across North Africa and the Middle East, and helped raise expectations for the success of political uprising, while people who shared interest in democracy built extensive social networks and organised political action. Social media became a critical part of the toolkit for greater freedom.” &lt;ref name=&quot;O'Donnell 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.washington.edu/news/2011/09/12/new-study-quantifies-use-of-social-media-in-arab-spring/] O’Donnell, C. (2011). New study quantifies use of social media in Arab Spring in ''University of Washington Today'', 12 September 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
In fact, social media platforms made it easier to involve people and get out the news for everyone to see and discuss, especially because newspaper and state television were biased and monitored. Indeed, all but one of the protests called for on Facebook ended up coming to life on the streets.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huang 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/facebook-and-twitter-key-to-arab-spring-uprisings-report] Huang, C. (2011). Facebook and Twitter key to Arab Spring uprisings: report in ''The National'', 6 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
In particular Facebook was one of the primary source to both get information and organise protesters in the Arab regions, with an increase of 30% of users between January and April 2010, and almost double the users (27.7m against the 14.8 of 2010).&lt;ref name=&quot;Huang 2011&quot; /&gt;
This strengthened both the volume of protests and the rapidity with which protests spread across the Arab world. Moreover, protest and supporters broke geographical boundaries boundaries thanks to social media: After Mubarak resignation, there was an average of 2,400 tweets per day from people in neighbouring countries about Egypt. In Tunisia, after Ben Ali resignation, there were about 2,200.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Donnell 2011&quot; /&gt;

The way the message has been spread across countries and people, the output and reading of unbiased information and the bypass of government’s hold during the Arab Spring represents one of the most important example of people coming together to advocate for democracy. This defines for dictators a new enemy: &quot;If for a long time they had only political and fragmented ones, they now found opponents that use social media to identify goals, build solidarity and organise demonstrations.”&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Donnell 2011&quot; /&gt;
That is, if disagreement and anger among citizens have always existed, social media offer a tool to coordinate and push forward a reaction.

===== ''Hong Kong's Umbrella Revolution'' =====

The [[w: Umbrella Revolution|Umbrella Revolution]] or Umbrella Movement refers to the [[w: Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] protests for [[w: universal suffrage|universal suffrage]] and democracy that developed between 26 September and 15 December 2014 thanks to a group called [[w: Occupy Central With Love &amp; Peace|Occupy Central with Love and Peace]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Ivengar 2014&quot;&gt;[http://time.com/3471366/hong-kong-umbrella-revolution-occupy-central-democracy-explainer-6-questions/] Iyengar, R. (2014). Six Questions You Might Have About Hong Kong’s Umbrella Revolution in ''The Time'', October 5, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
Similar protests in Hong Kong against the [[w: Beijing|Beijing]] government had also interested almost half a million of people in July 2003, but, although having a successful outcome that managed to protect Hong Kong from China's interference, they did not have both the same growth and coverage of the Umbrella Revolution.&lt;ref name=&quot;Parker 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/social-media-hong-kong-protests] Parker, E. (2014). Social Media and the Hong Kong Protests in ''The New Yorker'', October 1, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
Indeed, protests organised in 2014 received a global network of online support and protesters themselves exceed locality and restriction in their manifestation events.  
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:台灣民主團體隔海聲援香港 (2).jpg|thumb|left| Pro-democracy protesters show flash lights outside the Government headquarters, 3 October 2014.]]&lt;/div&gt;

After being tear-gassed and pepper-sprayed by riot police in [[w:Admiralty|Admiralty]] two days after the beginning of protests, Josie Tao Cai-yi immediately shared what had happened to her online “First time I’ve actually witnessed the tear gas and pepper spray. Absolutely terrifying.” &lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1628305/role-social-media-occupy-protests-ground-and-around-world] Lee, D. (2014). The role of social media in Occupy protests, on the ground and around the world in ''South China Morning Post'', Thursday, 30 October 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
This propelled a flow tweets in support of the Occupy Central movement, thus bringing it to global attention. At the peak of police intervention in riots, 12 tweets about [[w: Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] were posted per second, with images and messages about police violent behaviour towards protesters being shown and shared by users all over the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot; /&gt;
This brought Scott Likens, analytics consulting lead at PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) China and Hong Kong, to comment on the events saying “we have seen progressive new ways to connect [on social media], serving the needs of something like this in real time... and making sure we’re always connected, [just so] the message can get out fast.” &lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot; /&gt;
In addition, Occupy Centre’s profiles on [https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/ Twitter], only two days after the beginning of protests gathered respectively 100,000 and 25,000 followers, followed by a series of pages aimed at explaining to anti-Occupy audiences the reason of protesters and convince them to join the cause.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot; /&gt;

The way people started sharing images, tweets and videos of protests prompted Beijing government to censor both protesters and those who showed sympathy for them, with also almost a dozen of people being detained after scrutiny.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mozur 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/02/business/protesters-are-targets-of-scrutiny-through-their-phones.html] Mozur, P. (2014). Protesters in Hong Kong Are Targets of Scrutiny Through Their Phones in ''The New York Times'', October 1, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
Censorship had as its main focus [http://weibo.com/login.php?lang=en-us Weibo], China’s version of Twitters, with analytics reporting that only in September 28 the rate of censorship outweighed the one adopted in occasion of the 25th anniversary of [[w: Tiananmen Square|Tiananmen Square]]. Because people were sharing pictures and videos on Instagram, access to the app was blocked, in agreement with previously arranged censorship in China of websites like [https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook] and [https://www.youtube.com/ YouTube].&lt;ref name=&quot;Parker 2014&quot; /&gt;

As expected, this did not stop the protesters: virtual private networks were used to bypass the [[w: firewall|firewall]] and purposely misspelled words and codes were used to jump over targeted censor bots. 
In particular, protesters used [https://www.whatsapp.com/ Whatsapp] to coordinate messages about meeting in one place at once. 
The app [http://opengarden.com/firechat/ FireChat], which allows users to communicate through [[w:bluetooth|bluetooth]] and cellphone radio through mesh networking in a nearby chat,&lt;ref name=&quot;Chat&quot;&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=had4HLUnjic] FireChat Free instant messaging app For Android works without Internet&lt;/ref&gt; was used when authorities tried to shut down mobile networks and cut off internet networks.&lt;ref name=&quot;McKay 2014&quot;&gt;[http://mic.com/articles/100148/here-s-the-ingenious-way-protesters-in-hong-kong-are-organizing-themselves] McKay, T. (2014). Here's the Ingenious Way Protesters in Hong Kong Are Organizing Themselves in ''World.Mic'', September 30, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
This meant that as long as phones remained in range with other, there was no way for authorities to prevent flow of messages apart from physically seizing phones. Only on September 29 [http://opengarden.com/firechat/ FireChat] users in Hong Kong were involved in 800,000 chat session and these were only the ones that were trackable. The company who owns FireChat in fact could only witness users who were online but once they wen off the grid, the actual number of people communicating was unguessable. More than 100,000 only in the first day had downloaded the app, with people using both for communication and to remain in contact with their families, as many of the early protesters were young people from the student community.&lt;ref name=&quot;McKay 2014&quot;/&gt;

In protests like 2014 Hong Kong [[w: Umbrella Revolution|Umbrella Revolution]] the Internet, convergent technologies and social media not only offer a powerful tool to fuel initiative, aggregation and coordination but also creates a window onto this events: if repression, censorship, violence from governments against its own citizens do happen, the entire world would be watching.

===== ''Occupy Wall Street'' =====
The so-called ''Occupy Wall Street'' (OWS) protest movement began in the late summer of 2011 in the [[w: Zuccotti Park|Zuccotti Park]], located in [[w: Financial District (Manhattan)|New York´s financial district]] and was mainly driven by [[#Online-activism by Citizens|online activism]]. The movement, which called for an end to the worldwide social and economic inequality and challenged the amount of corporate influence on government,&lt;ref&gt;Rees, A. Digital and online activism. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://en.reset.org/knowledge/digital-and-online-activism&lt;/ref&gt; increased its global attention and participation through the usage of social media platforms like [https://twitter.com/ Twitter], [http://facebook.com Facebook] and [https://youtube.com/ YouTube].

As the movement occurred, the international banking and finance crisis belongs to the past since almost three years and the [[#Arab Spring|Arab Spring]] was running for nearly six months. Among others, those events can be determined as influencing factors of the protest emergence. [[w: Kalle Lasn|Kalle Lasn]], executive editor of the Canadian, anti-consumerist, pro-environment magazine [http://adbusters.org Adbusters], initiated the call for the first protest on September, 17, in the Wall Street district via [https://twitter.com/ Twitter]. Nearly 5000 activists attended but the police pretended them to bore their way to the finance district's Wall Street. Nevertheless, the opponents succeeded in arranging a camp in the nearby Zuccotti park which from then on functions as the base of the protests.&lt;ref&gt;Die Occupy-Bewegung. (2011). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from http://www.bpb.de/politik/wirtschaft/finanzmaerkte/135540/occupy-bewegung?p=all&lt;/ref&gt; The movement´s call for a more fairly tax system and diminution of the gap between rich and poor was supported by the slogan [[w:We are 99 percent|“We are the 99%“]]. This referred to income inequality and wealth distribution in the U.S. between the wealthiest 1% and the rest of the population that was stated by the economist und former chief economist of the World Bank, [[w: Joseph E. Stiglitz|Joseph E. Stiglitz]], a few months before.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Intellectual Roots of Wall St. Protest Lie in Academe — Movement's principles arise from scholarship on anarchy&quot;. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; This first actions in September did not receive a large media or public attention. That changed on October, 1, as the police arrested more than 700 activists because of traffic obstruction during a demonstration that should lead over the [[w: Brooklyn Bridge|Brooklyn Bridge]]. This intervention causes a worldwide reaction and a large media coverage which can be seen as the breakthrough of the movement. In the following the movement swapped over to other countries all over the world. On October, 15 European movement activists from Madrid called for worldwide demonstrations as they claimed for an extension of the movements claims on the international bank and finance level. Finally, they achieved it to encourage people in more than 82 countries to join and support the occupy movement in less than one month. The movement could not achieve a noticeable change as the objective reasons are not solved until now.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt;

As described in [[#Organisation/Mobilisation|Organisation/Mobilisation]] by Sandor Vegh,&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt; the movement was partially but most importantly based on social networks to mobilise its activists for the off-line actions. Peter Dahlgren points out significant advantages or key tools as those platforms served the extent that occupies reach to other locations and turns out to become a component that facilitated an extensive web-based engagement, with much discussion or global linkage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot;&gt;Dahlgren, Peter. (August 2013). The Political Web. {{doi|10.1057/9781137326386}}.&lt;/ref&gt; 
By this, the usual kind of social media content consumer shifts to a “producer”,&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; as they are consuming information of the social media platforms but also produce own content [[#User-generated content|user-generated content]]. The sharing of YouTube content via Twitter or Facebook and the sharing of current cell phone footage as well as historical archive materials were central to the developed social media practices.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; From Septmeber, 17 to October, 10 the platform [https://twitter.com/ Twitter] generated the following traffic.&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:trendistic_-_occupywallst.jpg|thumb|right|Twitter statistic concerning the content traffic of the &quot;Occupy Wall Street&quot; © cdn.static-economist.com.]]&lt;/div&gt; At the end of October “approximately 70,000 results, including contributions from the OWS movement itself, as well as groups and individuals across a vast global political spectrum”&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; were yielded on [https://youtube.com/ YouTube].

Nevertheless, Dahlgren reveals that the actions of those political producers are involved in a continual process of adaptation while the user often ‘fast freeze’ the definitions of the mainstream. ”&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; Based on this phenomenon, the critic of the activism being less effective arises due to the fact the most of the activism remains to [[#Effects (under condition)|“clicktivism” or “slacktivism”]]. This argument of the activism lose in the actual activism movement was reinforced as the Occupy Wall Street movement has not produced the anticipated results.

===Collective Action Dilemma===

[[w:Howard Rheingold|Howard Rheingold]], born in [[w:Phoenix|Phoenix]], [[w:Arizona|Arizona]], is a critic, writer, and teacher who specialises on the cultural, social and political implications of media communication such as the internet. He attended [http://www.reed.edu/ Reed College] where he began his studied of his lifelong fascination with mind augmentation and its methods. In his book ''Smart Mobs'', he talks about the developments of the internet and he addresses the idea of Collective Action Dilemma, particularly in Chapter two: Technologies of Cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rheingold 2002&quot;/&gt;
He states that [[w:Mizuko Ito|Mizuko Ito]] enable him to understand different behaviours regarding teenage groups and the use of mobile phones. He wanted to know how this type of activity could mean for entire societies, and so the majority of the chapter is based on a conversation he had with friend and colleague Marc Smith. 
He defines the [[w:CollectiveAction|Collective Action]] action dilemma as the perpetual balancing of self-interest and public goods. It’s a situation which would benefit many individuals but various factors such as cost and space prevent it from happening to one individual. The ideal situation is then that the cost is shared amongst others and creates a balance between this and public goods, which is a resource from that all can benefit from, regardless of whether they help create it or not. Public goods increase in value the more people share them.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rheingold 2002&quot; /&gt;

He also states that people who enjoy a public good without contributing anything towards it are called free riders. Rheingold quotes Smith who describes more about free riders: ''“If everyone, acting in their own interest, free rides, then the public good is never created, or it is over consumed and goes away. Everyone suffers. There’s your dilemma. What’s good for you can be bad for us.&quot;''

[[w:Elinor Ostrom|Elinor Ostrom]] studied the way that people shared forestry in Japan and pasturelands in Sweden. Rheingold states in ''Smart Mobs'' that she defined eight ‘design principles’ of Common Pool Resources (CPRS’s)
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| Group boundaries clearly defined ||Rules governing use of collective goods matched to local needs||Most individuals affected by rules play part in modification  || Rights of community to devise own rules accepted by Government
|-
| Community undertake monitoring to ensure rules are adhered to ||Graduated system of sanctions used|| Community have access to low cost conflict resolution mechanisms || CPRs in larger systems provision, monitoring and conflict resolutions are organised in multiple layers of nested enterprises
|}

These cope with free riding and have since been expanded to include a number of additional variables believed to affect the success of self-organised governance systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Poteete and Ostrom 2010&quot;&gt;Poteete, J. and Ostrom, E. (2010). Working Together: Collective Action, the Commons, and Multiple Methods in Practice. Princeton University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Privacy on digital media ==

In an increasingly digital world, privacy is becoming a thing of the past. True privacy in the traditional sense, in the &quot;real&quot; or &quot;physical&quot; world is something that a lot of people strive for and previously were able to achieve. However, with the introduction of the internet we are given the illusion of privacy but seldom do we actually get it.

On the internet everything we do is tracked, all our information is stored and can be brought back at any point. Even if the user tries to delete it. Everything from our locations to our shopping habits is tracked and stored, and can be bought by companies. Although many users prefer not to be private at all and see digital media as a great outlet to publicly post about their lives, many users who feel like they have the option in actual fact do not. Privacy online has become something of an oxymoron because the two are completely incompatible with each other, this topic in the following sections will go on to describe how users cannot achieve real privacy in any form online.

=== Privacy rights and Awareness of Privacy Settings ===

When you are online, you tend to provide information about yourself almost every step of the way; this might range from your name to your address. The information you provide online is one similar to a puzzle with pieces of information that need to be connected before the full picture is revealed, for example, information you may provide when signing up to Facebook may be combined with information you may give when online shopping. When this information is all gathered together you may be surprised at how much one person can find out about you.

[[w:Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)|Global surveillance disclosures]] triggered a debate about the right to privacy in the digital age so it seems relevant that our privacy rights are explored in greater detail.

In one way or another we are all concerned with our privacy and our privacy rights online, as we all have aspects of our life we want to protect from others.  So much so that it has become a fundamental human right and we have a duty to protect our rights. [http://internetrightsandprinciples.org/wpcharter/archives/53 This article] gives an in depth understanding of our privacy rights online.

In order to get an understanding of our privacy rights online it is important to consider the following things:

'''Social Networking'''- how do we utilise privacy settings in order to improve or distort our public selves

The three main ways in which you are likely to access the Internet are as follows;
An ISP, a mobile phone carrier or a Wi-Fi hotspot. Every computer that is connected to the Internet has a unique IP address (Internet Protocol Address) and it is that number that actually allows you to send and receive information over the Internet. When you visit a website, the site can see your IP address which can in turn let the site know your geographical region. Moreover, there are ways in which you can block your IP address such as the website [https://www.torproject.org Tor Project ]

Furthermore, as technology is continuing to advance many of us now access the Internet via our smartphones. In this way you access the Internet using a data plan, which is tied to your phone service (Vodafone, Three, T-Mobile). Your phone provider collects data about your usage. Wi-Fi hotspots present serious security issues and it is crucial the terms and conditions are read before you set up a Wi-Fi hotspot.

'''Using Search Engines'''

Search Engines such as [https://www.google.co.uk Google] and [https://uk.yahoo.com Yahoo] have the ability to track each and every one of your searches. They have the ability to record your IP address, the time of the search and the search terms used. Major search engines have weighed in on this debate by saying IP addresses need to be accessed in order to provide a better service and to combat fraud quickly and effectively. Google and Yahoo have now shorted the time they store this information from one year to 9 months.

[https://duckduckgo.com DuckDuckGo] is a search engine that “''does not collect or share personal information''”  so there are other options available to us if you are concerned about your IP address bring tracked. They are not widely talked about though so if you didn’t know about them you probably didn’t think sites like DuckDuckGo ever existed.

'''Using Mobile Apps'''

Mobile Apps can collect all sorts of data and transmit it to the app maker or third party advertisers, which can then be shared or even sold. By installing an app you are allowing it to access certain data on your phone. Obviously, the first question, which many people ask is what data does it collect? These answers would normally be on the privacy terms and conditions, however, many mobile apps do not provide these terms and conditions. The data collected can include things such as; your phone contacts, call logs, Internet data etc.

'''Social Networks''' 
'''[https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook] [https://twitter.com/?lang=en-gb Twitter] [https://www.tumblr.com/ Tumblr]'''
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
What do the majority of us all have in common? If you are one of the hundreds of millions of people using social networks, then there is a strong chance that you are linked to them through an online relationship. The information you share with your contacts online completely depends on you. However, you cannot control what other people do with the information you post online, and it is this secondary use of information that is posted online that is a major problem.

This website http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/05/21/teens-social-media-and-privacy/ goes into detail about the percentage of Facebook users that actually use their privacy settings and how aware of them they are.

By adjusting the privacy settings on your social media accounts to the highest level it can limit the amount of information leaked by secondary users, however, it does not stop it altogether. This brings up some debates surrounding how we utilise our privacy settings online to maybe improve the image of ourselves. For example, our online identity may be narrative or it may be real, online presence seems to construct a story of us but in many ways it also portrays a real view of ourselves. We need to ask ourselves, do our actual identities align with our online identities? Or do we utilise the privacy settings to to create a narrative of our life.


'''Facebook Tagging and Facial Recognition'''

One thing that social media users may be unaware of is that by tagging people in photographs on Facebook, many users may be unaware that not only are they making the pictures visible to an increasingly wide audience, but also helping to contribute to Facebook’s database and improve facial recognition technology. Not only an invasion of privacy to many, but an abuse of people’s understanding when it comes to the repercussions of tagging, which are not made clear to users. This application of cognitive surplus,&lt;ref&gt;Shirky, C. (2011). Cognitive Surplus: How Technology Makes Consumers Into Collaborators, New York: Penguin&lt;/ref&gt; using the by-products of social media users seemingly harmless tagging, is contributing on a wider scale to invasions of people’s privacy and private spheres on a global scale. By (for the most part unwittingly) assisting Facebook to improve facial recognition technology in this way, it becomes increasingly likely that the online activity of individuals may become interconnected against their knowledge or wish, through what they are tagged in. Tagging could also become automated which would take away part of the control the user has over how their image is displayed in the public sphere.&lt;ref&gt;Bloomberg Business. (2015). Facebook’s Use of Facial-Recognition Tool Draws Privacy Ire. 03/08, 2016, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-28/facebook-s-use-of-facial-recognition-tool-draws-privacy-concerns&lt;/ref&gt;


&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

The ability for such technology to recognise a person from a single picture [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/facebooks-deepface-ai-system-scarily-5137505] could lead to individuals being searched online at random by someone who may, for instance, pass them in the street and snap a photograph. Putting this on the internet could bring up any amount of connected personal information they may have shared online, bringing the concern for safety and privacy offline as well. Management of settings or the ability to opt out can always curb these things but the lack of communication between providers and users is the main issue here- many are most likely unaware of how their activity may impact themselves and their circle in the near future, because this information is not widely circulated and is certainly not common knowledge despite the number of people it affects worldwide.

Beyond facial recognition even is the growing ability for Facebook to recognise and suggest tags for people by other characteristics such as their hair, their clothes or their body shape.&lt;ref&gt;Business Insider UK. (2015). Facebook's scarily accurate facial-recognition tech can now recognise you even if it can't see your face. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://uk.businessinsider.com/facebook-facial-recognition-technology-ai-cant-see-face-2015-6?r=US&amp;IR=T&lt;/ref&gt; Individuals wishing to keep their physical identity private by declining to share or be tagged in pictures of their face for whatever reason are now having to jump through more hoops to maintain their privacy when they may only want to use the network to reach contacts rather than portray a full image of themselves online.

=== Data and Traffic Tracking ===

When using the Internet in the 21st century, individual privacy online is of key importance to users. In a recent study, it was reported that approximately [https://econsultancy.com/blog/64209-89-of-british-internet-users-are-worried-about-online-privacy-report 89% of Internet users are becoming increasingly worried abut their online privacy].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://econsultancy.com/blog/64209-89-of-british-internet-users-are-worried-about-online-privacy-report |title='89% of British Internet users are worried about Privacy Online:Report'}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, most individuals do not realise that most of their online activity is tracked through various methods, and that very little online activity is private. Data tracking, otherwise known as [[w:Behavioral targeting|Behavioral targeting]], is not new, yet;

  &quot;Most people have ''no idea'' this is going on&quot; - Sharon Goott Nissim, [[w:Electronic Privacy Information center|Electronic Privacy Information Center]]

Websites, companies, and [[w:Web browser|web browsers]] store [[w:Personally identifiable information|personal information]] in a variety of different methods, and for a number of different reasons. Mostly, this is used to tailor the user's online experience to the things they want to see. However, as the specifics of information collected through these online data tracking methods is [http://finance.yahoo.com/news/keep-data-brokers-from-tracking-you-online-anonymously-202256230.html rarely publicised]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://finance.yahoo.com/news/keep-data-brokers-from-tracking-you-online-anonymously-202256230.html |title='How to keep companies from tracking you online - for good'}}&lt;/ref&gt; outwith the collector, it is difficult to know whether that is all that our personal data is being used for.

==== Encryption ====

[[w:Encryption|Encryption]] is a form of protection widely used by companies to protect personal data which they collect. Encryption can be used to protect data &quot;at rest&quot;, such as information stored on computers, storage devices, and mobile phones. Encrypting personal data which is at rest in online storage helps protect it should any physical security measures fail.

Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via [[w:Computer network|networks]], e.g. the Internet, [[w:E-commerce|e-commerce]], mobile telephones, [[w:Bluetooth|Bluetooth devices]] and bank automatic teller machines.

This method of protection is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the [[w:Computer Security Institute|Computer Security Institute]] reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Richardson |first=Robert |title=2008 CSI Crime and Computer Survey |url=http://i.cmpnet.com/v2.gocsi.com/pdf/CSIsurvey2008.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Cookies ====

Now, when individuals click on or log in to a website for the first time, they may receive a message which states something along the lines of {{font color||LightSalmon|'This site uses cookies, do you agree to this?'}}. Most users just click 'Yes' to get the message off of the screen so they can continue browsing, without actually knowing what they have just agreed to.

[[w:HTTP cookie|Cookies]] are small bits of data which are collected and stored by websites, web browsers, and social media sites whilst the user is browsing. Each time a user logs on to an account or clicks onto a website, the browser sends the cookie back to the server to notify the user's previous activity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title='HTTP State Management Mechanism - Overview' |url=http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6265#section-3 |source=IETF}}&lt;/ref&gt; Cookies were originally designed to tailor users online experience, by allowing websites to remember important pieces of information about their activity.  Cookies can also store passwords and form content a user has previously entered, such as a credit card number or an address; for example, [[w:Autofill|Google AutoFill]] and similar tools are powered by cookie storage.


==== Advertisement Recommendations ====

From cookie storage came the development of advertising tracking and [[w:Targeted advertising|advertising recommendations]]. By analysing the stored data of what websites individuals look at online, what they put in their [[w:Shopping cart software|shopping baskets]] on [[w:Amazon.com|Amazon]] etc., and what pages they like on Facebook, sites such as [[w:Web search engine|search engines]] and Facebook are able to promote certain products which they think the user would buy/enjoy, based on this previous activity.

All of these methods blur the distinction between public and private spheres online. What individuals deem as 'private browsing' is, in most cases, not truly private. Individuals private browsing history, then seems to bleed into what are deemed as public domains, such as Facebook News Feed's and 'Recommended' [[w:YouTube|YouTube]] videos. Although it is only the individual who can see things such as Advert Recommendations, it outwardly appears to be public as it is on a public medium. Not only that, but the fact that individuals browsing activity is already stored and shared by companies in the first place makes this information somewhat public.&lt;ref&gt;McDonald, A. M., &amp; Cranor, L. F. (2010, October). Americans' attitudes about internet behavioral advertising practices. In Proceedings of the 9th annual ACM workshop on Privacy in the electronic society (pp. 63-72). ACM.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Tags and Privacy: How They Shape Online Performance ===

On the internet, tagging can mean a lot of different things, but is generally used as a way to link different pieces of information to either certain topics, or specific people. The most famous use of tagging is from Twitter with hashtags going viral, but there's also using tagging to gain visibility and therefore increasing how &quot;public&quot; a person or their content is. Tagging and Privacy settings are often conflicting each other, as one is used to gain attention and the other is used to get less attention, especially from the public.

Tagging represents an online connection between people and a digital relationship or aquaintance is made. This is a common feature of multiple social media platforms and acts as a way to bring users together and provides interaction. However, privacy can be a barrier for this interaction, limiting the content allowed on pages and the types of people accessing it.

==== Facebook ====
[[w:Facebook features#Wall|Tagging]] is one of the basic features used in social media. [https://en-gb.facebook.com/ Facebook] uses this tagging element to enhance the feature and interaction with other users. This commonly used feature of Facebook helps users to feel part of something rather than a sole user. Social media can create a different identity of ourselves and can &quot;negotiate social boundaries&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot;&gt;boyd, d. (2012) &quot;Participating in the Always-On Lifestyle&quot;. In Mandiberg, M. (Ed.). ''The Social Media Reader'' pp.71-76. New York and London: NYU Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

Tagging represents an online connection between users and is seen to create social acceptance. Tags automatically involves&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Facebook en aula2.jpg|thumbnail|Facebook responses to tagging]]&lt;/div&gt; other people and so this photo/video/status appears across all the pages. However, this is where tagging can be very problematic. One user has control over the content being displayed and have the power to select the users to be tagged and the caption to go along with the content. The structure of technologies (their function and availability) can impact on our own self image and the world we live in. 
Through tagging people can build up a persona online from the perspective of multiple other people, and it can often conflict with - and contradict - the persona and image that they are trying to create online themselves.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2010&quot;&gt;Lanier, J. (2010). &quot;Missing Persons&quot;. In ''You Are Not A Gadget'' (pp.3-23). London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

This factor of Facebook denies the users tagged any ability to control the image for example posted. However, Facebook does have a setting which users can approve the content being posted to their page, but Facebook does not promote this setting as it almost defies the use of the application.

Simply by including a tag in a picture, it creates opportunities to go [[w: Viral phenomenon|viral]]. Whether a tag of a friend or a celebrity, this picture has the chance to be seen by a wider range of people. This is where the issue of publicity and privacy is introduced. Although a profile is private, a picture can be seen and available across platforms. This brings about the question - are we private even though we can be seen across many different pages because of a tag?

A tag also represents - for a user being tagged by someone else - a non mediated self. Since the image is controlled by one central user, all others tagged in a photo display a non selective version of themselves; one which could be different from the image shown by themselves. A digital photograph on social media can present a past experience, can be retold and can be an expression of our own identity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot; /&gt; This creates an alternative and most likely more realistic image of a person online, breaking a barrier of them being so 'perfect' and 'idealistic'. This begins to create more judgements across social media and as Sherry Turkle says: &quot;the risk that we come to see others as objects to be accessed&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot;&gt;Turkle, S. (2011). ''Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other'', pp.134-149. New York: Basic Books.&lt;/ref&gt;

In terms of [[w: Cyberformance|online performance]], this is affected in many different ways.

Tagging can either create a positive or negative effect on online performance. This reaction by the user is interesting to understanding the users’ morals but also identity.

Individual's personal profiles are mediated and carefully selected by them, in order to created a desired self. Any one 'tag' could alter the image and persona that the individual is trying to create online. Since tags are controlled by others, it alters the shape of online performance, as it may not have censored certain things that the individual does not want to appear online.

This online performance takes two sides:
* Desired image - one side of who is desired by others and a 'positive' image controlled by us.
* 'Real life' image - tags and posts by others which represent a more realistic, different side.

Privacy can create an inactive performance. It can limit the features of the app and so affects overall online activity and performance of users. Conventions on social media create boundaries of acceptable content.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot; /&gt;

Tagging could also be seen to be gendered as in an experiment on tagging in college students revealed women were higher than men for posting/tagging pictures and for comments.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot; /&gt;

Online performance is structured around activity which mainly involves tagging. Being private creates boundaries around Facebook's function and so when tagging is limited; the profile is less believable and appreciated.

==== [https://twitter.com/login Twitter] ====
With the majority of Twitter users being between 18–34 years of age and with a graduate degree &lt;ref name=&quot;Fuchs, C. Social media&quot;&gt;Fuchs, C. Social media&lt;/ref&gt; there seems to be a particular niche in who uses this form of media. 
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
Trending on Twitter is used as a way of making other users see what is most talked about at that current time. Hash tags are used by users and if enough of the public all use the particular hash tag this creates a topic that is trending. Often these trends tend to be issues relating to the relevant lives of the people who have Twitter accounts such as shared experiences and events they are currently experiencing. Sometimes new words or phrases can be brought about through hash tagging if a hash-tag is particularly successful such as throwback Thursday where users reminisce over past memories but this hash tag has become a well known phrase in society. Even a few years ago no one would have known this phrase at all let alone used it as a hash tag. Politics is discussed less where as everyday events, common situations, sports or music tend to be what people are discussing more than in depth politics where opinions may be divided. Twitter tends to focus around common interests shared between users to do with entertainment and experiences for their particular niche rather than the discussion of major topics that affect people globally such as current affairs and politics. Users have created Twitter to be a place of entertainment and leisure rather than the use of in depth discussion which is aimed at a particular group of people.


Advertisers also use this hash tag system to their advantage. When Twitter first started advertising did not exist through the site yet today it appears through the live feed between user posts. Advertisers are aware of what is trending through participating in the site and it is a great way for them to get an insight into what people are talking about and the current topics people are taking an interest in and discussing. They can then use this information to target their adverts to the people who will see it and be viewing it specific to their interests. Twitter also organizes its top tweets in preference of its advertising clients rather than tweets that may actually be trending. This search for what is trending is actually not true and is manipulated in that Twitter rate celebrities and well known people get priority over people who are not known in the media and live generally normal lives. Therefore people with economic power will come out on top as the most popular but may not be most popular by true statistics of trending.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fuchs, C. Social media&quot;/&gt;

==== Tumblr ====

Tagging on Tumblr is primarily a way to categorise the content created and posted on the platform. Tumblr posts may include text, photos, audio, and videos, which all can be tagged. These tags are also used when users are searching for specific content, such as pictures of Scotland, so when they search &quot;Scotland&quot;, they will see all the posts tagged with ''#Scotland''. They can also refine their search so that they can either see the most recent or the most popular post, and to see only one type of post. Tags are found at the bottom of a post, in a smaller grey font from the rest of the text on the post, with a hashtag symbol (#) in front of each tag.

Users can tag their own posts in order to make it searchable on Tumblr. If they don't include any tags, the only people who can see the post are their followers or anyone who knows the url of their blog, which may not be much. Therefore, if a user wants more people to see what they post, tagging their content in popular tags can increase their visibility.

If a user want to see more content with the same tag, they can &quot;track&quot; it.  Tracking a tag creates a link on the user's dashboard so they can click that tag at any time to see what's new in the tag. This is similar to subscribing or following a tag rather than a person or a blog. This is often used for the user's own username to see if anyone's mentioned them in a post, or if a user is particularly invested in a fandom and wish to see everything that is being posted about that fandom. If someone is particularly active on a tag, they may gain followers, if not just attention, which in turn makes them more public.

People also can also create an uncommon tags if they only want to see specific things, or have a way of grouping a series of posts together. For example, if a group of users are creating a specific week to create lots of posts about something, such as an underappreciated movies, they will create a tag that no one else has used, like ''#underapreciatedcharacterweek'', and everyone will post their content using that tag. This way, all those posts are in one place for easy access and increased visibility.

Tags are also used to organise the posts together on a user's blog so they can have easy access to them later, such as ''#selfies'' and ''#personal post'', or even more specific, like a Disney-themed blog would have a page with a link to all the tags for the different movies and characters.

Users with private, password protected blogs can also tag their posts so they can easily search through their own blog, but their posts will not show up on anyone's dashboard or in the Tumblr tag search. A user with a public blog but making a private post can also tag it for their own reference, but no other user will see it on their dashboard, when they search for that tag, or when they go onto that user's public blog.

Tags can also be used to [[w:Blacklist (computing)|blacklist]] certain types of posts. A software extension is needed for this since Tumblr does not provide the ability to blacklist specific tags. Creating a blacklist prevents posts with these tags from showing up on their dashboards, but not other people's blogs. This is often used for possible &quot;triggers&quot; for people with certain fears or trauma, but also for things like spoilers or negative opinions. Although, as stated, Tumblr itself doesn't have a feature that lets users blacklist specific tags, it does use the ''#NSFW'' ([[w:Not safe for work|Not safe/suitable for work]]) tag in order to filter what will show up in the safe search option. Additionally, if a user searches negative tags, such as ''#depression'', users will [https://www.tumblr.com/psa/search/depression see a message] offering them advice and support instead of allowing them to view a huge array of negative posts that could potentially worsen their wellbeing.

In 2014, Tumblr introduced a new way to &quot;tag&quot; other users in posts, calling them &quot;mentions&quot;. Now, instead of adding a hyperlink to their blog and tagging them in the bottom of the post and hoping they check the tag to see it (or sending them a personal message about it), users can type a username with an @ in front, and they will get a special notification that they have been mentioned in a post. Users often use this to show funny or important posts to their friends instead of sending them the link to the post, or if they are giving &quot;shoutouts&quot; or promoting specific users to their followers.

==== Instagram ====

[[w:Instagram|Instagram]][http://www.instagram.com] is a mobile social network platform mainly used and intended for the online sharing of photographs and videos. Users are capable of sharing their contents publically and privately, changing the security settings on the app. With over 300 million users as of December 2014,&lt;ref name=&quot;Fiegerman 2014&quot;&gt;Fiegerman, Seth (2014). ''Instagram tops 300 million active users, likely bigger than Twitter''. Mashable.&lt;/ref&gt; there are immense amounts of content generated every day, and must be administrated in some way.

Tagging on Instagram can be used in three ways: much like on [[w:Facebook|Facebook]], users can tag other users on their own photographs, and mention them on post’s comments so other users receive a notification and can view the same post: and much like on [[w:Tumblr|Tumblr]], a user can tag a post by assigning it to a category related to what they are posting about, using the hashtag (‘#’, hence ‘tag’) symbol.

The first two ways of tagging mentioned have got more to do with the online social communication aspect of Instagram. Tagging someone who appears on a photograph will show up on their personal account, (under the section ‘photos of [username]’). This can be very controversial, since it can result in both positive and negative effects.

A user’s online performance can be very influential on their personal life and mental health, and since Instagram is specifically an online photo-sharing service, it focuses largely around personal image in most cases. There is a certain self-management and management of the online performance in order to not create any negative images and representations of the self. Because of this, many users have felt the need to digitally modify and manipulate images of themselves. However, when a someone uploads a photograph of another user (usually without their explicit permission) and tags them on it, they are stripping them off of every right to edit their appearance and shape their own online identity in concordance to how they wish to be perceived by others.&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot; /&gt;

Since photographs are not always a realistic representation of the physical self, some photographs might largely deviate from the desired public image and online identity that a user may have. This can usually create many issues for users; mental health issues like anxiety, depression or self-loathing, as well as other issues that can also be indirectly damaging to one’s mental health, like [[#Cyberbullying|cyberbullying ''(see 1.7.4)'']] .

On the contrary, being tagged on someone’s photograph or tagging another user on one’s own can broaden an individual’s social circle and enhance their own personal experience in photo-sharing with this app.

=====Misuse of tags on Instagram=====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
The search function for tags on Instagram was meant to be used in a certain way in order to connect with people who have the same interests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ferrara 2014&quot;&gt;Ferrara, E., Interdonato, R. and Tagarelli, A. (2014) ''Online popularity and topical interests through the lens of Instagram’, Proceedings of the 25th ACM conference on Hypertext and social media - HT'' 14, . doi: 10.1145/2631775.2631808.&lt;/ref&gt; For example, tagging a photograph with ''#sunset'' will appear on the tag’s own feed and therefore will be shown to people searching the same tag. Usually, this is how users can discover and ‘follow’ people that share the same interest in sunsets. However, with the growing popularity of Instagram, its abundance of daily content and the cultural desire of being popular within the platform (which is usually measured in terms of ‘likes’ and ‘followers’), users have developed new ways of getting in other user’s feeds and creating the opportunity of gaining more popularity.

This is usually through the misuse of tagging. In order to get as much visibility on their post as possible, users have wrongly tagged their photographs with tags that are not related to the content they are posting. These tags are usually “trending”, that is, many users within the Instagram community have used it recently and consequently the page for the tag has a larger viewing audience, (like for example, tagging a photograph or a ‘selfie’ with the tag ‘#oscars’ during the [[w:Academy Awards|Academy Awards]] will create a higher chance for users to see and ‘like’ a picture and perhaps ‘follow’ the user, rather than tagging it with a more unusual, less visited tag). Users can find out which tags are trending by searching a specific tag, and Instagram shows the exact amount of photographs tagged with it, or through specific websites or apps (like [http://www.instag-app.com/ Instag]) that list the trending tags. This abuse has created a rather crowded environment in the tagging service of the app and an [[w:Information overload|‘information overload’]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Toffler 1960&quot;&gt;Toffler, A. (1960), ''Future Shock''. United States: Random House.&lt;/ref&gt; which consequently dilutes the desired content within each tag when searched,&lt;ref&gt;Hemp, Paul (2009) Death by Information Overload. Harvard Business Review. September Issue. Available at: https://hbr.org/2009/09/death-by-information-overload&lt;/ref&gt; and generates an inconvenient photo-sharing experience in the app’s search function. This is also a problem on other social media platforms mentioned, like Tumblr and Twitter.

=== Nothing Created or Destroyed ===
{{Rquote|left|The Internet's not written in pencil, Mark, it's written in ink.| Erica Albright|[[w:The Social Network|The Social Network]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Social Network 2010&quot;&gt;[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1285016/quotes] IMBd. (n.d.). ''The Social Network (2010) Quotes''. Retrieved 02/17, 2016, from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1285016/quotes&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fincher 2010&quot;&gt;''The Social Network''. Fincher, D., (Director). (2010). [Motion Picture]. [[w:Columbia Pictures|Columbia Pictures]].&lt;/ref&gt;}} 
The Internet is enormous and ever-changing. So much information is floating around on the web and sometimes it is not wanted. Sometimes it is taken without permission or used out of context. With such a vast amount of information, it is all but impossible to try and control it, especially on a personal level. It takes whole governments to try and contain, remove, or censor online information, and even then it does not totally work. An example of someone failing to control what happens on the internet is [[w:Barbara Streisand|Barbara Streisand]]. She tried to sue a photographer to have a photo of her house taken off the internet and the result was an explosion of copies, re-posts, and mirrors of that photo being spread all over the internet, effectively making it impossible to get rid of. This became known as the [[w:Streisand Effect|Streisand Effect]] and is an example of the volatile and uncontrollable nature of the web.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; [[File:Social Media Chart.png|thumbnail|Chart showcasing social media usage.]] &lt;/div&gt;
The average young person spends up to 27 hours per week on the Internet&lt;ref name=&quot;Anderson 2015&quot;&gt;[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/digital-media/11597743/Teenagers-spend-27-hours-a-week-online-how-internet-use-has-ballooned-in-the-last-decade.html], Anderson, E. (2015). Teenagers spend 27 hours a week online. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved 03/02, 2016, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/digital-media/11597743/Teenagers-spend-27-hours-a-week-online-how-internet-use-has-ballooned-in-the-last-decade.html&lt;/ref&gt;
. The result of this huge amount of time spent on the Internet is an equally large digital footprint, meaning that most people nowadays cannot escape leaving their mark on the Internet. 
The average person spends most of their time on the Internet on [[w:Social Media|social media]] sites such as [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] and [[w:Twitter|Twitter]]. These sites have become huge hubs of information with over 500 million tweets being posted each day. Many see these websites as a harmless way to communicate with friends and family, however posting too much information on these websites can be dangerous. As they may appear to give you the option to delete posts as you please, nothing on the Internet is ever fully removed and the digital footprints that we leave stay there forever.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File: How_to_create_a_Facebook_Account.jpg|thumbnail|Necessary information to register on Facebook]] &lt;/div&gt;
With that in mind, one has to distinguish between:

1. two kind of '''information sharing''' with
:* the companies, providing the wanted service, in order to be able to create an account and to use the platforms and the connected services - often the contact details are mandatory and it is in our interest. 
:* circle of acquaintances, e.g. on Facebook, where one can actively create the online identity,&lt;ref name =&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot;&gt;Mendelson, A.L., Papcharissi, Z., (2010). 'Look at Us: Collective Narcissism in College Student Facebook Photo Galleries'. In Papcharissi, Z., (Ed.). ''A Networked Self'', pp. 251-273.  Hoboken: Taylor &amp; Francis.&lt;/ref&gt; or via messaging services to stay connected via interpersonal interaction.

2. and two types of '''shared information'''
:* with our consents, meaning we actively decide to share the information by typing them into a form for instance, or
:* without our knowledge via tracking of the companies providing the platforms I use - this also contains individual-related surfing habits, transactions and connection data. Hence they can create an online profile about us e.g. about our likings via our [https://panopticlick.eff.org/ &quot;online fingerprint&quot;].
Sherry Turkle &lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot; /&gt; talks about people forgetting how much of a footprint we leave behind as we browse the internet &quot;the experience of being at ones computer or cell phone feels so private we could easily forget our own circumstance: with every connection we leave an electronic trace&quot;. Most of us happily give over information to websites like Facebook and Twitter when signing up, however what we do not realise is the information that is gathered from us as we move around the internet, without us realising it at all. Our information is sold to large companies often without our consent or without us even knowing about it, this is why for example if you have been browsing an online shop you will find advertisements for that shop popping up all over the internet as you browse. Facebook does this often and specifically tailors the advertisements on its page to you and what you look at when you use the internet.

All this information is stored, partly for commercial and market research purpose, but also partly due to [[w:Telecommunications data retention|data retention laws]] and they are saved by many parties such as [[w:Digital subscriber line|DSL]] providers (i.e. Vodafone), applications (i.e. [[w:Google Chrome|Google Chrome Browser]]), devices and [[w:operating systems|operating systems]] (i.e. [[w:Apple Inc.|Apple's]] [[w:iPhone|iphone]] and [[w:iOS|iOS]]) and finally websites (i.e. Facebook). En plus through the data retention law the government has access to part of this information amount ''for many years''; thereby the methods for crime solving shall be enhanced, but at the same time everyone is any time under general suspicion of having committed a crime.&lt;ref name=&quot;n.a. 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2014/27/pdfs/ukpga_20140027_en.pdf] n.a. (2014). ''Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014''. Retrieved 03/11, 2016, from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2014/27/pdfs/ukpga_20140027_en.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

Even if there are also laws about deletion of personal data, as the example above shows, information online can never truly be deleted. With this in mind it raises the question if there really is such a thing as privacy in the digital world. Even users who choose to remain anonymous and can be traced back using their [[w:IP address|IP address]] meaning that, when it comes to the internet and everything digital the traditional ideas of privacy are non existent.

An example of this is the [[w: Ashley Madison Data Breach|Ashley Madison Data Breach]], [[w:Ashley Madison|Ashley Madison]] was a site in which users were able to conduct and organise affairs. The website retained every users personal information, which included all of their real names and details as users used fake names. This website was hacked and all of the private details of the users were released and made available to the public. Users of the site truly believed that their personal information was protected and so was their privacy, but with this and with most other cases on the internet private information is never truly private, and can be obtained and released very easily.

== Anonymity in the Private Sphere ==

Online communication on the Internet is commonly described as 'anonymous' when users do not post any personal details, and often use a username instead. There are many different levels of anonymity (lack of identifiability, visual anonymity and dissociation of online and real identities), that are thought to have different components of interpersonal motivation, which are able to influence self-conception. Morio and Buchholz (2009) &lt;ref name=&quot;Morio 2009&quot;&gt;Morio, H. and Buchholz, C. (2009). How Anonymous are you Online? Examining online social behaviours from a cross-cultural perspective. ''Al &amp; Society'', 23, 297-307&lt;/ref&gt; have suggested that someone can essentially become a different person by creating a new online identity, allowing space to create and adopt different values and personalities, and even, in some cases, a new age, gender or race. Luppicini and Lin (2012) argue that this is because “online anonymity allows there to be (in varying degrees) a dissociation of real and online identities where someone’s online behaviours are not directly tied to that person’s physical self”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Luppicini 2012&quot;&gt;Luppicini, R. and Lin, X. (2012) ‘Student 2.0 Revisited: The Paradox of Anonymity and Identity in the Digital World’, in Luppicini, R. and Haghi, A.K. (eds.) Education for a digital world: Present Realities and Future Possibilities. Toronto: Apple Academic Press, pp. 185–196.&lt;/ref&gt;  Due to this type of dissociation, there is usually less accountability for how users behave online in comparison to how they behave in their ‘real’ lives.

Social media platforms like [http://www.tumblr.com Tumblr], [http://www.youtube.com YouTube], [http://www.twitter.com Twitter] and [http://www.yikyak.com/home Yik Yak] can be said to belong in the private sphere of digital media, due to the fact that these websites mainly operate with the use of a username, and so a user does not necessarily need to give away any of their personal details. These websites have become largely popular among its audiences because users find a certain type of reassurance on keeping their ‘real’ identities private by hiding behind a username.

The use of anonymity in online platforms has subsequently created one of the largest (and on-going) problematic conundrums in the social use of present day Internet, resulting in positive and negative outcomes. An anonymous online identity can be empowering for a user because it allows them to explore the depths and different aspects of their own identity, occupy different social roles and positions and embrace their own diversity in ways that might be impossible to realise in real life. On the other hand, online anonymity can also lead to many problematic issues like [[w:Cyberbullying|cyberbullying]], information and identity theft, [[w:Catfishing|'catfishing']] and defamation. The following sections will explore the positive and negative aspects of online anonymity in more detail.

=== Freedom of Expression in Private Spheres of Social Media===
As mentioned above, some social media platforms belong in the private sphere due to the fact that users may choose to remain anonymous, and operate through the website while using a username. This can possibly motivate users to ‘speak their minds’ and publicly express (while remaining anonymous) their passions and interests, and personal opinions on a specific topic of choice. While some individuals might be demotivated to do so in public spheres (like Facebook) because they might fear contributing to a type of information overload, where they could flood other user’s feed with their lengthy posts, or because they might fear if their public identity and image might suffer if given certain opinions, the anonymity of private social media platforms might encourage users to write without holding back.

It is quite interesting to compare how both types of platforms (public and private) can motivate or mute an individual’s expression. It is also known that some artist social media users feel more comfortable with posting their artwork in websites like Tumblr or Deviantart due to the fact that their contribution will remain completely anonymous. In terms of artistic abilities, an individual can be particularly sensitive to critical evaluation and exposure, especially if they are still in the earlier still-developing artistic stages of their own skills. For this reason, users might feel too shy or insecure to upload this type of very personal content into public social networks like Facebook, where they might feel like open visibility to all of their friends might be too much exposure.

Uploading this type of content on public networks can also contribute to an individual’s anxiety due to the ‘liking’ concept; where they can become obsessed with a number and with the thought that ‘likes’ are equivalent to an individual’s worth. On the other hand, this can also be applied to private social networking platforms like Tumblr, because most of social media platforms nowadays operate with the use of ‘likes’, ‘followers’ and ‘shares/reblogs’. However, it can also be argued that an anonymous user (through a username) liking or commenting on an individual’s post is certainly less impacting and less personal than an individual’s personal profile doing the same thing. Because of the fact that no one necessarily knows anything of a user from their username alone, it feels less so like a person evaluating an individual’s creative work.

It is also interesting to link this to [[w:David Gauntlett|David Gauntlett’s]] [http://www.davidgauntlett.com] work on [[w:Web 2.0|‘Web 2.0’]] [http://www.theory.org.uk], where he states that Web 2.0 is ‘harnessing the collective abilities of the members of an online network, to make an especially powerful resource or service. But thinking beyond the Web, it may also be valuable to consider Web 2.0 as a metaphor, for any collective activity which is enabled by people’s passions and becomes something greater than the sum of its parts.’  &lt;ref&gt;Gauntlett, D. (2011) ''Making is connecting: The social meaning of creativity, from DIY and knitting to YouTube and web 2.0.'' Malden, MA: John Wiley &amp; Sons.&lt;/ref&gt; This way we can understand the idea behind the desire for users to contribute in private spheres of social media in regards to their own interests; to feel part of a larger community which may form a part of their identity.

=== Altered Narratives of the Self ===

An individual’s online behavioural patterns and online performance tend to deviate largely when in the private sphere in contrast to when in the public. Depending on the website or social network being used, a media consumer will create and manage a different narrative or identity to adjust to how they would like to be seen within the platform’s society. Because of this, one could argue that different online platforms are made of different societal norms and have a certain appeal to a specific target audience; therefore, a specific type of behavioural pattern is expected from each user. This is also enhanced by the privacy each platform within the private sphere provides. Social media networks like [[w:Tumblr|Tumblr]][http://www.tumblr.com] and [[w:Youtube|YouTube]] [http://www.youtube.com] operate with usernames (unlike [[w:Facebook|Facebook]][http://www.facebook.com]), providing the option for users to completely remain in anonymity by only using a username (or in case of Tumblr, a [[w:Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] ), instead of giving away any of the user’s personal details.  It is important to note that, while users do have the complete liberty to give away their personal details if they wish to do so, it is a rather unpopular mode of action since most users find a larger appeal and a certain type of reassurance in staying completely anonymous with the use of a username.

Having this type of liberty in terms of self-management and online identification and expression have lead to many different usages of anonymous narratives in social media.

====The Private sphere as an empowering tool for self-identification.====

{{Rquote|left| We judge on the basis of what somebody looks like; skin colour, whether we think they’re beautiful or not. That space on the Internet allows you to converse with somebody with none of those things involved. | [[w:Bell Hooks|Bell Hooks]] }}

An anonymous online identity can be very beneficial in terms of self-exploration and self-identification. It can be an empowering tool for individuals to embrace their diversity and explore the identity they are most comfortable identifying themselves with, or as Gies (2008) writes, “ anonymous online settings are empowering because they facilitate identity exploration, or occupying identity positions which may be difficult to occupy in real life”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gies 2008&quot;&gt;Gies, L. (2008) ''Law and the Media: The Future of an Uneasy Relationship''. Oxson: Routledge-Cavendish&lt;/ref&gt;

Because there is a lack of identifiability, users can feel free to explore their own personal identities (like sexual orientation and gender) and interests without the pressure that usually comes with the public sphere of digital media and maintaining a public image with its open exposure to the public. [[w:Martin Heidegger|Martin Heidegger]] argued that it is only in the private sphere that one can be one's authentic self, as opposed to the impersonal and identikit [[w:Generalized other|They]] of the public realm.&lt;ref&gt;J. Collins and H. Selina eds., Heidegger for Beginners (1998) p. 64-9&lt;/ref&gt; It is also important to understand that different types of social media audiences shape an individual’s online identity. While, for example, on public social media like Facebook an individual’s audience tends to be their ‘friends’ (which can be constructed of actual friends, family and acquaintances), on private social media like Tumblr the audience can be composed mainly of strangers. This creates a more comfortable sharing environment because of the minimal intensity of the public sphere’s exposure. While someone could be more comfortable exploring their sexual orientation in a private, anonymous platform, it is highly improbable that they would feel comfortable doing so openly to, for instance, family members. It is also very common to not reveal an individual’s username in private spheres of digital media to friends and family. While some people do share this, it is most likely shared to an audience they trust deeply, like close friends, rather than, for instance, a parent.

On the other hand, [[w:Sherry Turkle|Turkle]] [http://web.mit.edu/sturkle/www/](1996) noted that the Internet allows individuals to hide parts of their identity which could lead to discrimination (for example, race or gender).&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 1996&quot;&gt;Turkle, Sherry. (1996). &quot;Who Am We? : We are moving from modernist calculation toward postmodernist simulation, where the self is a multiple, distributed system,&quot; Wired Magazine, Issue 4.01, January 1996.&lt;/ref&gt;  Due to the visual anonymity that social media within the private sphere provides to its users, key features to one’s personal identity are not always visible, or rather, not necessarily (unless the user has specifically chosen to share them). This can create a more accepting environment for users, particularly in the case of exploring one's identity without being pulled back by stereotypes associated with certain identities, perhaps to do with gender, race or sexual orientation. However, it could also be argued that this can have negative psychological impacts on an individual's state of mind in regards to their own identity; having different public reactions when showing different aspects of an identity than when showing none might have discriminatory connotations and could motivate an individual to feel ashamed of their identity.

====Idealised versions of the self and Alter Egos in the Private Sphere====

While pressures to maintain a specific online identity are more common in public spheres (like for example, pressures to ‘prove’ one’s social life&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd &amp; Donath 2004&quot;&gt;boyd, d. &amp; Donath, J. (2004). Public Displays of Connection. Retrieved 03/10, 2016, from http://www.danah.org/papers/PublicDisplays.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; and reassuring one’s role within a social circle,&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; and pressures to create an acceptable and aesthetically pleasing impression of an individual’s physical identity), a user of a private sphere social media can also form idealised versions of themselves. Because all that an audience needs to necessarily know about each user is a username, they could become anyone they have always wanted to be.

When adopting an anonymous online identity there is a type of dissociation of an individual’s real and online identities. This way, they have absolute freedom to create an identity and ‘perform’ themselves online how they want to be seen, without this identity being associated with their physical selves.

An interesting aspect of this dissociation would be the use of alter egos in social media. While at a first glance could seem like a public profile that belongs to the public sphere, the original user (and therefore, the real identity) remains anonymous, and more often than not, completely dissociated from it. This way, it can be argued that alter egos blur the boundaries between public and private spheres, since an individual can never know for certain if the identity presented online is an individual’s ‘real’ identity rather than an alter ego.

The most recent and relevant example of the use of an alter ego to blur the lines between public and private spheres would be in the case of Instagram star [http://www.amaliaulman.eu/ Amalia Ulman] [https://www.instagram.com/amaliaulman/?hl=en]. Ulman created and performed in a staged social media experiment, where she created the alter ego of a girl perusing the dream of becoming an ‘It girl’ in Los Angeles. Her performed self had dyed blond hair and a stylish wardrobe, underwent breast-enlargement surgery and was self-consumed and narcissistic. After months of continuous posting and gaining of followers, Ulman announced the reality of her performance by uploading one last picture captioned ‘the end’. When confronted her experience, she says:

{{cquote |
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;Java&quot;&gt;
&quot;Everything was scripted. I spent a month researching the whole thing. There was a beginning, a climax and an end. I dyed my hair. I changed my wardrobe. I was acting: it wasn’t me.”
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|30px|author= &lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Amalia Ulman&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Sooke, Alastair, (2016), Is this the first Instagram masterpiece?, The Telegraph, available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/photography/what-to-see/is-this-the-first-instagram-masterpiece/&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/photography/what-to-see/is-this-the-first-instagram-masterpiece] }}

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:User Avatar Comparison to real life.jpg|thumbnail|Comparison of a user's avatar with a picture of themselves.]]&lt;/div&gt;
Another example of creating an idealised version of oneself is through [[w:Virtual reality|virtual reality]]. Users of a virtual reality website or online social platform often have to create a character of sorts that replicates and tries to imitate their personal selves, known as their [[w:Avatar(computing)|avatar]]. Due to an individual's natural desire for aesthetic perfection, they tend to design these avatars as idealised or perfected versions of themselves. These avatars later interact with other user's avatars and people usually tend to take the visual representations of said avatars as a very realistic representation of how the individual's physical self might resemble. This can create many problematic issues, like affecting user's expectations of real life beauty making them unrealistic (which could lead to problems associated with mental health problems and sexism) and catfishing.

====Catfishing====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Catfish example.jpg|thumbnail|Catfishing example. Left: singer and dancer “Megan Faccio”; Right: Angela Wesselman-Pierce, who made Faccio up.]]&lt;/div&gt;

[[w:Catfishing|Catfishing]] is when an individual uses deceiving techniques in order to adopt a different identity (through identity theft, usually by posting another person's photograph as their own and pretending to look that way physically). The modern term originates from the 2010 American documentary [[w:catfish (film)|''Catfish'']].&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Aisha (2013). &quot;Catfish meaning and definition: term for online hoaxes has a surprisingly long history&quot;. Slate. Retrieved March 10, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; The usual purpose for this is to engage in an online romantic relationship with someone else across the Internet. Reasonings behind this include self-loathing of one's physical appearance, attempting to increase the number of potential love candidates by increasing the physical aesthetic appeal and presenting it as their own identity and/or other psychological reasons.

Because public social networking sites are so popular and more often than not they provide a realistic representation of one's true self, a large majority of people are likely to trust and believe in the reality value of a public profile if it meets the following expectations;

# A numerous or acceptable quantity of pictures of the same individual
# A large number of these pictures that seem personal or have been taken by themselves (for example, '' 'selfies' '') and with other social media users
# A large social circle of friends (which all seem to meet the above as well)

However, because of the numerous personal pictures of many different individuals available online (which can be found with a simple google images search), it can be extremely easy to create a fake online social network profile. This way it can be argued that there can always be anonymity in the public spheres of social media, since there can never be real proof or a real reassurance of someone's online identity being their 'real' identity.

=== Anonymity in Help Forums ===

When using any medium online, not only social or digital media platforms, it can become obvious that any degree of anonymity afforded to a group or an individual can alter their behaviour, causing them to present themselves differently to how they may when they bear their real name or personal details, and this can be both positive and negative. One manifestation of the help forum where anonymity is a key element is any one of a number of mental health chat forums, where individuals can anonymously and confidentially seek help, advice or just to feel they have someone who will listen to them, and have a trained professional on the receiving end to assist them. The anonymity in this instance is crucial as visitors to these sites may feel ashamed, embarrassed or insecure about their issues to the point that they cannot communicate with or seek help from those around them, or talk to a local healthcare professional for fear of, for example, family members becoming involved. They are there to provide support to anyone who cannot seek it anywhere else due to time or money restraints, or if they are perhaps part of a culture that is not very supportive of mental health issues. The anonymity encourages users to be more open and honest, and helps them to receive the specific support they may require.

Traditional help and advice forums such as [https://answers.yahoo.com/ Yahoo Answers] work simply by users around the world, with usernames or pseudonyms and cartoon avatars as their icons, asking questions and in turn helping others. This model can also more recently be seen in the social media application and website [https://www.yikyak.com/home YikYak], where anonymity is not optional to users, and the default feed presented is of content posted by users within a certain geographical radius. Users have the option to ‘peek’ at other locations around the world but posting and replying is limited to the local area. It was developed for college and university campuses in America as an anonymous way to interact with peers about local events or news, but has subsequently been banned and restricted from school campuses with younger pupils due to bullying.

Though it may not necessarily be the intended function nor the primary use of YikYak, advice seeking and provision is nonetheless present on the site. Amongst the humorous observations, jokes and other relatable content, users can take the opportunity to seek the opinions, wisdom or support of those around them, widening their online social sphere without letting anyone in. The anonymity afforded by YikYak may also be empowering users with a kind of confidence they may not have online otherwise, and gives them a place to ask questions or express thoughts or feelings they may be afraid or embarrassed to on a platform where they are connected with and known to their peers offline. Questions of health, sexuality, romance, mental illness, and other topics that the individual may not feel comfortable talking about openly elsewhere online are discussed freely, and like those posing the questions, users with answers are also more free to share these, creating a kind of help network. This positive use of anonymity on social media is an example of users extending their private sphere to people they do not know in order to gain or share something, within the public sphere as it is visible to many others in the local area and shared and stored online. The disinhibition&lt;ref name=&quot;Suler 2004&quot;&gt;Suler, J. (2004). ''CyberPsychology &amp; Behavior''. July 2004, 7(3): 321-326. doi:10.1089/1094931041291295&lt;/ref&gt; experienced by users of YikYak, though, may be hindered by the ever-possible notion that you may be conversing with somebody whom you know in real life and would never dream of discussing such topics with.

Along with genuine requests for help and appropriate answers and discussions, there are inevitably people who use their anonymity for less than favourable reasons and behaviours. Though they do not know who exactly they are targeting, individuals may direct abuse or insults at people regardless of what they may have originally posted, it can be entirely unrelated and unprovoked. The option to hide all content from a specific user is available in the instance of such behaviour but, because of the anonymity and the way commenters are unable to be traced between threads, it is unclear just how many users at one time may be acting in this way; one individual could pose as many, or vice versa. The creation of multiple user names for the purpose of trolling is a similar phenomenon on help forums, where anonymity, though beneficial for some, is used in a negative way in the public sphere while protecting the user’s privacy.

=== Cyberbullying ===

Bullying is a serious social problem. It can happen anywhere at any time, from the workplace to your bedroom, however its all-encompassing reach is only a recent development. Spitzberg and Hoobler have stated that the digital and information revolution has merged into a communications revolution:&lt;ref name=&quot;Spitzenberg 2002&quot;&gt;Spitzberg, B.H. and Hoobler, G. (2002) ‘Cyberstalking and the technologies of interpersonal terrorism’ in ''New Media &amp; Society'', 4(1), pp. 71–92. doi: 10.1177/14614440222226271.&lt;/ref&gt; as a result messages can now reach you anywhere. Therefore the potential for bullying via electronic communications has grown with the advancement of communications and technology.&lt;ref&gt;Li, Q. (2007) &quot;New bottle but old wine: A research of cyberbullying in schools,&quot; Computers in Human Behavior (23), pp 1777–1791.&lt;/ref&gt;

Cyber bullying is a modern form of bullying usually practiced through electronic or online forms of contact e.g. SMS, Social Media, [https://www.youtube.com/ Youtube]. Cyberbullying has been perceived to be worse than traditional bullying for a number of reasons in reference to the consequences for the victim.&lt;ref&gt;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-012-9867-3&lt;/ref&gt;  The consequences can be seen as worse because of the larger audience that may be privy to the abusive content online, for instance leaving a comment on a Youtube video is available to be seen by everyone. Most importantly there is also an increased potential for anonymous bullying online.

 
{{Rquote|left| An aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself. | [[w:Peter K. Smith|Peter K. Smith]],Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Goldsmiths College, University of London&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith 2008b&quot;&gt;Smith, P.K., and Slonje, R. (2008b) &quot;Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying?,&quot; ''Scandinavian Journal of Psychology'':49&lt;/ref&gt; }}

Social media websites such as Facebook have the potential to create fake accounts where the bully can anonymously harass their victims. The anonymous nature of the harassment can have a different psychological effect to that of regular bullying upon the recipient due to the insidious nature of abuse. The unknown identity of cyberbullies can cause fear and distraction for the victims&lt;ref name=&quot;Shariff 2006&quot;&gt;Shariff, S., &amp; Gouin, R. (2006), Cyber-dilemmas: Gendered hierarchies, new technologies and cybersafety in schools. ''Atlantis - A Women’s Studies Journal'', 31 (1)&lt;/ref&gt; and our online privacy is therefore damaged by the anonymous nature of cyberbullying, eliminating the sense of security one can feel online.&lt;ref&gt;Brescia, H. (2014, December 3). Analysis of policy regarding Cyberbullying. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://sites.duke.edu/cyberbullying/2014/12/03/who-what-where-and-why/&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:FILE CYBERBULLYING.jpg|framed|Percentage of which social media networks teens are being cyberbullied on [http://www.statisticbrain.com/cyber-bullying-statistics/] ]]&lt;/div&gt;
The security of hiding behind an online URL or user name also encourages bullying. Aricak’s studies have shown that electronic communications associated with anonymity have been shown to promote cyber bullying behaviour.&lt;ref name=&quot;Aricak 2008&quot;&gt;Aricak, T., Siyahhan, S., et al., C. (2008) &quot;Cyberbullying among Turkish Adolescents,&quot; ''Cyberpsychology &amp; behavior'' (11:3)&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.tumblr.com Tumblr], which has an anonymous messaging service built into the website, confirms these studies due to the many instances of online [http://www.dictionary.com/browse/hate-mail “hate mail”] users receive through the anonymous messaging service. This has become commonly known on the website as “anon hate”.

Cyberbullying exhibits all the characteristics of not having a face-to-face communication/experience – facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice and reactions ect.- which can reduce the emotional responsibility and social accountability the bully would normally experience, this consequently makes them feel less guilty when taking part in vindictive or hostile communications.&lt;ref name=&quot;Herring 2002&quot;&gt;Herring, S.C., 2002, ''Annual review of information science'', Chapter 3: Computer-Mediated Communication on the Internet&lt;/ref&gt;  Additionally, the potential for anonymity online in private and public spheres can produce bullies who would never normally take part in traditional face to face bullying – feeling empowered by their anonymous profiles.&lt;ref name=&quot;Campbell 2005&quot;&gt;Campbell, M. (2005) &quot;Cyber bullying: An old problem in a new guise?&quot; in ''Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling'' (15:1), pp 68-76.&lt;/ref&gt;

Cyberbullying therefore thrives off the potential for anonymity created by the internet as well as the continued evolution of technology into a more connected age. Even though it may seem less harmful to bully through the cybernetic world in reality it can be far more destructive than traditional bullying invading both our private and public spheres of communications.&lt;ref&gt;LLC, V. M. (2015, March 9). There is a lack of research on the longterm effects of Cyberbullying. Retrieved March 10, 2016, from http://motherboard.vice.com/read/why-dont-we-have-real-science-on-cyberbullying&lt;/ref&gt;

====Digital Self-Harm====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Elizabeth Englander's study on Digital Munchausen.jpg|framed|Elizabeth Englander's study on Digital Munchausen]]&lt;/div&gt;
Digital self-harm is the act of abusing one-self anonymously online. In 2010 [[w:danah boyd|Dr. danah boyd]] published an online article about &quot;digital self-harm&quot; describing &quot;teens who are self-harassing by 'anonymously' writing mean questions to themselves and publicly answering them&quot;&lt;ref&gt;boyd, danah. (2010, December 7). Digital Self-Harm and Other Acts of Self-Harassment. Retrieved March 10, 2016, from http://www.zephoria.org/thoughts/archives/2010/12/07/digital-self-harm-and-other-acts-of-self-harassment.html&lt;/ref&gt; This phenomenon was initially uncovered by the staff at a website, [https://www.twoo.com/ Formspring] (now known as [[w:Spring.me|Spring.me]]) which investigated some cyber bullying and found that the alleged victims had actually posted the cruel comments against themselves.

A study by [[w:ELizabeth Englander|Elizabeth Englander]] at the [http://marccenter.webs.com/ Massachusetts Agression Reduction Centre] labelled the phenomenon as &quot;Digital Munchausen&quot; as the process undertaken by these teens mirror certain symptoms of the psychiatric disorders [[w:Munchausen syndrome|Munchausen Syndrome]] and [[w:Munchausen syndrome by proxy|Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy]]. The syndroms primary characteristic is the patients infliction of self-harm in a quest for sympathy, attention and admiration as they attempt to cope with their victimization. In 2011 a study was undertaken that discovered that 9% of teens took part in digital self-harm - making a cruel comment anonymously against themselves or cyber bullying themselves: a higher proportion of boys (13%) admitted to this than did girls (8%). About half of these “digital self-harmers” had done this only once or very infrequently; the other half reported that they had cyber bullied themselves more regularly or had one, ongoing episode which lasted at least several months.&lt;ref&gt;Elizabeth Englander, “Preliminary Report: Bullying	and	Cyberbullying	in Massachusetts 2011-12” (presented at the Workshop:	PCP Interventions,  Freehold, NJ,  2011).&lt;/ref&gt;

The potential afforded by anonymous question forums like Formspring, as well as the potential for anonymity on almost any digital or social media has clearly been used as a tool to &quot;harm&quot; and &quot;victimize&quot; oneself for various purposes. danah boyd speculates that teens use online anonymity to harm themselves as an outcry for help, to appear cool or to attempt to trigger compliments. Elizabeth Englander's study shows that they took part in digital self-harm to get the attention of a peer or to prove they could &quot;take it&quot; among other reasons. For both boys and girls, about 35% said that the self-cyberbullying strategy was successful for them, in that it helped them achieve what they wanted, and felt better after their anonymous self-abuse.&lt;ref&gt;Englander, E. (2012, June). DIGITAL SELF-­‐ HARM: FREQUENCY, TYPE, MOTIVATIONS, AND OUTCOMES. Retrieved from http://webhost.bridgew.edu/marc/DIGITAL%20SELF%20HARM%20report.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; It is therefore important to take into account the potential for anonymous self-harm on the internet, which has only become possible due to the potential for anonymity in both online private and public spheres.

====Cyberstalking====
In present day, the idea of going on someone’s personal online profile in social media sites like Facebook seems like the a very common and socially acceptable thing to do, and the term ‘stalking’ can be lightly and jokingly used to define this. A user can spend hours scrolling down a stranger’s personal profile and discover and learn many personal details of said person. However, such seemingly innocent act can very easily and quickly get out of hand, leading to very serious consequences.

The most common (and again, essentially socially acceptable) type of cyberstalking is usually directed towards celebrities, especially of their social media profiles. The fact that the user has chosen to upload such concept and made it publicly available is what motivates other users to spend hours ‘stalking’ it, which could possible be why nobody considers this act to actually be cyberstalking. However, not all users just stop here, which is why cyberstalking is actually a form of cyberbullying.

[[w:Alexis Moore|Alexis Moore]] describes cyberstalking as a technologically-based &quot;attack&quot; on one person who has been targeted specifically for that attack for reasons of anger, revenge or control. Cyberstalking can take many forms, including:
#harassment, embarrassment and humiliation of the victim
#emptying bank accounts or other economic control such as ruining the victim's credit score
#harassing family, friends and employers to isolate the victim
#scare tactics to instill fear and more &lt;ref&gt;Moore, Alexis A. &quot;What is cyberstalking?&quot;. About.com. Retrieved 2016-03-11.&lt;/ref&gt;

The differences between cyber bullying and cyber stalking have been looked at in a Trolling Magnitude (TM) Scale, showing that, while cyber bullying is more strategic, cyber stalking is more about domination.&lt;ref&gt;Bishop, J. (2013). The effect of deindividuation of the Internet Troller on Criminal Procedure implementation: An interview with a Hater. International Journal of Cyber Criminology 7(1), pp. 28-48. Available at [http://www.jonathanbishop.com/Library/Documents/EN/docIJCCPaper_Hater.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.jonathanbishop.com/Library/Documents/EN/docIJCCPaper_Hater.pdf]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! TM !! Motive !! Mode !! Gravity !! Description
|-
| 1 || Playtime || Cyber-bantering || Cyber-trolling || In the moment and quickly regret
|-
| 2 || Tactical || Cyber-trickery || Cyber-trolling || In the moment but don't regret and continue
|-
| 3 || Strategic || Cyber-bullying || Cyber-stalking || Go out of way to cause problems, but without a sustained and planned long-term campaign
|-
| 4 ||Domination ||Cyber-hickery || Cyber-stalking || Goes out of the way to create rich media to target one or more specific individuals
|}

{{Rquote|right| …the Internet, e-mail, or other electronic communication device[s] to create a criminal level of intimidation, harassment, and fear in one or more victims |M. L. Pittaro &lt;ref&gt;Pittaro, M. L. (2011). Cyber stalking. In K . Jaishankar (Ed.), Cyber criminology (pp. 277-297). Retrieved from http://www.crcnetbase.com&lt;/ref&gt;}}
Cyberstalking falls into three main categories: direct communication, indirect communication, which is circulated or posted online, and misrepresentation online.&lt;ref&gt;Quarmby, K. (2014, August 13). How the law is standing up to Cyberstalking in the magazine. . Retrieved from http://europe.newsweek.com/how-law-standing-cyberstalking-264251?rm=eu&lt;/ref&gt; As well as there being four main types of cyberstalkers: the vindictive cyberstalker, the composed cyberstalker, the intimate cyberstalker and collective cyberstalkers. The vindictive type is much more likely to threaten their victims than any other group and can sometimes stalk them offline as well as online. The stalking in these cases typically began with a trivial discussion or argument and ended up with the offender getting upset and setting out on a mission to harm the victim. This type was the most likely to use spam, viruses, and identity theft against the victim. The composed cyberstalker does not want to develop a relationship with the victim, but rather wants only to harass, 
threaten, and annoy the victim. The intimate cyberstalker desires to have a relationship with the victim. This type can be divided into two subcategories: the ex-intimate and the infatuate. The ex-intimate may desire to repair the past relationship, but he may also threaten the victim as well. The harassment begins on the internet in this type, not offline. The infatuate begins by sending the victim an intimate message and desires to develop a relationship with the victim. When the infatuate is rejected, he will then begin to threaten the victim. Lastly, the collective cyberstalkers work together to send the victim many emails, and to spam, threaten, and steal the victim’s identity.&lt;ref&gt;Riplee. (2012, April 6). Cyberstalking: Lurking in anonymity. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from http://ripleeforensicpsych.umwblogs.org/2012/04/06/cyberstalking-lurking-in-anonymity/&lt;/ref&gt; Research also shows that victims of cyberstalking are just as likely to feel fear and helplessness as people who are stalked in real life because cyberstalkers often hide in anonymity making them that much more difficult to deter or catch due to the fact they can stalk from the secrecy afforded by the World Wide Web.&lt;ref&gt;Lipton, J. D. (2011). Combating cyber victimization. Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 26, 1103-1155.&lt;/ref&gt; This allusiveness may make cyberstalkers even more threatening, intimidating, and frightening.

However, as in the case of the vindictive type, cyberstalking can often come hand in hand with offline or 'realtime' stalking in severe cases. This is because if an individual with specific psychological issues is cyberstalking, they most often feel like this is no longer enough for them (after a certain period of time has passed) and decide to take it to the next level; offline stalking. There are consequences of law in offline and online stalking, and cyberstalkers can be put in jail.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;UCF Cyber Stalker’s Sentence Not Harsh Enough, Victim Says&quot;[http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/ucf-cyber-stalkers-sentence-not-harsh-enough-victim-says/]. ABC News. January 23, 2012. Retrieved 2016-03-11.&lt;/ref&gt; [http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/ucf-cyber-stalkers-sentence-not-harsh-enough-victim-says/]. However, this is often not enough to pay for the psychological damages that cyberstalking causes.

According to social psychologist Robin M. Kowalski, cyberbullying and cyberstalking has been shown to cause higher levels of anxiety and depression for victims than normal bullying. Kowalksi states that much of this stems from the anonymity of the perpetrators, which is a common feature of cyberstalking as well.&lt;ref&gt;Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S., &amp; Agatston, P. (2008). Cyber bullying: Bullying in the digital age. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt; According to her study, a quarter of 3,700 bullied middle-school students had been subjected to a form of harassment online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alexis Pilkington Facebook Horror: Cyber Bullies Harass Teen Even After Suicide&quot;[ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/03/24/alexis-pilkington-faceboo_n_512482.html]. Huffingtonpost.com. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 2016-03-11.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hackers and Hacktivism ===

[[w:Hacktivism|Hacktivism]] is a contentious term which, most loosely and most relevantly to this context, refers to the idea of technological hacking to affect social change. Many groups and individuals go to great lengths to conceal their identity due to the nature of their tasks, whether they are ethical or unethical, and some use the pseudonym [[w:Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], one of the most notable hacktivist groups which originated on the forums of [http://www.4chan.org/ 4chan] and are responsible for a number of notable hacking activities.

The idea is that the groups and individuals who identify as hacktivists want their beliefs and actions to be widely known and acknowledged while keeping their identity and details such as location entirely concealed. This is an unusual example of keeping a high profile in the public sphere while maintaining complete anonymity and a disconnect from their private sphere, while using their skills to breach the privacy of other individuals or organisations. There is nothing to be gained personally by this, such as recognition, but it is often activism in the name of political or social beliefs or justice that motivates these kinds of hackers without the repercussions of being identified. This can lead to extremes of [[w:Cyberterrorism|cyberterrorism]], which is sometimes classed under the category of hacktivism.

====Evolution of Hacktivism and Political Hacking====

The origins of computerized activism extend back in pre-Web history to the mid 1980s. As an example, the first version of PeaceNet appeared in early 1986. PeaceNet enabled - really for the first time - political activists to communicate with one another across international borders with relative ease and speed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cleaver 1998&quot;&gt;Cleaver, H. (1998). ''&quot;The Zapatistas and the International Circulation of Struggle: Lessons Suggested and Problems Raised,&quot; Harry Cleaver homepage 1998''. Retrieved 03/10, 2016, from http://www.eco.utexas.edu/faculty/Cleaver/lessons.html)&lt;/ref&gt; The computerized activism of the past has developed through certain stages: Electronic Civil Disobedience activism which acts in the tradition of non-violent direct action and civil disobedience employing typical civil disobedience tactics such as sit ins/physical blockades, and translating them into modern culture: creating virtual blockades. Unlike a traditional sit in the Electronic Civil Disobedience activist can participate in the virtual blockades from home, work or university - anywhere that is attached to the web.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wray 1998&quot;&gt;Wray, S. (1998). &quot;On Electronic Civil Disobedience,&quot; Peace, forthcoming; ''Electronic Civil Disobedience archive 1998''. Retrieved 03/09, 2016, from http://www.nyu.edu/projects/wray/oecd.html)&lt;/ref&gt; It is neccessary to mention ECD activists as they are part of a process which has led towards politicized Hacktervism.

One main distinction between most Politicized Hacking and the type of Electronic Civil Disobedience just mentioned is that while ECD actors don't hide their names, political hacks are generally done by people who want to name anonymous because a lot of what they do is not above board. These hacks are often likely to be undertaken by specific people rather than larger groups. The main reason for anonymity in hacktivsm is that the stakes are much higher, some hacks are unquestionably illegal: like the Sony Pictures hack of 24 November 2014.&lt;ref&gt;Betters, E. (2015, February 5). Sony pictures hack: Here’s everything we know about the massive attack so far. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/131937-sony-pictures-hack-here-s-everything-we-know-about-the-massive-attack-so-far&lt;/ref&gt; However, the nature of the online web affords the opportunity to remain anonymous whilst crossing political boundaries. Few people would question the legality of entering someones personal computer and adding or changing HTML coding. Therefore hacktivists anonymity is a necessary tool.

It is important to remember that hacktivism is very much in its infancy. It is too early to make a definitive statement upon the direction hacktivism will take. Perhaps the entire notion of hacktivism distorts and challenges sets of values and moral and ethical codes abusing the potential for anonymity on the web. [[w:Steven Levy|Steven Levy]] bemoans that &quot;modern-day&quot; hackers are not worthy of the name asthey do not maintain the principles of original [[w:Hacker ethic|Hacker ethics]], and as unethical individuals, should simply be called &quot;computer terrorists&quot; or &quot;juvenile&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mizrach, S. Old and new hacker ethics. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://www2.fiu.edu/~mizrachs/hackethic.html&lt;/ref&gt; In the future there will be some re-thinking involved in hacktervism and we may begin to see a new set of ethical codes for hacking developed.&lt;ref&gt;Wray, S. (2002). Electronic civil disobedience and the world wide web of Hacktivism. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://www.webpagefx.com/research/electronic-civil-disobedience-hacktivism.html&lt;/ref&gt;

====Anonymous====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Anonymous-symbol.jpg|thumbnail|Anonymous' Icon]]&lt;/div&gt;
Anonymous are a vaguely connected international group of hacktivists. The group is thought to have founded in 2003 where their first known activities on 4chan came to light during raids on other social media websites like [[w:Habbo|Habbo]] in 2006.&lt;ref&gt;Knufken, D. (2011, March 23). 5 anonymous campaigns against businesses. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from Business, http://www.businesspundit.com/5-anonymous-campaigns-against-businesses/&lt;/ref&gt; Anonymous members can be identified in public by the stylized [[w:Guy Fawkes mask|Guy Fawkes masks]] that they wear which has become popularized as a symbol for rebellion in films like [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0434409/plotsummary V for Vendetta] and now through its association with Anonymous.
{{cquote| Anyone can be part of it. It is a crowd of people, a nebulous crowd of people, working together and doing things together for various purposes.|author= [[w:Parmy Olson|&lt;big&gt;Parmy Olson&lt;/big&gt;]]&lt;ref&gt;Parmy Olson on anonymous: ‘A growing phenomenon that we Don’t yet understand’. (2012, June 8). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from http://www.rferl.org/content/parmy-olson-on-anonymous-a-growing-phenomenon-that-we-dont-yet-understand/24607895.html&lt;/ref&gt; }}

The group has no leader but rather works around ideas rather than directives, in this way, no singular person or figurehead can be associated with the blame of their hacks. Generally speaking Anon's disagree with internet censorship and control, largely targeting governments, companies and organisations they feel are providing censorship, Anonymous were early supporters of the Arab Spring[[#Arab Spring|''(see section 1.5.4.3.1)'']].&lt;ref&gt;Kelly, B., B. (2012). INVESTING IN A CENTRALIZED CYBERSECURITY INFRASTRUCTURE: WHY ‘ HACKTIVISM ’ CAN AND SHOULD INFLUENCE CYBERSECURITY REFORM. Retrieved from http://www.bu.edu/law/journals-archive/bulr/volume92n4/documents/kelly.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; The group has relatively few rules but those they have include not disclosing their identity, not attacking the media and not talking about the group as a whole.

{{cquote | &quot;We [Anonymous] just happen to be a group of people on the Internet who need—just kind of an outlet to do as we wish, that we wouldn't be able to do in regular society. ...That's more or less the point of it. Do as you wish. ... There's a common phrase: 'we are doing it for the lulz.'
|author= &lt;big&gt;Trent Peacock.&lt;/big&gt;[[w:Search Engine (radio show)|''Search Engine'']]: The face of Anonymous, February 7, 2008.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, Jesse (February 7, 2008). &quot;Community Organization with Digital Tools: The face of Anonymous&quot;. MediaShift Idea Lab: Reinventing Community News for the Digital Age (PBS). Archived from the original on Feb 11, 2008. Retrieved March 11, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; }}

An example of Anonymous' hacktivist acts could be the cyberprotest after the fatal [[w:Shooting of Michael Brown|police shooting of the unarmed African-American Michael Brown]]. A hacktivist organization that claimed to be associated with Anonymous organized cyberprotests against police, setting up a website and a Twitter account to do so.&lt;ref&gt;Bever, Lindsey (August 13, 2014). &quot;Amid Ferguson protests, hacker collective Anonymous wages cyberwar&quot;. The Washington Post. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; The hacktivist group promised and threatened that if at any moment any protesters were harassed or harmed, they would attack the city's servers taking them offline. City officials admitted to the press  that e-mail systems were targeted and phones died, while the Internet crashed at the City Hall.&lt;ref&gt;Hunn, David (August 13, 2014). &quot;How computer hackers changed the Ferguson protests&quot;. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved March 11th 2016&lt;/ref&gt; Later on, members of Anonymous said that they were working on confirming the identity of the undisclosed police officer who shot Brown and would release his name as soon as they did.&lt;ref&gt;Harkinson, Josh (August 13, 2014). &quot;Anonymous' &quot;Op Ferguson&quot; Says It Will ID the Officer Who Killed Michael Brown&quot;. Mother Jones. Retrieved March 11th 2016&lt;/ref&gt; Anonymous then posted on its Twitter feed what it claimed was the name of the officer who shot Michael Brown.&lt;ref&gt;Bosman, Julie; Shear, Michael D.; Williams, Timothy (August 14, 2014). &quot;Obama Calls for Open Inquiry Into Police Shooting of Teenager in Ferguson, Mo&quot;. The New York Times. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Anonymous Releases Alleged Name Of Officer They Say Fatally Shot Michael Brown&quot;. KMOX News Radio 1120. August 14, 2014. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; However, police said the identity released by Anonymous was in fact, incorrect.&lt;ref&gt;Pagliery, Jose (August 14, 2014). &quot;Ferguson police deny Anonymous' ID of alleged shooter&quot;. CNN Money. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; Twitter subsequently suspended the Anonymous account from its service.&lt;ref&gt;Hunn, David. &quot;Twitter suspends Anonymous account : News&quot;. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;
It was reported on 19 November 2014 that Anonymous had responded by declaring cyber war on the [[w:Ku Klux Klan|Ku Klux Klan (KKK)]], after the KKK had made death threats following the Ferguson riots. They went on to hack the KKK's Twitter account, attack servers hosting KKK sites, and started to release the personal details of members.&lt;ref&gt;Jamie Bartlett. &quot;Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous by Gabriella Coleman – review&quot;. the Guardian.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Online Piracy and S.O.P.A ===
Whilst piracy has always been an issue, the digital age has amplified it significantly. Before digital media came to prominence, pirating goods such as films or music was more difficult and required a certain degree of technical proficiency. In addition to this, piracy was viewed more as a taboo and the quality of pirated goods was generally poor. Through digital media, an identical quality copy of a piece of media can be produced and distributed at little cost to a mass audience.

The first major file sharing program to exist, and also to be shut down, was [[w:Napster|Napster]], which was also the most prominent example in [[w:peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]] (P2P) file sharing, operating from 1999 to 2001, amassing over 25 million users and 80 million songs. Users could now download and share any music file free of charge. Various artists filed law suits against the site when it would not remove copyrighted material. However, Napster was quick to settle each of these suits. The site was eventually terminated due to legislation introduced by the [[w:Digital Millennium Copyright Act|Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]. This marked the first significant sign of resistance against digital piracy by the media industries.

Internet piracy is when unauthorized copies are downloaded over the internet. This is typically done through [[w:peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]]  file sharing systems, the some prolific examples being [[w:ThePirateBay|The Pirate Bay]] and [[w:LimeWire|LimeWire]]. There are currently hundreds of thousands of [[w:warez|warez]] sites providing unlimited access to downloads for users. The same purchasing rules apply to on-line software purchases as for those bought in [[w:compact disk|compact disk]] format. &lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:BitTorrent network.svg|thumb|right|The middle computer is acting as a seed to provide a file to the other computers which act as peers.]]&lt;/div&gt;


Common Internet piracy techniques are:
*Websites that make [[w:software|software]] available for free download or in exchange for others.
*[[w:Online auction|Online auction]] sites that offer counterfeit or out-of-channel software.
*[[w:peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]] networks that enable unauthorized transfer of copyrighted programs.


Once downloaded, these pirated files are hosted on a BitTorrent client.
Such clients include [[w:μTorrent|μTorrent]], [[w:Xunlei|Xunlei]], [[w:Transmission (BitTorrent client)|Transmission]], [[w:qBittorrent|QBittorrent]], [[w:Vuze|Vuze]], [[w:Deluge (wːsoftware)|Deluge]], and [[w:BitComet|BitComet]].

This type of file sharing is indicative of the public digital sphere intersecting with the private digital sphere. The community collaboration required through the processes of acquisition of the  data, uploading, torrenting and seeding which results in the individual being able to access media that may have otherwise may have been unreachable .

As this method of file-sharing becomes more prominent, the idea that it is a crime comes less ingrained in the [[w:collective consciousness|collective consciousness]], and as file sharing becomes regarded as less deviant behaviour the more it becomes utilized as an everyday too among users. Following McLuhan's model of technological determinism, we have seen social attitudes yield to technological advancements. However, this  relaxed attitude towards downloading unknown software has led to a greater number of breaches in computer security. This lack of ability to verify the sources and quality of downloads is the key issue with file-sharing as it allows numerous other risks to become more prominent, such as the exposure of personal information or increased susceptibility to attacks in the future.

'''Stop Online Piracy Act'''

The [[w:Stop Online Piracy Act|Stop Online Piracy Act]] - or S.O.P.A as it is more commonly known - was a controversial Bill proposed by the US Government in 2011, in an attempt  to clamp down on online piracy. The bill took power away from content creators, and essentially deputised copyright holders in their ability to eradicate piracy. In doing so, this gave copyright holders (in most cases record labels and movie distributors) the power to shut down not just the content but the provider itself, and force all other online services to do the same; provided they have a lawful copyright claim. However, the &quot;deputising&quot; effect of the Bill meant that copyright holders would not be obliged to go through any judicial processing in regards to the claim. This means that corporations would have the ability to shut down a single person's (or an entire company's) online footprint in an instant - forcing other internet services like [[w:PayPal|PayPal]] and social networking sites to comply to the claim, as well as blacklist the perpetrator from ever using the services again. The Bill was praised for its policies on infringement claims outside the US, giving claimant's more power in shutting down illegal content from foreign websites. The Bill also carried stringent policy on illegal streaming, for both the provider of that content and those that consume it - with a 5 year maximum prison sentence for the viewing or listening of illegal content.

Despite receiving strong support in both The Senate and House of Representatives - amongst other organisations and Unions - the Bill was met with great opposition by US citizens. Many felt that the Bill was an infringement on intellectual property law, and claimed that the guidelines for the bill were so broad and vague that one small infringement by a single person could have disastrous repercussions. Others also claimed that the Bill's proposal to block internet search results and to blacklist users from services and information was a violation of the [[w:First Amendment To The United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. The Bill was met with substantial opposition by various online communities - the members of which shaped the future for the Bill and were paramount in its eventual retraction.

[[#Online-activism by Citizens|Online-activism]] does not exclusively encompass issues experienced in the real world, groups can come together for the promotion of issues relating to online freedom and net neutrality. Online community site [[w:Reddit|Reddit]] actively opposed S.O.P.A and its policies, and were pivotal in encouraging other providers and content creators to stand in protest. A subreddit (section of the site dedicated to discourse on a specific subject) was created to discuss both the Bill and ways in which to protest it. Many users noticed the domain hosting site [[w:GoDaddy|GoDaddy]] actively supported S.O.P.A, which prompted a worldwide boycotting of its services. Reddit users collectively pulled their subscriptions, creating a synchronous deficit of 82000 domains&lt;ref name=Boycott&gt;Boycott GoDaddy. (2016) Godaddyboycott.org. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://godaddyboycott.org&lt;/ref&gt; and forcing GoDaddy to denounce their support of S.O.P.A. A statement by CEO [[w:Warren Adelman|Warren Adelman]] confirmed this on 29 December 2011:

::&quot;We have observed a spike in domain name transfers, which are running above normal rates and which we attribute to GoDaddy's prior support for SOPA, which was reversed. GoDaddy opposes SOPA because the legislation has not fulfilled its basic requirement to build a consensus among stake-holders in the technology and Internet communities. Our company regrets the loss of any of our customers, who remain our highest priority, and we hope to repair those relationships and win back their business over time.&quot;&lt;ref name=GoDaddy&gt;McCullagh, D. (2016). GoDaddy bows to boycott, now 'opposes' SOPA copyright bill. CNET. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://www.cnet.com/news/godaddy-bows-to-boycott-now-opposes-sopa-copyright-bill/&lt;/ref&gt;

Theorist [[w:Howard Rheingold|Howard Rheingold]] suggests that these acts of protest are the product of what he describes as [[w:smart mob|&quot;smart mobs&quot;]].&lt;ref name=HRheingold&gt;Rheingold, H. (2003). Smart mobs. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Pub.&lt;/ref&gt; According to Rheingold, even though protests such as Reddit's on S.O.P.A are primarily controlled and coordinated through the use of modern technology, age-old social practices alter the ways in which we us it. Essentially, society affects the way in which we use technology, which ultimately dictates ones behaviour online. Notions of trust, community and cooperation are still prevalent in an online environment; thus creating a symbiotic relationship between human interaction and access to information and widespread communication. In relation to S.O.P.A, this is indicative of something that Rheingold describes as &quot;self-organised mutual aid&quot; - meaning that the technology we use today ([[w:Smartphone|smartphones]] and other wireless devices) gives us the power to not only communicate, but to do so for the mutual benefit of both yourself and others. The societal framework that we have created in online envrionments allows us to organise and coordinate with those who are in our vicinity and those on the other side of the world simultaneously, depending on our needs at the time. Reddit users collaborated on a massive scale, and through the use of common social practices like protesting and boycotting - combined with the powers of technology - were able to make significant change on a much greater scale than if users had done so individually.

'''Website Blackouts in protest of S.O.P.A'''

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Wikipedia Blackout Screen1.jpg|thumb|right|Wikipedia's home screen during the SOPA blackout]]&lt;/div&gt;During the collaborative protest efforts by Reddit and other online communities, websites that opposed S.O.P.A created a synchronous &quot;blackout&quot; of their services to show the effects of online censorship. Some sites cut off access completely, whereas other sites &quot;censored&quot; specific content whilst promoting petitions or protests that opposed the bill. Among the websites that organised this blackout were Reddit, Wikipedia, Google and Wired.&lt;ref name=Blackout&gt;News, A. (2012). Wikipedia Protests 'Internet Censorship'. ABC News. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/technology/2012/01/sopa-blackout-wikipedia-google-wired-join-protest-against-internet-censorship/&lt;/ref&gt; English Wikipedia stopped access to its site completely on 18–19 January for 24 hours, and asked those that encountered the blackout to &quot;Imagine a world without free knowledge&quot;. Similarly, Google plastered a black banner over the well-known Google logo, which when clicked redirected to a petition to stop S.O.P.A. The [[w:Electronic Frontier Foundation|Electronic Frontier Foundation]] are a digital rights group who assist with legal aid in digital rights cases and who defend new technologies and oppose infringements on net neutrality and online rights. As well as actively opposing S.O.P.A they too participated in the blackout on 19 January. As well as these websites, it was reported that there were over 7000 sites who contributed to the blackout in some way.&lt;ref name=BlackoutStats&gt;Waugh, R. (2012). U.S Senators withdraw support for anti-piracy bills as 4.5 million people sign Google's anti-censorship petition. Mail Online. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2088860/SOPA-protest-4-5m-people-sign-Googles-anti-censorship-petition.html&lt;/ref&gt;

The response from the blackout was paramount in ensuring the retraction of the Bill, and soon after many websites, Senators and groups who originally supported it began to recant their statements and change their views. The widespread knowledge of the blackout and the media response that it caused was proportionate to that of a real-life protest - with real life effects and repercussions. The internet blackout created a storm of media attention, whilst provoking a strong argument for the importance of freedom to education and information (in this case on the internet). The vast societal impact of the blackout coupled with the communal and cooperative aspects of the synchronous blackouts and protests, strongly corroborates the work of theorist danah boyd. Her work in the notions of always-on culture and the difficulty in discerning between real and virtual life in this age is evocative of the global reaction to S.O.P.A and the blackouts.&lt;ref name=SocialMediaReader&gt;Mandiberg, M. (2012). The social media reader. New York: New York University Press.&lt;/ref&gt; So synonymous are real and virtual lives that the societal influence of disabling access to information online can cause unprecedented damage in the real world. Not dissimilar to a protest of teachers at a school or the shutting down of a library in a budget cut - effects are noticed and people begin to make change. Further endorsing danah boyd's theories, she suggests that technological frameworks often imitate social constructs and communicative patterns - hence why we act and &quot;behave&quot; online similarly to how we would in the real world. Sites like Wikipedia are seen and accessed in the same way one would a library or a series of encyclopedia - through glossaries, indexes and pages. Similarly, news websites are accessed just as one would a newspaper - through various stories on pages. The real and virtual world are so deeply connected to one another, that an upset or change in one can be pivotal in how the other progresses.

=== Deep Web ===

The [[w:Deep web (search)|Deep Web]] refers to websites that cannot be found by conventional means, for example through common search engines like Google. It is said that the Deep Web is much larger than the '''Surface Web''', and is often described as the &quot;bottom of the iceberg&quot;, but there is no way to be sure due to its extremely private and exclusive nature.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wright 2009&quot;&gt;Wright, A, (2009). ''Exploring a ‘Deep Web’ That Google Can’t Grasp'', Retrieved 03/10, 2016 from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/23/technology/internet/23search.html?th&amp;emc=th&amp;_r=0&lt;/ref&gt; People use the Deep Web to test websites before they go &quot;live&quot; on the surface web, and businesses can use the deep web for staff-only information, but the Deep Web is most often talked about when talking about the [[w:Dark web|Dark Web]].

The Dark Web is a part of the Deep web, and refers to all the illegal activity happening within it, like mass drug and weapon trafficking, hitman services, hacking software, terrorists networks, amongst many other examples. Due to the nature of these websites, many people who frequent this part of the web want to do so with the most online anonymity possible. Many use softwares like [[w:Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] that hide the user's location and history so it's extremely difficult for anyone to track any criminals on the Dark Web. A lot of the websites on the Dark web are [[w:Peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]] or invitation only, which also makes it harder for non-criminals to infiltrate and take down these kinds of sites. The most well-known example of a big Dark Web operation being successfully taken down is the [[w:Silk Road (marketplace)|Silk Road]], which was an online marketplace for drugs, and was taken down by the FBI in 2013.&lt;ref name=&quot;Flitter, 2013&quot;&gt;Flitter, E., (2013). &quot;FBI shuts alleged online drug marketplace, Silk Road&quot;, Retrieved 3/10, 2016 from http://news.yahoo.com/fbi-raids-alleged-online-drug-market-silk-road-153729457.html&lt;/ref&gt; However, many other similar marketplaces popped up on the Dark web almost immediately after. Since both the Dark Web and the Deep Web are so private, and of a completely unknown and unmeasurable size, it's very hard to study it and to take down any of the highly illegal and publicly-dangerous services and information found there.

== Security and Sphere Invasions ==
=== Private Sphere Invasions ===

It is without a doubt that the 21st century of digital media has progressed to the extent that we somewhat live and manage our social and private lives digitally. Interestingly, it seems that due to these on-going inventions of new technology, we are more willing to manage and store our personal and private information on various online/digital forms, as opposed to traditional manual filing. This switch to digital brings with it advantages in terms of quickness, convenience and tidiness, but there are also disadvantages, particularly relating to security and the safety of keeping this information private. Although the introduction of these new technologies were invented specifically to attend to our ‘needs’ or for general convenience, this has sparked concern over whether or not our private information is now more vulnerable to invasion. In today’s digitally orientated world, it would certainly seem that our private spheres and our control over how 'private' they are is shrinking, and nothing is really as private as we would like it to be any more.

The question to be asked here is, ''why do we manage so much of our personal and private information, such banking and contact details through these technologies when there is such a risk of it being invaded?''

Perhaps this is a result of the general public conformity to the digital-way-of-living which has progressed very quickly since the beginning of the 21st century. Branston and Stafford &lt;ref name=&quot;Brandon &amp; Stafford 2010&quot;&gt;Branston, G., &amp; Stafford, R. (2010). The Media Student's Book (5th ed., p. 254). London: Goldsmiths.&lt;/ref&gt; state that one of the main pros of this ''switch to digital'' is the ability to create digital copies or duplicates of information which was once stored manually, allowing for the use of less physical space and the ability to then create more duplicates for backup with minimal effort. We live in a world now where almost everything is done digitally, therefore everyday tasks and management of personal and social information is made much more easy and convenient, so it is understandable why we are so unlikely to covert back to a non digital, manually organised way of living.So, in overview, it seems that today’s technologically advanced society strive for a quick and easy organised digital life which overpowers the concerns over the risk of it all being invaded.

Below are two case study examples of digital media inventions which have brought with them many risks of private sphere invasions for their users.

==== Online Banking and Contactless Bank Cards ====

One example of a way in which we can ‘digitally store’ private information is through online banking. The process of online banking itself is known to be very secure, for example, [https://www.rbsdigital.com/ RBS] users are required to complete a two-page log in process to ensure that it is not being hacked or invaded by outsiders or fraudsters. Accessing this information has been made very secure, however with the introduction of the new [http://www.smartcardalliance.org/publications-contactless-payments-what-who-why/ Contactless bank cards], could our private online banking, or banking in general be under more risk of invasion?

These cards were invented initially in 2005 in America, and were brought to the UK in 2012, where It had proved to be a success, with over [http://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/23/contactless-card-is-too-easy-says-which 58 million] used in the UK by summer 2015. This new payment method was introduced to enhance our experience in managing our payments and expenses. ‘Contactless’ refers to the physical use of the card, as payment can be withdrawn from a bank account without any physical contact between the card and the pin machine, and without the need for any confirmation of the card’s pin code. This enhancement of digital media certainly proved popular shortly after its release in the UK, however, almost just as quickly, concerns began to spread over whether this new ‘convenient’ way of making a payment was really all that secure. With such a new and easy way to pay for goods, the contactless bank card invention was bound to spark concerns over the security of user’s bank details.

One of the main concerns with using these new cards is the risk of having money stolen much easier than it would with traditional, pin coded bank cards. According to an article written by Lisa Bachelor in  [http://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/23/contactless-card-is-too-easy-says-which The Guardian], It was found that, after various testing of contactless cards on ‘fake’ scanning decives, it was found that it is possible to [http://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/23/contactless-card-is-too-easy-says-which  read crucial data that was meant to be hidden], opening up the risk of invasions by fraudsters using such devices. Despite these concerns, it seems that the card is still vastly popular due to social conformity and the general excitement amongst society of this new invention. On top of this, many users concerned over the risk of paying twice due to the card's over sensitivity when in contact with a scanner, however the quickness of payment that it brought with it overshadowed this concern, especially in busy environments such as [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/money-saving-tips/11215583/Contactless-cards-how-to-avoid-paying-twice.html London train stations]. It is also rumoured that this ‘contactless’ motion allows the government to use the card’s function to track its citizens details and whereabouts.

These concerns may seem extreme, and this suggests that the ''Media Multiplier'' effect, as described by Athique,&lt;ref name=&quot;Athique A. (2013)&quot;&gt;Athique, A. (2013). Digital media and society (p.517). Cambridge, England: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt; perhaps plays a part in the growing concerns raised over the use of contactless bank cards. This suggests that the growing discussions of concern between users of the mass media have multiplied to the point that there is a greater worry amongst society than is necessary for how unlikely it is that these events will happen. This reaction is due to the overwhelming hype of this new invention, and the excitement of what is a very 'futuristic' tool that is now so readily available at our hands.

Perhaps today's digital world has made our every day tasks just 'too easy' that we are oblivious to the risks, or perhaps it is this easiness that is sparking the concern amongst society.

==== iPhone Fingerprint Scanning ====

[http://www.apple.com/uk Apple] are notoriously known for their technological advancements, especially with their ever changing and ever improving iPhone device. In 2013, however, Apple introduced the new ''fingerprint scanning'' feature on their iPhone 5 devices which was supposedly a new 'safer' way for the user to unlock their phone. This, however, was quick to spark concerns and kick up a storm amongst its users.

The main concern raised over this new and exiting iPhone feature is how extremely easy it has been found to hack into. Activist groups such as [[w:Anonymous (Group)|Anonymous]] and even our own government have been said to have the greatest control over using this tool for invasions. Not only can these invasions steal personal information stored on the devices, it can also reveal the user's whereabouts, and of course, give a digital print of their fingerprint. This type of information can lead to many issues such as fraud and identity theft, but the main concern amongst society seems so be of its likeliness to allow the government to [http://www.motherboard.vice.com/blog/the-iphones-fingerprint-scanner-has-shady-government-ties-anonymous-says track] its citizens whereabouts.

Perhaps society conformed to using this new Apple feature due to the excitement of advancing technology, as it is different from anything that has been readily available to the public before. Fingerprint scanning is something that society is used to associating with spy-detective type films, or just policing and investigations in general, and this is due to the connotations it has with representations &lt;ref name=&quot;Lacey N. (2009)&quot;&gt;Lacey, N. (2009). Image and Representation (2nd ed., pp. 6-7).&lt;/ref&gt; created through the media. With this media effect in mind, it is clear to see why this feature was received so well.

=== Public Sphere Invasions ===

Although many are concerned with private sphere invasions and the threat of hacking private information, invasions of the public sphere must not be overlooked. There are ways companies and users are creating negative side effects through public spheres such as filter bubbles, echo chambers and trolling. Facebook for example explain how they control your public experience online:

''The stories that show in your News Feed are influenced by your connections and activity on Facebook. This helps you to see more stories that interest you from friends you interact with the most. The number of comments and likes a post receives and what kind of story it is (ex: photo, video, status update) can also make it more likely to appear in your News Feed.'' &lt;ref&gt;Facebook Help center. (2016). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://www.facebook.com/help/166738576721085&lt;/ref&gt;

In having different experiences through filtering and personalization, where does the line between private and public sphere end? We are building a web for ourselves instead of a web for everyone.

==== Filter Bubbles &amp; Algorithmic Gatekeepers ====

'''[[w:Eli Pariser|Eli Pariser]]''' is the chief executive of Upworthy, a website for &quot;meaningful&quot; viral content and is an internet activist. He discusses Filter Bubbles in his publication ''The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You'' and his [https://www.ted.com/talks/eli_pariser_beware_online_filter_bubbles?language=en TED Talk].

{{Rquote|right|Your filter bubble is your own personal, unique universe of information that you live in online. What’s in your filter bubble depends on who you are, and it depends on what you do. But the thing is that you don’t decide what gets in. And more importantly, you don’t actually see what gets edited out.|[[w:Eli Pariser|Eli Pariser]]&lt;ref&gt;Pariser, E. (2011, May 2). Beware online ‘filter bubbles’. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://www.ted.com/talks/eli_pariser_beware_online_filter_bubbles?language=en&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Results on [[w:Google|Google]] for example are now dependent on your location, device being used and [[w:Web browser|browser]] meaning there is no standard Google anymore. This acts as an invisible filtering of the web, with platforms using information they have obtained about you to design your online experience to match you specifically. [[w:Eli Pariser|Pariser]] refers to this invisible algorithmic editing of the web as the work of ‘Algorithmic [[w:Gatekeeper|Gatekeepers]]’. This controlling curation of how we see the world online suffers from focusing too much on relevance. Other information that should be delivered in the public sphere should be important, uncomfortable, challenging and from other points of view according to Pariser. These gatekeepers must have encoded a sense of the public life and civic responsibility, offering us more control over what enters our filters.

However, personalization on the web has led to tailor made results, based on previously visited shopping websites for example, and users experiencing different results online by their own choice also.  This act of filtering comes from the user and has a wider effect on the public sphere. Although advantages come with this act of filtering such as targeted advertisements, which cold act a a 'reminder' that you have visited a particular website in which you may like to return, and results that seem most suitable and relevant, users' ability to manipulate this personalization has side effects. users' tendency to consume information that supports their own opinions leads to a restricted and biased perspective online - receiving information in the public space that is tailored to match their interests. Therefore, certain information online can be ignored by users due to filter bubbles, meaning if information isn't deemed relevant to the user it will be dismissed. This may relate to the information overload online as the amount of information available online can seem overwhelming, irrelevant and distracting - however a balance needs to be met.

==== Echo Chambers ====

An echo chamber is a situation in which information, ideas, or beliefs are amplified or reinforced by transmission and repetition inside an &quot;enclosed&quot; system, where different or competing views are censored, disallowed or otherwise underrepresented. As a result of filter bubbles, echo chambers are created in which mainstream and popular beliefs dominate the public sphere. There is a decrease in original thought and excessive repetition of opinion in order to be validated by like-minded people.

''If you surround yourself with voices that echo similar opinions to those you’re feeding out, they will be reinforced in your mind as mainstream, to the point that it can distort your perception of what is the general consensus.'' Martin, 2013.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cavanagh 2014&quot;&gt;Cavanagh, T. (2014, October, 17). The echo chamber is getting louder. [Web log post] Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/the-university-of-central-florida-forum/the-echo-chamber-is-getti_b-5573734.html&lt;/ref&gt;

Leon Festinger's research into cognitive dissonance shows that people would look to actively seek out reassuring voices in order to confirm their beliefs and resolve their internal conflict.&lt;ref name=&quot;Festinger 1957&quot;&gt;Festinger, L. (1957) A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (California: Stanford University Press)&lt;/ref&gt; This pollutes the public sphere as the online space remains unchallenged and predictable, offering only what user want to see. There is also the issue that not all public interactions are linked to your personal identity, as online identities and anonymity must be considered when looking at invasions of the public sphere. Opposing comments and contrasting opinions for example, can even be mistaken for &quot;trolling&quot;. 
==== Trolling ====
Trolling is where internet users post negative or extreme content with the intention of causing disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;nobullying.com&quot;&gt;http://nobullying.com/what-is-internet-trolling/&lt;/ref&gt; They do this to create a reaction among the public. In some cases they are aware that they do not have an identity to others and appear anonymous so feel this can not be traced to them or their personal identity in the real world. With this identity hidden they lose a sense of morals and reasoning as they have lost all sense of one-to-one contact and no longer see the people they are arguing with as people but as words on the screen. This can be very dangerous as there tends to be no boundaries if the user is anonymous they can do as they please. Some may feel as though they are outspoken &lt;ref&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/better-living-technology/201408/why-the-online-trolls-troll&lt;/ref&gt; in the real world and are stereotyped physically where as online gives them the opportunity to change this as they are anonymous no one can personally attack them as they do not know them. They often want to create an argument or cause trouble which sometimes is not even relevant to the topic others are discussing.&lt;ref name=&quot;nobullying.com&quot;/&gt; Posts can be uploaded in spaces where they know the views of the other user and deliberately post their opposing opinion to cause chaos and disruptive or opposing issues. They are deliberately unsettling the peace just to create an argument. 
Much of the content posted by these types of people are things they would never think of saying to a person if they were interacting in the real world as people are aware of what is socially acceptable but with online taking away the identity and personal aspect interaction becomes much more impersonal. This making trollers very hostile showing little remorse for anyone else. Often they get empowered through these types of activities much like bullying in the real world, especially when they spark a big reaction. This invasion of the public sphere can escalate to serious threats transitioning from the digital space to the real world. The amount of freedom in the public sphere becomes questionable as although we should not be restricted to the laws of algorithmic gatekeepers, our freedom to create our own filter bubbles and take advantage of anonymity online through trolling must be considered.

== Theorists ==

''Here are some of the theorists that help bring this topic together''.

=== Zizi Papacharissi ===

Dr. Zizi Papacharissi was born and raised in Thessaloniki, Greece. She holds a BA in Economics and Media Studies from [[w:Mount Holyoke College|Mount Holyoke College]] (1995), an MA in Communication Studies from [[w:Kent State University|Kent State University]] (1997) and a PhD in Journalism from the [[w:University Texas at Austin|University Texas at Austin]]  (2000). She is the Professor and Head of the Communication Department at the [[w:University of Illinois-Chicago|University of Illinois-Chicago]] for more than seven years now and also the chief editor of the [[w:Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media|Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media]]. Her research focuses on new media technologies and the consequences they carry within them in a sociopolitical level. Her book,  A Private Sphere: Democracy in a Digital Age (Polity Press, 2010),  discusses how we practice politics in a digital age. She has edited  A Networked Self: Identity,  Community,  and Culture on Social Network Sites (Routledge, 2010), and Journalism and Citizenship: New Agendas (Taylor &amp; Francis, 2009). She has studied blogs, online journalism, social network sites, privacy, civility, self presentation in digital environments, and sociability online. She has also researched how terrorism is portrayed in international news, and the uses and consequences of reality TV.[http://comm.uic.edu/comm/people/faculty/zizi-papacharissi]

In her book A Private Sphere (2010) Papacharissi underlines a shift between the relationship of public and private spheres in recent and past societies. In the traditional democratic framework,  people were enabled through the public sphere as the sense of the private was only associated with the enclosed and fractured spaces of ‘home’. In contemporary democracies though, she discusses, ‘the citizen becomes politically emancipated via a private sphere’.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; Participation in online protests, expressing political opinion on blogs, engaging actively or passively with YouTube, posting a comment in an online political discussion ‘represents a dissent with the public agenda, determined by mainstream media and political actors’.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;

{{Rquote|right| Within this private sphere, the citizen is alone, but not lonely or isolated. &lt;&lt;|Zizi Papacharissi &lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; }}

This is the result of the new media as they have a dramatic effect on the compression or expansion of temporal and spatial relations between public and private spheres.  Today more than ever people can participate in public events from the comfort of one’s private zone because of the benefits of the converged technologies. Those modern communication media have the ability of ‘transforming the private sphere of the home into a space that is both public and private’.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; To consolidate her argument Papacharisssi invokes [[w:Raymond Williams|Raymond Williams]] and his concept of [[w:mobile privatization|mobile privatization]], the ability of the media of braking and transcending the spatial and temporal boundaries of the home and travel around the world without mobilising physically the human being.  That’s what she describes as the ‘networked private sphere’ a sphere that is only accessible in the past 10–15 years, as this ability of remaining in the comfort of your well known space while simultaneously being able to encounter the other or the unknown is only provided by the unique hybridity of the online converged technologies.

                        {{ Quote box |quote=“ The private sphere model traces the progression of a citizen who has retreated from the public sphere of interaction to a technologically enabled mobile private sphere of thought, expression, and reaction, in search of ultimate autonomy and expression.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;     -	Zizi Papacharissi ” }}

She goes on to argue that through this ‘performative storytelling of the self’, in this familiar environment the political discourse is enhanced as the temporally and geographically fluid environments suggest the illusion of ultimate autonomy, control and expression. She defines as the “mobile private sphere’ the one that ‘enables the frequently monitorial citizen to efficiently balance conflicting and potentially overwhelming civic demands”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; A Private Sphere: Democracy in a Digital Age (2010) thus, attempts to conceptualise how the self-driven, digitally-enabled private acts can cause a publicly political sensation. [http://www.jameswilldennis.com/blog/book-review-zizi-papacharissi-a-private (Online resource) ]

=== Jürgen Habermas ===
{{Rquote|right|[Public sphere is a] [...] realm of our social life in something approaching public opinion can be formed [...] [and where] access is guaranteed to all citizens [...] [.]&lt;&lt;|Jürgen Habermas&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1989&quot;&gt;Habermas, J. (1989). ''The Public Sphere: An Encyclopaedia Article''. In: Bronner, S. E., Kellner, D. M. (2001). Critical Theory and Society: A Reader. New York: Routledge&lt;/ref&gt;}}

[[w:Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]] is a German sociologist and philosopher who had written extensively on the public sphere in [[w:The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere|''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere'']] ([http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/phil123-net/publicness/habermas_structural_trans_pub_sphere.pdf online resource]).&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1991&quot;&gt;[http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/phil123-net/publicness/habermas_structural_trans_pub_sphere.pdf], Habermas, J. (1991). ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a category of Bourgeois Society''. 5&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; ed. USA:MIT Press Paperback. Retrieved 03/05, 2016, from http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/phil123-net/publicness/habermas_structural_trans_pub_sphere.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; Habermas argues that &quot;European society in the middle ages showed no indication of a public sphere as a 'unique' realm distinct from the private sphere”&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot; /&gt; but nowadays European culture had transitioned from a “representational” culture, to Öffentlichkeit (the public sphere).  Using Marxist theory as a template, Habermas theorised that as representational culture corresponds to the feudal stage of development that there would be a coming of the capitalist stage of development marked the appearance of Öffentlichkeit.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; [[File:JuergenHabermas.jpg|thumb|Juergen Habermas|left]] &lt;/div&gt; 
Whereas “representational” culture is primarily concerned with this transition to Öffentlichkeit is characterized by the emergence of a public space where individuals can engage in an exchange of ideas and knowledge, all outside the control of the state. Social institutions such as newspapers, reading clubs, coffeehouses and masonic lodges were all popular meeting places for discussion and media outlets such as letter, books and theatres were used to spread the rhetoric of the public sphere. But the more media rely on advertising-funding, the more they are a gateway for privileged private interests in the public.&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1991&quot; /&gt;

Speaking about Internet based public spheres providing a forum for those, who wants to participate in a critical debate, Habermas thinking of the public sphere does not imply, that it every member of the populous nor all Internet users can engage in a meaningful discussion. Following that Ubayasiri argues, that &quot;[...] the internet’s potential in creating public spheres, can be and has to be harnessed by ‘public intellectuals’ if the cyberspace is to fulfil its potential as a forum for public spheres.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Ubayasiri 2006&quot; /&gt;

Habermas also researched about media reception and usage, developing his famous [[w:The Theory of Communicative Action|Theory of Communicative Action]]. Within that he thinks about the coordination of social action of communicatively talented humans, meaning communication oriented actions of mature people. He connects living environment perspective (social integration) and systematic perspective (system integration). On that basis he mentions ''media usage as a social action'' for human beings.

===Hamid Van Koten ===
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

[http://www.oneyearintransition.org/#!hamid-van-koten/c198s Hamid van Koten] is an expert and a practitioner in the field of eco-architecture. His work consists of teaching creative enterprise skills as head of Post-Graduate Studies at the Plymouth College of Art as well as previously as director of Design History, Theory and Practice at the University of Dundee. He also contributed to the [[w:Ecovillage Design Education|Findhorn Ecovillage]] at the Findhorn Foundation, Scotland, and is a qualified Transition Towns Trainer. Hamid and family live in an intention community near [[w:Totnes|Totnes]]. 
In ''The Digital Image and the Pleasure Principle: the Consumption of Realism in the Age of Simulation'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Van Koten 2009&quot; /&gt; he talks about McLuhan's ([http://www.marshallmcluhan.com/ Marshall McLuhan]) technocratic determinism. [http://www.chart.ac.uk/chart2005/papers/vankoten.html]
His main research questions are: What are the forces at work in the production and consumption of digital representations

'''Hot and Cool media''' McLuhan classifies different procedures of media through something called a temperature scale in which consists of hot and cool mass Medias. A media type is measured hot if it heavily  and immerses  one logic in particular.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! HOT MEDIA !! COOL MEDIA
|-
| Novel || Poetry
|-
| Photo || Comic
|-
| Written words || Spoken Words
|-
| Low Participation || High Participation 
|-
| Radio || Telephone
|-
| Cinema  || Television
|}

Above is a table which shows a number of hot and cool medias side by side with their counterparts. For example: A photo offering visual information more clearly, whereas a drawing of the same thing may need to be construed in terms of shapes and colours and possibly have a meaning behind it.&lt;ref name=&quot;Van Koten 2009&quot; /&gt; These are the dominant forms of digital representations and the main theories that Van Koten desires to work with. “A shift from the real to the imaginary as the dominant drive”. [https://redjotter.wordpress.com/2008/12/01/everything-is-connected/ Research]

Comparable to McLuhan’s idea of hot and cool media is the notion of 'Light on' 'Light through' media. ‘Light on’ media is when the light source bounces off a surface or object before hitting the viewers’ eyes. Light on would be classed as 'hot' as it is 'all revealing'. 
Therefore the light is projected onto a screen. ‘Light through’ media is light source is positioned in front of audience, making the audience the screen by projecting light onto them. ‘light through’ is less revealing, more “mysterious” so therefore cool.&lt;ref name=&quot;Van Koten 2009&quot; /&gt;

=== Mike S. Schäfer ===


Mike S. Schäfer is a German sociologist, Professor of Science Communication, and Director of the Centre for Higher Education and Science Studies (CHESS) at [[w:University of Zurich|University of Zurich]], . 
Together with Jürgen Gerhards, Professor for macrosociology at the Institute of Sociology of the Free University of Berlin, Schäfer researched the comparative differences of the internet and traditional mass media as conduits of influence on wider society.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gerhards 2010&quot;&gt;[http://nms.sagepub.com/content/12/1/143] Gerhards, J., &amp; Schafer, M. (2010). Is the internet a better public sphere? Comparing old and new media in the USA and Germany. New Media &amp; Society, 12(1), 143-160, Retrieved 5 March 2016, from http://nms.sagepub.com/content/12/1/143&lt;/ref&gt;

Schäfer theorizes that normative theorists of the public sphere, such as [[w:Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]], , have been very critical of the ‘old’ [[w:Mass Media|mass media]], , which were seen as unable to promote free and plural societal communication. The advent of the internet, in contrast, gave rise to hopes that it would make previously marginalized actors and arguments more visible to a broader public. To assess these claims, Schäfer compares the internet and mass media communication.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;font-size:80%&quot;| '''Requirements and impacts of the traditional and internet-based public spheres'''&lt;ref name=&quot;Gerhards 2010&quot; /&gt; 
! Traditional public sphere
! Internet-based public sphere
! Organizational Prerequisites
! Openness for participation
! Impact on society
|-
| Encounters
| Email, messaging, ect.
| Low
| High
| Low
|-
| Public Events
| Discussion boards, blogs, ect.
| Middle
| Middle
| Middle
|-
| Mass Media
| Search engines
| High
| Low
| High
|}

It distinguishes three levels of both the offline and the online public sphere, which differ in their structural prerequisites, in their openness for participation and in their influence on the wider society. Using this model, Schäfer compares the levels that are most strongly structured and most influential for the wider society: the mass media and communication as organized by search engines.

In their study, Schäfer and Gerhards found only minimal evidence to support the idea that the internet is a better communication space as compared to print media. Despite the facts that the internet is an easily accessible medium with low entry barriers, in both public spheres the discourse was dominated by scientific actors without inclusion for others occurring.

=== Brian Loader ===
Brian was born in Zimbabwe in 1958. He grew up in the UK before he began studying at Southampton University in 1978 and continued studies till 1981 where he achieved an honours degree in politics and Sociology he taught in Southampton before he gained a masters in 1989 in Public policy from university of Bristol. He then continued with his teaching in the University of Teesside during his period there he became the founding editor of the international journal of Information, Communication and Society. He is now part the University of York as a senior Lecturer and he follows his interests of New Media.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2016&quot;&gt;http://www.york.ac.uk/sociology/our-staff/academic/brian-loader/&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Cyber space divide'''

In this Brian loader introduces the prospect of an information society and how this will cause a cyberspace divide. Here Loader looks at how the internet will affect the private and the public spheres, he states that

“No sphere of life will be unaffected by the information revolution”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;&gt;Loader,B Cyberspace Divide Equality, agency and policy in the information society 1998 (Published by Rotledge)&lt;/ref&gt;

Because of this loader looks at the implications on social and political structures, as information and communication technologies (ITCs) will be an ever apparent part of life. Loader continues to look at how this will affect the world by looking at the idea of the cyberspace and how this will allow those who use it to be not only “information rich” but cyberspace will  “offers liberating possibilities of ‘ordinary’ people constructing new identities which free them from the imposed classifications of class, race, gender or disability associated with material space”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;/&gt; 
 
This is loaders idea of people having a persona online where they are free from there constraints they may have in their everyday lives. He also adds the idea that anonymity will play a massive role in inventing an alternative version of themselves, and this will only be achieved through “virtual spaces”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;/&gt;  Loader evidently concludes that the information society will be further developed by social forces who will lead it to become a space for people with in the private and the public spheres.

'''Young citizens in the digital age'''
Here loader continues his idea but by looking at youth citizens and their involvement in ITCs with politics. He introduces the idea of ''Cultural displacement'' with young citizens and the political systems that are in place, and how due to information communication technologies (ITCs) it generates a disconnect.

Firstly Loader provides us with an explanation to cultural displacement. Loader sees the disconnect of youth with the political system is due to the politicians as they “Appear distant and self-absorbed and unable to empathise with young people’s experiences of the dramatically changing social and cultural world” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;&gt;Loader,B 2007 Young Citizens in the digital age: political engagement, young people and new media(Published by Rotledge)&lt;/ref&gt; he believes that this disconnect is because of youth culture and how it doesn’t relate with old political systems because of new ITCs and because of this it cause a contrast with youth “communication spaces” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; with this in mind loader also continues to confirm that this provides a “digital divide” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; the idea that through these channels youth are divided from current politics and are more infatuated by celebrity culture.

Loader also comments on the idea of individualisation that is in youth culture and new media. Brian defines individualisation as the
“individualised agendas characterised by the ongoing activates of choosing between various lifestyles and fashion statement shaping and expressing ones persona, celebrating body forms and artistry, and developing and managing social networks of friends, family and associates” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; Loader here is stating that youth culture with the introduction of new media has led to a decline in political culture due to the youth having more pressing personal agendas to attend to, he backs this idea up by looking at the decline in the amount of voters (estimated 37% in 2005 voted)&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; aged 18 to 25 because they are “disaffected citizens”&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt;

Loader does however indicate the importance of new media and politics where he indicates that youth culture will offer more opportunity for understanding politics. This due to the fact new media and its involvement within the political system will “engage in political deliberation and challenge state authority” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; In turn Brian Loader believes that new media will help with overall engagement in youth activity within the politics of today with help of new media.

=== Nicholas Garnham ===

[[w:Nicholas Garnham|Nicholas Garnham]]  is a British researcher and Emeritus professor at the University of Westminster. He has played an important role in British Media and Communication Studies, and the Political Economy of Communication. His works have covered in particular topics as capitalism and comunication, the cultural industries, public service media, the public sphere, and the theory and sociology of culture.

He is the first one who used the term &quot;[[w:cultural industries|cultural industries]]&quot; for the first time, with which he distances himself from the accepted meaning of cultural industry connected to mass culture. In his Capitalism and Communication ([http://www.triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/viewFile/553/534 online resource])&lt;ref name=&quot;Garnham&quot;&gt;[http://www.triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/viewFile/553/534], Garnham, N. (1990). ''Capitalism and Communication. Global Culture and the Economics of Information''. London: Sage. Retrieved 03/07, 2016, from http://www.triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/viewFile/553/534&lt;/ref&gt;., he argues that “cultural industries” are institutions in which the production and spread of mass culture are influenced by [[w:capitalism|capitalism]]. So, according to Garnham, publishing industry, record companies and business organizations use capitalism in order to achieve more profits. 
After 1977, the term &quot;cultural industries&quot; turns in &quot;[[w:creative industries|creative industries]]&quot;. Garnham argues that the reason of this shift happened not just to give cultural industries an economic importance, but also—and especially—to put in contact cultural industries to the information society and the knowledge-based economy.

Garnham is also the most responsible for introducing the “[[w:public sphere|public sphere]]’ notion into the media debate, arguing that, especially in the case of television, [[w:public service|public service]] is being replaced by privatized markets. [[w:Television|Television]] offers to viewers few options from which they can choose from and it has become increasingly subjected to deregulation and privatization under market control. On the contrary, according to him, public service manages to satisfy more people, based on what they like, rather than just satisfying those tastes that help increase profit. A market allocation of cultural resources, combined with the destruction of public service media, threatens ‘public communication’ which, in his opinion, lies at the heart of democracy.

=== Lincoln Dahlberg ===
Lincoln Dahlberg has broadly published articles in the areas of media politics and public sphere theory.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cccs.uq.edu.au&quot;&gt;[http://cccs.uq.edu.au/dahlberg], Cccs.uq.edu.au,. (n.d.) ''Dr Lincoln Dahlberg - Centre for Critical and Cultural Studies - The University of Queensland, Australia''. Retrieved 4 March 2016, from http://cccs.uq.edu.au/dahlberg&lt;/ref&gt; In one of his last works, he decided to discuss the possibility of enhancing the public sphere through Internet by considering a case study on the Minnesota [[w:E-democracy|E-Democracy]] project. Thus demonstrating that despite some significant limitations, Internet can improve and extend the public sphere but in order to do so it has to meet six crucial criteria.

{{ Quote box |quote=“ Dahlberg (2001) argues six fundamental criteria need to be fulfilled for the Internet to be considered a public sphere – [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]] from state and economic power; exchange and critique of criticizable moral-practical validity claims; reflexivity; ideal role-taking; sincerity; and discursive inclusion and equality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ubayasiri 2006&quot;&gt;[http://ejournalist.com.au/v6n2/ubayasiri622.pdf], Ubayasiri, K. (2006). Internet and the Public Sphere: A glimpse of YouTube. ''Ejournalist'', 6(2). Retrieved from http://ejournalist.com.au/v6n2/ubayasiri622.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

-	Kasun Ubayasiri ” }}

* ''[[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] from state and economic power:'' according to Dahlberg the interaction between citizens should be free from the influence of the state, meaning that people are allowed (and should have) a [[w:Public opinion|public opinion]] on the state and they should have power on the government. Nevertheless, it should not be the other way around: state and corporate colonization of the [[w:Cyberspace|cyberspace]] should not threaten nor control online public spaces. However, according to Dahlberg, it is not fully possible to avoid the state influence as Internet is strictly connected with the [[w:Political sociology|socio-political]] context.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;/&gt;
* ''Exchange and critique of criticizable moral-practical validity claims:'' “arguments must be addressed not just to those present in conversation but to all others potentially affected by the claims under consideration, to the ‘larger’ or ‘ideal’ or ‘virtual’ community of discussants.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;&gt;[https://www.sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=10-1a.pdf&amp;site=412], Dahlberg, L. (2004). The Habermasian Public Sphere: A Specification of the Idealized Conditions of Democratic Communication. ''Studies In Social And Political Thought'', (10), 2-18. Retrieved from https://www.sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=10-1a.pdf&amp;site=412&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''[[w:Reflexivity (social theory)|Reflexivity]]:'' communication should be based upon relevant arguments, participants should be able to question their own positions regarding their values and beliefs and they should be able to take someone else’s position when validity claims are offered.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;/&gt;
* ''Ideal role taking:'' participants will try to understand and not bypass differences and they will consider a certain situation from other people’s perspectives, it implies an ongoing communication and honesty from the participants. This criteria leads to another important aspect to take in consideration: sincerity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;/&gt;
* ''Sincerity:'' communication is based upon honesty and openness. The online public sphere requires sincerity in order to exist, information needs to be accurate and people should not intentionally lie. It could be argued that according to Dahlberg’s ideas about honesty, the whole concept of [[w:Persona (psychology)|Persona]] should not exist, as people try to create an [[w:Online identity|online identity]] that not always is an honest depiction of the real identity. Moreover, Internet users do not always share their real thoughts and it is almost impossible to be honest about everything so the condition of honesty is hard to achieve, therefore grand part of Dahlberg’s criteria cannot be fulfilled as they all take in consideration an idealized society.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg,2001&quot;&gt;[http://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/838], Dahlberg, L. (2001). Extending the public sphere through cyberspace: The case of Minnesota E-Democracy. ''First Monday'', 6(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/fm.v6i3.838&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Discursive inclusion and equality:'' everyone should have the same possibility to be part in a discourse, people should not only be formally included but their ideas should be considered at the same level. This criterion, as the other ones, presupposes that social inequalities do not affect the participation. However, Dahlberg himself noted that in the case study of the [http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/fm.v6i3.838 Minnesota E-Democracy] [[w:Social inequality|social]] and [[w:Gender inequality|gender]] related inequalities still tend to favour men over women and people with a specific knowledge rather than people with general interests. As, it happened with the Minnesota E-Democracy project, we can also face exclusion when we are entering a discourse, simply because others may have more predominant personalities, therefore it is hard to achieve the idealised condition where everyone is equally important in a discourse. Hence, we need to put a particular effort in it, so that diverse styles of speaking can be treated with the same respect and can have the same importance.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg,2001&quot;/&gt;

===John Thompson===

[[w:John Thompson|John Thompson]] is a British Sociology professor at the [[w:University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]] and a Jesus College Elite member. 
In his life, he has studied the influence of [[w:mass media|mass media]] in the development of modern societies, and the creation of new forms of action and interaction beyond temporal and spatial frameworks. 
His work “The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media” &lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot; /&gt; is the attempt to formulate a social theory about mass media, by analysing the complex relationship between the medieval industry and the economic, political and coercive powers. Thompson argues a theory that bears in mind the roles of mass media in the modern society, opposing to those who considerate mass media just as a reflection of the social, economic and political conditions in the previous ages.   
Thompson is strongly influenced by [[w:Hans-Georg Gadamer|Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and the [[w:hermeneutics|hermeneutics]], which studied the philosophy and methodology of text interpretation. 
In “The Media and The Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media”, Thompson analyses the term “mass”, affirming that most of the mass media are not produced for the masses, but for niche markets. Since the term “mass” evokes the image of a vast public (million of individuals), Thompson discusses it, contrasting the concept of “ [[w:mass communication|mass communication]]” (too abused, in his opinion) to a face-to-face interaction and the two-way process that takes place when people talk to each other. He believes that there are more suitable terms when we deal with “mediated communication or, more simply, 'the media' which are less laden with misleading assumptions.”&lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot; /&gt;

Thompson critics [[w:Habermas|Habermas]]’ concept of ‘[[w:public sphere|publich sphere]]’, arguing that in the modern society there is a new form of “mediated publicness”. This mediated publicness has some main characteristics, which are:
*	Despatialized (people don’t need to share the same location to see more things, but they don’t have control of the angle of this extended vision);
*	Non dialogical (for example, presenters on TV are visible to an audience, but not the other way round, so that means they cannot adapt their discourse to the reactions of the public)   
*	Wider and more diverse audiences (people with different education, different social class, different values and beliefs can get the same message).

Now, thanks to this mediated publicness, the many are visible to the few and the few can also see the many:

&quot;Whereas the Panopticon renders many people visible to a few and enables power to be exercised over the many by subjecting them to a state of permanent visibility, the development of communication media provides a means by which many people can gather information about a few and, at the same time, a few can appear before many; thanks to the media, it is primarily those who exercise power, rather than those over whom power is exercised, who are subjected to a certain kind of visibility.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot;/&gt;

== Integrating themes ==

In the last section of this chapter, we will discuss and discover the common themes occurring throughout this Wikibook. In this section, we have looked at Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age. However, Technological and Cultural Determinism&lt;ref&gt;http://study.com/academy/lesson/cultural-determinism-definition-and-theory.html&lt;/ref&gt; can be strongly linked to this section, as well as some points which are taken from [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/An_Internet_of_Everything%3F/Access_to_Knowledge_and_Data_in_Everyday_Life Access to Knowledge and Data in Everyday Life]. We will lastly discuss the section of [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/An_Internet_of_Everything%3F/Surveillance_and_Sousveillance Surveillance and Sousveillance].

Cultural Determinism, as already outlined earlier in this book, is ultimately defined as the way in which society is affected by the cultural change; how this change may affect our character, our beliefs, and our interactions with one another. Technological Determinism is therefore how technology affects our culture and wider society. Marshall McLuhan (1964)&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall McLuhan Understanding Media 1964&quot;&gt;Marshall McLuhan Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964)&lt;/ref&gt; argued that cultural shifts are caused by innovations in media technology. We can see that this is quite prominent in today’s society. As discussed earlier, the invasion of the Private Sphere in the digital age has changed the way we go about our everyday life. Before the creation of the internet and social media platforms, the home was our private space, unless someone called you on your landline, you were unavailable. Now there is pressure to be constantly available through text message or other forms of digital communication.

There can be no doubt that the spread of technology has changed our way of life. This has had many positive effects, it has helped bring people together and has also helped to engage the citizen in a democracy. One of the more interesting arguments is that of a Global Village;&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall McLuhan Understanding Media 1964&quot;/&gt; McLuchan (1964) came up with this idea that due to electronic technology, information can be spread and sent instantly. This could not be more true in today’s society. Thanks to such apps like Facebook Messenger, you could communicate with someone located hundreds of miles away, as if they are were down the street. Which leads us to discuss how important our online identity is. The online identity is also part of the public sphere. The public sphere is how we present ourselves in the public domain, whether this is in person or online, there is a way that we want to portray ourselves. With the rise of the Global Village, more and more people can view our social media activity. Due to this, there is now a pressure, especially among young people, to look and play the part on social media and to be “always on”.

The pressure to be “always on” is discussed in the Access to Knowledge and Data in Everyday Life chapter of this wikibook.  Ultimately, this means that we are pressured to be available twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week to be contacted via social media. Long gone are the days of splendid isolation. Due to the global village effect, our private sphere has been invaded because there is constant pressure to be “always on”. However, this has caused an information overload. As discussed later on in this wikibook, there are some who argue that because social media pacifies human-social-needs, we are shutting ourselves indoors and interacting electronically. An article by John Bingham (2016) entitled “How teenage pregnancy collapsed after birth of social media”&lt;ref&gt;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/12189376/How-teenage-pregnancy-collapsed-after-birth-of-social-media.html&lt;/ref&gt; displays an argument that since the birth of social media the number of teenage pregnancies in the UK has fallen, and asks if there is a correlation. It could also be argued that the boundaries between our public and private spheres are being blurred. This is why many people place private information upon their social media platforms; it is not because they want everyone to know their business, but that it is a way of expressing oneself, all be it on a traditionally public platform.

As I have said earlier, social media has empowered the person and enlightened democracy. It has also, as discussed in Surveillance and Sousveillance, made way for the Citizen Journalist. Now people from their own private sphere can take part in news creation. This is also an example of “Sousveillance”. The Arab Spring has seen vast amounts of citizen journalism, ordinary people witnessing events and instantly documenting them. Also, thanks the rise of social media and different blog sites, the number of news outlets that we have to choose from has greatly increased. Websites such as Another Angry Voice [http://anotherangryvoice.blogspot.co.uk/ (AAV)] and [http://wingsoverscotland.com/ Wings Over Scotland ] have been created and inform many different citizens. As highlighted later on in this wikibook, GCHQ was formed over the 1950s and 1960s and has taken part in many different security operations. The organisations conduct has been called into question lately, and with the Draft Communications Data Bill (2015) proceeding through the UK Parliament; and many different concerns with the proposed law, there is an argument that this Bill, if it became an Act, could intrude further on our already diminishing private sphere. However, due to current security threats, many would argue the proposals are needed.

To conclude, many of the different theories and ideas that are spoken about in this chapter can also be drawn into other chapters within this wikibook. It is important when reading through this book, to remember that all theorists and ideas link together in some shape or form.

== Critical Review ==


As established, the social world has been split into two spheres; public and private. [[Martin Heidegger]] argued that it's through the private sphere where one can truly express themselves. For example, on social networking sites, you can allow your profile to be as private as you like, with options to disable showing certain information to people. One would assume that their information would be completely private and so in this case, Heidegger’s argument is valid. However, can we really assume that our private information is safe? He argues that people will only fully express themselves if they are under the impression that their information is private. For example, Facebook being able to use browser history to create advertisements &lt;ref&gt;http://adage.com/article/digital/facebook-web-browsing-history-ad-targeting/293656/&lt;/ref&gt; completely undermines Heidegger's argument. There will not be an opportunity for users to fully express themselves if they're aware that their information is not as safe as they believe.

[[w:Zizi Papacharissi|Zizi Papacharissi]] argues that there has been a shift in the relationship between public and private spheres in society. The private sphere has always been associated with family or home. Papacharissi argues that nowadays, with the vast amount of portable technology available, members of society can now live and participate in public spheres more than ever but from the comfort of their own home.&lt;ref&gt;
Papacharissi, Z. A., (2013). Private Sphere: Democracy in A Digital Age. Cambridge, Malden, MA: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt; This then allows the public and private spheres to merge together, allowing people to have the best of both worlds. It can be argued that, with Heidegger’s point that it doesn’t, nowadays, necessarily mean that the private sphere is valid from the home and it is more to do with the idea of how much information you want to express of yourself, which in turn would make Papacharissi’s argument invalid. It is however a strong argument otherwise and determines the idea that public and private spheres are not poles apart like they once were.

[[w:Brian Loader|Brian Loader]] argues that an information society will cause a cyberspace divide. He states that because people have the opportunity to be someone fake and virtual online, they are in turn able to escape the stigmas they may face in everyday life. This is where Papacharissi's argument of the shift between private and public spheres is really relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;/&gt; If one is wanting to stay in the private sphere when it comes to their online activity but still wants to participate in the things the public sphere has to offer, they are able to create a fake persona with false information that doesn't determine them as a person, but can then still share this information with others. Loader then believes that by doing this, it can give, especially youths of society, a chance to participate in, for example, polls online concerning politics which then helps a young society become more involved in the world.

== Glossary ==
'''Always-on'''&lt;br /&gt;
As explained by danah boyd,&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot; /&gt; the always-on culture is the connection to technology and need to be always available on either social media or online content.

'''Anonymity'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w: Anonymity|Anonymity]] (or, as an adjective, ''anonymous'') refers to when an individual is non-identifiable, unreachable, or untrackable. Online anonymity usually refers to the lack of an individual's personal details, as they communicate through a username.

'''Anonymous (group)'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w: Anonymous|Anonymous]] is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. [[#Anonymous|''(See section 1.7.5.2)'']]

'''Ascetism'''&lt;br /&gt;
As defined by Sennett,&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot; /&gt; desire for introspection through withdrawal from society in a process self-understanding that ultimately increase the public sphere's coherence. Indeed, this process allows for the achievement of values of control and autonomy, which are essential for a participating citizen.

'''Avatar (computing)'''&lt;br /&gt;
An [[w:Avatar|avatar]] in virtual reality sites is the graphical representation of the user or the user's alter ego or character.

'''Catfishing'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of deceiving another user online by adopting a fake identity (which can be made up or stolen). [[#Catfishing|''(see section 1.7.2.3)'']]

'''Cyberbullying'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of bullying online. [[#Cyberbullying|''(see section 1.7.4)'']]

'''Cookies'''&lt;br /&gt;
In their most basic characterisation, http cookies are a small chunks of data that are sent to a user's browser when a user access a website and stored in the background while using. Every time the user logs back or visits that websites the cookies are sent back to their server, thus brining back information about the user's recent activity.

'''Cyberstalking'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of stalking online. [[#Cyberstalking|''(see section 1.7.4.2)'']]

'''Dark Web'''&lt;br /&gt;
Small section of the &quot;Deep Web&quot; mainly includes small invite-only networks and is infamous for being a hub of illegal activity. See[[#Deep Web|''section 1.7.7'']]

'''Deep Web'''&lt;br /&gt;
Also known as the &quot;hidden&quot; or &quot;invisible&quot; web, the section of the internet that isn't discoverable through regular search engines. See [[#Deep Web|''section 1.7.7'']]

'''Digital Age'''&lt;br /&gt;
The digital age describes the ongoing time frame since the end of the 20th. Characteristically for this age are the possibilities for ever person to store and transfer information digitally which have reciprocally influenced society. Please see [[#Digital Age Definition|disambiguation]].

'''Digital Media'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w:Digital media|digital media]] all media types are counted which are based on digital information and communication technology (i.e. the Internet) as well as technical devices for [[w:digitalization|digitalization]], [[w:Digital recording|recording]], processing, calculation, retention, [[w:Data storage device|storage]], presentation and distribution of digital content and final products such as digital arts or music.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kossek 2012&quot;/&gt;
Please refer to [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|Characteristics of Digital Media]]

'''Digital self harm / Digital Munchausen'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of users bullying or sending abusive messages to themselves online. Please see [[#Digital self harm|''section 1.7.4.1'']]

'''Dissociation'''&lt;br /&gt;
In psychology, it refers to a detachment from physical and emotional experience. When online, it refers to the physical and emtional detachment from 'real' life as one performs their online identity.

'''Encryption'''&lt;br /&gt;
Encoding of messages and information in order to prevent unauthorised parts to access them. Only those who possess a decryption key can do so.

'''Hacker'''&lt;br /&gt;
An individual that identifies a server's, computer's or network's weaknesses and breaches into them in order to extract knowledge and material that can serve different purposes.

'''Hacktivism'''&lt;br /&gt;
The work of a hacker that promotes a political or social agenda, such as exposure of corruption, human rights, free speech and freedom of information.

'''Identity'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w:identity|Identity]] is the make up of our character and the type of cultural values we choose, therefore impacting on our appearance online.

'''Media Multiplier Effect''' &lt;br /&gt;
As described by Adrian Athique in his book ''Digital Media and Society: An Introduction'', the ''Media Multiplier Effect'' is the multiplying discussions of fear amongst society of its mass media, to the point of creating the impression that media invasions of privacy are more likely to happen than they really are.

'''Mobile Privatization'''&lt;br /&gt;
The ability of the media devices to mobilize and travel an individual while still having a strong sense of being at 'home' because of the attachment and connectivity with the [[W:mobile device|mobile device]]. See[[#Deep Web|''section 1.9.1'']]

'''Narcissism'''&lt;br /&gt;
Although often characterised as a psychological disorder, in Lasch's &lt;ref name=&quot;Lasch 1991&quot; /&gt; and Sennett's &lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot; /&gt; work, it represents the concerning that one's have regarding their own being. Narcissistic practices are self-centred and happen in accordance to a evaluation of which the self is in control but they are not self-motivated. Despite being self-based, they are not selfish.

'''Online Footprint'''&lt;br /&gt;
Amount of data left on the internet by a user and collected either without him knowing (passive footprint) or with his consent in order to share information with others (active footprint).

'''Online Performance'''&lt;br /&gt;
As defined by Mendelson and Papacharissi 2001, online performance is the selectiveness of our behaviour online and impacts on our social lives physically but also online - through social media. Online performance provides a mediated self and is a performance which may not reflect our normal lives.

'''Private Sphere'''&lt;br /&gt;
The part of peoples lives that they are supposed to have full control over, unaffected by institutions like the government, the home is an example. Please see [[#Private Sphere Definition|disambiguation]].

'''Public Displays of Connection'''&lt;br /&gt;
Public Displays of Connection are in reference to the way that we show the people around us the people that are our friends, family and colleagues. It is a concept described by danah boyd and Judith Donath &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; and in this article it's the way in which we show our connections to other people online, how we do it and the reasons why we do it. See [[#Public Displays of Connection|''(see section 1.5.1)'']]

'''Public Opinion''' &lt;br /&gt;
[[w:Public Opinion|Public opinion]] is &quot;the collective opinion of many people on some issue, problem, etc., especially as a guide to action, decision, or the like.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Dictionary&quot;&gt;[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/public-opinion] Dichtionary.com. (2016). ''Public Opinion''. Retrieved 03/10, 2016 from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/public-opinion&lt;/ref&gt; It is a form of publicity and enforced through public communication. This has to be distinguished from a published opinion, an opinion expressed in public. Please refer to [[#Publicity Online|Publicity Online]]

'''Public Sphere'''&lt;br /&gt;
A &quot;virtual or imaginary community, which does not necessarily exist in any identifiable space. In its ideal form, the public sphere is &quot;made up of private people gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1989&quot; /&gt; Please see [[#Public Sphere Definition|disambiguation]].

'''Username'''&lt;br /&gt;
The 'nickname' an individual uses to identify themselves to the system.

'''Virtual reality'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w: Virtual Reality|Virtual Reality]] replicates an environment that simulates a physical presence in places in the real world or an imagined world, allowing the user to interact with that world.

'''Web 2.0'''&lt;br /&gt;
The recollection of the collective abilities of members from an online network. A [[w:Web 2.0|Web 2.0]] site may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to Web sites where people are limited to the passive viewing of content.

== External links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=39tvjOATrCA Introduction Video to &quot;The New Digital Age&quot;]
* [https://panopticlick.eff.org/ Online Fingerprint (Find out about your fingerprint here.)]	
* [http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/fm.v6i3.838 Extending the public sphere through cyberspace: The case of Minnesota E-Democracy]
* [http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/494/415 A history of Minnesota Electronic Democracy 1994]
* [http://www.mindswork.co.uk/wpblog/the-persona-the-false-self-and-the-social-network-why-it%E2%80%99s-so-difficult-to-have-your-best-mate-your-mother-and-your-boss-on-facebook/ The persona, the false self, and the social network: who are you on Facebook?]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;
{{Print version notice|An Internet of Everything?/Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age|An Internet of Everything?/Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age/Print_version}}
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      <text bytes="354317" sha1="5xjsq3w3lk9qw1vjxphbcji9886kqam" xml:space="preserve">We have our own resources including financial and '''operators''' dedicated to this task. We had to get to his phone and hack his device. When he connected to his home (net) he simply send our program to every devices connected to this net. Now if person wants to use any (:Http:,html source) it will always redirect to our fake websites created for this purpose. That's how we control whole browsing even basic function of this devices. Every day we are showing some context on '''random''' pages (which is particularly similar with some actions in his life), or even his own medical condition. In devices PRA-LX1 we operate over 1year and we can (delete emails, send '''emails'''&lt;nowiki&gt; to random contacts, download and create any data we need for our task). We demand to cover additional cost. You have already done some damages to our cause. {{crossref|printworthy=y|For more details on parser &lt;/nowiki&gt;'''functions'''&lt;nowiki&gt; that relate to page names and namespaces, see: {{section link|meta:Help:Page name#Variables and parser. &lt;/nowiki&gt;

calls using named parameters).

* They can be [[WP:Transclusion|transcluded]], even variables &quot;about the current page&quot;. This is ensured by the parsing order.
* Instead of magically transforming into HTML instructions, {{tag|[[help:wikitext#Nowiki|nowiki]]|o}} tags remove this magic so a magic word can itself be displayed (documented)

=Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age=

==Introduction==
This chapter of [[An Internet of Everything?]] cores and discusses main concepts and ideas of the [[#Public Sphere Definition|Public]] and [[#Private Sphere Definition|Private]] Spheres in the [[#Digital Age Definition|Digital Age]]. The main question to ask is how far the usage of internet influences our private sphere and if individuals can still decide where the public sphere begins and where the private sphere ends. This change in private and public spheres is created by an evolution of the Internet and emergence of digital media which include specific [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|characteristics]]. An important effect of this evolution can be described as  [[#Uncoupling of Space and Time|uncoupling of space and time]] because of content from all over the world which is available at every time. The Internet as a hybrid medium creates and enhances [[#Publicity Online|publicity online]] and is driven by the process of impression management which appears in several forms, as discussed in [[#Narrative of the Self|Narrative of the Self]]. This chapter will although prove how far the activities in the internet can be describes as [[#Anonymity in the Private Sphere|anonymous]] as there are many arguments for an anonymous web but although many against it looking on [[#Hackers and Hacktivism|Hackers]] and  [[#Trolling|Trolling]]. As a consequence of the blurring of the private and public sphere online and the visibility [[#Privacy on digital media|privacy]] and [[#Security and Sphere Invasions|security as well as sphere invasion]] is becoming an issue.

This chapter also talks about [[#Online-activism by Citizens|Online-activism by Citizens]] which had an important impact on past event such as the [[#Arab Spring|Arab Spring]]. Therefore it will look on how [[#The Rise of Digital and Social Media in Political Activity|social media can be used in a political way]].

Finally, the concepts of public and privates sphere are discussed by several [[#Theorists|Theorists]] such as [[#Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]] who wrote about the ideal of a public sphere which would contain discussions in public to influence political decisions and [[#John Thompson|John Thompson]] who belongs to Habermas main critics saying that there is a new form of mediated publicness and [http://mfarchive.plymouthart.ac.uk/journalvol1/papers/hamid-van-koten.pdf Hamid van Koten] who talks about [http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/clc/414417 McLuhans] temperature scale.

== Disambiguation ==
Before presenting the main concepts of [[w:public sphere|public]] and [[w:private sphere|private spheres]] in the [[w:Information Age|digital age]], a [[w:Word-sense disambiguation|disambiguation]] of the title's three key terms shall give an overview and avoid misunderstandings.

=== Private Sphere Definition ===

In Greek philosophy,&lt;ref&gt;http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Public_sphere.aspx#3-1O88:pblcsphrvrssprvtsphrdstnc-full&lt;/ref&gt; the difference between private and public sphere was based on a public world of politics and a private world of family and economic relations. In modern sociology, the distinction is normally used in reference to a separation of home and employment. The private sphere has always been associated with the family or home. It serves to enforce a binary opposition between public and private spheres.

Additionally it is also associated with [[w:privacy rights|privacy rights]]. [[w:Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]] argued that it was through the private sphere where one can truly express themselves. The use of the private sphere by the individual is primarily a secure space where he or she can be alone – but not lonely, or isolated – and can present themselves however they want.

Furthermore, the private sphere is inclusive of the home, but as Raymond Williams&lt;ref&gt;Private Sphere, Papacharissi, Chapter 5&lt;/ref&gt; notes the term of [[w:mobile privatisation|&quot;mobile privatisation”]] society can now travel, and experience the world, through the comfort of their couch. Technology has made it easier to share our experiences, but it has made it difficult to keep them private as well.

The private sphere in digital media is were the individual can guarantee themselves a certain level of authority. This is why on most Social Network Sites (SNSs), they all contain a [[w:privacy|privacy]] option, to make the user feel more secure an din control of their online usage.

=== Public Sphere Definition ===

[[w:Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]] defined the public sphere as a “''virtual or imaginary community, which does not necessarily exist in any identifiable space. In its ideal form, the public sphere is &quot;made up of private people gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state''”

The idea of a public sphere was generated in the eighteenth century yet there is not doubt that it has a modern relevance and is essentially a way for civil society to articulate its interests. It has been argued that the internet has facilitated the phenomenon of the public sphere as it acts as a forum where public opinion is shaped. But what is the role of the public sphere in the cyber age?

The internet has made way for individuals to have direct access to a global forum where they are able to express their arguments and opinions without censorship. Moreover, we have seen that the emergence of the electronic mass media have radically changed the eighteenth century definition of the public sphere, and the idea is still very much alive in the network society today. Furthermore, even though the public sphere is alive and well recent technological advances mean it will never be the same again. Its future lies with digital media which is an exciting concept. Habermas' classical argument regarding the public sphere being inherently threatened by power structures is correct, as digital media platforms make way for individuals to feel empowered.

=== Digital Age Definition ===
{{Quote|text=&quot;Last time I checked, the digital universe was expanding at the rate of five trillion bits per second in storage and two trillion transistors per second on the processing side.&quot;}}
{{Quote|&quot;I don't know a single person who is not immersed in the digital universe. Even people who are strongly anti-technology are probably voicing that view on a Web site somewhere. Third-world villagers without electricity have cellphones.&quot;|| [[w:George Dyson|&lt;small&gt;George Dyson&lt;/small&gt;]]}}

After technological innovation such as the [[w:Steam engine|Steam engine]] firstly determined society during the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] in the 18th century, the second &quot;machine age&quot; started in the middle of the 20th century by the development [[w:computer|computers]] and their integration and networking. The resulting information and communication technology lead to information societies since the beginning of the third millennium - according to Lemke and Brenner this is the digital age.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot;&gt;Lemke, C., Brenner, W. (2015). '' Einführung in die Wirtschaftsinformatik, Band 1: Verstehen des digitalen Zeitalters'', pp. 11-51. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. Retrieved 03/08, 2016 from http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783662440643-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1486970-p176975505&lt;/ref&gt;

However, [[w:Thomas Friedman|Thomas Friedman]] describes the digital age as the [[w:Thomas Friedman#Globalization|''globalisation 3.0'']]: According to him the technological progress in the 18th century lead to globally acting countries, conquering the world politically and economically. Following till year 2000 ''globalisation 2.0'' let multinational company groups arise, reinforced by the ([[w:hardware|hardware]]) technological development. Finally the still lasting third globalisation allows every single person to act internationally and thereby shape and influence technological improvement; the world has shrunk to a ''flat platform''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Friedman 2006&quot;&gt;Friedman, T.L. (2008). ''Die Welt ist flach: Eine kurze Geschichte des 21. Jahrhunderts''. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp Verlag.&lt;/ref&gt;

Representative for the digital age, which is strongly connected with the [[w:information age|information age]], is, that information is mostly saved and transferred in a digital form. &quot;The multiple possibilities of [[w:Digitizing|digitalization]] and [[w:Computer network|networking]] of information, data and applications as well as the mobility and miniaturizing of infrastructure and hardware determine during the digital age developments in society as a whole and will decide about mechanisms of a globalized world, about social structures and about economic relationships in future.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot; /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{| style=&quot;align:center; text-align:center&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | '''Evolutionary stages of the digital age'''&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot; /&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: grey; color: white;
|| 1st stage
|| 2nd stage
|| 3rd stage
|| 4th stage
|-
| [[#first|Emergence and dispersal]]
| [[#second|General acceptance and daily mobile usage]]
| [[#third|General maturing and Internet of Things]]
| [[#fourth|Complete mergence of the real and digital networked world]]
|-
| 1990 - 2000
| 2000 - ca. 2015
| 2015 - ca. 2030
| 2030 - ?
|}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
The conceptional framework of the digital age can be traced down to [[w:Alan Turing|Alan Turing]] and [[w:Vanavar Bush|Vanavar Bush]]. The first one introduced the [[w:Turing machine|Turing Machine]], a model, that pictures the principles of a computer's operation in a very simple and mathematical analysable way. Vanvar Bush however predicted in his famous article [http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/303881/ &quot;As we may think&quot;] kinds of digital media invented after his publishing. He describes an imaginary so-called [[w:Memex|''memex'']] machine, with which each of us would operate from a ''desktop'' enabling us to store, access and share information with each other &lt;ref name=&quot;Bush 1945&quot;&gt;[http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/303881/] Bush, V. (1945). As We May Think. ''Atlantic Monthly''. Retrieved 02/28, 2016 from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/303881/&lt;/ref&gt; - the basis for i.e. [[w:personal computers|personal computers]], the [[w:internet|Internet]], [[w:hypertext|hypertext]] and the [[w:World Wide Web|world wide web]].

The development of [[w:Personal Computer|Personal Computers (PC)]], especially those affordable for the greater population, set the course for the digital age. The inventor of the first PC is disputed; after the a contest one agreed on John Blankenbaker’s [[w:Kenbak-1|Kenbak-1]] from 1970 as the first PC,&lt;ref name=&quot;CHM 2016&quot;&gt;[http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/personal-computers/17/297], Computer History Museum. (2016). ''Personal Computer''. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/personal-computers/17/297&lt;/ref&gt; but there are records of [[w:Edmund Berkeley|Edmund Berkeley]] presenting his [[w:Simon (computer)|Simon]] earlier in 1949. The Blinkenlights Archeological Institute gives a good [http://www.blinkenlights.com/pc.shtml overview] about the first introduced personal computers.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Turing machine.png|thumb|left|Operating concept of a Turing machine]]&lt;/div&gt;
{|class=wikitable
|-
|&lt;small&gt;Computers evolved primarily for military, scientific, government, and corporate users with substantial needs…and substantial budgets. They populated labs, universities, and big companies. Homes? Small businesses? Not so much.&lt;br&gt;Over time, however, costs dropped. Equally important, computers grew sophisticated enough to hide their complex, technical aspects behind a user-friendly interface. Individuals could now afford and understand computers, which dramatically changed everyday life.&lt;ref name=&quot;CHM 2016&quot; /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;
|}
&lt;div id=&quot;first&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
Starting from this point Lemke and Brenner's evolutionary ladder describe and predict past, current and future changes in digital age. The networking of computers is the focus of the first phase. The invention of the Internet followed by its [[w:user interface|user interface]], [[w:Tim Berners-Lee|Berners-Lee]] [[w:World Wide Web|World Wide Web]], for the first time enabled a non-scientific use and (distant) access to online and computational resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lemke 2015&quot; /&gt; The first website ever was republished a couple years ago and is still accessible [http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html here].&lt;ref name=&quot;Cern 2014&quot;&gt;[http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html], Cern. (2014). ''World Wide Web''. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html&lt;/ref&gt; A more detailed introduction to the characteristics of the Internet and the WWW can be found [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|further below]].

Important for the digital Age is that information is handled as a resource and good, commonly managed, networked and accessible through the new media and finally changing societies into knowledge-based and information infrastructures. Accordingly Rheingold states:

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Internet of Things.svg|thumb|right|Technological Roadmap: Internet of Things]]&lt;/div&gt;
{|class=wikitable
|-
|&lt;small&gt;The most successful recent example of an artificial public good is the Internet. [...] The internet is both the result of and the enabling infrastructure for new ways of organising and collective action via communication technology. This new social contract enables the creation and maintenance of public goods, a commons for knowledge resources. &lt;br /&gt;The personal computer and the Internet would not exist as they do today without extraordinary collaborative enterprises in which acts of cooperation were as essential as microprocessors.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rheingold 2002&quot;&gt;Rheingold, H. (2002).  Technologies of Cooperation. ''Smart mobs : the next social revolution''. Cambrige, MA: Basic Books.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/small&gt;
|}

&lt;div id=&quot;second&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
It were changes like this and the constant craving for innovation such as the invention of the smartphone, that has deeply embedded mobile and online networking in our society and even led to an always-on culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot; /&gt; &lt;div id=&quot;third&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; Finally the concept of the [[w:Internet of Things|Internet of Things]] slowly replaces personal computers trough ''intelligent items'' that should support one's activities unconsciously.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vermesan 2013&quot;&gt;Vermesan, O., Friess, P. (2013). ''Internet of Things: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems''. Aalborg: River Publishers. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;div id=&quot;fourth&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; In combination with advances in [[w:Virtual reality|virtual reality]] technologies the fourth evolutionary stage predicted by Lemke and Brenner is heralded. The question left open is how the digital age will change in future and when will it end in order to give space to a new era?

== Characteristics of Digital Media ==
In order to exemplify what influence '''digital media''' has on [[w:private sphere|private]] and [[w:public sphere|public]] spheres, the characteristics of this media type have to be determined first, specifically how it differs from [[w:Old media|traditional media types]] like [[w:print media|print medias]] (i.e. newspapers, magazines, printed books) or [[w:analog signal|analogue]] medias (i.e. film and audio tapes, radio, television). As this book focuses on the '''Internet''', there will also be a closer look to the characteristics of this specific medium.

As [[w:Digital media|digital media]] all media types are counted which are based on digital information and communication technology (i.e. the Internet) as well as technical devices for 
*[[w:digitalization|digitalization]]
*[[w:Digital recording|recording]]
*processing and calculation
*retention/[[w:Data storage device|storage]]
*presentation and
*distribution
of digital content and final products such as digital arts or music.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kossek 2012&quot;&gt;Kossek, B., Peschl, M.F. (2012). ''Digital Turn?''. Vienna: V&amp;R unipress GmbH.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;floatleft&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; boader=&quot;no&quot; |'''Examples for digital media'''
|-style=&quot;background: grey; color: white;&quot;
| Type || Examples
|-
| Storage Medium &amp;nbsp;
| CD, DVD, Disk, USB Stick, FlashCard
|-
| Devices
| 
*Keyboard, Camera, Microphone
*MP3-Player, PC, Navigation System &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Networking
| Internet, Mobile Network, Social Media
|-
|  ||  ||
|}


One can also say: &quot;Digital media is the product of digital data processed electronically, stored as a file, and transmitted within computer systems and across networks.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Tasstudent.com&quot;&gt;Tasstudent.com (n.d.) ''Purpose and Characteristics of Digital Media.'' Retrieved: 03/02, 2016, from http://www.tasstudent.com/characteristics-of-digital-media/&lt;/ref&gt;
 
Digital information is coded in a binary system using the only signs off='''0''' and on='''1'''. Digital information of all different kinds can be presented through the application of this arithmetic and can be copied perfectly as many times as wanted with no degradation of quality. But therefore firstly a digitising devices is necessary to convert [[w:Analog signal|analogue signals]] into [[w:Digital signal|digital data]] &lt;ref name=&quot;Tasstudent.com&quot; /&gt; and as well as device for reception and manipulation afterwards.

Although often used as a synonym for Internet, the World Wide Web is only the Internet's [[w:User interface|user interface]] established by [[w: Tim Berners-Lee|Tim Berners-Lee]]. Berners-Lee determined, that each website in the network is assigned to and accessible through a unique address, the [[w:Uniform Resource Locator|Uniform Resource Locator]] (URL). Content then could be connected through cross references, the [[w:Hyperlink|hyperlinks]], which contains the URL.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot;&gt;Bleicher, J.-K.(2010). ''Internet''. Konstanz: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Berners-Lee 1999&quot;&gt;Berners-Lee, T. (1999). ''Der Web-Report. Der Schöpfer des World Wide Webs über das grenzenlose Potential des Internets''. München: Econ.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Motivation for creating the World Wide Web.webm|thumb|right|Development and concepts of the World Wide Web]]&lt;/div&gt;
This non-linear so-called [[w:hypertext|hypertext]] structure enhances the interactivity over the Internet, thereby being primarily a pull medium with content, which can be accessed time - and place – independently as well as self-determined. Generally, this approach is available on every part of the Internet, but [[w:Web search engine|search engines]] can help users selecting it. This differs from traditional media such as the [[w:television|television]], which follows a time-dependent programme &lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; and is only receivable in the reach of the broadcasting frequencies.

Nowadays the Internet connects people all over the world on a communicative but also interpersonal level. Via offers like [[w:Instant messaging|instant messaging]], [[w:Social media|social media]], [[w:email|email]] or [[w:blog|webblogs]], people can communicate one-to-one, one-to-many or many-to-many,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; meaning varying between [[w:interpersonal communication|interpersonal communication]] and [[w:mass communication|mass communication]]. Additionally, communication on the Internet is reciprocal and interactive; sender and receiver can exchange roles without time delay. And basically everyone with [[w:internet access|Internet access]] can present their own content (even [[w:Anonymity|anonymously]]), known as [[w:User-generated content|user-generated content]]. In contrast, the press and broadcasting are institutionally organized; interactions are therefore media initiated (i.e. via letters to the editor) and the reactions of the audience is time delayed.

[[w:Marshall McLuhan|McLuhan’s]] theory says, that the new media contain the old ones &lt;ref name=&quot;McLuhan 1994&quot;&gt;McLuhan, M. (1994). ''Die magischen Kanäle''. Dresden/ Basel: Verlag der Kunst.&lt;/ref&gt; and no medium does this more obviously than the Internet: Countless crossmedial offers like [[w:Web television|web TV]], [[w:Video on demand|video-on-demand]] or [[w:Online newspaper|online newspaper]] are mostly just digitalised offers of the traditional medias. The digital content form on the Internet asks for technical aids for the reception (Computers, mobile final products) &lt;ref name=&quot;Hickethier 2003&quot;&gt;Hickethier, K. (2003). ''Einführung in die Medienwissenschaft''. Stuttgart/ Weimar: Verlag J.B. Metzler.&lt;/ref&gt; but it also holds a higher reproducibility and possibility of saving.

=== Uncoupling of Space and Time ===
{| class= &quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; font-size:90%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;| '''Space and Presence between Analog and Digital Media'''&lt;ref name=&quot;analog&quot;&gt;[http://www.media-ecology.org/publications/MEA_proceedings/v12/8_time.pdf] Kweon,S. et al. Time and Space Perception on Media Platforms in ''Proceedings of the Media Ecology Association'', Vol. 12, 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: grey; color: white;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|Analog 
|Digital
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Media Space
|Type of Time Space
|
* Space biased 
* Synchronous
* One point to multipoint
* One way
|
* Spatiotemporal biased 
* Asynchronous
* Multipoint to multipoint
* Interactivity
|-
|Relationship in Space
|
* Sender orientation
* World society
|
* Communicator orientation
* Network
|-
|Mode of Presence
| Presence Method
|
* Atom
* Electronics
* Linear
* Sound &amp; Image
|
* Bit
* Wire, wireless, hybrid
* Non-linear
* Convergent
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Society 
|
* Modern 
* Construct 
* State oriented
* Simulation 
|
* Post-modern
* De-construct
* Post-state
* Cybernetics
|}

Firstly introduced by Thompson,&lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot;&gt;Thompson, J. B. (1995). ''The media and modernity: A social theory of the media. Cambridge: Polity.''&lt;/ref&gt; this term is used to indicate new [[w:Convergent Technologies|convergent technologies’]] ability to bend the [[w:Spacetime|space-time continuum]]. In its most specific forms, it signifies the ability for media users and produced information not to be constrained by geographical and temporal boundaries. While this is not a new event in the history of technologies, the development of Internet-based media has certainly accelerated and further separated this two concepts from each other. Indeed, while in nature the where is inextricably linked to the when, the modern era has firstly disrupted some of this limitation:&lt;ref name=&quot;Giddens 1990&quot;&gt;Giddens, A. (1990). ''The consequences of modernity.'' Cambridge: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt; TV broadcasts, telegraphs, telephones and radios first permitted to spread a message to further 'where' and not necessarily at the same 'when', with pre-recorded programs and advertisements but the medium itself had to have a fixed and public 'where' such as a broadcasting station.

Notably, it's only in the new digital world that the perception and cognition of time and space as two tied notions has been allowed complete separation, while also changing the experience that we have of them in our social and everyday life. In fact, transformation of these two concepts is fundamental to understanding the interrelation of a public and a private sphere, both among humans interactions and the way we make sense of the world for ourselves through news outlets and information acquisitions.

For instance, we no longer need to be physically present to a [[w:Public space|public place]] to attend an event but we can do so from our own private and personal sphere, which is geographically restricted to i.e. our home or office. We can also attend simultaneous events through access to Internet [[w:Livestream|livestreams]], with always more websites providing this service even in a non-[[w:Pay-per-view|pay-per-view]] format, such as [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC4R8DWoMoI7CAwX8_LjQHig YouTube #Live].

Likewise, we can get public information and news from all over the world in real time without accessing [[w:Mainstream media|mainstream media]] institutions but relying on people who themselves are geographically based there. At the same time, we can too invite the public into our private sphere and entertain quasi-face-to-face interactions within our sphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot;&gt;Papacharissi, Z. A., (2013). Private Sphere: Democracy in ''A Digital Age''. Cambridge, Malden, MA: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

Similarly, the digital age also makes us less bound by time. Events that formerly required our physical presence at ''a certain time'', can nowadays be recorded and as [[w:Digital data|digital information]], which is easily copied and distributed, and can be watched delayed and multiple times.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; Accordingly, whenever people invite others into their private sphere, it is not necessary that all parties are present at the same time, but messages and information can be stored by digital media&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; and accessed with a time shift.  Consequently publicity through digital media does neither need the physical nor the simultaneous presence of all parties.

However, even on media with time-invariant programmes, such as television, broadcasting services can send small filming teams to live events and then air the programme time-delayed and repeatedly (see [[w:Broadcast delay|broadcast delay]]). This is enhanced through digital recording possibilities, which are nowadays accessible for private customers as well, and the possibility to reproduce and upload digital information without degraded quality to a wide spectrum of digital broadcasting platforms. For instance, the app [https://www.periscope.tv/ Periscope] allows private users to broadcast to their followers anywhere in the world whichever event, protest, scene that is happing near them. The broadcast is also recorded and can be seen from anyone who looks up its title for up to 24h. Commenting on it, the creators explicitly said that they wanted to build the closest thing to tele-transportation. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2015/12/010/what-is-twitters-new-periscope-app/]

Therefore, whichever the message, senders both institutional or private, can get into the public sphere and target their public audience more precisely: 
#They are less time-bound even on traditional media platforms. 
#They can choose the right time and right media platform either convenient for them or for the audience. 
#They reach a high coverage through greater [[w:Advertising media selection#Frequency|OTS]].

Concluding, the way these two spheres, the public and private, whose interconnection has characterised our lives for centuries, bear now a new appearance thanks to the disruption between temporal and spatial constraints.

=== Mobile Privatization ===
[[w:mobile privatisation|Mobile Privatization]] describes the connection between an individual and a mobile device that connects it to his private environment and creates a feeling of a 'comfortable zone' within the usage of that device. The term mobile can be seen as a non-geographical setting of privatization as people can transfer their home, which is originally seen as a building with four walls in each room, to every place that is connected to the internet.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Lee Myung-Bak and Ji So-Yun.jpg|thumb|Former South Korean President Lee Myung-Bak and footballer Ji So Yun]]&lt;/div&gt;
[[w:Zizi Papacharissi|Zizi Papacharissi]] describes in his book &lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; that 'within this private sphere, the citizen is alone, but not lonely or isolated. The citizen is connected, and operates in a mode and with political language determined by him or her.'
This act of privatization can take place everywhere the individual uses the device with a private reason. This can be a phone-call or even a photo which is being shared on Facebook.

Sharing and filming plays an important role in the current ongoing privatization of public places. A reason for that might be the 'uncoupling of space of time' argues [[w:John Thompson (sociologist)|John Thompson]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot; /&gt;
Content can be watched everywhere and everytime so that people don't need to meet anymore to know what the other is doing.
[[w:Raymond Williams|Raymond Williams]] describes the term of mobile privatization as 'the ability media offer audiences to simultaneously stay home and travel places'.

This movement started with [[w:Selfie|Selfies]] when people took photos of themselves in order to share it with their friends. This conflict between of private photos made public using a device that can connect to the [[w:world wide web|World Wide Web]].
The next developments are [[w:Video blog|Vlogs]] in which people start documenting their lives using a camera and upload their videos to a public sphere such as YouTube. This form of mobile privatization can be seen critical as people can decide which parts of their private life can be seen online but on the other hand they have no control of who can see these videos.

Castells &lt;ref name=&quot;Castells&quot;&gt;Castells, Fernandez-Ardevol, Linchuan Chiu &amp; Sey 2006&lt;/ref&gt; explains that 'The mobility of this private sphere further permits that everyday routines be interlaced in ways that render the individual reachable anywhere and anytime, in a way that may &quot;revolutionalize&quot; control of everyday life'.

Therefore mobile privatization can be a fitting description for an ongoing movement in the society but although a threat of losing control about our everyday life.

=== Digital Photography and Picture Sharing ===

With the advent of [[w:Digital photography|digital photography]], public and private spheres are becoming interchangeable and what used to be intimate and private is becoming public. For instance, as [[w:Smartphone|smartphones]] are becoming accessible to anyone, people can take pictures or video wherever they are, thus breaking the boundaries of other people’s privacy. People can take photos of strangers or of themselves and then show these pictures on websites like [[w:Flickr|Flickr]] or [[w:Deviantart|Deviantart]], making them available to strangers. As this kind of practice is becoming very popular, the concern about privacy issues related to it has attracted media attention.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lasen 2009&quot;&gt;[http://www.academia.edu/446728/Digital_Photography_and_Picture_Sharing_Redefining_the_Public_Private_Divide] Lasén, A., &amp; Gómez-Cruz, E. (2009). ''Digital Photography and Picture Sharing: Redefining the Public/Private Divide''. Knowledge, Technology &amp; Policy, 22(3), 205-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12130-009-9086-8&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Kamako native taking pictures at ASG arrival (7175918542).jpg|thumb|left]] &lt;/div&gt;

Despite there is not a general [[w:Photography and the law|law]] that forbids people from taking pictures of people in public and subsequently publish them (unless the person photographed is identifiable), people involved in this practice against their will might feel like their privacy (or private sphere) has been invaded.&lt;ref name=&quot;Otago 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.otago.ac.nz/law/research/journals/otago036267.pdf] Knewstubb, E. (2007). ''Photography in Public Places and the Privacy of the Individual (Bachelor of Laws (Honours)''. University of Otago.&lt;/ref&gt;
From a research carried out by Edgar Gomez on Flickr, we can clearly see how taking pictures of a stranger without a consent from that person might generate conflicts. The girl whose photo was taken without her knowing it, in fact, got upset when she found out that Flickr users had started a forum conversion with two photos of her with the title: &quot;''Someone Knows Her?''&quot;.[https://www.flickr.com/groups/49503016789@N01/discuss/72157600082355441/#comment72157602203711401] From her point of view they were breaking her privacy even though she was in a public space when the photo was taken. This is also a relevant point regarding social media and pictures being posted without the consent of the person actually in them.

According to [[w:Alan Westin|Alan Westin]], when people are in a public place, they are still seeking for '''anonymity''' and they try to find freedom from identification and [[w:Surveillance|surveillance]].&lt;ref&gt;Westin, A. (1967). ''Privacy and freedom''. New York: Atheneum.&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore being in a public space does not mean that everything we do is public, on the contrary, we still expect some privacy and we do not think that we will become the focus of attention or that someone will record us and publish picture of us on the web.&lt;ref name=&quot;Otago 2007&quot;/&gt; However, the users of the internet, used to the big amount of self-portraits and to the related disclosing facilitated by new technologies, apps and social networks, do not find sharing their private lives with strangers a problem,&lt;ref name=&quot;Lasen 2009&quot;/&gt; hence they feel free to break into other people’s lives.

One popular social network recently created has been [[w:Snapchat|Snapchat]]. It is an application on smartphones where people can take [[w:selfie|&quot;selfies&quot;]] and videos of anything they wanted. On some levels, Snapchat could be considered private. Videos and photos can’t last more than 10 seconds, and after that the video or photo disappears. However in those 10 seconds, the recipients of the Snapchats can quickly take a screenshot and thus invading someone’s trust and privacy.

When Snapchat was first created, it had no option to reply anything people sent to another. As it grew and developed so did its options, and the medium evolved and a reply function was added. This therefore can allow any one to repeat a Snapchat as many times as it wants. Thus losing its purpose of the original idea of the app. Furthermore, Snapchat can be seen as one of the most private social networks due to the fact that others may only follow you on it if you give them your unique username. It is far harder to be found on Snapchat than it is on more public sites such as Facebook, thus meaning that the limited audience on Snapchat is something that you create yourself.

Different from [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] where anyone can find yourself with just your first and last name. With digital media it is very difficult to find a site that is completely private. Snapchat can be seen as more private than others because it’s most likely that only your closest peers will have access to your Snapchat, so only a handful of people have access to the videos and photos posted. However, under the [[w:Terms and Conditions|&quot;Terms and Conditions&quot;]] of Snapchat it has been noted that Snapchat can keep anything posted, and use it.

=== User-generated Content ===
User-generated content (UGC) (also known as user-created content or user-driven content) comprise all digital content that is created, edited and published by the users of websites instead of the website´s publisher. This includes &quot;any form of content such as blogs, wikis, discussion, forums, posts, chats, tweets, podcasts, digital images, video, audio files, advertisements and other forms of media that was created by users […]&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2014&quot;&gt;Chua, T.; Juanzi, L.; Moens, M. (2014). Mining user generated content. Chapman and Hall/CRC. p. 7. {{ISBN|9781466557406}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Right before the internet was mainstreamed the content was pre-selected and edited by publishers of the mass media and their recipients only consumed the content in a one-sided, passive way.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsner 2012&quot;&gt;Elsner, M.(2012). Essay I: Spreading the Word – Assessing the Factors that Determine the Popularity of User-generated Content”, In ''Marketing im globalen Wettbewerb'' - Marketing &amp; Global Competition, Volume 2 : Information Propagation on the Web 2.0 : Two Essays on the Propagation of User-Generated Content and How It Is Affected by Social Networks, p. 21. Peter Lang AG, Frankfurt. ProQuest ebrary., Web. 9 March 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; 
But the fast diffusion of the Internet in the early 21 century and der rise of Web 2.0 driven technologies &lt;ref name=&quot;Elsner 2012&quot; /&gt; have mainly enabled the development of the web to a “participative web“.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.oecd.org/sti/38393115.pdf] Chua, T.; Juanzi, L.; Moens, M. (2007) OECD (2007). PARTICIPATIVE WEB: USER GENERATED CONTENT. DSTI/ICCP/IE(2006)7/FINAL. p. 8.&lt;/ref&gt; As part of this fundamental change towards user-driven technologies, the phenomenon of user-generated contents occurs and leads to a shift or new trend concerning the supplier of content online. In the early years of the internet, the majority of the content was coordinated and created by paid and professional administrators of websites. Due to this, the usage of the internet was limited to a passive use of the existing content. This form of one-sided publishing is still relevant and is applicable to a majority of the content that is provided online. Emphasised through the emergence of social networks and further user-driven platforms in 2005&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2014&quot; /&gt; the user-generated content phenomenon was pushed with the effect that the content is merely “pulled“ by users rather than “pushed” on them.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsner 2012&quot; /&gt; Nowadays internet users produce and share content at a high rate and do not merely consume it as several surveys reveal. “&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt;

The [http://www.oecd.org/ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)] has defined central characteristics that outline three criteria that user-generated content needs to fulfil:&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt;
# '''publication requirements''' state that the work must be published in some context on a publicly accessible website or a one that is only accessible to a selected group (e.g. social media sites) 
# '''creative effort''' implies that that users must add their own creative effort and value by creating content. This also includes if users are adapting existing content to make it a new one as a kind of collaborative work 
# '''Creation outside of professional routines and practices''' emphasis that work should not content any institutional or commercial market context


There are different formats of user-generated content that can be divided into four categories:&lt;ref name=&quot;Bauer 2011&quot;&gt;Christian A. (2011). User Generated Content – Urheberrechtliche Zulässigkeit nutzergenerierter Medieninhalte. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 6-8&lt;/ref&gt; texts, photo and images, audio and music as well as video and film. The most common format of user-generated content is the text type. Thereby the users create original texts, poems, novels, quizzes or jokes or just expanding the existing work and share this with the community. Most of the content are published on blogs, social networks or on websites as a kind of review. In this case, the phenomenon of [[w:Fan fiction|fan fiction]] is important. Further increasingly important types are user-created photos and images. Most of them are taken with digital cameras or smartphones and shared on platforms like [http://instagram.com Instagram], [http://snapchat.com snapchat], [http://pinterest.com Pinterest], [http://flickr.com Flickr] or [http://facebook.com Facebook].&lt;ref name=&quot;Cooper 2012&quot;&gt;[http://qubemedia.net/social-media/rise-photographs-social-media/] Cooper, N.. (2012). The growing importance of digital photo sharing to brand&lt;/ref&gt; Those uploads are maybe manipulated with several photo editing software. Self-created music, mash-ups or remixes of existing songs to a single track as well as podcasts belong to user-generated audio and music content. Besides of photos user also produce or edit video and film content. User provide homemade video content, remixes of pre-existing works or combine those two forms. The most important hosting platforms in Europe are Blip.tv, VideoEgg, Dailymotion, YouTube, Veoh and Google Video.&lt;ref name=&quot;Harvey 2006&quot;&gt;[http://www.lightreading.com/cable-video/video-services/top-ten-video-sharing-websites/d/d-id/630759] Harvey, P. (2006). Top Ten Video Sharing Websites. Retrieved from&lt;/ref&gt;

The distribution of user-generated content takes place on many different platforms and serve different purposes. The following chart shows a selection of distribution platforms for user-generated content and their characteristics.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kolbitsch, Maurer 2006&quot;&gt;Kolbitsch, J.&amp; Maurer, H (2006). The Transformation of the Web: How Emerging Communities Shape the Information we Consume in ''Journal of Universal Computer Science'', Vol. 12, No. 2 (2006), pp. 187-213.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;left; margin-right: 10px;&quot;
! Platform
! Description of the user-generated content
! Examples
|-
| Blogs
| Blogs contain newsgroup-like articles that were updated at frequent intervals. Postings consist text, photos, audio, video, or a combination. Blogs resemble a cross between diaries, newspaper editorials, and hotlists where owners write down information important to them
| [http://blogger.com Blogger], [http://tumblr.com Tumblr], [http://WordPress.com WordPress], [http://nucleuscms.org/ Nucleus CMS], [http://movabletype.com Movable Type]
|-
| Wikis and other collaboration formats (text)
| Websites where user add, remove, or otherwise edit and change content collectively 
| [http://Wikipedia.com Wikipedia], [http://Wikibooks.com Wikibooks], [http://PBWiki.com PBWiki], [http://JotSpot.com JotSpot], [http://SocialText.com SocialText], [http://Writely.com Writely]
|-
| Forums 
| Platform where people talk about different topics
| [http://2channel.com 2channel], [http://Yahoo!_groups.com Yahoo! Groups], [http://phpBB.com phpBB]
|-
| Group-based aggregation
| Collecting links of online content and rating or tagging collaboratively
| [http://digg.com Digg], [http://reddit.com reddit], [http://buzzfeed.com BuzzFeed]
|-
| Podcasting and video sharing
| 
*Distribution of a multimedia file over the Internet using syndication feeds, for playback on mobile devices or personal computers
*Posting and sharing of self-made or remixed video clips
|
*[http://iTunes.com iTunes], [http://feedbruner.com FeedBruner], [http://ipodderx.com iPodderX], [http://winamp.com WinAmp],
*[http://YouTube.com YouTube], [http://vimeo.com vimeo]
|-
| Social network sites
| Sites allowing the creation of personal profiles and where users interact with other people in terms of chatting, writing messages, or posting images or links
| [http://Facebook.com Facebook], [http://Twitter.com Twitter], [http://Instagram.com Instagram], [http://vk.com VK], [http://snapchat.com snapchat]
|-
|}

The user creation movement, in addition, influences the way how [[An Internet of Everything?/Access to Knowledge and Data in Everyday Life#User-Generated Content in Professional Media|traditional mass media work]] and emerges new forms of participatory journalism.&lt;ref name=&quot;McNair, B.; Heinrich, A.; Volkmer, I; Firdaus, A.; Graham, T 2013&quot;&gt;McNair, B.; Heinrich, A.; Volkmer, I; Firdaus, A.; Graham, T. (2013). “Part 2: Participatory forms of Journalism”, In Peters, C.; Broersma, M. (eds.) Rethinking Journalism, pp. 73-128. Routledge, Oxon. {{ISBN|978-0-203-10268-8}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Despite its originally non-commercial context, user-created content has already changed to be an important economic phenomenon, too.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chua, Juanzi, Moens 2007&quot; /&gt; Companies try to develop and establish successful business models based on UGC, like the video-sharing website YouTube. In cooperation with really successful YouTube stars, they connect the user-generated videos with advertisements and generates more than $200 million ad dollar per year. 
 
==== Ownership of User-Generated Content ====
One of the issues with the internet is the ability of people being able to take content such as literary work, art, music or videos and upload or repost it without the artist's credit. The internet also gives them the opportunity to take credit for these works. [[w:Copyright|Copyright laws]] state that this is in fact, illegal, for 'the author of any work is the first owner'.&lt;ref&gt;Copyright, designs and patterns act 1988&lt;/ref&gt; This includes work that is posted online.&lt;ref&gt;Stokes, 2014&lt;/ref&gt; However, despite these laws the internet has made it extremely easy to bypass these regulations. There are thousands of instances where artists online, such as photographers, have to put watermarks on their images, lower the resolution and size or confront art thieves in order to protect their work. There are [http://www.artpromotivate.com/2012/02/online-art-theft-what-to-do-about-it.html websites] which tell artists that they have the right to start a lawsuit, however, this is often an expensive and long process and may not always be a feasible solution. It is difficult to locate thieves of small, online-artists and writers and file law-suits against them. That could mean tracking them down via an IP address which could come from anywhere in the world, followed by high costs in lawsuits. The internet has therefore made it increasingly difficult to legitimize the credits that certain creators deserve, regardless of the copyright laws.

However, it is more difficult than just having art stolen, for the lines of copyright are very blurred when it comes to things such as parodied videos, images from television shows that have been altered, fanart and other [[w:fan labor|fan labor]]. In fact, people have profited off of the art and literary work they have produced inspired or including ideas from books, TV-shows and films, such as [[w:Fity Shades of Grey|Fifty Shades of Grey]]. Certain fan-art forms are seen as theft, such as taking clips from a TV-show.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lothian, 2009&quot;&gt;Lothian, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Creative commons licenses can offer some leeway in these situations, but that is not always the case. Here it becomes difficult to decide what counts as theft and what counts as artistic expression. On the one hand, the original content of such an art form is not made by the user itself, but because they transform the art and create a new kind of art, new user-generated content has been created. There are organizations that support the idea that these transformed artworks are indeed legitimate content that should be credited to the user.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lothian, 2009&quot;/&gt; However, the debate remains difficult to whom the art truly belongs to; the original artist, or the user who altered it.

== Narrative of the Self ==

=== Dramaturgical Representation of the Self, Ancient Greek Theatre Notion of Persona ===

The word [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/persona#Latin persōna] is the [[w:Latin|Latin]] equivalent of the [[w:Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] word [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/πρόσωπον πρόσωπον]([[w:Prosopon|Prosopon]]). The Greek word itself is composed by the preposition pros- which stands for ‘towards’ and the word ops- which usually is translated with the words hole or eye. Hence, Prosopon can be translate as face (that which is before our eyes), front, character and appearance but it can also mean [[w:Mask|mask]], [[w:Personality|personality]]. &lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Mask youngster Louvre S3044.jpg|thumb|right|Theatre Mask Representing A Young Man. Louvre Museum.]] &lt;/div&gt;

Even though the etymological tie between these two words is conjectural, the modern conception of persona still relies on its original Greek meaning.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sasso 2001&quot;&gt;Sassi, M. (2001). The science of man in ancient Greece. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.&lt;/ref&gt; In fact, when we talk about the concept of [[w:Persona|Persona]], we usually link its meaning back to the [[w:Theatre of ancient Greece|Theatre of ancient Greece]] and to the notion of mask. In the Classical Greek period, the word Prosopon was used to mean both the mask that actors wore in order to play different characters on the stage and the human face.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vovolis 2009&quot;&gt;[http://www.academia.edu/1086294/Prosopon.The_Acoustical_Mask_in_Greek_Tragedy_and_in_Contemporary_Theatre]
Vovolis, T. Prosopon.The Acoustical Mask in Greek Tragedy and in Contemporary Theatre. Academia.edu. Retrieved 9 March 2016, from http://www.academia.edu/1086294/Prosopon.The_Acoustical_Mask_in_Greek_Tragedy_and_in_Contemporary_Theatre&lt;/ref&gt;

The mask’s function was to depict the main characteristics of specific characters so that the [[w:Audience|audience]] could understand the characters’ role.&lt;ref&gt;Kostera, M. (2012). Organizations and archetypes. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.&lt;/ref&gt; In an open-air theatre, like the [[w:Theatre of Dionysus|Theatre of Dionysus]], the very intense, extroverted expressions of the masks with wide-open mouths were able to bring the characters’ face closer to the spectators, thanks to their features.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vovolis,Zamboulakis 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html] Vovolis, T., &amp; Zamboulakis, G. (2007). The Acoustical Mask of Greek Tragedy. Didaskalia, 7(1). Retrieved from http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, the shape of the mask itself formed a resonance chamber which not only allowed the audience members in the distant seats to hear the characters better, but also created a connection between the character and the theatre. Furthermore, it lead the human body behind the mask to a metamorphosis, hence the human face became the mask.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vovolis,Zamboulakis 2007&quot;/&gt;

During the theatrical [[w:Performance|performance]], the actor had to vanish into the role of the character. The actor had to become the character in order to establish a particular kind of [[w:Social relation|interaction]] with the public. Starting from this concept of theatrical performance, [[w:Erving Goffman|Erving Goffman]] compared the way people construct their own identity in everyday life with the way actors perform characters.

In ''[[w:The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life|The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life]]'', Goffman employs a [[w:Dramaturgy (sociology)|dramaturgical]] approach in his studies about human interaction. Interaction is viewed as a performance and it depends on time, place and audience; human beings therefore act accordingly to some cultural beliefs depending on their environment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barnhart 2003&quot;&gt;[http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/Presentation%20of%20Self.htm] Barnhart, A. (2003). Erving Goffman. Web.pdx.edu.&lt;/ref&gt;

One of Goffman’s key concepts is the distinction between private and public, which are represented by the '''back region''' and the '''front region'''. The back region can be considered as a private or hidden space where individuals can be themselves and where they do not need to act in a certain way or conform to social norms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ritzer 1992&quot;&gt;Ritzer, G. (1992). Sociological theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/ref&gt; Whereas the front region corresponds to a public space where people have to perform a specific identity and where performers are on guard, careful not to give the wrong impression to the audience.&lt;ref name=&quot;Aspling 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:431462/FULLTEXT01.pdf] Aspling, F. (2011). The private and the public in online presentations of the self A critical development of Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective (1st ed.). Stockholm. Retrieved from http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:431462/FULLTEXT01.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

In the Digital Age, it is not only physical spaces, such as a classroom or the stage of a theatre, that fall into this category, but also social networks and online communication. The way human beings perform their identity online is not too different from the way they perform the self in real life situations. In fact, nowadays, people can influence the impressions others have of them in many different ways online. For instance, individuals can decide not to share some information like their age or location on their [[w:Social networking service|Social Network]]; can set their privacy settings so that different people will only see certain things on their social media accounts; and can manipulate their pictures so that others will have a specific opinion of them and view them in a certain way. This [[w:Consciousness|conscious]] or [[w:Subconscious|subconscious]] process was already present in face-to-face interactions and it is known as [[w:Impression management|Impression Management]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Aspling 2011&quot;/&gt;

Goffman coined this term, which can also be associated with the concept of self-presentation. According to him, impression management is about “successfully staging a character”. In order to create a perfect theatrical character, actors “must subscribe to a variety of concerns to foster a desired impression before their audience”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Grove and Fisk 1992&quot;&gt;[http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/7341/volumes/v19/NA-19] Grove, S., &amp; Fisk, R. (1992). The Service Experience As Theater. Advances In Consumer Research, 19, 455-461. Retrieved from http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/7341/volumes/v19/NA-19&lt;/ref&gt; Goffman adopted the term '''Personal Front''' in order to describe one of these concerns, which consists of items needed to perform, items “that we most intimately identify with the performer himself and that we naturally expect will follow the performer wherever he goes”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Goffman 1959&quot;&gt;Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.&lt;/ref&gt;
Presumably, Goffman had in mind the Theatre of ancient Greece,&lt;ref name=&quot;D'hondt, Östman,Verschueren 2009&quot;&gt;D'hondt, S., Östman, J., &amp; Verschueren, J. (2009). The pragmatics of interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.&lt;/ref&gt; as the performance he described recalls the performance typical of the ancient Greek Drama where the use of the mask was crucial in order to stage and become a character.

=== Different Personas for Different Audiences: Jungian Conception of Mask ===

With all the advantages that social media and other forms of online communication offer us, there also comes a certain pressure to 'perform' online; to present a version of yourself to the internet and subsequently the public. This is something psychologist [[w: Carl Jung|Carl Jung]] defined as a [[w:Persona (psychology)|persona]], or a 'mask', that is explored in [[w: Two Essays on Analytical Psychology|Two Essays on Analytical Psychology]].

Indeed, Jung identified the persona as the mean through which the individual establishes a relationships between himself and the outside world. However, it constitutes a partial way of connection because it does not have to necessarily match a person's self and [[w: ego|ego]]. This is the reason it is often referred to as a mask: although it retains properties of the person who wears it, is mainly functional in relation to the social role that it is meant to entertain. According to Jung, is perfectly normal from a psychological point of view to have a persona and it is indeed fundamental for the development of the individual and the society which he is part of. In fact, it represents a compromise between the high demands that sophisticated social relationships require and what the person wishes they would be or they wish they could appear to be. Therefore, it is a system of behaviour that is partially dictated by society and partially dictated by the expectations and wishes of oneself regarding oneself.&lt;ref name=&quot;partially&quot;&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyi7THb2Wvs] Jung on Persona&lt;/ref&gt;
It is easy to see why the notion of masquerading fits so well with the performance individuals stage online, all playing different roles at once.

Human beings are complex, meaning no one form of social media allows us to express every persona or element of our personality that we can exhibit in real life. The invisible and often anonymous nature of online communication means that people can present any persona of their choosing and this can be liberating for some. Theorist Adrian Athique's arguments tie into those of Jung. Athique comments in his book [http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0745662285.html Digital Media and Society: An Introduction] that the &quot;social norms guiding group interaction had the potential to break down online, primarily due to the loss of visual cues that defined the social hierarchy.&quot; 
This is a noteworthy argument. For many, there is nothing holding people back online. People who are perhaps introverted and anxious in public and social interactions can find a sense of freedom online, a chance to put on the 'mask' that they are not able to do in real life and say things on the internet that they feel they can't in person.

Jung sees the persona as a real and honest way to both free an individual and also conceal their 'true nature'. The way that we navigate our online worlds and present these personas online, however, is complicated. 
Audiences, both in person and on the internet, will all receive a slightly different persona from one another. You probably would not feel comfortable speaking to your employer the same way that you would speak to close friends. Social media can be restrictive in this way. Having not only your friends, but also family members and both current and potential employers on networking sites such as [https://en-gb.facebook.com/login/ Facebook] means that is unlikely you will can truly be yourself, as you have a variety of audiences to please and entertain using only one or two of your 'masks' and online personas.

The internet can often restrict the image you present of yourself on any one social media site. This can be why people usually have multiple online accounts on a variety of sites, from [https://www.tumblr.com/ Tumblr] to [https://uk.pinterest.com/ Pinterest]. Different sites are aimed at different audiences and can often limit people to only one of their personas. You are encouraged to share and explore different elements of both your personality and your life in different spaces online. What people express on [https://twitter.com/login?lang=en-gb Twitter] they may not feel like they can post on [https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook]. Different groups of the public require a different mask, from professional to personal. Networking sites purely for job hunting and professional pursuits are emerging, a popular site being [https://gb.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. These kinds of audiences obviously would be presented with a different persona than the ones exhibited on more casual social media sites. Jung himself observed that every different profession and occupation require a different set of characteristics and personas.

Our social identities are fluid and evolving, and it appears sometimes that the nature of certain social media sites does not allow for us to present all of our 'personas' at once. 
Social media allows people to create an online space, privately or publicly, to be whoever they want to be and to wear whichever mask they want to wear. Different audiences in different areas of our lives all receive a different interpretation of ourselves in real life, and this does not change online. Different masks suit different situations both online and off, and your online persona may be closer to your true self than the image you portray to people in the real world. 
Nonetheless, Jung warns us, it must be maintained that identification with oneself’s persona is detrimental; the subject must be conscious that he/she is not identical to the way in which they appear through their persona. If not, that is if this persona freely controls a subject unconsciously, a discrepancy might arise between the way one appears in different contexts and in the way in which one perceives himself in relation to others. This too can happen online, with equally serious consequences.

=== Narcissism and Asceticism ===

The mythological character [[w: Narcissus|Narcissus]] was seen as an example to avoid, especially in Ancient Greece where the self-absorption and selfishness on the citizens’s was seen as detrimental for public values of community, democracy and political participation. Indeed, although self-expression was considered a powerful tool for people to contribute their opinion in public places such as the [[w:Ecclesia|Ecclesia (ancient Athens)]], a self-centred opinion was not accepted.

Time has passed, but [[w:narcissism|narcissism]] is still often described in negative terms. However, Papacharissi,&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; drawing from [[w:Richard Sennett|Richard Sennett]] and [[w:Christopher Lasch|Christopher Lasch]] work, argues that in a social media context narcissism does not necessarily retain its pathological and pejorative characteristics. Indeed, it works along side of post-modern values of autonomy, self-expression and control and itself favours a need for introspection and self-centredness that relies on the rapidity with which the subject can shift or merge the private and public sphere. 
That is because, unlike in ancient times, narcissism of this form is self-directed and self-based but it is not in itself pathologically selfish. Namely, while it does favour auto-promotion and presentation, the social media tools of which the subject makes use through personalisation are not by themselves intended to benefit the subject directly: recognition happens through others.
Other issues might emerge from the amount of possible personalisations of a topic in terms of reliability within a democratic debate, but these narcissistic practices, whether they take the shape of blogs entries on [https://it.wordpress.com/ WordPress], [https://en-gb.facebook.com/login/%20Facebook Facebook] profiles or [https://twitter.com/login?lang=en-gb%20Twitter Twitter] updates, they are fundamentally part of a search for contact among different subjects.

However, contrary to the opinions expressed in the ecclesia, what social media users announce from their pulpit is not finalised at contributing to the public sphere; these opinions might be used to monitor civic engagement and to a certain degree they do constitute a form of political and social expression of one’s thoughts, but first of all they are based on self-fulfilling evaluation of content by those who produce them. 
Similarly, according to Lasch these tendencies, unlike pathological behaviour, arise from a sense of insecurity and self-interrogation that cross the boundaries of public and private and which cannot in this sense be oriented to exclusively selfish desire. Notably, this form of narcissism arises from desperation in a society that does not provide a clear distinction between public and private &lt;ref name=&quot;Lasch 1991&quot;&gt;Lasch, C. (1991). The Culture of Narcissism: American life in an age of diminishing expectations. New York,: W. W. Norton, 26-33&lt;/ref&gt;

This can be explanatory of the recent phenomenon of [[w:Selfie|Selfie]], where just the name itself speaks for values of self-referentiality and self-absorption. However, despite several critiques about selfies promoting narcissistic behaviour and [[w:hubris|hubris]] in those who post them,&lt;ref name=&quot;hubris&quot;&gt;[http://www.theguardian.com/media-network/media-network-blog/2014/mar/13/selfie-social-media-love-digital-narcassism] Premuzic,T. Sharing the (self) love: the rise of the selfie and digital narcissism in ''The Guardian'', 13 March 2014&lt;/ref&gt; the phenomenon has also been identified as a form of re-assessing and re-assuring self-esteem through sharing with others. This presents this interpretation of narcissism as something far from disorder and more as new way through with the self projects itself into the world by a self-controlled mediation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fosco 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/molly-fosco/taking-a-selfie-has-more-_b_4901315.html] Fosco, Molly. Taking a Selfie Has More to Do With Self Worth Than You Realize in ''The Huffington Post'', 5 June 2014&lt;/ref&gt; Analyzing why people post 'selfies' can take away from the fundamental fact that in many ways they are a form of expression. For many, a 'selfie' is an act of self expression, celebration, liberation and autonomy, rather than a ploy for attention or praise.

At the same time, Sennett identifies narcissism in this sense as a form of [[w:asceticism|asceticism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;&gt;Sennett, R. (1977). The fall of public man. N.Y., Knopf.&lt;/ref&gt; Drawing from [[w:Heinz Kohut|Heinz Kohut]] work in psychology, Sennett suggests that narcissism is less a clinical condition and more a preoccupation that one has of his self-hood and the role of the self “as a source of initiative, intentionality and unity for the personality” plays.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;
What Narcissus is looking for when he drowns, Sennett argues, is certainly his self-image but at the same time this self and its depth is an alluring form of “Other”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;/&gt; That is, the reflected image presents a self that is more deep, interesting and seductive than the original one. The Image, that Narcissus sees and construct of himself exits the inside world and wants to reach out to him and be apprehended, drawn, out of the water. Therefore, self-absorption  is not selfishly fixated on psychological interiority and magnification, but rather it concentrates on that surfacing image which appears more likeable and intriguing. This is the image that Narcissus wants the outside to see and the one he wants to be recognised for. 
Despite a sense of lack within the self, Sennet identifies the ability of the self to take interiority as a starting point for withdrawal from its own self in search for a better image as a form of asceticism.
Namely, the subject who retreats ''from'' its self manages self-examination and reflection ''on'' itself, thus promoting self-understanding and autonomy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;/&gt;
Nonetheless, Narcissus, as preclusively closed and stagnant towards activities that do not revolve around the self and its characterisation in the ways explained above, eludes an active public sphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot;/&gt;

=== Private spheres as an environment of autonomy, control and self-expression ===

“Participating in a MoveOn.org online protest, expressing political opinion on blogs, viewing or posting content on YouTube, or posting a comment in an online discussion group represents an expression of dissent with a public agenda, determined by mainstream media and political actors. It stands as a private, digitally enabled, intrusion on a public agenda determined by others.”&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;

In this digital age, society have been given the tools to speak freely on the internet. Once users have gained access to posting within a [[w:Private sphere|private sphere]] online, individuals gained the control over their audiences. On sites like [[w:Instagram|Instagram]], [[w:Twitter|Twitter]] and [[w:Facebook|Facebook]], users have the autonomy to craft a public image to a select audience. The privacy settings on these sites allows users to privatise posts, and gives them a sense of control over their own content. These social media sites are the only place people can exhibit and experience total self control as they can choose what they say and how they present themselves.

Photos posted online are a good example of the images people can construct of themselves and their lives and then present online. For example, on Instagram there are many filter options and ways to edit a photo being posted, as well as. If photo is edited in some way, it could mean that the portrayal of the user's life is edited for the public eye online. People can choose to omit certain details of their lives online. Facebook profile pictures are chosen to show the best angles, and is the photo that represents users to their &quot;friends&quot; and any other strangers who may click on their account. The privacy of Facebook means users have the control over who they are friends with, and in turn who sees their posts. However, even profile pictures and cover photos are outwith the private sphere of this website, so, when choosing these photos people tend to have the idea of the public sphere in their mind, and thus having control over how the public sees them as well as their audience. Many of the photos and opinions that people post on social media may not be suitable for every one of their online audiences, which is something to take in to consideration regarding the subject of self expression.

In relation to the previously mentioned quote, using online forums for personal expression is another way in which the private sphere can be used. The possibility of becoming anonymous on a website and giving opinions could be considered part of the private sphere, as anonymity is protects personal image. The private sphere gives people the chance to express themselves in a digitally enabled community. This aspect of anonymity can be liberating for many people, who may be reluctant to speak out freely if they had to do so in public. This sense of confidentiality can be encouraging in both negative and positive senses. Negative, as people are more willing to be rude or 'troll' other people online when they know they will not be caught out. Positive, as it may give people a sense of confidence to express their beliefs.

For many, social media accounts may be the only place that a lot of people get to exhibit and experience total self control. They can choose what they say and how they present themselves and are able to create private online area that can encourage creativity and self-acceptance. The public and private versions of individual's online selves can differ, meaning that many social media users begin to 'craft' a version of themselves to present to their online audiences.

The way in which people can present themselves among their peers within a mediated environment could potentially mean an issue with realism. Creating personas on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram can be construed as painting a false image of yourself and also what real life looks like. Despite the positives behind posting on a private page, within a gated community, it can be argued that people are still using this as a way to create false personas to impress their followers.

It can also be argued, however, that it is within these online gated communities that people are often able to express their true selves and communicate with people that they believe to be more on their wavelength than the people they know in real life. Depending on the audience they may be catering to online, it can be believed that many people do not seek out a place online to 'perform' or show off, but a place that they have created themselves where they feel safe enough to present an image and persona that is closer to who they truly are than the one they exhibit in day to day life.

=== Identity Performance and Management of the Impressions of the Self ===
As [[w:Goffman|Erving Goffman]] explains,&lt;ref name=&quot;Goffman 1959&quot;/&gt; the individual who is part of a social group and in the immediate presence of other becomes at once initiator and part of a staged performance. Within this performance, the individual will intentionally or unintentionally express himself, and the other individuals of the group will in return be impress in various way by him. While the impression that the individual gives off cannot be entirely predicted in the way it will be received, the main interest for the subject is that to try and construct and impression that is consistent with the way in which the subject wishes to be seen.

That is, the subject works to influence, in its formulation, impression directed at others in the attempt to have them receive the impression that was meant to be conveyed, thus also shaping the situation which the recipient finds himself in. However, sometimes a subject might. In addition, the degree to which the subject disclose certain aspects of their life, thus censoring some information and making available others through a form of “crafting” of the represented-self, enormously shapes the perception given. Within this performance, the observes too have a role that doesn't comply with merely observing, The spectator, whom is part of the spectacle, knows that he's being allowed to perceive and knows the his perception serves the performance, but at the same time, even more if he's a performer himself, he knows that something is being hidden. However, his role is confined to the front region and he cannot access the subject’s backstage. Nonetheless, if the observer is enough close to the subject, he might disrupt, even unintentionally, the constructed impression that the subject has tried to give to themselves, thus resulting in the subject embarrassment. This could be the case when, for instance, pictures in which the subject has been tagged on SNS differs a lot from the staged self-presentation that the latter has crafted.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot;/&gt;

The [[w:impression management|Impression Management]] process that the subjects controls, therefore, inevitably concerned with the dialectic of social relations. For this reason, the subject has to satisfy his desire for control with regard to the situation and ways in which his own self-representation will be perceived by others. However, just like he has under-played and over-played some aspects of their representation, so have done others too in the role of subjects, especially in the way they feel about him. Therefore, all the relevant social data about other in order for a complete control are unavailable. In their absence, the individual tends to employ cues, tests, hints, expressive gesture, status symbols that works as predictable devices for his characterisation in others’ minds. 
Indeed, to avoid a by-product impression of his representation, the subject has the option to reframe their representation in a way that the observer will be manipulated by those cues, [[w:signs|Sign]] and [[w:symbols|Symbol]] in his interpretation. 
That is, a sign can be employed by the subject in the absence of knowledge of what the observer’s interpretation of the sign’s signified would be. For this reason, a convincing impression is not necessarily concerned with what the subject is or has but these elements can be engineered enough to convince, in their absence, the observer that they are indeed possessed.

In regards to presentation of the self and impression management, Goffman has stated: “people give a ‘performance’ when they allow themselves to be photographed, in the sense that they make allowance for a public that will ultimately see the photograph.” He uses the term ‘performance’ to refer to ‘all the activity of a given participant on a given occasion which serves to influence in any way any of the other participants’. The 21st century has brought the introduction of Internet and therefore new [[w:Social Networks|Social Networks]], such as [[w:Facebook|Facebook]]. Through websites such as these, society has managed to use photographs unconsciously and consciously to express themselves in various forms.

There are many contributing factors that go into taking and choosing photographs that one may decide to put online. A process has been used in Chalfen’s Snapshot Versions of life (1987):

- [[w:Planning|Planning]]

- [[w:Shooting (on-camera)|Shooting (on-camera)]]

- [[w:Shooting (off-camera)|Shooting (off-camera)]]

- [[w:Editing|Editing]]

- [[w:Exhibition|Exhibition]]

However, after analyzing Mendelson and Papacharissi’s “Look at us: Collective Narcissism in Facebook Photos”,&lt;ref&gt;Networked Self, Papacharissi, Chapter 12&lt;/ref&gt; there is more than just planning, posing, shooting, that goes behind uploading a picture on any Social Network Sites (SNSs). Media gives the opportunity for people to express themselves in various forms. 
“While people are purportedly presenting themselves, they are presenting a highly selective version of themselves. Social Network Sites (SNSs) present the latest networked platform enabling self-presentation to a variety of interconnected audiences.” (Mendelson and Papacharissi) SNSs allow people to present themselves different for different audiences. For example, in some cases people create multiple versions of Facebook, one for their parents and one for their peers. As well, people edit their photographs according to who their audience may be. Consciously and unconsciously people work to define the way they are perceived by others, hoping to cause a positive impression. For this to happen, have to put effort in their appearance, the way they act, and try to hide their flaws. Uploading a profile picture, or any photo, is a process because it represents who a person is. A deciding influence to choosing a photo to upload is the thought of who will be seeing it. For example, having your grandmother on Facebook stops one from posting photos from a social night that only your social group would find amusing.

Donath and Boyd define SNSs as: “online environments in which people create a self-descriptive profile […] Participants in social networks sites are usually identified by their real names and often include photographs; their network of connections is displayed as an integral piece of their [[w:self-presentation|self-presentation]].” The more personalized photographs individuals take emphasize how they wish their lives to be remembered. Consciously and unconsciously individuals transform themselves before the camera; portraying a version of ourselves we hope to be. In networked environments that blend private and public boundaries, like SNSs, Facebook, inadvertently communicate content of a performative nature to a variety of audiences.

=== Celebrity Culture ===
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:left; text-align: center;&quot;
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&lt;big&gt;'''Facebook and Twitter News Use is on the Rise'''&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;''% of users who get there news there'' &lt;ref name=&quot;journalism.org&quot;&gt;http://www.journalism.org/2015/07/14/the-evolving-role-of-news-on-twitter-and-facebook/&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot;| Twitter
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&lt;/div&gt;

The demand for celebrities to be part of the ‘always-on’ culture is continuing to grow. The demand is ever increasing from fans for interaction with celebs. An interesting quote completely sums up this point about the effects which [[w:social media|social media]] has on celebrities:

{{Quote|text=&gt;&gt;The most important thing about a technology is how it changes people.&lt;&lt;|| &lt;small&gt;John Lanier&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2010&quot; /&gt;}}

This demonstrates the matter that once celebs become successful, technology is the first tell-tale of their identity, their social morals and how their success impacts them as people.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2010&quot; /&gt;
In fact, many celebrities have built their entire careers around 'always-on' culture and the power of social media as a platform that encourages celebrity culture. Nowadays, 'celebrities' are developing through sites such as [https://www.youtube.com/ YouTube], [https://www.snapchat.com/ SnapChat] and [https://vine.co/ Vine].

Due to every celebrity’s massive succession, fans feel the need to have a constant connection to their idols. This puts a constraint on celebs to be always available and connected to their fans, providing what is deemed to be appropriate content. Celebs face massive challenges involving the type of content which they post online and what is seen to be the ‘right’ opinion.

This can result in people losing their sense of identity and conform to society's ideology - post appropriate content, always looking ‘perfect’, have the ‘right’ opinion and convey a positive image. Although social media provides many advantages for us to reach many different people, it is still limited to time and amount of attention we have at one moment.&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot;/&gt;

A key point to be made here is that technology is less political and more about [[w:Power (social and political)|power]] and [[w:social status|social status]]. Technology becomes the centre to influence of succession and technology acts as a base to build social status across the globe, key to all celebs. Celebrity dominance over all aspects of social media has led to a noticeable imbalance of power, and encourages the belief that celebrities are deities rather than human beings who make mistakes online.

This can also lead to a [[w:narcissism|narcissistic]] image of celebrities. The attention which celebs receive on a daily basis is massive and so it is likely a transition will take place: a change from a ‘normal’ everyday user to an obsession of self-image and a focus shifted to them and who they portray. The mediation on images and publications is so selective and the majority of the time it is not in the control of the celebrity but in the hands of their manager.

As expressed by Lanier, newspapers are in decline so more value is now being placed on the internet, which could be problematic.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2006&quot;&gt;Lanier, J. (2006) DIGITAL MAOISM: The Hazards of the New Online Collectivism, Edge&lt;/ref&gt; People are much more likely to check social media above any other source according to a report by the Pew Research Centre.&lt;ref name=&quot;journalism.org&quot;/&gt; The priority which social media takes for news is a rising issue for celebrities as major platforms are notorious for spreading news either correct or not.

Trolling is one of the biggest issues connected to celebrities and their privacy online. Particularly on social media, trolling is extremely common. Either fan bases or the opposition could pose to be a celebrity and therefore create a fake account or page based upon this person. This is problematic as celebs personal information is up for interpretation and this is also how spread - leaving the celebrity with no control or privacy rumours. This can lead to misrepresentation and becomes much more personal online.

A common theme among celebrities due to social media and access to information and data is leaking of harmful content. This is a growing problem for celebrities as journalists and media users are abusing there power in order to gain hidden content. An example of the way that the internet can be used to abuse the platform that celebrities have been given is the hacking of female celebrities and subsequent leaking of nude and private images. Women in the limelight are targeted and violated by different forms of media and have their private property stolen and leaked online, where the images will last forever.

&quot;The incredible amount of activity in contemporary culture that explores the boundaries of the personal, the private, the intimate, and the public resembles the discourse of celebrity but expands pandemically beyond that realm because it deals with the general population.&quot; - &lt;small&gt;David Marshall&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall 2014&quot;&gt;Marshall, P. David. Celebrity and Power : Fame in Contemporary Culture. Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

Social media also instigates 'stalking' on celebrities. The ability to access open pages, interpretative pages of a celeb and profiles creates a path for celebrities to be stalked, with all of their information at major risk. In a study of stalking and psychological behaviour, it was made clear that the main access and vocal point of stalking is media. “Stalkers of celebrity figures are the sensation of the popular media, particularly if they have threatened or been violent toward the object of their pursuit.” &lt;ref name=&quot;Meloy 2008&quot;&gt;Meloy, J. Reid, and Sheridan, Lorraine. Stalking, Threatening, and Attacking Public Figures : A Psychological and Behavioral Analysis. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, USA, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

Celebrities convey this [[w:celebrity culture|idealised culture]]; a culture which in many ways is desired by others and is that of luxury and high style. However, in other ways celebrities do attempt to show a 'normal' life narrative; make them more human. This narrative may include instances where celebrities pose doing activities which the average person might or associating themselves with brands which the 'common' person may like. But, what really distinguishes celebrities from the average person is the level of publicity they receive and this is out of their control. Once someone has delved into the deep end of celebrity culture, all privacy is out of the window.

=== Online Identity - Pushing the Boundaries of Public and Private ===

Our [[w:Online identity|online identity]] and the identity we take online can change our usage of the Internet; this narrative of us changes the functions of the digital media. The narrative of self is important to create boundaries of public or private in our online usage. The self that we choose to create and display online is beginning to place boundaries on the public and private functions of the Internet and due to our growing society, has changed our perceptions of public and private.

One form which our online identity can take and is most popular is that of [[w:open source|open source]]. This means that our profiles are available with lots of information about us published, pushing the boundary of private. This factor can make being private more difficult because of the amount of information the user has allowed online. Additionally part of our online appearance is out of our control, i.e. shared information, that companies [[#Nothing Created or Destroyed|track down]]. And as characteristically digital data is easily copyable,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; one cannot restraint, that these companies or people, we shared content with, spread these further - our private sphere is extended to a part, that is invisible to us.
Another point of concern is perhaps the inherent nature of sharing on [[w:social media|social media]], in that we can never truly control what circulates on these sites about our private lives. Often information is published on social media by both individuals and larger companies without our permission. To a large extent we have no control over the images that are posted of us without our knowledge or consent. It is in this way that our online identities are shaped into something that we perhaps do not recognize or support.

So our perception of public means that we believe our information to be available to everyone, and anyone can view our content. However, since this is becoming more acceptable, it needs to be made more aware of the dangers of being public online. This is pushing the boundaries of public as the type of user we choose to be alters this public stance.

Online identity is the make- up of our character online and who we choose to be online. The choice of sharing real life information can alter [[w:Privacy|privacy]] or oppose it; can change the [[w:Publicity|publicity]] as we may choose to reserve certain information thus making our profile more private. The information that we choose to make either public or private about ourselves online can shape the identity that we create and then present to our online audiences. [[#Altered Narratives of the Self|''(see section 1.7.2: Altered Narratives of the Self)'']]

So, this brings about the question to what extent our identity defines privacy? Are we really private if we still have information online? This question highlights the boundaries to which social media pushes privacy and shows that despite being private on [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] for example, we still need a profile picture and basic information.

This can also be linked to key theorist [[#Hamid Van Koten|Hamid Van Koten]] who suggests a link between identity and culture. He implies that what we choose to display about ourselves and choice of public or private says a lot about us as people and our identities and our culture.&lt;ref name= &quot;Van Koten 2009&quot;&gt;Van Koten, H (2009). The Digital Image and the Pleasure Principle: the Consumption of Realism in the Age of Simulation in ''Digital Visual Culture: Theory and Practice''. Bristol: Intellect Books. p89-92.&lt;/ref&gt;

As society evolves, we become more controlling over our social media and we gain more agencies over our own profiles and the way we use and display our information online. This raises issues of responsibility online. Since we have so much control, are we fully to blame when something goes wrong?

The problematic issue of fraud can be very common among users with reports in America in 2014 showing almost 50% of people are being [http://money.cnn.com/2014/05/28/technology/security/hack-data-breach/ hacked] into a year.  Social media programmes are changing so much that the company itself is moving away from being the first to blame and more the [[w:User|user]]. So, in turn it works two ways – the user gains more control and power but in return, they are responsible almost entirely for their problems online.&lt;ref&gt;http://money.cnn.com/2014/05/28/technology/security/hack-data-breach/index.html&lt;/ref&gt;

== Publicity Online ==

Whereas the radio needed over 30 years to reach 50 million receivers, the Internet succeeded that in less than 5 years (see [http://visual.ly/reaching-50-million-users infographic]).&lt;ref name=&quot;Köhler 2001&quot;&gt;Köhler, M., Arndt, H.-W., Fetzer, T. (2001). ''Recht des Internet''. 7th ed. Heidelberg: C.F. Müller.&lt;/ref&gt; With that in mind the question is, how the Internet as a hybrid medium &lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; creates and enhances publicity and what effect this has on the private and public sphere.
In our discussion we need to consider the following dimensions of publicity:
*Publicity in the sense of a public room anyone can enter
*Publicity through [[w:Public communication|public communication]] and public communication systems
*Publicity as in [[w: Public opinion|public opinion]]

The demand for publicity came up historically as a monitoring tool for and legitimation of political decisions. Therefore a sphere has to be created open for any topic and where everyone can equally, reciprocal express his/her opinion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot;&gt;Schulz, W. (2008). ''Politische Kommunikation: Theoretische Ansätze und Ergebnisse empirischer Forschung''. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.&lt;/ref&gt; The Internet like no other medium offers through various information channels a forum for (political) discourse, that in theory anybody can access. Additionally, the roles of speakers and recipient are changing continuously especially on social media platforms and the variety of examined issues is huge.
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Creating such a room also means creating a [[w:Communications system|communication system]], that in earlier days could be a marketplace: Public communication, closely related to [[w:mass communication|mass communication]], is aimed to be transparent and therefore accessible for anyone. Normally they imply a huge and anonymous audience,&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; which makes the [[w:Reach (advertising)|reach]], reflection and impact of the message immeasurable and uncontrollable, but with online tracking tools and the possibility to immediately reply on i.e. [[w:social media|social media]] the possibility to verify the online audience increases. However, as the Internet connects people all over the world, the audience is nowadays more disperse. According to Schulz this are in fact real public spheres, as they are international in comparison to presence public sphere, which are only segmented public spheres, likewise the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt;

Public communication differs from private or secret communication, as the access to the message of communication or the communicating situation is openly accessible&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; – but facilitated by the high copyability of digital media&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; private messages can be published to a bigger audience even without each other’s consents.

A public opinion is in commons sense the dominant opinion, which is enforced through public communication. This has to be distinguished from a published opinion, an opinion expressed in public, making it especially online accessible for everyone.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; Mass media can mirrors the public opinion, but with [[w:Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann|Noelle Neumann's]] [[w:spiral of silence|spiral of silence]] in mind, this does not has to be the thinking of the majority.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hill 2002&quot;&gt;Hill, C. (2002). ''Öffentlichkeit im Internet''. München: Grin Verlag.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Noelle-Neumann 1996&quot;&gt;Noelle-Neumann, E. (1996). ''Öffentliche Meinung: die Entdeckung der Schweigespirale''. Berlin: Ullstein.&lt;/ref&gt;

However, the premise for publicity online is the that every group of interest has access to that sphere. But the [[w:digital divide|digital divide]] precludes that, because not everyone has a technical devices with Internet access, nor the time and ability to deal with the technology ([[w:digital analphabetism|digital analphabetism]]) or [[w:information overload|information overload]]; the latter hinders the finding of websites, that are not [[w: search engine optimization|search engine optimized]].

=== Public Displays of Connection ===
People displaying that they are connected to other people isn't a new thing that has come with the digital age, it has been around for years as we are always eager to let people know that we have friends. In recent years showing our connections has changed however, with the introduction of [[w:Social networking services|social networks]].
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[[w:Facebook|Facebook]] in particular, with the introduction of tagging people in photos, has made it easy for users to showcase their friends/connections to the world. This has been around for a lot longer however, even on the internet, if we refer back to [[w:Bebo|Bebo]] users had the choice not only to choose their top friends but also to choose an &quot;other half&quot;. [[w:Myspace|Myspace]] allowed users to choose their top friends,  in the article Public Displays of Connection &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;&gt;boyd, d. Donath, J. (2004). Public Displays of Connection accessed 03/10 from http://www.danah.org/papers/PublicDisplays.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; look to find what these displays mean and what they represent in the modern era. The article talks about first the public displays of connection we use in the &quot;real&quot; or &quot;physical&quot; world which includes introducing our friends to each other, because we either think they will become friends with each other or admire each other, which in turn means they will admire you for having a friend like them. This could be through hosting a party and bringing your friends together or even by something as simple as name dropping.

On websites like [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] there is the ability to tag in photo's but also displaying &quot;mutual friends&quot; is a huge part of the site. When a user adds you as a friend, you can see what mutual friends you have together. This may be the first thing users look for when deciding whether or not to accept someone as a friend, as you can see how many similar friends you have and if you're likely to know them or meet them in the future. [[w:Twitter|Twitter]] also introduced this with the &quot;Followers You Know&quot;, followers are similar to friends on Facebook however someone can follow you and you do not need to follow them back and vice versa. The &quot;followers you know&quot; feature displays all of the users that you follow who follow them also, which, like the Facebook mutual friends may affect your decision on whether or not you follow them back. Research by Konstantin Besnosov, Yazan Boshmaf, Pooya Jaferian and Hootan Rashtian of the University of British Columbia &lt;ref name=&quot;Beznosov, K. Boshmaf, Y. Jaferian, P. Rashtian, H. (Date Not Available&quot;&gt;Beznosov, K. Boshmaf, Y. Jaferian, P. Rashtian, H., To Befriend or Not? A Model of Friend Request Acceptance on Facebook, University of British Columbia. Accessed 03/10 from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2d3d/f8c0923dd249f370f287a1b236af1ecf0934.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; showed that whether not the user had mutual friends and the closeness of the mutual friends was one of the most important factors in deciding to accept their friend request.

Although closeness of the mutual friends is an important aspect in deciding whether or not to accept someone's friend request it is difficult to distinguish the relationships between the mutual friend and the person who has sent you a friend request. As boyd and Donath &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; talk about in their article just by looking at mutual friends there is no real way of knowing the connection. A mutual friend could range from a best friend, family member, partner to a relative stranger who they perhaps have only met once or twice, if at all.

Tagged photo's can be a more effective way of finding out a persons solid, real life relationships with your mutual friends. Tagged photos give a user a better idea of the kind of person someone is, what social circles they belong to and if they are someone that they either know, are likely to meet at some point or perhaps want to know. Tagged photos and photo's in general are a huge part of displaying your connections to your digital circle. In their research Beznosov, Boshmaf, Jaferian and Rashtain &lt;ref name=&quot;Beznosov, K. Boshmaf, Y. Jaferian, P. Rashtian, H. (Date Not Available&quot;/&gt; found that the very first thing someone looks for when accepting a friend request is their profile picture.

Most people would look for a profile picture with them in it, however the rest of the photo's available on their profile are also hugely important. Picture's, specifically tagged ones, can prove the authenticity of a person and their profile and can basically prove or at least convince someone that they are &quot;real&quot;. boyd and Donath &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; talk about this and say that displaying connections on your profile is a way of verifying your personal identity.The more connections someone has, mutual friends, tagged photos etcetera makes them seem more like a real person. With the rise of [[w:Catfishing|catfishing]] [[#Catfishing|''(see section 1.7.2.3)'']]this is something that has became more of a concern, increasing the importance of connections being displayed on social media profiles.

boyd and Donath also talk about how these connections could also help showcase &quot;incompatible&quot; connections &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; meaning you could look at someone's mutual friends and tagged photos to quickly see who they are and who they assosciate with, and if you do not like what you see you are able to make the informed decision of declining their friend request. The opposite of this is also true.

You could also look at displaying connections on your profile as a way to assure other people that you are popular and have friends. Many people will not only tag themselves in photos, but also with the addition of Twitter's &quot;@&quot; tagging method you can tag your friends in general posts on Facebook and start public conversations with them using this over Twitter. People display their public connections in this way because they want people to know how many friends they have and who they are. Public displays of connection mainly are not about who your friends are but are always trying to reinforce the idea of who ''you'' are.

=== Democratic but not Democratising ===
[[#Characteristics of Digital Media|The characteristics of digital media]], which shape the new relationship between the private and public sphere, also touch upon the concept of [[w:democracy|democracy]] and [[w:citizenship|citizenship]]. Indeed, a private sphere enabled with mobile privatisation, de-spatialised simultaneity and that integrates values of [[#Private spheres as an environment of autonomy, control and self-expression|self-expression, control and autonomy]] inevitably interplays with the concerns of the public sphere. 
We can identify two major trajectories among the ways in which digital media influence and at the same time are conditioned by civic life.&lt;ref name=&quot;Carlisle and Patton 2013&quot;&gt;[http://www.jstor.org/stable/23612065 link ] Carlisle, J. E., &amp; Patton, R. C. (2013). Is social media changing how we understand political engagement? An analysis of Facebook and the 2008 presidential election in ''Political Research Quarterly'', 66(4), 883-895.&lt;/ref&gt;
The first one considers how the internet is a communication tool that can be used in [[#Public and Private Spheres on Social Media and Political Agendas|campaigns by parties and candidates and thus serving certain political agendas]]. The second, instead, seeks to understand the role and the effects of new media on one’s private sphere and participation to public sphere, that is one’s individual civic and political behaviour within a democratic society. Understanding the relationship between these elements is important and is currently the object of research.

Putman explains that an individual’s participation in offline social networks, such a bowling team, not only fosters interpersonal trust and cooperation but also offers to the people that are part of this network the chance to discuss and exchange political, social and economic opinions and beliefs that ultimately, on a larger scale, serve values of community and democracy in the real world.&lt;ref name=&quot;Putman 1995&quot;&gt;Putnam, Robert. (1995a). Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital in ''Journal of Democracy'' 6 (1): 65-78.&lt;/ref&gt;
Here, we can easily see the intended comparison between offline and online social networks and also notice that this activities are transported in the online world. However, the way in which this transfer actually takes place is controversial. 
For instance, Bimber argues that that while new media lower the cost of accessibility and divulgation of political information, therefore potentially giving more people the possibility to engage in a civic debate, on the internet the same disparities of the real world are often replicated: engagement comes from those who already have the means to both afford access to internet sources and the knowledge required to be engaged in a political or economic argument.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bimber 2003&quot;&gt;Bimber, Bruce, and Richard Davis. (2003). Campaigning Online: The Internet in U.S. Elections. New York: Oxford University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

In this sense it worth mentioning [[#Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]]’ interpretation of the internet’s commonality. Initially, in [[w:The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere|The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]] Habermas too falls into the trap of thinking that the internet is free from the real world’s disparities. In fact, he attempts a historical comparison between the public sphere of the [[w:Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] in the 18th and 19th centuries and the internet. While he does explain that subsequent consolidation of [[w:hegemony|hegemony]] within the bourgeoisie has changed this decision-making procedure, he founded his analogy with the internet as based on the bourgeois’s public sphere’s openness to all and its formal principle of disregarding class hierarchies in the name of arguments that prevailed because of better argumentations rather than because of coercion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1989&quot;/&gt;

Salter dismisses this comparison.&lt;ref name=&quot;McCaughey &amp; Ayers 2003&quot;&gt;Salter, L. Democracy, New Social Movements and the Internet in McCaughey, M. (2003). Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice. New York, NY; London: Routledge&lt;/ref&gt; Firstly, it only remarks both the internet’s and bourgeoisie acceptance of disparities: indeed, the public sphere of the bourgeois was only formally open to all, as for example women where excluded from participating. This is certainly in accord with disparities which the internet and social media have been already accused of. For instance, boyd and Hargittai explain how even social networks like [http://www.facebook.com Facebook], although accessible by almost everyone, have a built-in demographic bias, both because internet access and literacy is required to be part of it and because, from the beginning, Facebook had as user-base constituted by academics from privileged american institutions and thus has a fundamental american-bourgeois element to it.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;

Secondly, while the bourgeois’s public sphere was intentioned to find a political common will, the internet seems to fragment or question the idea of universality and common interest, hence facilitating the exact opposite: a pluralism of wills.&lt;ref name=&quot;McCaughey &amp; Ayers 2003&quot;/&gt;
Papacharissi too argues in favour of this interpretation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;
She explains that the interrelation of private and public sphere, facilitated by digital media, allows for values of autonomy,control and expression to determine our social-networked conduct and to let us blend with the public space. However, the degree to which these values serve democracy is questionable. In fact, because they satisfy ego-centred needs and function as an expression of personal opinions and beliefs,  they are potentially and always more easily (unlike within the 18th bourgeoisie) applicable by everyone to everything. Therefore, they progressively distance themselves from a 'common will'. That is, while they might be democratic in affordance, they do not inherently make society better unless the pluralism of self-serving private spheres that broadcast themselves onto the public sphere actually come together to serve the public sphere selflessly.

=== Public and Private Spheres As A Political Power ===
Government intervention within media channels and legislation impacting on networks has created discourses concerning its political validity and judgement of power use. Such discourses include the reasoning regarding the control of a libertarian networked environment and employed strategies used within the media framework that serve to uphold a political perspective or agenda.

==== Political Power and the Public Sphere: The Media ====
There are three distinct concepts of mediation that governments use to serve vested interests or uphold perceived standards as set by a political power. These concepts are:
* '''Authoritarian Concept'''. This concept dates back to [[w:Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg's]] invention of the printing press and is the oldest media concept. Under this concept the press are subject to direct or implied control from the state. Forms of diversity are harmful and irresponsible to a countries development, and any gathered news must not criticize or challenge leadership in any way.
* '''Communist Concept'''. Under control from this concept, published news has to concentrate on nation building and the goals and policies of a society set by leadership. The characteristics of this concept included the press being one-party, incoming and outgoing news are heavily controlled, news must be positive and further party goals rather than refle|cting interests of the people and, it is a means of exercising control over the people aided by secret police.
* '''Developmental Concept'''. Traditionally used in underdeveloped and poorer countries. The Developmental Concept states that mass communication should aid with nation building and fighting illiteracy and poverty, media should follow government rather than challenge it, each country may restrict flow of news between borders in an attempt to limit incoming information from western countries that may threaten cultural traditions, and have control over content about themselves.&lt;ref name=&quot;Anonymous&quot;&gt;Anonymous. ''Government controlled media''. Retrieved 06/03/2016 from http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/STUDENTS/McCormick/govern.htm.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Political Power and the Private Sphere: The Network ====
Since the 1970s governments have heavily monitored online activity in an attempt to halt criminal activity. However, within the last two decades the objectivity of criminal activity has been blurred and replaced, in some societies, by the subjectivity of a leadership's definition. Even with influential figures such as [[w:Vint Cerf|Dr. Vint Cerf]] -one of the fathers of the internet- stating that government control over the Internet will fail,&lt;ref name=&quot;Khalip, A, 2007&quot;&gt;[http://www.reuters.com/article/us-internet-cerf-idUSN1420689320071114?sp=true] Khalip, A. (2007). Cerf sees government control of Internet failing&lt;/ref&gt; this has not hindered governments from inducting their own policies regarding how individuals and groups can use the network, most notably the Chinese government. 
In 1993 the Chinese government initiated the [[w:Golden Shield Project|Golden Shield Project]] in an attempt to legislate and control access to the internet within the Chinese mainland. A variety of methods were implemented with the aim of censoring the internet which included:&lt;ref name=&quot;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S, 2012&quot;&gt;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S. (2012). ''Regulation, Policy and Convergent Media. In: Media Convergence: Networked Digital Media in Everyday Life.'' Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 172-96.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Schmidt, Eric, E, 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/12/opinion/the-future-of-internet-freedom.html] Scmidt, Eric, E. (2014). ''The Future of Internet Freedom.''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zittrain, J &amp; Edelman, B, 2003&quot;&gt;Zittrain, J &amp; Edelman, B. (2003). ''Empirical Analysis of Internet Filtering in China.'' Berkman Center for Internet &amp; Society Harvard Law School. Retrieved 05/03/2016.&lt;/ref&gt;

*'''Blocking IP addresses'''. Certain IP addresses will be denied and effects protocols such as HTTP, FTP and POP.
*'''Filtering and redirection of DNS'''. Certain domain names are blocked or incorrect IP addresses are returned via DNS hijacking.
*'''Portal Censorship and search result removal'''. Major portals such as search engines are effectively blocked. The Chinese government have censored access to Google. In 2006 Google launched Google.cn in an effort to maintain a presence within China, however due to increasing demands over censorship and Google being the subject of hacking by the Chinese Government, Google ended its Google.cn service in 2010.

While China practices extreme measures of censorship, further measures have been taken by other nations. In 2011 Egypt disconnected itself entirely from the network in an effort to reduce the power of protesters rallying against the [[w:Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak]] regime. Such action was deemed necessary after an uprising in Tunisia which has been dubbed the [[w:Twitter Revolution|Twitter revolution]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S, 2012&quot; /&gt; The actions of censorship and complete network disconnection exhibited by the Chinese and Egyptian Governments are political tactics that maintain asymmetrical power as the aforementioned actions do not benefit society as a whole,&lt;ref name=&quot;Fuchs, C, 2014&quot;&gt;Fuchs, C. (2014). ''What is a Critical Introduction to Social Media. In: Social Media: a Critical Introducion.'' London: Sage. pp. 7-25.&lt;/ref&gt; and only proves that despite the political rhetoric, governments do possess the power to control the internet and intervene within the sectors of society that individuals are granted control over.

The Chinese and Egyptian government's intrusion into the private sphere has effectively expanded the reach of the public sphere by disarming users of the network control over produced and viewed content. A prominent example is the banning of Facebook and Youtube by the Chinese government. Both sites operate within the private sphere as they allow for virtually unmediated control of produced content by outside organisations. They subsequently now fall under the domain of the public sphere; controlled so heavily they are completely inaccessible. Further impositions include regulation of internet cafes, as these establishments now enforce age restrictions. Users must be over the age of 21, and a log book is required to be signed by each user. Once online, activity is heavily monitored. Such restrictions have brought about the conception of underground internet cafes, where underage users can freely access the network. However, access to the network is the only element of control experienced by users, even within the confines of an underground establishment, content is still heavily mediated and monitored.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meikle, G &amp; Young, S, 2012&quot; /&gt;

==== Public and Private Spheres on Social Media and Political Agendas ====


===== Political Agendas and Digital/Social Media =====

In Politics, the rise of Digital media and [[w:Social media|Social media]] usage has allowed for politicians and [[w:Political party|political parties]] to pursue, promote, and campaign for certain [[w:Political agenda|political agendas]]. Due to the nature of digital and social media creating their own unique concepts of private and public spheres, politicians and political parties now utilise these spheres in order to pursue their chosen agenda(s).&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2009&quot;&gt;Papacharissi, Z. (2009). The virtual sphere 2.0: The Internet, the public sphere, and beyond. Routledge handbook of Internet politics, 230-245.&lt;/ref&gt;

Political [[w:Website|websites]], [[w:Email|e-mails]] and social media platforms are now [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235632721_Social_Media_and_Political_Communication_-_A_Social_Media_Analytics_Framework some of the most common methods of political communication]. In order to inform individuals of their agenda, for example a [[w:Manifesto|manifesto]], party policy or campaign, the first place this is now published is usually on the party website, and advertised further through e-mails to party members, supporters, and volunteers. Internet technologies like this are the main ways in which parties and politicians now spread information amongst their members and supporters.&lt;ref name=&quot;Römmele 2003&quot;&gt;[http://ppq.sagepub.com/content/9/1/7.short],Römmele, A. (2003). Political parties, party communication and new information and communication technologies. Party Politics, 9(1), 7-20.&lt;/ref&gt;

Whilst other, more traditional methods are still widely used to spread a political message, such as [[w:News program|news programmes]], [[w:Flyer (pamphlet)|leaflets]], and [http://campaignhandbook.gef.eu/canvassing-door-to-door face to face communication],&lt;ref name=&quot;Zetter 2007&quot;&gt;Zetter, L. (2007). The Political Campaigning Handbook: Real life lessons from the front line. Harriman House Limited.&lt;/ref&gt; the fastest way to do this is via an online medium, i.e. the internet. This can be done through a number of methods;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Method
! Description
! Example
|-
| Party Website
| A dedicated website domain for a certain political party, organisation, or politician. usually where information is first posted, where individuals can go to to find out information about a party/politician, political agenda, campaign, or issue. Also where individuals can register to join or support a party or politician.
| [http://www.labour.org.uk]

|- 
| [[w:Facebook|Facebook]]
| A dedicated public page for a party or politician to share information about themselves or a political agenda, and where other Facebook users can 'like' the page to show support, and 'share' information from the page to their timeline.
| [https://www.facebook.com/theSNP The Official [[w:Scottish National Party|Scottish National Party (SNP)]] Facebook page]

|- 
| [[w:Twitter|Twitter]]
| A social networking site where parties or politicians can have their own Twitter feed to promote their agendas, and where they can further promote their agendas by creating a hashtag for users to follow. Other Twitter users can engage publicly by sending a tweet to the party, or privately through Direct Messaging.
| [https://twitter.com/unitetheunion Official Twitter of the [[w:Trade union|trade union]] [[w:Unite the Union|Unite]]

|- 
| [[w:Online petition|Online Petitions]]
| Various websites which allow any individual, including politicians and political parties, to start a petition in order to campaign about and raise public support for an issue.
| [https://www.change.org Change.org], A website which allows users to start, sign, and share petitions online.
|}


Although politicians and political parties use all of these methods, as social media has such a large audience which is not restricted to just members and supporters, this approach is becoming increasingly popular.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shirky 2011&quot;&gt;Shirky, C. (2011). The political power of social media. Foreign affairs, 90(1), 28-41.&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, much of the information on any political agenda is then spread by the party or politician themselves, members and activists on social media. This can be an extremely successful method of promoting a political agenda.&lt;ref name=&quot;McNair 2011&quot;&gt;[http://blogs.unpad.ac.id/teddykw/files/2012/05/An-Introduction-to-Political-Communication.pdf], McNair, B. (2011). An introduction to political communication. Taylor &amp; Francis.&lt;/ref&gt;

Viral spreading of information online is another method used both socially and politically to reach wider audiences, and this is done so through platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr and other popular social media sites. This is a method of spamming, which can be done through consistent advertising, whether that is paid for or spread by [[w:Internet celebrity|online celebrities]] to reach a wider audience. Social examples of viral spreading include youtube videos e.g. Anything posted by the notoriously known 'viral video creator', [https://www.youtube.com/user/tommcflytwitter Tom Fletcher], or shocking and exciting images that were perhaps posted online in order to become 'viral'. As it seems, contemporary audiences of political announcements tend to discuss or voice their opinions online via social media, therefore this viral spreading of political messages will be best received through such platforms.

===== Working Tax Credits =====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Stop-the-tax-cuts.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[w:Labour Party (UK)|The Labour Party]] campaign material for the Working Tax Credit campaign. Credit: The Labour Party UK]]&lt;/div&gt;
Take for example the [http://press.labour.org.uk/post/130387490714/labour-launches-national-campaign-to-stop-tory-tax recent campaign against cuts to [[w:Working tax credit|Working Tax Credits]] in the United Kingdom], organised by [[w:The Labour Party (UK)|The Labour Party]] in opposition to the [[w:Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party's]] plans. The vast majority of the work to mobilise individuals and communicate information in this campaign was through social media platforms, e-mails, and an [http://www.labour.org.uk/page/s/tory-tax-credit-cut online petition]. This allowed the campaign to become very widely known and supported in a short period of time. The outcome of this campaign was that [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34915218 the Conservatives had to scrap their plan] to cut the Working Tax Credits scheme.

=====Public and Private Spheres in Relation to Political Agendas=====

Peter Dahlberg argues that there are a number of different Internet based public spheres which contribute to modern political communication, including;

{|style=&quot;background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};width:750px;margin:none;border:1px solid lightgrey&quot; align=center
|- 
| style= &quot; text-align: center; padding: 10px 0 0 0&quot;| 1. Versions of ''e-government'', usually with a top-down character, where government
representatives interact with citizens and where information about governmental
administration and services is made available. While interaction may be
relatively constricted, it can still at times serve as a sector of the public sphere.
This sector is sometimes distinguished from e-governance, which emphasizes
horizontal civic communication and input for government policy.

2. The ''advocacy/activist domain,'' where discussion is framed by organizations with
generally shared perceptions, values, and goals—and geared for forms of political
intervention. These include traditional parliamentarian politics, established
corporate and other organized interest group politics (e.g., unions), and the new
politics of social movements and other activists.

3. The vast array of ''diverse civic forums'' where views are exchanged among citizens
and deliberation can take place. This is generally understood as the paradigmatic
version of the public sphere on the Net, but it would be quite erroneous to
neglect the others.

4. The ''prepolitical or parapolitical domain'', which airs social and cultural topics
having to do with common interests and/or collective identities. Here politics is
not explicit but always remains a potential. Clearly, there is no absolute way in
which the boundary between the nonpolitical and the parapolitical can be drawn,
since it is always in part discursively negotiated and changeable.

5. The ''journalism domain'', which includes everything from major news organizations
that have gone online (e.g., newspapers and news programs) to Net-based news organizations
(usually without much or any original reporting) such as [[w:Yahoo!|Yahoo! News]]
News, alternative news organizations, as
well as one-person weblog sites (also known as [[w:Blog|“bloggers”]]). Interestingly, the
research literature has tended to focus mainly on deliberative interaction in terms
of online public spheres and/or mass media journalism. We should not forget
that the online journalism sector is a core element of the public sphere on the
Internet.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2005&quot;&gt;[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10584600590933160], Dahlgren, P. (2005). The Internet, public spheres, and political communication: Dispersion and deliberation. Political communication, 22(2), 147-162.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}


It is the activist/advocacy domain and civic forums where political agendas and the utilisation of the public and private spheres of social media come into play the most. In particular, the contrast between campaigns which are shaped by the party or politicians, and campaigns which are shaped by 'ordinary' individuals. The way in which political parties and politicians manipulate what they share on private and public spheres and the influence this has on the promotion of political agendas is of particular importance.


The Working Tax Credits campaign was not only successful due to the high profile social media campaign, but also because it used the private and public spheres of the internet and social media to its advantage. By informing members and supporters with key information an tools through e-mails, the face of this campaign became 'ordinary people' being helped by a party, not just a Party campaign, and this became what is commonly known as a [[w:Grassroots|'grassroots campaign']]. These types of campaigns are normally more supported by individuals, as it is seen as more authentic and trustworthy than a slick political machine type campaign.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fieldhouse 2009&quot;&gt;[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007123409000726], Fieldhouse, E., &amp; Cutts, D. (2009). The effectiveness of local party campaigns in 2005: combining evidence from campaign spending and agent survey data. British Journal of Political Science, 39(02), 367-388.&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''Publicly''', due to the amount of 'ordinary' people sharing and supporting the campaign on social media, and all activities being run by ordinary people, this was outwardly a very grassroots campaign which won over the electorate.
* '''Privately''', this campaign was run by The Labour Party just like any other political campaign, as they provided activists with all the materials, information, and instructions they needed to successfully front the campaign. This tactic is just one example of how public and private spheres on the internet and social media can influence political agendas.


This utilisation of how individuals perceive political agendas, especially through Internet mediums, is also used in more sinister fashions by political parties and politicians in order to promote an agenda. The most prominent example of this behaviour is [[w:Smear campaign|political smear campaigns]]. This is where a certain party or politician will 'leak' information from a private sphere, i.e an individual's personal life, in order to discredit that individual, be it another party or politician, and promote an agenda within that expose. This leaked information is often untrue or taken out of context to suit an agenda, and therefore why it is a 'smear'. A privately orchestrated smear campaign can also be exposed by individuals, again in order to discredit the individual who planned the campaign and promote a political agenda. The use of smear campaigns and the exposing of a smear campaign are two similar yet different practices which show how political parties can promote an agenda through manipulating private and public spheres online.

=====John McCain's 'Illegitimate' Child=====

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:John McCain.jpg|thumbnail|right|x150px|John McCain, Republican Party. Credit:[[w:Federal government of the United States|US Government]].]]&lt;/div&gt;

In 2000 during the [[w:Republican Party presidential primaries#2000|Republican Presidential Nomination]] race, [[w:John McCain|John McCain]] was set to to win the state of South Carolina against [[w:George W. Bush|George W. Bush]]. This was thwarted however by one of Bush's strategists, [[w:Karl Rove|Karl Rove]], who orchestrated a [[w:Whispering campaign|'whispering' campaign']] via an anonymous [[w:Open access poll#Online poll|online poll]] to voters which asked the question &quot;Would you be more or less likely to vote for John McCain…if you knew he had fathered an illegitimate black child?&quot; McCain was at the time campaigning with his dark-skinned daughter, Bridget, adopted from Bangladesh.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Nittle |first=Nadra Kareem |date=2016-01-08 |title=Racist Republican Smear Campaigns in the 21st Century |url=http://racerelations.about.com/od/diversitymatters/tp/Racist-Republican-Smear-Campaigns-In-The-21st-Century.htm |newspaper=About News |access-date=2016-03-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; This campaign was a huge contributor to the result of this, which was that Bush did indeed win the state and go on to secure the Republican nomination.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Banks |first=Ann|date=2008-01-14 |title=﻿ Dirty Tricks, South Carolina and John McCain |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/dirty-tricks-south-carolina-and-john-mccain |newspaper=The Nation |access-date=2016-03-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By circulating this untrue information into the public sphere online, Rove successfully manipulated the lines between public and private spheres via the Internet and managed to help Bush pursue his political agenda.

==== The Rise of Digital and Social Media in Political Activity ====

This political campaign tactic of manipulating public and private spheres online has become widely popular due to the rise of social media in political communication. Social media is now not only one of the main forms of distributing political information, but has also [http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/10/19/social-media-and-political-engagement become a major tool for political engagement].&lt;ref name=&quot;Rainie&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Rainie |first=Lee |date=2012-10-19 |title='Social Media and Political Engagement' |url=http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/10/19/social-media-and-political-engagement |access-date=2016-03-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; Through social networking sites such as [[w:Facebook|Facebook]], [[w:Twitter|Twitter]], and even [[w:YouTube|YouTube]], politicians and political organisations are employing creative and more accessible methods of engaging with individuals.

* {{font color||yellow|'''Facebook'''}}
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:FBshareLC.png|thumbnail|right|The Facebook 'share' function.]]&lt;/div&gt;
:Facebook is [http://www.adweek.com/socialtimes/largest-social-networks-worldwide/504044 the largest social networking site on the Internet],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Bennett |first=Shea |date=2014-12-24 |title='The 10 Biggest Social networks Worldwide' |url=http://www.adweek.com/socialtimes/largest-social-networks-worldwide/504044 |newspaper=Social Times |access-date=2016-03-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; sitting at approximately [http://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users 1.55 billion users as of January 2016]. Increasingly, Facebook has become the place where more and more people are getting the majority of their political information from. According to a study by the [[w:Pew Research Center|Pew research Center]], the percentage of Facebook users who classed the site as their main source of news had risen from 47% in 2013, to 63% in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Barthel |first=Michael |date=2015-07-14 |title='The Evolving Role of News on Twitter and Facebook' |url=http://www.journalism.org/2015/07/14/the-evolving-role-of-news-on-twitter-and-facebook |access-date=2016-03-10}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, around 66% of Facebook users are reported to participate in [[w:Civic engagement|civic]] or [[w:Political campaign|political activities]] through this channel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rainie&quot;/&gt;

:* {{font color||thistle|Public engagement}}
:: There are a number of ways in which [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] allows politicians and political party's to engage with individuals in a public sphere online. On a very simplistic level, Facebook pages allow an individual to connect with certain parties and politicians, keeping them up to date with political information through [[W:Facebook features#Like|'liking']] the page and therefore seeing anything that page posts on their [[w:Facebook features#News Feed|personal 'news feed']] - similar to a [[w:Home page|homepage]] on a website. The act of 'liking' a page or post by a political party or politician also enables an individual to publicly show support for that particular party/politician or agenda. More complex functions of political engagement which can be constructed through Facebook include Facebook [[w:Q&amp;A|Q&amp;A sessions]] with politicians, [http://www.facebook.com/poll Facebook polls] which allows users to express a public opinion on certain issues and inform the [http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/O/op_original_poster.html original poster] of this opinion, and also [[w:facebook features#Facebook groups|&quot;Open&quot; Facebook groups]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/help/220336891328465 |title= 'What are the Facebook Group Privacy Settings?'}}&lt;/ref&gt; which are extremely useful  mediums where any user can join, see discussions and engage with - political types of these groups are useful for communicating information and campaign material, and also provide a valuable political [[w:Political criticism|debating/discussion]] platform for individuals.

:* {{font color||MistyRose|Private engagement}}
:: Privately, Facebook offers a [[w:Personal message#Social media|private messaging service]], [[w:Facebook Messenger|Facebook Messenger]], where users can create a private discussion space through what is usually a public forum. This is particularly useful as it can allow political parties, politicians, and individuals to have more detailed, personal conversations about political issues, as there is less fear and risk of judgement from the public sphere.

:: Referring back to the concept of Facebook Groups, Facebook also allows [[w:Facebook features#Networks and groups|'Closed' and 'Secret' groups]]. Again, the extra level of privacy granted by these [[w:Privacy issues of social networking sites#Facebook|settings]] often allows individuals to be more comfortable discussing political issues. Furthermore, this also allows for political groups themselves to easily organise, share materials, and communicate in a singular pace, without fear of [[w:Entryism|'infiltration']] by those who seek to do them harm.

* {{font color||yellow|'''Twitter'''}}
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
:* {{font color||thistle|Public engagement}}
:: Similar to Facebook, [[w:Twitter|Twitter]] offers a public platform for individuals to engage with political parties and politicians. Any user can send a [[w:Twitter|'tweet']] to another user, including political parties. Twitter is useful as it limits each tweet to 140 characters, and therefore questions can be asked and answered very quickly, and political debates are very fast-paced.

:: Twitter also pioneered with [[w:Hashtag|'hashtags']] which users can follow. By typing in '#[insert text]' in a tweet, an individual can contribute to a mass discussion on the same issue. Also, by searching the hashtag on Twitter, users can follow any discussion surrounding that topic. This makes Twitter one of the most accessible and fast-growing social networking sites for political communication and agenda promotion.

:: &lt;u&gt;Example; [[#Hong Kong's Umbrella Revolution|The Hong Kong 'Umbrella Revolution']] - #UmbrellaRevolution &lt;/u&gt;

:* {{font color||MistyRose|Private engagement}}

:: Twitter is much less limited with what it allows users to do privately. Direct Messaging (DM's) is Twitter's private messaging service, and this serves the same function for political engagement that Facebook Messenger does. Although, it does also have the 140 character limit, which can make it difficult to communicate detailed information.&lt;ref&gt;Al-Deen, H. S. N., &amp; Hendricks, J. A. (2011). Social media: usage and impact. Lexington Books.&lt;/ref&gt;

* {{font color||yellow|'''YouTube'''}}
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Logo Canale YouTube (2013-2017).jpg|thumbnail|right|x100px|Current YouTube Logo. Credit:[[User:Ash-03]]]]&lt;/div&gt;
:YouTube, the Internet's [http://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2?IR=T largest video sharing platform],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Dickey |first=Megan Rose |date=2013-02-13 |title='The 22 Key Turning Points in the History of YouTube' |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2?IR=T}}&lt;/ref&gt; is now becoming more popular as a platform for political agendas to be promoted in the online public sphere, with YouTube now even [http://techcrunch.com/2010/06/03/youtube-launches-campaign-toolkit-for-politicians launching a political toolkit for campaigners an politicians].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Rao |first=Leena |title='YouTube Launches Campaign Toolkit for Politicians' |newspaper=TechCrunch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:* {{font color||thistle|Public engagement}}
:: Videos on YouTube can be seen by millions of individuals. As videos are shared from YouTube to other social network sites also, it can make the possibility for political persuasion phenomenal. YouTube videos also allow for discussion and debate to take place via a [[w:YouTube#User comments|comments]] section on videos which are [[w:YouTube#Uploading|uploaded]].

:: Example; The [[w: United States presidential election, 2012|2012 presidential campaign in the US]].
:: In this election, YouTube was extremely prominent in voter persuasion and encouraging political engagement. Both [[w:Barack Obama|Barack Obama]] and [[w:Mitt Romney|Mitt Romney's]] teams were posting [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJ8c28lmnoM creative, tailored video content] online, and videos containing the tags 'Obama' and 'Romney' were viewed approximately 2.7 billion times.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Krashinsky |first=Susan |date=2012-11-02 |title='How YouTube has transformed the 2012 presidential election' |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/us-election/how-youtube-has-transformed-the-2012-presidential-election/article4871244 |newspaper=The Globe And Mail}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:* {{font color||MistyRose|Private engagement}}
:: Similar to Twitter, YouTube has sparse private engagement methods. There is again a private e-mail service, but that is about it. YouTube does however allow for any video to be made public or private, so the user does have some manual control over who they share the video with.

==== Political Communication Online ====
Following Maletzke's definition of [[w:Mass communication|mass communication]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Maletzke 1963&quot;&gt;Maletzke, G. (1963). ''Psychologie der Massenkommunikation: Theorie und Systematik''. Hamburg: Hands-Bredow-Institut.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:Lasswell's model of communication|Lasswell's model of communication]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Lasswell 1948&quot;&gt;Lasswell, H. D. (1948). ''The Structure and Function of Communication in Society.'' in The Communication of Ideas. A Series of Addresses. Bryson, L. (ed.). New York: Norton.&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Political communication|political communication]] is that kind of communication, where [[w:Player (political)|political players]] construct messages, which are transmitted by means of technically instrumental media to a disperse audience and which are used by the latter and provoke an effect on those. But political communication can also go into the opposite direction, meaning citizens communicating to political players, or horizontally, between players or between citizens.

The strongest form of political communication is information with persuasion as a special form, which tries to influence the political [[w:Participation (decision making)|participation]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; Hence, political information uses the public sphere to influences the public opinion and finally the opinion of individuals in their private sphere. This section therefore focusses on the forming of public opinion through political communication online.

On the Internet the presentation modes are multifaceted in comparison with many other media types: Information is mediated with under through Youtube-videos, newsletters, Wikipedia or online journal articles, social media posts or pictures - adapting to different user preferences to acquire information. For instance, texts can be received slower than videos.

The crucial part of all offers are their [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|digital characteristics]]. Not only does it facilitates the storage of information [[#Uncoupling of Space and Time|uncoupled of space and time]], but it also enables the reproduction of the messages and an immediate (interpersonal) response by the audience, i.e. in discussion forums (see [[#User-generated Content|user-generated content]]). Consequently the public disperse audience and its public discussion are enlarged and networked: People can get in touch with opinions that they would never get to know in their physical public sphere and they can do so without moving out of their physical private sphere.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Two step flow of communication.png|thumb|left|Concept of the Two step flow of communication]]&lt;/div&gt;
Catalysed by the possibility for everyone to become an author, public information is not filtered by traditional [[w:Gatekeeper|gatekeepers]] (i.e. journalists), but normal citizens can post about topic. On one hand they increase the diversity of opinions, but as they can become opinion leaders and as they often pick up information from mass media, they thereby create a double filtering of the public opinion (“[[w:Two-step flow of communication|Two-Step-Flow of Communication]]”).&lt;ref name=&quot;Schulz 2008&quot; /&gt; Additionally the growing participation online worsens the information overload, so that search engines are asked to filter and manage the amount. Everything that is not registered by them belongs to the invisible web &lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; - consequently search engines have a huge effect on formation of public opinions as well.

With regard to [[w:Wikileaks|Wikileaks]], one may think, that the transparency of the public sphere increases online, but it might actually worsen the [[w:spiral of silence|spiral of silence]]:&lt;ref name=&quot;Noelle-Neumann 1996&quot; /&gt; Through public measurement tools, i.e. &quot;clicks&quot; or &quot;[[w:Like button|likes]]&quot;, a public opinion is emphasised as highly supported, although it in fact he might be not.

Additionally, this kind of political communication is  unproven in quality and validity (in comparison with institutional [[w:Journalism|journalism]]; i.e. in Germany newspapers are only allowed to publish information, proven by two separate news agencies).

Finally the biggest weakness of the internet is, that it is a pull-medium.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bleicher 2010&quot; /&gt; Hence one can only reach those, who are already interested in and looking for an issue, that they have heard about before. The danger is, that people are informed one-sided and in combination with various possibilities to filter the information overload, they could be kept in an [http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/05/facebook-keeping-you-political-bubble &quot;''political bubble''&quot;].&lt;ref name=&quot;Bohannon 2015&quot;&gt;[http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/05/facebook-keeping-you-political-bubble] Bohannon, J. (2015). Is Facebook keeping you in a political bubble? '' American Association for the Advancement of Science''. Retrieved 03/06, 2016, from http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/05/facebook-keeping-you-political-bubble&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:Knowledge gap hypothesis|knowledge gap hypothesis]] adds, that people with a higher-education and political interest can receive information faster than people without these preconditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bentele 2003&quot;&gt;Bentele, G., Brosius, H. B., Jarren, O. (2003). ''Öffentliche Kommunikation: Handbuch Kommunikations- und Medienwissenschaft''. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag GmbH.&lt;/ref&gt; In combination with [[w:digital divide|digital divide]] and digital analphabetism, through which a certain part of the world's population is excluded from &quot;public&quot; online discussions, the knowledge gap increases: Higher-educated and political interested people with access to and competence to deal with (controversial) political communication cultivate more and more, whereas people without these basis get less antithetic stimuli resulting in them staying in their political bubble. Therefore political communication strategies should be applied cross-medial, for instance [[w:Agenda-setting theory|setting an agenda]] in push media first to encourage as much citizens as possible to inform themselves further through online research.

=== Online-activism by Citizens ===
Online-activism, also known as [[w:Internet activism|Internet activism]] is commonly identified as a practice where politically motivated citizens use the internet and various online technologies to achieve certain goals. 
As explained by Sandor Vegh,&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot;&gt;Vegh,S. Classifying Form of Online Activism in McCaughey, M. (2003). ''Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice''. New York, NY; London: Routledge.&lt;/ref&gt; the strategies implied can be either ''internet-enhanced'' or ''internet-based''. The former indicates a situation where the internet is used to enhance traditional techniques for protests, such as spreading awareness on a topic, creating e-petitions on websites like [https://www.change.org/en-GB/petitions Change.org] and call for action, either online or offline. The latter indicates form of activism that only happen online, like [[#Hackers and Hacktivism|hackers's activities]] identified as [[w:hacktivism|hacktivism]], targeting or protests against [[#Online Piracy and S.O.P.A|internet-related bans]].

Online-activism generally divides in three categories, each of them emphasising different aspects of protests against someone or something, the people involved and the methods applied:&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt;

*'''''Awareness/advocacy:''''' this category characterises the type of people who produce and receive information. The goal of activists in this part of the process is that to divulge information regarding certain topics through a distribution networks made of online petitions, Facebook pages, blogs or email lists. In this case, content producer are most likely to be individual citizens or independent organisation and they have as their main goal that of sharing and putting out for public condemnation those information which might have gone underreported or not reported at all, concealed by mainstream media because of an undemocratic regime, or internal cases such as breach of human rights. Similarly, online advocacy involves both spreading awareness and promoting a certain way of action. Indeed, it can focus on both asking for intervention on a singular case or for continual effort for a future and long-distant goal about a great issue, such as [[w:climate change|climate change]]. A form of advocacy is identified in [[w:lobbying|lobbying]] which differs accordingly to the target of a lobbyist’s action. For instance, [http://www.arthritis.org/new-york/state-advocacy/e-advocates.php e-Advocates] are groups of activist that offer lobbying on behalf of organisation and individuals that lack the internet knowledge and practices to successfully involve people in campaigns. This form of online-activism increases the scale of people that can be potentially informed and consequentially involved, either online or offline. Likewise, it is time- and cost- saving as it allows to use the internet to virtually spread a message. Moreover, through discussion pages and social media people can exchange information [[#Uncoupling of Space and Time|asynchronously and despite geographical constraints]].


*'''''Organisation/Mobilisation:''''' this category includes two different ways of proceeding in regard to how the internet can be used for activist mobilisation. Firstly, it can be used to call for offline action, meaning that information will be provided regarding the place and time at which a protest or demonstration will happen. In this case the trajectory is online → offline. Secondly, it can be used to encourage actions that traditionally happen offline but that would have a better outcome if done online, such as requesting explanations and stating demands through emails, petitions and tweets with a specific person or company as receiver. Here, the trajectory becomes offline → online


*'''''Action/Reaction:''''' this category includes activism that can only happen online and often takes the form of hackers attacks, massive spamming campaigns and [[w:smurf attacks|Smurf attack]] that aim at taking down or saturate the servers of entities identified as detrimental.


All these forms and steps of online-activism, especially if combined, can help bring about cultural, social and political changes. The degree of efficacy and duration of these changes remains debatable.

==== Forms and Platforms ====
As explained in [[#Online-activism by Citizens|Online-activism by Citizens]] there are two ways in which online activism occurs: ''internet-enhanced'' and ''internet-based'' activism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot;/&gt; 
Related to those forms are different kind of platforms where the citizen can participate to achieve the certain goal of the activism. Certain platforms can give ordinary people a voice to express their opinions and can encourage change. Therefore, each platform provides specific characteristics that can advance or even strengthen the outcome and purpose of the action. This section discusses several platforms and their usage as a kind of 'promoter', nevertheless this represents only a fraction of the most widely used platforms that are related to online activism practices.
 
Social networks are merely used as an additional communicative tool for arising awareness or to coordinate the traditional, off-line protest forms. Especially the usage of the two largest social media platform [http://facebook.com Facebook](59 billion monthly active users)&lt;ref&gt;Company Info | Facebook newsroom. (2004, February 4). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://twitter.com/ Twitter](320 million monthly active users).&lt;ref&gt;Company | About. (2016). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from Twitter, https://about.twitter.com/company&lt;/ref&gt; Users and activists can exchange text messages, video or audio files, photos and other information on their profiles. Word spreads quickly online and online fundraising can raise a staggering amount of money in a very short period of time if enough people back the cause and spread the information on social media. Additionally, activists on Facebook can join common-interest user groups, spread specific content and organise off-line protests or strategies for the action. Twitter and Facebook are separated in their opportunities for information sharing as Twitter is a micro-blogging platform, where user can declare messages with a maximum amount of 140 characters. The interconnected nature of Facebook and Twitter leads to an easier way of information sharing and can generate a huge amount of traffic&lt;ref name=&quot;Lewis 2014&quot;&gt;Lewis, K. &amp; Gray, K. &amp; Meierhenrich, J. (2014). “The Structure of Online Activism.” In ''Sociological Science'' 1: 1-9. DOI: 10.15195/v1.a1&lt;/ref&gt; in a less time and cost-consuming way as well as up-to-date status.&lt;ref&gt;Reesh, Anna. (2013). Digital and Online Activism. Retrieved from https://en.reset.org/knowledge/digital-and-online-activism&lt;/ref&gt; 
A development related to the online activism on social networks and one of the strongest tools is the so-called [[w:Hashtag activism|hashtag activism]] as the use of them can coordinate the traffic and, in addition, function as a measurement tool. A research by Emily Vraga reveals that videos “can be shared easily, quickly, and effectively through a variety of other mechanisms, including e-mail, other social media, and even print media, and then watched at the viewer’s leisure”&lt;ref name=&quot;Vraga 2013&quot;&gt;Vraga, Emily K. (2013). The Rules of Engagement: Comparing Two Social Protest Movements on YouTube in ''CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING.'' DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0117&lt;/ref&gt;  via the platform [http://youtube.com YouTube]. 
It further emphasis, that videos related to a political action can serve a “communal resource, informing, motivating, and connecting like-minded others”&lt;ref name=&quot;Thorson 2013&quot;&gt;Thorson K, Driscoll K, Ekdale B, et al. (2013). YouTube, Twitter, and the occupy movement connecting content and circulation practices in ''Information, Communication, and Society'' 2013; 16:421–451.&lt;/ref&gt;  as well as target new audiences precisely and boost viewership. Video sharing platforms provide tools to catch people´s attention as moving images have a more emotional driven effect. Such tools and platforms are also used for cause-related activism such as [[w:Lobbying|lobbying]] and [[w:Fundraising|fundraising]].

Online-petitions (also known as e-petitions or internet petitions) are an extended tool of the traditional petitions as they are less time and cost-consuming and include the opportunity to reach and participate a bigger group of people. Those internet-based petitions also follow the purpose to protest against and urge for positive policy changes on any topic by sending them to the government or organisations. Thereby e-petition can be implemented through two forms: e-mail and world wide web.&lt;ref name=&quot;Earl 2006&quot;&gt;Earl J. (2006). Pursuing Social Change Online: The Use of Four Protest Tactics on the Internet in ''Social Science Computer Review'', Vol. 24 n 3&lt;/ref&gt; The former sends petitions or certain information to subscribers or members of a website or platform based on [[w:Electronic mailing list|electronic mailing list systems]] (so-called [[w:LISTSERV|Listserv]]). The latter indicates websites like [https://www.change.org/ Change.org] or [http://front.moveon.org/ Moveon.org] where people can address a petition. When a website hosts a petition, visitors have to sign in electronically and are often required to give personal data like their name and e-mail. Furthermore, petitions like those on [http://change.org change.org] or [http://moveon.org moveon.org] could be integrated with social media channels and as a consequence achieve a higher participation. Since 2015, citizens in the UK are able to petition against the policy of their government nearly 7,190 petitions were registered and even 20 of them were debated in parliament.&lt;ref&gt;UK Government and Parliament. Petitions. Retrieved from https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions&lt;/ref&gt; Many NGOs or charities use online petitions, too, to reach their goals in environmental issues like [https://secure.greenpeace.org.uk/page/content/sta-time-is-running-out greenpeace.com].

In addition, the mostly negatively associated form of hacktivism belongs to online activism. Originally this kind of activism “is a politically motivated single-incident online action, or a campaign thereof, taken by nonstate actors in retaliation to express disapproval or to call attention to an issue advocated by the activists.”&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt;
Hackers make use of [[w: denial-of-Service attacks|denial-of-service attacks]] to get access to private or secret governmental information. As nearly all spaces of the public and private sphere depend on technologies that are driven by computer networks, attacks become more and more threatening. Regarding Sandor Vegh, hackers are divided into “wired activists”, just adapting the internet to their strategy and “politicised hackers”, adopting political causes as the justification of their acting.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt;

==== Effects ====
Some experts argue that the rise in activism online has caused a negative effect regarding the amount of activism that is done in real life. This so-called [[w:Slacktivism|Slacktivism]] causes people to do less for their community as they feel 'satisfied by their participation in the low-cost online activism'.&lt;ref&gt;[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.416.6446&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf], Reference Required&lt;/ref&gt; Because of this, there is less activism in the public sphere outside of the online communities because people feel as if they have been doing their good deeds online. Furthermore, there are experts who argue that it is oversimplified to say that technology is the reason that certain activist movements are so effective.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rahaghi, 2012&quot;&gt;Rahaghi, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; An online revolution often does not help a revolution in the real world; face-to-face action is needed to help a cause move forward. Online communities are too impersonal and do not have the influence that a mob of demonstrating participants may have.

However, it can be argued that online activism has positive effects as well. It has become easier to use your voice through various websites such as [https://twitter.com/ Twitter], [https://www.change.org/start-a-petition change.org], [http://www.tumblr.com Tumblr] and [http://www.facebook.com Facebook] people are able to spread information and news about activism quicker than ever before. The effect of this is that a larger audience is brought into contact with views, issues and campaigns that are associated with certain online activist movements. In large protest movements, a great number of people can be contacted online and made aware of this movement, as the examples in the next sub-section will discuss. Though it might be difficult to join a demonstration in a city far away from you or help with a campaign in a different country, online-activism provides a platform for many people to have their voice heard regardless. It's a cost-effective way of spreading a message and creating dialogues; people are able to discuss, exchange ideas and offer different perspectives on the subject, and that without having to start an expensive, wide-spread campaign via for example radio or television. This can lower barriers for minority voices, creating a platform for a more diverse, large group of people.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rahaghi, 2012&quot;/&gt;

What online activism also changes is the way people protest. For example, people are less likely to go to a sit-in or to a demonstration, but they are more likely to sign petitions or tweet, e-mail or message celebrities, government officials or institutions or other important figures.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jstor.org/stable/40376135 link] Reference Required&lt;/ref&gt; Important figures in the public have to be more careful what they post online, as a wave of comments on their tweets and Facebook posts is inevitable. This [[w:Fourth-wave of Feminism|call-out culture]] is a key effect that online-activism has had. Everything that a public figure may post online is challenged or confronted if it is problematic in some way, causing them to be more careful and more aware of activist movements. This happens with people in every-day life, too; discussions on social media about political movements and social activism. Some people may deem this as a negative development considering it is difficult to post views online without it being commented on, others may argue that this way the online society can move forward and be more considerate of individuals and aware of different movements.

Lastly, online-activism can offer a different perspective from mainstream media. Considering that [[w:Corporate Media|corporate media]] is an issue that causes companies to have influence in the media, the goals and stories of certain news articles cannot always be trusted. There are instances in which social media showed an incredibly different view of an event than mainstream media, for example with the #blacklivesmatter&lt;ref&gt;http://www.wired.com/2015/10/how-black-lives-matter-uses-social-media-to-fight-the-power/&lt;/ref&gt; movement. Online movements can provide information to those who do not trust the stories of the main news channels, or at the very least provide a different perspective from people posting live from events. Therefore, online-activism has created a different news outlet, and an individual information source when it comes to countless movements and organisation.

==== Past Events ====

===== ''Arab Spring'' =====
At the end December 2010 the Arab world saw an unprecedented series of social movements, protests and revolutions overall identified as [[w:Arab Spring|Arab Spring]]. 
{{Rquote|left|Blogs and forums fueled the changes in the Arabian world, [[w:new media|new media]] became the means for self empowerment. Still: The [[w:Revolution|revolution]] took place on the streets. |The German news magazine &quot;[[w:Der Spiegel|Spiegel]]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;El Difraoui 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.bpb.de/internationales/afrika/arabischer-fruehling/52420/die-rolle-der-neuen-medien?p=all], El Difraoui, A. (2011). ''Die Rolle der neuen Medien im Arabischen Frühling.'' Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Retrieved 02/27, 2013 from http://www.bpb.de/internationales/afrika/arabischer-fruehling/52420/die-rolle-der-neuen-medien?p=all&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Numerous considerations and studies have been made regarding the role and relationship between uprisings and social media networks for their diffusion and coordination. Namely, people interacted with each other and the world through various platforms that ultimately made the message uncontrollable by their regimes. Although the causes of people’s resentment toward their governments had already economic and political foundation, the triggering event happened and propagated online: [[w:Mohamed Bouazizi|Mohamed Bouazizi]], a street vendor, on the 17th December in [[w:Sidi Bouzid|Sidi Bouzid]], [[w:Tunisia|Tunisia]] set himself on fire in front of a government’s office in protest against officials violence, humiliation and the seizing of his goods and cart. Videos recorded on mobile phones were quickly posted on the internet, from where they spread across [https://en-gb.facebook.com/login/%20Facebook Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/login?lang=en-gb%20Twitter Twitter] gathering thousands of protesters first in the small town and eventually in the capital. The [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jHw_auqod6Y video], together with those of the spontaneous uprisings just few hours after Mohamed's self immolation [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qP0ZGsAD_6M][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6chjIV--QlI], reached even satellite news channels like [[w:Al Jazeera|Al Jazeera]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Mackey 2011&quot;&gt;[http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/22/video-that-triggered-tunisias-uprising/] Mackey, R. (2011). Video That Set Off Tunisia’s Uprising in ''The New York Times'', 22 January 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

In similar circumstances, six months before the blogger and activist [[w:Khaled Saeed|Khaled Saeed]] was beaten to death by the police while being taken from a cybercafe in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]].
Photos of his disfigured corpse were taken by his brother while visiting the morgue and shared online. After five days from his death, an anonymous activist created a page on Facebook titled [https://www.facebook.com/ElShaheeed We Are All Khaled Saeed] and divulged the pictures. By the 15th of July more than 130,000 had joined the page, making it the biggest dissent page in Egypt ever.&lt;ref name=&quot;Preston 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/06/world/middleeast/06face.html] Preston, J. (2011). Movement Began With Outrage and a Facebook Page That Gave It an Outlet in ''The New York Times'', 5 February 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
Following these events, on December 18 youth activist [[w:Asmaa Mahfouz|Asmaa Mahfouz]] posted on [http://www.youtube.com YouTube] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIuiWLTMonY video appeal] to urge her fellow citizens to protest [[w:Tahrir Square|Tahrir Square]] with her on 25 January against the regime of [[w:Hosni Mubarak|Hosni Mubarak]].

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:2011 Egyptian protests Facebook &amp; jan25 card.jpg|thumb|right|Social Media and their extensive usage in the Arab Spring]]&lt;/div&gt;
While it is difficult to isolate the amount of importance that each of these events from the way that they were shared, there is no doubt that how they were circulated online gave ordinary, non-activist people a way to connect with battles for human rights against government’s oppression and police abuse of power. Notably, “social media carried a cascade of messages about freedom and democracy across North Africa and the Middle East, and helped raise expectations for the success of political uprising, while people who shared interest in democracy built extensive social networks and organised political action. Social media became a critical part of the toolkit for greater freedom.” &lt;ref name=&quot;O'Donnell 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.washington.edu/news/2011/09/12/new-study-quantifies-use-of-social-media-in-arab-spring/] O’Donnell, C. (2011). New study quantifies use of social media in Arab Spring in ''University of Washington Today'', 12 September 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
In fact, social media platforms made it easier to involve people and get out the news for everyone to see and discuss, especially because newspaper and state television were biased and monitored. Indeed, all but one of the protests called for on Facebook ended up coming to life on the streets.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huang 2011&quot;&gt;[http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/facebook-and-twitter-key-to-arab-spring-uprisings-report] Huang, C. (2011). Facebook and Twitter key to Arab Spring uprisings: report in ''The National'', 6 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;
In particular Facebook was one of the primary source to both get information and organise protesters in the Arab regions, with an increase of 30% of users between January and April 2010, and almost double the users (27.7m against the 14.8 of 2010).&lt;ref name=&quot;Huang 2011&quot; /&gt;
This strengthened both the volume of protests and the rapidity with which protests spread across the Arab world. Moreover, protest and supporters broke geographical boundaries boundaries thanks to social media: After Mubarak resignation, there was an average of 2,400 tweets per day from people in neighbouring countries about Egypt. In Tunisia, after Ben Ali resignation, there were about 2,200.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Donnell 2011&quot; /&gt;

The way the message has been spread across countries and people, the output and reading of unbiased information and the bypass of government’s hold during the Arab Spring represents one of the most important example of people coming together to advocate for democracy. This defines for dictators a new enemy: &quot;If for a long time they had only political and fragmented ones, they now found opponents that use social media to identify goals, build solidarity and organise demonstrations.”&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Donnell 2011&quot; /&gt;
That is, if disagreement and anger among citizens have always existed, social media offer a tool to coordinate and push forward a reaction.

===== ''Hong Kong's Umbrella Revolution'' =====

The [[w: Umbrella Revolution|Umbrella Revolution]] or Umbrella Movement refers to the [[w: Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] protests for [[w: universal suffrage|universal suffrage]] and democracy that developed between 26 September and 15 December 2014 thanks to a group called [[w: Occupy Central With Love &amp; Peace|Occupy Central with Love and Peace]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Ivengar 2014&quot;&gt;[http://time.com/3471366/hong-kong-umbrella-revolution-occupy-central-democracy-explainer-6-questions/] Iyengar, R. (2014). Six Questions You Might Have About Hong Kong’s Umbrella Revolution in ''The Time'', October 5, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
Similar protests in Hong Kong against the [[w: Beijing|Beijing]] government had also interested almost half a million of people in July 2003, but, although having a successful outcome that managed to protect Hong Kong from China's interference, they did not have both the same growth and coverage of the Umbrella Revolution.&lt;ref name=&quot;Parker 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/social-media-hong-kong-protests] Parker, E. (2014). Social Media and the Hong Kong Protests in ''The New Yorker'', October 1, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
Indeed, protests organised in 2014 received a global network of online support and protesters themselves exceed locality and restriction in their manifestation events.  
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:台灣民主團體隔海聲援香港 (2).jpg|thumb|left| Pro-democracy protesters show flash lights outside the Government headquarters, 3 October 2014.]]&lt;/div&gt;

After being tear-gassed and pepper-sprayed by riot police in [[w:Admiralty|Admiralty]] two days after the beginning of protests, Josie Tao Cai-yi immediately shared what had happened to her online “First time I’ve actually witnessed the tear gas and pepper spray. Absolutely terrifying.” &lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1628305/role-social-media-occupy-protests-ground-and-around-world] Lee, D. (2014). The role of social media in Occupy protests, on the ground and around the world in ''South China Morning Post'', Thursday, 30 October 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
This propelled a flow tweets in support of the Occupy Central movement, thus bringing it to global attention. At the peak of police intervention in riots, 12 tweets about [[w: Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] were posted per second, with images and messages about police violent behaviour towards protesters being shown and shared by users all over the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot; /&gt;
This brought Scott Likens, analytics consulting lead at PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) China and Hong Kong, to comment on the events saying “we have seen progressive new ways to connect [on social media], serving the needs of something like this in real time... and making sure we’re always connected, [just so] the message can get out fast.” &lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot; /&gt;
In addition, Occupy Centre’s profiles on [https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/ Twitter], only two days after the beginning of protests gathered respectively 100,000 and 25,000 followers, followed by a series of pages aimed at explaining to anti-Occupy audiences the reason of protesters and convince them to join the cause.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lee 2014&quot; /&gt;

The way people started sharing images, tweets and videos of protests prompted Beijing government to censor both protesters and those who showed sympathy for them, with also almost a dozen of people being detained after scrutiny.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mozur 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/02/business/protesters-are-targets-of-scrutiny-through-their-phones.html] Mozur, P. (2014). Protesters in Hong Kong Are Targets of Scrutiny Through Their Phones in ''The New York Times'', October 1, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
Censorship had as its main focus [http://weibo.com/login.php?lang=en-us Weibo], China’s version of Twitters, with analytics reporting that only in September 28 the rate of censorship outweighed the one adopted in occasion of the 25th anniversary of [[w: Tiananmen Square|Tiananmen Square]]. Because people were sharing pictures and videos on Instagram, access to the app was blocked, in agreement with previously arranged censorship in China of websites like [https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook] and [https://www.youtube.com/ YouTube].&lt;ref name=&quot;Parker 2014&quot; /&gt;

As expected, this did not stop the protesters: virtual private networks were used to bypass the [[w: firewall|firewall]] and purposely misspelled words and codes were used to jump over targeted censor bots. 
In particular, protesters used [https://www.whatsapp.com/ Whatsapp] to coordinate messages about meeting in one place at once. 
The app [http://opengarden.com/firechat/ FireChat], which allows users to communicate through [[w:bluetooth|bluetooth]] and cellphone radio through mesh networking in a nearby chat,&lt;ref name=&quot;Chat&quot;&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=had4HLUnjic] FireChat Free instant messaging app For Android works without Internet&lt;/ref&gt; was used when authorities tried to shut down mobile networks and cut off internet networks.&lt;ref name=&quot;McKay 2014&quot;&gt;[http://mic.com/articles/100148/here-s-the-ingenious-way-protesters-in-hong-kong-are-organizing-themselves] McKay, T. (2014). Here's the Ingenious Way Protesters in Hong Kong Are Organizing Themselves in ''World.Mic'', September 30, 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
This meant that as long as phones remained in range with other, there was no way for authorities to prevent flow of messages apart from physically seizing phones. Only on September 29 [http://opengarden.com/firechat/ FireChat] users in Hong Kong were involved in 800,000 chat session and these were only the ones that were trackable. The company who owns FireChat in fact could only witness users who were online but once they wen off the grid, the actual number of people communicating was unguessable. More than 100,000 only in the first day had downloaded the app, with people using both for communication and to remain in contact with their families, as many of the early protesters were young people from the student community.&lt;ref name=&quot;McKay 2014&quot;/&gt;

In protests like 2014 Hong Kong [[w: Umbrella Revolution|Umbrella Revolution]] the Internet, convergent technologies and social media not only offer a powerful tool to fuel initiative, aggregation and coordination but also creates a window onto this events: if repression, censorship, violence from governments against its own citizens do happen, the entire world would be watching.

===== ''Occupy Wall Street'' =====
The so-called ''Occupy Wall Street'' (OWS) protest movement began in the late summer of 2011 in the [[w: Zuccotti Park|Zuccotti Park]], located in [[w: Financial District (Manhattan)|New York´s financial district]] and was mainly driven by [[#Online-activism by Citizens|online activism]]. The movement, which called for an end to the worldwide social and economic inequality and challenged the amount of corporate influence on government,&lt;ref&gt;Rees, A. Digital and online activism. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://en.reset.org/knowledge/digital-and-online-activism&lt;/ref&gt; increased its global attention and participation through the usage of social media platforms like [https://twitter.com/ Twitter], [http://facebook.com Facebook] and [https://youtube.com/ YouTube].

As the movement occurred, the international banking and finance crisis belongs to the past since almost three years and the [[#Arab Spring|Arab Spring]] was running for nearly six months. Among others, those events can be determined as influencing factors of the protest emergence. [[w: Kalle Lasn|Kalle Lasn]], executive editor of the Canadian, anti-consumerist, pro-environment magazine [http://adbusters.org Adbusters], initiated the call for the first protest on September, 17, in the Wall Street district via [https://twitter.com/ Twitter]. Nearly 5000 activists attended but the police pretended them to bore their way to the finance district's Wall Street. Nevertheless, the opponents succeeded in arranging a camp in the nearby Zuccotti park which from then on functions as the base of the protests.&lt;ref&gt;Die Occupy-Bewegung. (2011). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from http://www.bpb.de/politik/wirtschaft/finanzmaerkte/135540/occupy-bewegung?p=all&lt;/ref&gt; The movement´s call for a more fairly tax system and diminution of the gap between rich and poor was supported by the slogan [[w:We are 99 percent|“We are the 99%“]]. This referred to income inequality and wealth distribution in the U.S. between the wealthiest 1% and the rest of the population that was stated by the economist und former chief economist of the World Bank, [[w: Joseph E. Stiglitz|Joseph E. Stiglitz]], a few months before.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Intellectual Roots of Wall St. Protest Lie in Academe — Movement's principles arise from scholarship on anarchy&quot;. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; This first actions in September did not receive a large media or public attention. That changed on October, 1, as the police arrested more than 700 activists because of traffic obstruction during a demonstration that should lead over the [[w: Brooklyn Bridge|Brooklyn Bridge]]. This intervention causes a worldwide reaction and a large media coverage which can be seen as the breakthrough of the movement. In the following the movement swapped over to other countries all over the world. On October, 15 European movement activists from Madrid called for worldwide demonstrations as they claimed for an extension of the movements claims on the international bank and finance level. Finally, they achieved it to encourage people in more than 82 countries to join and support the occupy movement in less than one month. The movement could not achieve a noticeable change as the objective reasons are not solved until now.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt;

As described in [[#Organisation/Mobilisation|Organisation/Mobilisation]] by Sandor Vegh,&lt;ref name=&quot;Vegh 2003&quot; /&gt; the movement was partially but most importantly based on social networks to mobilise its activists for the off-line actions. Peter Dahlgren points out significant advantages or key tools as those platforms served the extent that occupies reach to other locations and turns out to become a component that facilitated an extensive web-based engagement, with much discussion or global linkage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot;&gt;Dahlgren, Peter. (August 2013). The Political Web. {{doi|10.1057/9781137326386}}.&lt;/ref&gt; 
By this, the usual kind of social media content consumer shifts to a “producer”,&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; as they are consuming information of the social media platforms but also produce own content [[#User-generated content|user-generated content]]. The sharing of YouTube content via Twitter or Facebook and the sharing of current cell phone footage as well as historical archive materials were central to the developed social media practices.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; From Septmeber, 17 to October, 10 the platform [https://twitter.com/ Twitter] generated the following traffic.&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:trendistic_-_occupywallst.jpg|thumb|right|Twitter statistic concerning the content traffic of the &quot;Occupy Wall Street&quot; © cdn.static-economist.com.]]&lt;/div&gt; At the end of October “approximately 70,000 results, including contributions from the OWS movement itself, as well as groups and individuals across a vast global political spectrum”&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; were yielded on [https://youtube.com/ YouTube].

Nevertheless, Dahlgren reveals that the actions of those political producers are involved in a continual process of adaptation while the user often ‘fast freeze’ the definitions of the mainstream. ”&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlgren 2013&quot; /&gt; Based on this phenomenon, the critic of the activism being less effective arises due to the fact the most of the activism remains to [[#Effects (under condition)|“clicktivism” or “slacktivism”]]. This argument of the activism lose in the actual activism movement was reinforced as the Occupy Wall Street movement has not produced the anticipated results.

===Collective Action Dilemma===

[[w:Howard Rheingold|Howard Rheingold]], born in [[w:Phoenix|Phoenix]], [[w:Arizona|Arizona]], is a critic, writer, and teacher who specialises on the cultural, social and political implications of media communication such as the internet. He attended [http://www.reed.edu/ Reed College] where he began his studied of his lifelong fascination with mind augmentation and its methods. In his book ''Smart Mobs'', he talks about the developments of the internet and he addresses the idea of Collective Action Dilemma, particularly in Chapter two: Technologies of Cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rheingold 2002&quot;/&gt;
He states that [[w:Mizuko Ito|Mizuko Ito]] enable him to understand different behaviours regarding teenage groups and the use of mobile phones. He wanted to know how this type of activity could mean for entire societies, and so the majority of the chapter is based on a conversation he had with friend and colleague Marc Smith. 
He defines the [[w:CollectiveAction|Collective Action]] action dilemma as the perpetual balancing of self-interest and public goods. It’s a situation which would benefit many individuals but various factors such as cost and space prevent it from happening to one individual. The ideal situation is then that the cost is shared amongst others and creates a balance between this and public goods, which is a resource from that all can benefit from, regardless of whether they help create it or not. Public goods increase in value the more people share them.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rheingold 2002&quot; /&gt;

He also states that people who enjoy a public good without contributing anything towards it are called free riders. Rheingold quotes Smith who describes more about free riders: ''“If everyone, acting in their own interest, free rides, then the public good is never created, or it is over consumed and goes away. Everyone suffers. There’s your dilemma. What’s good for you can be bad for us.&quot;''

[[w:Elinor Ostrom|Elinor Ostrom]] studied the way that people shared forestry in Japan and pasturelands in Sweden. Rheingold states in ''Smart Mobs'' that she defined eight ‘design principles’ of Common Pool Resources (CPRS’s)
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| Group boundaries clearly defined ||Rules governing use of collective goods matched to local needs||Most individuals affected by rules play part in modification  || Rights of community to devise own rules accepted by Government
|-
| Community undertake monitoring to ensure rules are adhered to ||Graduated system of sanctions used|| Community have access to low cost conflict resolution mechanisms || CPRs in larger systems provision, monitoring and conflict resolutions are organised in multiple layers of nested enterprises
|}

These cope with free riding and have since been expanded to include a number of additional variables believed to affect the success of self-organised governance systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Poteete and Ostrom 2010&quot;&gt;Poteete, J. and Ostrom, E. (2010). Working Together: Collective Action, the Commons, and Multiple Methods in Practice. Princeton University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Privacy on digital media ==

In an increasingly digital world, privacy is becoming a thing of the past. True privacy in the traditional sense, in the &quot;real&quot; or &quot;physical&quot; world is something that a lot of people strive for and previously were able to achieve. However, with the introduction of the internet we are given the illusion of privacy but seldom do we actually get it.

On the internet everything we do is tracked, all our information is stored and can be brought back at any point. Even if the user tries to delete it. Everything from our locations to our shopping habits is tracked and stored, and can be bought by companies. Although many users prefer not to be private at all and see digital media as a great outlet to publicly post about their lives, many users who feel like they have the option in actual fact do not. Privacy online has become something of an oxymoron because the two are completely incompatible with each other, this topic in the following sections will go on to describe how users cannot achieve real privacy in any form online.

=== Privacy rights and Awareness of Privacy Settings ===

When you are online, you tend to provide information about yourself almost every step of the way; this might range from your name to your address. The information you provide online is one similar to a puzzle with pieces of information that need to be connected before the full picture is revealed, for example, information you may provide when signing up to Facebook may be combined with information you may give when online shopping. When this information is all gathered together you may be surprised at how much one person can find out about you.

[[w:Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)|Global surveillance disclosures]] triggered a debate about the right to privacy in the digital age so it seems relevant that our privacy rights are explored in greater detail.

In one way or another we are all concerned with our privacy and our privacy rights online, as we all have aspects of our life we want to protect from others.  So much so that it has become a fundamental human right and we have a duty to protect our rights. [http://internetrightsandprinciples.org/wpcharter/archives/53 This article] gives an in depth understanding of our privacy rights online.

In order to get an understanding of our privacy rights online it is important to consider the following things:

'''Social Networking'''- how do we utilise privacy settings in order to improve or distort our public selves

The three main ways in which you are likely to access the Internet are as follows;
An ISP, a mobile phone carrier or a Wi-Fi hotspot. Every computer that is connected to the Internet has a unique IP address (Internet Protocol Address) and it is that number that actually allows you to send and receive information over the Internet. When you visit a website, the site can see your IP address which can in turn let the site know your geographical region. Moreover, there are ways in which you can block your IP address such as the website [https://www.torproject.org Tor Project ]

Furthermore, as technology is continuing to advance many of us now access the Internet via our smartphones. In this way you access the Internet using a data plan, which is tied to your phone service (Vodafone, Three, T-Mobile). Your phone provider collects data about your usage. Wi-Fi hotspots present serious security issues and it is crucial the terms and conditions are read before you set up a Wi-Fi hotspot.

'''Using Search Engines'''

Search Engines such as [https://www.google.co.uk Google] and [https://uk.yahoo.com Yahoo] have the ability to track each and every one of your searches. They have the ability to record your IP address, the time of the search and the search terms used. Major search engines have weighed in on this debate by saying IP addresses need to be accessed in order to provide a better service and to combat fraud quickly and effectively. Google and Yahoo have now shorted the time they store this information from one year to 9 months.

[https://duckduckgo.com DuckDuckGo] is a search engine that “''does not collect or share personal information''”  so there are other options available to us if you are concerned about your IP address bring tracked. They are not widely talked about though so if you didn’t know about them you probably didn’t think sites like DuckDuckGo ever existed.

'''Using Mobile Apps'''

Mobile Apps can collect all sorts of data and transmit it to the app maker or third party advertisers, which can then be shared or even sold. By installing an app you are allowing it to access certain data on your phone. Obviously, the first question, which many people ask is what data does it collect? These answers would normally be on the privacy terms and conditions, however, many mobile apps do not provide these terms and conditions. The data collected can include things such as; your phone contacts, call logs, Internet data etc.

'''Social Networks''' 
'''[https://www.facebook.com/ Facebook] [https://twitter.com/?lang=en-gb Twitter] [https://www.tumblr.com/ Tumblr]'''
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
What do the majority of us all have in common? If you are one of the hundreds of millions of people using social networks, then there is a strong chance that you are linked to them through an online relationship. The information you share with your contacts online completely depends on you. However, you cannot control what other people do with the information you post online, and it is this secondary use of information that is posted online that is a major problem.

This website http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/05/21/teens-social-media-and-privacy/ goes into detail about the percentage of Facebook users that actually use their privacy settings and how aware of them they are.

By adjusting the privacy settings on your social media accounts to the highest level it can limit the amount of information leaked by secondary users, however, it does not stop it altogether. This brings up some debates surrounding how we utilise our privacy settings online to maybe improve the image of ourselves. For example, our online identity may be narrative or it may be real, online presence seems to construct a story of us but in many ways it also portrays a real view of ourselves. We need to ask ourselves, do our actual identities align with our online identities? Or do we utilise the privacy settings to to create a narrative of our life.


'''Facebook Tagging and Facial Recognition'''

One thing that social media users may be unaware of is that by tagging people in photographs on Facebook, many users may be unaware that not only are they making the pictures visible to an increasingly wide audience, but also helping to contribute to Facebook’s database and improve facial recognition technology. Not only an invasion of privacy to many, but an abuse of people’s understanding when it comes to the repercussions of tagging, which are not made clear to users. This application of cognitive surplus,&lt;ref&gt;Shirky, C. (2011). Cognitive Surplus: How Technology Makes Consumers Into Collaborators, New York: Penguin&lt;/ref&gt; using the by-products of social media users seemingly harmless tagging, is contributing on a wider scale to invasions of people’s privacy and private spheres on a global scale. By (for the most part unwittingly) assisting Facebook to improve facial recognition technology in this way, it becomes increasingly likely that the online activity of individuals may become interconnected against their knowledge or wish, through what they are tagged in. Tagging could also become automated which would take away part of the control the user has over how their image is displayed in the public sphere.&lt;ref&gt;Bloomberg Business. (2015). Facebook’s Use of Facial-Recognition Tool Draws Privacy Ire. 03/08, 2016, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-28/facebook-s-use-of-facial-recognition-tool-draws-privacy-concerns&lt;/ref&gt;


&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

The ability for such technology to recognise a person from a single picture [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/facebooks-deepface-ai-system-scarily-5137505] could lead to individuals being searched online at random by someone who may, for instance, pass them in the street and snap a photograph. Putting this on the internet could bring up any amount of connected personal information they may have shared online, bringing the concern for safety and privacy offline as well. Management of settings or the ability to opt out can always curb these things but the lack of communication between providers and users is the main issue here- many are most likely unaware of how their activity may impact themselves and their circle in the near future, because this information is not widely circulated and is certainly not common knowledge despite the number of people it affects worldwide.

Beyond facial recognition even is the growing ability for Facebook to recognise and suggest tags for people by other characteristics such as their hair, their clothes or their body shape.&lt;ref&gt;Business Insider UK. (2015). Facebook's scarily accurate facial-recognition tech can now recognise you even if it can't see your face. Retrieved 03/08, 2016, from http://uk.businessinsider.com/facebook-facial-recognition-technology-ai-cant-see-face-2015-6?r=US&amp;IR=T&lt;/ref&gt; Individuals wishing to keep their physical identity private by declining to share or be tagged in pictures of their face for whatever reason are now having to jump through more hoops to maintain their privacy when they may only want to use the network to reach contacts rather than portray a full image of themselves online.

=== Data and Traffic Tracking ===

When using the Internet in the 21st century, individual privacy online is of key importance to users. In a recent study, it was reported that approximately [https://econsultancy.com/blog/64209-89-of-british-internet-users-are-worried-about-online-privacy-report 89% of Internet users are becoming increasingly worried abut their online privacy].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://econsultancy.com/blog/64209-89-of-british-internet-users-are-worried-about-online-privacy-report |title='89% of British Internet users are worried about Privacy Online:Report'}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, most individuals do not realise that most of their online activity is tracked through various methods, and that very little online activity is private. Data tracking, otherwise known as [[w:Behavioral targeting|Behavioral targeting]], is not new, yet;

  &quot;Most people have ''no idea'' this is going on&quot; - Sharon Goott Nissim, [[w:Electronic Privacy Information center|Electronic Privacy Information Center]]

Websites, companies, and [[w:Web browser|web browsers]] store [[w:Personally identifiable information|personal information]] in a variety of different methods, and for a number of different reasons. Mostly, this is used to tailor the user's online experience to the things they want to see. However, as the specifics of information collected through these online data tracking methods is [http://finance.yahoo.com/news/keep-data-brokers-from-tracking-you-online-anonymously-202256230.html rarely publicised]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://finance.yahoo.com/news/keep-data-brokers-from-tracking-you-online-anonymously-202256230.html |title='How to keep companies from tracking you online - for good'}}&lt;/ref&gt; outwith the collector, it is difficult to know whether that is all that our personal data is being used for.

==== Encryption ====

[[w:Encryption|Encryption]] is a form of protection widely used by companies to protect personal data which they collect. Encryption can be used to protect data &quot;at rest&quot;, such as information stored on computers, storage devices, and mobile phones. Encrypting personal data which is at rest in online storage helps protect it should any physical security measures fail.

Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via [[w:Computer network|networks]], e.g. the Internet, [[w:E-commerce|e-commerce]], mobile telephones, [[w:Bluetooth|Bluetooth devices]] and bank automatic teller machines.

This method of protection is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the [[w:Computer Security Institute|Computer Security Institute]] reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Richardson |first=Robert |title=2008 CSI Crime and Computer Survey |url=http://i.cmpnet.com/v2.gocsi.com/pdf/CSIsurvey2008.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Cookies ====

Now, when individuals click on or log in to a website for the first time, they may receive a message which states something along the lines of {{font color||LightSalmon|'This site uses cookies, do you agree to this?'}}. Most users just click 'Yes' to get the message off of the screen so they can continue browsing, without actually knowing what they have just agreed to.

[[w:HTTP cookie|Cookies]] are small bits of data which are collected and stored by websites, web browsers, and social media sites whilst the user is browsing. Each time a user logs on to an account or clicks onto a website, the browser sends the cookie back to the server to notify the user's previous activity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title='HTTP State Management Mechanism - Overview' |url=http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6265#section-3 |source=IETF}}&lt;/ref&gt; Cookies were originally designed to tailor users online experience, by allowing websites to remember important pieces of information about their activity.  Cookies can also store passwords and form content a user has previously entered, such as a credit card number or an address; for example, [[w:Autofill|Google AutoFill]] and similar tools are powered by cookie storage.


==== Advertisement Recommendations ====

From cookie storage came the development of advertising tracking and [[w:Targeted advertising|advertising recommendations]]. By analysing the stored data of what websites individuals look at online, what they put in their [[w:Shopping cart software|shopping baskets]] on [[w:Amazon.com|Amazon]] etc., and what pages they like on Facebook, sites such as [[w:Web search engine|search engines]] and Facebook are able to promote certain products which they think the user would buy/enjoy, based on this previous activity.

All of these methods blur the distinction between public and private spheres online. What individuals deem as 'private browsing' is, in most cases, not truly private. Individuals private browsing history, then seems to bleed into what are deemed as public domains, such as Facebook News Feed's and 'Recommended' [[w:YouTube|YouTube]] videos. Although it is only the individual who can see things such as Advert Recommendations, it outwardly appears to be public as it is on a public medium. Not only that, but the fact that individuals browsing activity is already stored and shared by companies in the first place makes this information somewhat public.&lt;ref&gt;McDonald, A. M., &amp; Cranor, L. F. (2010, October). Americans' attitudes about internet behavioral advertising practices. In Proceedings of the 9th annual ACM workshop on Privacy in the electronic society (pp. 63-72). ACM.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Tags and Privacy: How They Shape Online Performance ===

On the internet, tagging can mean a lot of different things, but is generally used as a way to link different pieces of information to either certain topics, or specific people. The most famous use of tagging is from Twitter with hashtags going viral, but there's also using tagging to gain visibility and therefore increasing how &quot;public&quot; a person or their content is. Tagging and Privacy settings are often conflicting each other, as one is used to gain attention and the other is used to get less attention, especially from the public.

Tagging represents an online connection between people and a digital relationship or aquaintance is made. This is a common feature of multiple social media platforms and acts as a way to bring users together and provides interaction. However, privacy can be a barrier for this interaction, limiting the content allowed on pages and the types of people accessing it.

==== Facebook ====
[[w:Facebook features#Wall|Tagging]] is one of the basic features used in social media. [https://en-gb.facebook.com/ Facebook] uses this tagging element to enhance the feature and interaction with other users. This commonly used feature of Facebook helps users to feel part of something rather than a sole user. Social media can create a different identity of ourselves and can &quot;negotiate social boundaries&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot;&gt;boyd, d. (2012) &quot;Participating in the Always-On Lifestyle&quot;. In Mandiberg, M. (Ed.). ''The Social Media Reader'' pp.71-76. New York and London: NYU Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

Tagging represents an online connection between users and is seen to create social acceptance. Tags automatically involves&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Facebook en aula2.jpg|thumbnail|Facebook responses to tagging]]&lt;/div&gt; other people and so this photo/video/status appears across all the pages. However, this is where tagging can be very problematic. One user has control over the content being displayed and have the power to select the users to be tagged and the caption to go along with the content. The structure of technologies (their function and availability) can impact on our own self image and the world we live in. 
Through tagging people can build up a persona online from the perspective of multiple other people, and it can often conflict with - and contradict - the persona and image that they are trying to create online themselves.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lanier 2010&quot;&gt;Lanier, J. (2010). &quot;Missing Persons&quot;. In ''You Are Not A Gadget'' (pp.3-23). London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

This factor of Facebook denies the users tagged any ability to control the image for example posted. However, Facebook does have a setting which users can approve the content being posted to their page, but Facebook does not promote this setting as it almost defies the use of the application.

Simply by including a tag in a picture, it creates opportunities to go [[w: Viral phenomenon|viral]]. Whether a tag of a friend or a celebrity, this picture has the chance to be seen by a wider range of people. This is where the issue of publicity and privacy is introduced. Although a profile is private, a picture can be seen and available across platforms. This brings about the question - are we private even though we can be seen across many different pages because of a tag?

A tag also represents - for a user being tagged by someone else - a non mediated self. Since the image is controlled by one central user, all others tagged in a photo display a non selective version of themselves; one which could be different from the image shown by themselves. A digital photograph on social media can present a past experience, can be retold and can be an expression of our own identity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot; /&gt; This creates an alternative and most likely more realistic image of a person online, breaking a barrier of them being so 'perfect' and 'idealistic'. This begins to create more judgements across social media and as Sherry Turkle says: &quot;the risk that we come to see others as objects to be accessed&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot;&gt;Turkle, S. (2011). ''Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other'', pp.134-149. New York: Basic Books.&lt;/ref&gt;

In terms of [[w: Cyberformance|online performance]], this is affected in many different ways.

Tagging can either create a positive or negative effect on online performance. This reaction by the user is interesting to understanding the users’ morals but also identity.

Individual's personal profiles are mediated and carefully selected by them, in order to created a desired self. Any one 'tag' could alter the image and persona that the individual is trying to create online. Since tags are controlled by others, it alters the shape of online performance, as it may not have censored certain things that the individual does not want to appear online.

This online performance takes two sides:
* Desired image - one side of who is desired by others and a 'positive' image controlled by us.
* 'Real life' image - tags and posts by others which represent a more realistic, different side.

Privacy can create an inactive performance. It can limit the features of the app and so affects overall online activity and performance of users. Conventions on social media create boundaries of acceptable content.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot; /&gt;

Tagging could also be seen to be gendered as in an experiment on tagging in college students revealed women were higher than men for posting/tagging pictures and for comments.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot; /&gt;

Online performance is structured around activity which mainly involves tagging. Being private creates boundaries around Facebook's function and so when tagging is limited; the profile is less believable and appreciated.

==== [https://twitter.com/login Twitter] ====
With the majority of Twitter users being between 18–34 years of age and with a graduate degree &lt;ref name=&quot;Fuchs, C. Social media&quot;&gt;Fuchs, C. Social media&lt;/ref&gt; there seems to be a particular niche in who uses this form of media. 
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
Trending on Twitter is used as a way of making other users see what is most talked about at that current time. Hash tags are used by users and if enough of the public all use the particular hash tag this creates a topic that is trending. Often these trends tend to be issues relating to the relevant lives of the people who have Twitter accounts such as shared experiences and events they are currently experiencing. Sometimes new words or phrases can be brought about through hash tagging if a hash-tag is particularly successful such as throwback Thursday where users reminisce over past memories but this hash tag has become a well known phrase in society. Even a few years ago no one would have known this phrase at all let alone used it as a hash tag. Politics is discussed less where as everyday events, common situations, sports or music tend to be what people are discussing more than in depth politics where opinions may be divided. Twitter tends to focus around common interests shared between users to do with entertainment and experiences for their particular niche rather than the discussion of major topics that affect people globally such as current affairs and politics. Users have created Twitter to be a place of entertainment and leisure rather than the use of in depth discussion which is aimed at a particular group of people.


Advertisers also use this hash tag system to their advantage. When Twitter first started advertising did not exist through the site yet today it appears through the live feed between user posts. Advertisers are aware of what is trending through participating in the site and it is a great way for them to get an insight into what people are talking about and the current topics people are taking an interest in and discussing. They can then use this information to target their adverts to the people who will see it and be viewing it specific to their interests. Twitter also organizes its top tweets in preference of its advertising clients rather than tweets that may actually be trending. This search for what is trending is actually not true and is manipulated in that Twitter rate celebrities and well known people get priority over people who are not known in the media and live generally normal lives. Therefore people with economic power will come out on top as the most popular but may not be most popular by true statistics of trending.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fuchs, C. Social media&quot;/&gt;

==== Tumblr ====

Tagging on Tumblr is primarily a way to categorise the content created and posted on the platform. Tumblr posts may include text, photos, audio, and videos, which all can be tagged. These tags are also used when users are searching for specific content, such as pictures of Scotland, so when they search &quot;Scotland&quot;, they will see all the posts tagged with ''#Scotland''. They can also refine their search so that they can either see the most recent or the most popular post, and to see only one type of post. Tags are found at the bottom of a post, in a smaller grey font from the rest of the text on the post, with a hashtag symbol (#) in front of each tag.

Users can tag their own posts in order to make it searchable on Tumblr. If they don't include any tags, the only people who can see the post are their followers or anyone who knows the url of their blog, which may not be much. Therefore, if a user wants more people to see what they post, tagging their content in popular tags can increase their visibility.

If a user want to see more content with the same tag, they can &quot;track&quot; it.  Tracking a tag creates a link on the user's dashboard so they can click that tag at any time to see what's new in the tag. This is similar to subscribing or following a tag rather than a person or a blog. This is often used for the user's own username to see if anyone's mentioned them in a post, or if a user is particularly invested in a fandom and wish to see everything that is being posted about that fandom. If someone is particularly active on a tag, they may gain followers, if not just attention, which in turn makes them more public.

People also can also create an uncommon tags if they only want to see specific things, or have a way of grouping a series of posts together. For example, if a group of users are creating a specific week to create lots of posts about something, such as an underappreciated movies, they will create a tag that no one else has used, like ''#underapreciatedcharacterweek'', and everyone will post their content using that tag. This way, all those posts are in one place for easy access and increased visibility.

Tags are also used to organise the posts together on a user's blog so they can have easy access to them later, such as ''#selfies'' and ''#personal post'', or even more specific, like a Disney-themed blog would have a page with a link to all the tags for the different movies and characters.

Users with private, password protected blogs can also tag their posts so they can easily search through their own blog, but their posts will not show up on anyone's dashboard or in the Tumblr tag search. A user with a public blog but making a private post can also tag it for their own reference, but no other user will see it on their dashboard, when they search for that tag, or when they go onto that user's public blog.

Tags can also be used to [[w:Blacklist (computing)|blacklist]] certain types of posts. A software extension is needed for this since Tumblr does not provide the ability to blacklist specific tags. Creating a blacklist prevents posts with these tags from showing up on their dashboards, but not other people's blogs. This is often used for possible &quot;triggers&quot; for people with certain fears or trauma, but also for things like spoilers or negative opinions. Although, as stated, Tumblr itself doesn't have a feature that lets users blacklist specific tags, it does use the ''#NSFW'' ([[w:Not safe for work|Not safe/suitable for work]]) tag in order to filter what will show up in the safe search option. Additionally, if a user searches negative tags, such as ''#depression'', users will [https://www.tumblr.com/psa/search/depression see a message] offering them advice and support instead of allowing them to view a huge array of negative posts that could potentially worsen their wellbeing.

In 2014, Tumblr introduced a new way to &quot;tag&quot; other users in posts, calling them &quot;mentions&quot;. Now, instead of adding a hyperlink to their blog and tagging them in the bottom of the post and hoping they check the tag to see it (or sending them a personal message about it), users can type a username with an @ in front, and they will get a special notification that they have been mentioned in a post. Users often use this to show funny or important posts to their friends instead of sending them the link to the post, or if they are giving &quot;shoutouts&quot; or promoting specific users to their followers.

==== Instagram ====

[[w:Instagram|Instagram]][http://www.instagram.com] is a mobile social network platform mainly used and intended for the online sharing of photographs and videos. Users are capable of sharing their contents publically and privately, changing the security settings on the app. With over 300 million users as of December 2014,&lt;ref name=&quot;Fiegerman 2014&quot;&gt;Fiegerman, Seth (2014). ''Instagram tops 300 million active users, likely bigger than Twitter''. Mashable.&lt;/ref&gt; there are immense amounts of content generated every day, and must be administrated in some way.

Tagging on Instagram can be used in three ways: much like on [[w:Facebook|Facebook]], users can tag other users on their own photographs, and mention them on post’s comments so other users receive a notification and can view the same post: and much like on [[w:Tumblr|Tumblr]], a user can tag a post by assigning it to a category related to what they are posting about, using the hashtag (‘#’, hence ‘tag’) symbol.

The first two ways of tagging mentioned have got more to do with the online social communication aspect of Instagram. Tagging someone who appears on a photograph will show up on their personal account, (under the section ‘photos of [username]’). This can be very controversial, since it can result in both positive and negative effects.

A user’s online performance can be very influential on their personal life and mental health, and since Instagram is specifically an online photo-sharing service, it focuses largely around personal image in most cases. There is a certain self-management and management of the online performance in order to not create any negative images and representations of the self. Because of this, many users have felt the need to digitally modify and manipulate images of themselves. However, when a someone uploads a photograph of another user (usually without their explicit permission) and tags them on it, they are stripping them off of every right to edit their appearance and shape their own online identity in concordance to how they wish to be perceived by others.&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot; /&gt;

Since photographs are not always a realistic representation of the physical self, some photographs might largely deviate from the desired public image and online identity that a user may have. This can usually create many issues for users; mental health issues like anxiety, depression or self-loathing, as well as other issues that can also be indirectly damaging to one’s mental health, like [[#Cyberbullying|cyberbullying ''(see 1.7.4)'']] .

On the contrary, being tagged on someone’s photograph or tagging another user on one’s own can broaden an individual’s social circle and enhance their own personal experience in photo-sharing with this app.

=====Misuse of tags on Instagram=====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
The search function for tags on Instagram was meant to be used in a certain way in order to connect with people who have the same interests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ferrara 2014&quot;&gt;Ferrara, E., Interdonato, R. and Tagarelli, A. (2014) ''Online popularity and topical interests through the lens of Instagram’, Proceedings of the 25th ACM conference on Hypertext and social media - HT'' 14, . doi: 10.1145/2631775.2631808.&lt;/ref&gt; For example, tagging a photograph with ''#sunset'' will appear on the tag’s own feed and therefore will be shown to people searching the same tag. Usually, this is how users can discover and ‘follow’ people that share the same interest in sunsets. However, with the growing popularity of Instagram, its abundance of daily content and the cultural desire of being popular within the platform (which is usually measured in terms of ‘likes’ and ‘followers’), users have developed new ways of getting in other user’s feeds and creating the opportunity of gaining more popularity.

This is usually through the misuse of tagging. In order to get as much visibility on their post as possible, users have wrongly tagged their photographs with tags that are not related to the content they are posting. These tags are usually “trending”, that is, many users within the Instagram community have used it recently and consequently the page for the tag has a larger viewing audience, (like for example, tagging a photograph or a ‘selfie’ with the tag ‘#oscars’ during the [[w:Academy Awards|Academy Awards]] will create a higher chance for users to see and ‘like’ a picture and perhaps ‘follow’ the user, rather than tagging it with a more unusual, less visited tag). Users can find out which tags are trending by searching a specific tag, and Instagram shows the exact amount of photographs tagged with it, or through specific websites or apps (like [http://www.instag-app.com/ Instag]) that list the trending tags. This abuse has created a rather crowded environment in the tagging service of the app and an [[w:Information overload|‘information overload’]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Toffler 1960&quot;&gt;Toffler, A. (1960), ''Future Shock''. United States: Random House.&lt;/ref&gt; which consequently dilutes the desired content within each tag when searched,&lt;ref&gt;Hemp, Paul (2009) Death by Information Overload. Harvard Business Review. September Issue. Available at: https://hbr.org/2009/09/death-by-information-overload&lt;/ref&gt; and generates an inconvenient photo-sharing experience in the app’s search function. This is also a problem on other social media platforms mentioned, like Tumblr and Twitter.

=== Nothing Created or Destroyed ===
{{Rquote|left|The Internet's not written in pencil, Mark, it's written in ink.| Erica Albright|[[w:The Social Network|The Social Network]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Social Network 2010&quot;&gt;[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1285016/quotes] IMBd. (n.d.). ''The Social Network (2010) Quotes''. Retrieved 02/17, 2016, from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1285016/quotes&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fincher 2010&quot;&gt;''The Social Network''. Fincher, D., (Director). (2010). [Motion Picture]. [[w:Columbia Pictures|Columbia Pictures]].&lt;/ref&gt;}} 
The Internet is enormous and ever-changing. So much information is floating around on the web and sometimes it is not wanted. Sometimes it is taken without permission or used out of context. With such a vast amount of information, it is all but impossible to try and control it, especially on a personal level. It takes whole governments to try and contain, remove, or censor online information, and even then it does not totally work. An example of someone failing to control what happens on the internet is [[w:Barbara Streisand|Barbara Streisand]]. She tried to sue a photographer to have a photo of her house taken off the internet and the result was an explosion of copies, re-posts, and mirrors of that photo being spread all over the internet, effectively making it impossible to get rid of. This became known as the [[w:Streisand Effect|Streisand Effect]] and is an example of the volatile and uncontrollable nature of the web.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; [[File:Social Media Chart.png|thumbnail|Chart showcasing social media usage.]] &lt;/div&gt;
The average young person spends up to 27 hours per week on the Internet&lt;ref name=&quot;Anderson 2015&quot;&gt;[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/digital-media/11597743/Teenagers-spend-27-hours-a-week-online-how-internet-use-has-ballooned-in-the-last-decade.html], Anderson, E. (2015). Teenagers spend 27 hours a week online. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved 03/02, 2016, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/digital-media/11597743/Teenagers-spend-27-hours-a-week-online-how-internet-use-has-ballooned-in-the-last-decade.html&lt;/ref&gt;
. The result of this huge amount of time spent on the Internet is an equally large digital footprint, meaning that most people nowadays cannot escape leaving their mark on the Internet. 
The average person spends most of their time on the Internet on [[w:Social Media|social media]] sites such as [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] and [[w:Twitter|Twitter]]. These sites have become huge hubs of information with over 500 million tweets being posted each day. Many see these websites as a harmless way to communicate with friends and family, however posting too much information on these websites can be dangerous. As they may appear to give you the option to delete posts as you please, nothing on the Internet is ever fully removed and the digital footprints that we leave stay there forever.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File: How_to_create_a_Facebook_Account.jpg|thumbnail|Necessary information to register on Facebook]] &lt;/div&gt;
With that in mind, one has to distinguish between:

1. two kind of '''information sharing''' with
:* the companies, providing the wanted service, in order to be able to create an account and to use the platforms and the connected services - often the contact details are mandatory and it is in our interest. 
:* circle of acquaintances, e.g. on Facebook, where one can actively create the online identity,&lt;ref name =&quot;Mendelson 2010&quot;&gt;Mendelson, A.L., Papcharissi, Z., (2010). 'Look at Us: Collective Narcissism in College Student Facebook Photo Galleries'. In Papcharissi, Z., (Ed.). ''A Networked Self'', pp. 251-273.  Hoboken: Taylor &amp; Francis.&lt;/ref&gt; or via messaging services to stay connected via interpersonal interaction.

2. and two types of '''shared information'''
:* with our consents, meaning we actively decide to share the information by typing them into a form for instance, or
:* without our knowledge via tracking of the companies providing the platforms I use - this also contains individual-related surfing habits, transactions and connection data. Hence they can create an online profile about us e.g. about our likings via our [https://panopticlick.eff.org/ &quot;online fingerprint&quot;].
Sherry Turkle &lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot; /&gt; talks about people forgetting how much of a footprint we leave behind as we browse the internet &quot;the experience of being at ones computer or cell phone feels so private we could easily forget our own circumstance: with every connection we leave an electronic trace&quot;. Most of us happily give over information to websites like Facebook and Twitter when signing up, however what we do not realise is the information that is gathered from us as we move around the internet, without us realising it at all. Our information is sold to large companies often without our consent or without us even knowing about it, this is why for example if you have been browsing an online shop you will find advertisements for that shop popping up all over the internet as you browse. Facebook does this often and specifically tailors the advertisements on its page to you and what you look at when you use the internet.

All this information is stored, partly for commercial and market research purpose, but also partly due to [[w:Telecommunications data retention|data retention laws]] and they are saved by many parties such as [[w:Digital subscriber line|DSL]] providers (i.e. Vodafone), applications (i.e. [[w:Google Chrome|Google Chrome Browser]]), devices and [[w:operating systems|operating systems]] (i.e. [[w:Apple Inc.|Apple's]] [[w:iPhone|iphone]] and [[w:iOS|iOS]]) and finally websites (i.e. Facebook). En plus through the data retention law the government has access to part of this information amount ''for many years''; thereby the methods for crime solving shall be enhanced, but at the same time everyone is any time under general suspicion of having committed a crime.&lt;ref name=&quot;n.a. 2014&quot;&gt;[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2014/27/pdfs/ukpga_20140027_en.pdf] n.a. (2014). ''Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014''. Retrieved 03/11, 2016, from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2014/27/pdfs/ukpga_20140027_en.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

Even if there are also laws about deletion of personal data, as the example above shows, information online can never truly be deleted. With this in mind it raises the question if there really is such a thing as privacy in the digital world. Even users who choose to remain anonymous and can be traced back using their [[w:IP address|IP address]] meaning that, when it comes to the internet and everything digital the traditional ideas of privacy are non existent.

An example of this is the [[w: Ashley Madison Data Breach|Ashley Madison Data Breach]], [[w:Ashley Madison|Ashley Madison]] was a site in which users were able to conduct and organise affairs. The website retained every users personal information, which included all of their real names and details as users used fake names. This website was hacked and all of the private details of the users were released and made available to the public. Users of the site truly believed that their personal information was protected and so was their privacy, but with this and with most other cases on the internet private information is never truly private, and can be obtained and released very easily.

== Anonymity in the Private Sphere ==

Online communication on the Internet is commonly described as 'anonymous' when users do not post any personal details, and often use a username instead. There are many different levels of anonymity (lack of identifiability, visual anonymity and dissociation of online and real identities), that are thought to have different components of interpersonal motivation, which are able to influence self-conception. Morio and Buchholz (2009) &lt;ref name=&quot;Morio 2009&quot;&gt;Morio, H. and Buchholz, C. (2009). How Anonymous are you Online? Examining online social behaviours from a cross-cultural perspective. ''Al &amp; Society'', 23, 297-307&lt;/ref&gt; have suggested that someone can essentially become a different person by creating a new online identity, allowing space to create and adopt different values and personalities, and even, in some cases, a new age, gender or race. Luppicini and Lin (2012) argue that this is because “online anonymity allows there to be (in varying degrees) a dissociation of real and online identities where someone’s online behaviours are not directly tied to that person’s physical self”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Luppicini 2012&quot;&gt;Luppicini, R. and Lin, X. (2012) ‘Student 2.0 Revisited: The Paradox of Anonymity and Identity in the Digital World’, in Luppicini, R. and Haghi, A.K. (eds.) Education for a digital world: Present Realities and Future Possibilities. Toronto: Apple Academic Press, pp. 185–196.&lt;/ref&gt;  Due to this type of dissociation, there is usually less accountability for how users behave online in comparison to how they behave in their ‘real’ lives.

Social media platforms like [http://www.tumblr.com Tumblr], [http://www.youtube.com YouTube], [http://www.twitter.com Twitter] and [http://www.yikyak.com/home Yik Yak] can be said to belong in the private sphere of digital media, due to the fact that these websites mainly operate with the use of a username, and so a user does not necessarily need to give away any of their personal details. These websites have become largely popular among its audiences because users find a certain type of reassurance on keeping their ‘real’ identities private by hiding behind a username.

The use of anonymity in online platforms has subsequently created one of the largest (and on-going) problematic conundrums in the social use of present day Internet, resulting in positive and negative outcomes. An anonymous online identity can be empowering for a user because it allows them to explore the depths and different aspects of their own identity, occupy different social roles and positions and embrace their own diversity in ways that might be impossible to realise in real life. On the other hand, online anonymity can also lead to many problematic issues like [[w:Cyberbullying|cyberbullying]], information and identity theft, [[w:Catfishing|'catfishing']] and defamation. The following sections will explore the positive and negative aspects of online anonymity in more detail.

=== Freedom of Expression in Private Spheres of Social Media===
As mentioned above, some social media platforms belong in the private sphere due to the fact that users may choose to remain anonymous, and operate through the website while using a username. This can possibly motivate users to ‘speak their minds’ and publicly express (while remaining anonymous) their passions and interests, and personal opinions on a specific topic of choice. While some individuals might be demotivated to do so in public spheres (like Facebook) because they might fear contributing to a type of information overload, where they could flood other user’s feed with their lengthy posts, or because they might fear if their public identity and image might suffer if given certain opinions, the anonymity of private social media platforms might encourage users to write without holding back.

It is quite interesting to compare how both types of platforms (public and private) can motivate or mute an individual’s expression. It is also known that some artist social media users feel more comfortable with posting their artwork in websites like Tumblr or Deviantart due to the fact that their contribution will remain completely anonymous. In terms of artistic abilities, an individual can be particularly sensitive to critical evaluation and exposure, especially if they are still in the earlier still-developing artistic stages of their own skills. For this reason, users might feel too shy or insecure to upload this type of very personal content into public social networks like Facebook, where they might feel like open visibility to all of their friends might be too much exposure.

Uploading this type of content on public networks can also contribute to an individual’s anxiety due to the ‘liking’ concept; where they can become obsessed with a number and with the thought that ‘likes’ are equivalent to an individual’s worth. On the other hand, this can also be applied to private social networking platforms like Tumblr, because most of social media platforms nowadays operate with the use of ‘likes’, ‘followers’ and ‘shares/reblogs’. However, it can also be argued that an anonymous user (through a username) liking or commenting on an individual’s post is certainly less impacting and less personal than an individual’s personal profile doing the same thing. Because of the fact that no one necessarily knows anything of a user from their username alone, it feels less so like a person evaluating an individual’s creative work.

It is also interesting to link this to [[w:David Gauntlett|David Gauntlett’s]] [http://www.davidgauntlett.com] work on [[w:Web 2.0|‘Web 2.0’]] [http://www.theory.org.uk], where he states that Web 2.0 is ‘harnessing the collective abilities of the members of an online network, to make an especially powerful resource or service. But thinking beyond the Web, it may also be valuable to consider Web 2.0 as a metaphor, for any collective activity which is enabled by people’s passions and becomes something greater than the sum of its parts.’  &lt;ref&gt;Gauntlett, D. (2011) ''Making is connecting: The social meaning of creativity, from DIY and knitting to YouTube and web 2.0.'' Malden, MA: John Wiley &amp; Sons.&lt;/ref&gt; This way we can understand the idea behind the desire for users to contribute in private spheres of social media in regards to their own interests; to feel part of a larger community which may form a part of their identity.

=== Altered Narratives of the Self ===

An individual’s online behavioural patterns and online performance tend to deviate largely when in the private sphere in contrast to when in the public. Depending on the website or social network being used, a media consumer will create and manage a different narrative or identity to adjust to how they would like to be seen within the platform’s society. Because of this, one could argue that different online platforms are made of different societal norms and have a certain appeal to a specific target audience; therefore, a specific type of behavioural pattern is expected from each user. This is also enhanced by the privacy each platform within the private sphere provides. Social media networks like [[w:Tumblr|Tumblr]][http://www.tumblr.com] and [[w:Youtube|YouTube]] [http://www.youtube.com] operate with usernames (unlike [[w:Facebook|Facebook]][http://www.facebook.com]), providing the option for users to completely remain in anonymity by only using a username (or in case of Tumblr, a [[w:Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] ), instead of giving away any of the user’s personal details.  It is important to note that, while users do have the complete liberty to give away their personal details if they wish to do so, it is a rather unpopular mode of action since most users find a larger appeal and a certain type of reassurance in staying completely anonymous with the use of a username.

Having this type of liberty in terms of self-management and online identification and expression have lead to many different usages of anonymous narratives in social media.

====The Private sphere as an empowering tool for self-identification.====

{{Rquote|left| We judge on the basis of what somebody looks like; skin colour, whether we think they’re beautiful or not. That space on the Internet allows you to converse with somebody with none of those things involved. | [[w:Bell Hooks|Bell Hooks]] }}

An anonymous online identity can be very beneficial in terms of self-exploration and self-identification. It can be an empowering tool for individuals to embrace their diversity and explore the identity they are most comfortable identifying themselves with, or as Gies (2008) writes, “ anonymous online settings are empowering because they facilitate identity exploration, or occupying identity positions which may be difficult to occupy in real life”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gies 2008&quot;&gt;Gies, L. (2008) ''Law and the Media: The Future of an Uneasy Relationship''. Oxson: Routledge-Cavendish&lt;/ref&gt;

Because there is a lack of identifiability, users can feel free to explore their own personal identities (like sexual orientation and gender) and interests without the pressure that usually comes with the public sphere of digital media and maintaining a public image with its open exposure to the public. [[w:Martin Heidegger|Martin Heidegger]] argued that it is only in the private sphere that one can be one's authentic self, as opposed to the impersonal and identikit [[w:Generalized other|They]] of the public realm.&lt;ref&gt;J. Collins and H. Selina eds., Heidegger for Beginners (1998) p. 64-9&lt;/ref&gt; It is also important to understand that different types of social media audiences shape an individual’s online identity. While, for example, on public social media like Facebook an individual’s audience tends to be their ‘friends’ (which can be constructed of actual friends, family and acquaintances), on private social media like Tumblr the audience can be composed mainly of strangers. This creates a more comfortable sharing environment because of the minimal intensity of the public sphere’s exposure. While someone could be more comfortable exploring their sexual orientation in a private, anonymous platform, it is highly improbable that they would feel comfortable doing so openly to, for instance, family members. It is also very common to not reveal an individual’s username in private spheres of digital media to friends and family. While some people do share this, it is most likely shared to an audience they trust deeply, like close friends, rather than, for instance, a parent.

On the other hand, [[w:Sherry Turkle|Turkle]] [http://web.mit.edu/sturkle/www/](1996) noted that the Internet allows individuals to hide parts of their identity which could lead to discrimination (for example, race or gender).&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 1996&quot;&gt;Turkle, Sherry. (1996). &quot;Who Am We? : We are moving from modernist calculation toward postmodernist simulation, where the self is a multiple, distributed system,&quot; Wired Magazine, Issue 4.01, January 1996.&lt;/ref&gt;  Due to the visual anonymity that social media within the private sphere provides to its users, key features to one’s personal identity are not always visible, or rather, not necessarily (unless the user has specifically chosen to share them). This can create a more accepting environment for users, particularly in the case of exploring one's identity without being pulled back by stereotypes associated with certain identities, perhaps to do with gender, race or sexual orientation. However, it could also be argued that this can have negative psychological impacts on an individual's state of mind in regards to their own identity; having different public reactions when showing different aspects of an identity than when showing none might have discriminatory connotations and could motivate an individual to feel ashamed of their identity.

====Idealised versions of the self and Alter Egos in the Private Sphere====

While pressures to maintain a specific online identity are more common in public spheres (like for example, pressures to ‘prove’ one’s social life&lt;ref name=&quot;Turkle 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd &amp; Donath 2004&quot;&gt;boyd, d. &amp; Donath, J. (2004). Public Displays of Connection. Retrieved 03/10, 2016, from http://www.danah.org/papers/PublicDisplays.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; and reassuring one’s role within a social circle,&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; and pressures to create an acceptable and aesthetically pleasing impression of an individual’s physical identity), a user of a private sphere social media can also form idealised versions of themselves. Because all that an audience needs to necessarily know about each user is a username, they could become anyone they have always wanted to be.

When adopting an anonymous online identity there is a type of dissociation of an individual’s real and online identities. This way, they have absolute freedom to create an identity and ‘perform’ themselves online how they want to be seen, without this identity being associated with their physical selves.

An interesting aspect of this dissociation would be the use of alter egos in social media. While at a first glance could seem like a public profile that belongs to the public sphere, the original user (and therefore, the real identity) remains anonymous, and more often than not, completely dissociated from it. This way, it can be argued that alter egos blur the boundaries between public and private spheres, since an individual can never know for certain if the identity presented online is an individual’s ‘real’ identity rather than an alter ego.

The most recent and relevant example of the use of an alter ego to blur the lines between public and private spheres would be in the case of Instagram star [http://www.amaliaulman.eu/ Amalia Ulman] [https://www.instagram.com/amaliaulman/?hl=en]. Ulman created and performed in a staged social media experiment, where she created the alter ego of a girl perusing the dream of becoming an ‘It girl’ in Los Angeles. Her performed self had dyed blond hair and a stylish wardrobe, underwent breast-enlargement surgery and was self-consumed and narcissistic. After months of continuous posting and gaining of followers, Ulman announced the reality of her performance by uploading one last picture captioned ‘the end’. When confronted her experience, she says:

{{cquote |
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;Java&quot;&gt;
&quot;Everything was scripted. I spent a month researching the whole thing. There was a beginning, a climax and an end. I dyed my hair. I changed my wardrobe. I was acting: it wasn’t me.”
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|30px|author= &lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Amalia Ulman&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Sooke, Alastair, (2016), Is this the first Instagram masterpiece?, The Telegraph, available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/photography/what-to-see/is-this-the-first-instagram-masterpiece/&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/photography/what-to-see/is-this-the-first-instagram-masterpiece] }}

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:User Avatar Comparison to real life.jpg|thumbnail|Comparison of a user's avatar with a picture of themselves.]]&lt;/div&gt;
Another example of creating an idealised version of oneself is through [[w:Virtual reality|virtual reality]]. Users of a virtual reality website or online social platform often have to create a character of sorts that replicates and tries to imitate their personal selves, known as their [[w:Avatar(computing)|avatar]]. Due to an individual's natural desire for aesthetic perfection, they tend to design these avatars as idealised or perfected versions of themselves. These avatars later interact with other user's avatars and people usually tend to take the visual representations of said avatars as a very realistic representation of how the individual's physical self might resemble. This can create many problematic issues, like affecting user's expectations of real life beauty making them unrealistic (which could lead to problems associated with mental health problems and sexism) and catfishing.

====Catfishing====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Catfish example.jpg|thumbnail|Catfishing example. Left: singer and dancer “Megan Faccio”; Right: Angela Wesselman-Pierce, who made Faccio up.]]&lt;/div&gt;

[[w:Catfishing|Catfishing]] is when an individual uses deceiving techniques in order to adopt a different identity (through identity theft, usually by posting another person's photograph as their own and pretending to look that way physically). The modern term originates from the 2010 American documentary [[w:catfish (film)|''Catfish'']].&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Aisha (2013). &quot;Catfish meaning and definition: term for online hoaxes has a surprisingly long history&quot;. Slate. Retrieved March 10, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; The usual purpose for this is to engage in an online romantic relationship with someone else across the Internet. Reasonings behind this include self-loathing of one's physical appearance, attempting to increase the number of potential love candidates by increasing the physical aesthetic appeal and presenting it as their own identity and/or other psychological reasons.

Because public social networking sites are so popular and more often than not they provide a realistic representation of one's true self, a large majority of people are likely to trust and believe in the reality value of a public profile if it meets the following expectations;

# A numerous or acceptable quantity of pictures of the same individual
# A large number of these pictures that seem personal or have been taken by themselves (for example, '' 'selfies' '') and with other social media users
# A large social circle of friends (which all seem to meet the above as well)

However, because of the numerous personal pictures of many different individuals available online (which can be found with a simple google images search), it can be extremely easy to create a fake online social network profile. This way it can be argued that there can always be anonymity in the public spheres of social media, since there can never be real proof or a real reassurance of someone's online identity being their 'real' identity.

=== Anonymity in Help Forums ===

When using any medium online, not only social or digital media platforms, it can become obvious that any degree of anonymity afforded to a group or an individual can alter their behaviour, causing them to present themselves differently to how they may when they bear their real name or personal details, and this can be both positive and negative. One manifestation of the help forum where anonymity is a key element is any one of a number of mental health chat forums, where individuals can anonymously and confidentially seek help, advice or just to feel they have someone who will listen to them, and have a trained professional on the receiving end to assist them. The anonymity in this instance is crucial as visitors to these sites may feel ashamed, embarrassed or insecure about their issues to the point that they cannot communicate with or seek help from those around them, or talk to a local healthcare professional for fear of, for example, family members becoming involved. They are there to provide support to anyone who cannot seek it anywhere else due to time or money restraints, or if they are perhaps part of a culture that is not very supportive of mental health issues. The anonymity encourages users to be more open and honest, and helps them to receive the specific support they may require.

Traditional help and advice forums such as [https://answers.yahoo.com/ Yahoo Answers] work simply by users around the world, with usernames or pseudonyms and cartoon avatars as their icons, asking questions and in turn helping others. This model can also more recently be seen in the social media application and website [https://www.yikyak.com/home YikYak], where anonymity is not optional to users, and the default feed presented is of content posted by users within a certain geographical radius. Users have the option to ‘peek’ at other locations around the world but posting and replying is limited to the local area. It was developed for college and university campuses in America as an anonymous way to interact with peers about local events or news, but has subsequently been banned and restricted from school campuses with younger pupils due to bullying.

Though it may not necessarily be the intended function nor the primary use of YikYak, advice seeking and provision is nonetheless present on the site. Amongst the humorous observations, jokes and other relatable content, users can take the opportunity to seek the opinions, wisdom or support of those around them, widening their online social sphere without letting anyone in. The anonymity afforded by YikYak may also be empowering users with a kind of confidence they may not have online otherwise, and gives them a place to ask questions or express thoughts or feelings they may be afraid or embarrassed to on a platform where they are connected with and known to their peers offline. Questions of health, sexuality, romance, mental illness, and other topics that the individual may not feel comfortable talking about openly elsewhere online are discussed freely, and like those posing the questions, users with answers are also more free to share these, creating a kind of help network. This positive use of anonymity on social media is an example of users extending their private sphere to people they do not know in order to gain or share something, within the public sphere as it is visible to many others in the local area and shared and stored online. The disinhibition&lt;ref name=&quot;Suler 2004&quot;&gt;Suler, J. (2004). ''CyberPsychology &amp; Behavior''. July 2004, 7(3): 321-326. doi:10.1089/1094931041291295&lt;/ref&gt; experienced by users of YikYak, though, may be hindered by the ever-possible notion that you may be conversing with somebody whom you know in real life and would never dream of discussing such topics with.

Along with genuine requests for help and appropriate answers and discussions, there are inevitably people who use their anonymity for less than favourable reasons and behaviours. Though they do not know who exactly they are targeting, individuals may direct abuse or insults at people regardless of what they may have originally posted, it can be entirely unrelated and unprovoked. The option to hide all content from a specific user is available in the instance of such behaviour but, because of the anonymity and the way commenters are unable to be traced between threads, it is unclear just how many users at one time may be acting in this way; one individual could pose as many, or vice versa. The creation of multiple user names for the purpose of trolling is a similar phenomenon on help forums, where anonymity, though beneficial for some, is used in a negative way in the public sphere while protecting the user’s privacy.

=== Cyberbullying ===

Bullying is a serious social problem. It can happen anywhere at any time, from the workplace to your bedroom, however its all-encompassing reach is only a recent development. Spitzberg and Hoobler have stated that the digital and information revolution has merged into a communications revolution:&lt;ref name=&quot;Spitzenberg 2002&quot;&gt;Spitzberg, B.H. and Hoobler, G. (2002) ‘Cyberstalking and the technologies of interpersonal terrorism’ in ''New Media &amp; Society'', 4(1), pp. 71–92. doi: 10.1177/14614440222226271.&lt;/ref&gt; as a result messages can now reach you anywhere. Therefore the potential for bullying via electronic communications has grown with the advancement of communications and technology.&lt;ref&gt;Li, Q. (2007) &quot;New bottle but old wine: A research of cyberbullying in schools,&quot; Computers in Human Behavior (23), pp 1777–1791.&lt;/ref&gt;

Cyber bullying is a modern form of bullying usually practiced through electronic or online forms of contact e.g. SMS, Social Media, [https://www.youtube.com/ Youtube]. Cyberbullying has been perceived to be worse than traditional bullying for a number of reasons in reference to the consequences for the victim.&lt;ref&gt;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-012-9867-3&lt;/ref&gt;  The consequences can be seen as worse because of the larger audience that may be privy to the abusive content online, for instance leaving a comment on a Youtube video is available to be seen by everyone. Most importantly there is also an increased potential for anonymous bullying online.

 
{{Rquote|left| An aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself. | [[w:Peter K. Smith|Peter K. Smith]],Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Goldsmiths College, University of London&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith 2008b&quot;&gt;Smith, P.K., and Slonje, R. (2008b) &quot;Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying?,&quot; ''Scandinavian Journal of Psychology'':49&lt;/ref&gt; }}

Social media websites such as Facebook have the potential to create fake accounts where the bully can anonymously harass their victims. The anonymous nature of the harassment can have a different psychological effect to that of regular bullying upon the recipient due to the insidious nature of abuse. The unknown identity of cyberbullies can cause fear and distraction for the victims&lt;ref name=&quot;Shariff 2006&quot;&gt;Shariff, S., &amp; Gouin, R. (2006), Cyber-dilemmas: Gendered hierarchies, new technologies and cybersafety in schools. ''Atlantis - A Women’s Studies Journal'', 31 (1)&lt;/ref&gt; and our online privacy is therefore damaged by the anonymous nature of cyberbullying, eliminating the sense of security one can feel online.&lt;ref&gt;Brescia, H. (2014, December 3). Analysis of policy regarding Cyberbullying. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://sites.duke.edu/cyberbullying/2014/12/03/who-what-where-and-why/&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:FILE CYBERBULLYING.jpg|framed|Percentage of which social media networks teens are being cyberbullied on [http://www.statisticbrain.com/cyber-bullying-statistics/] ]]&lt;/div&gt;
The security of hiding behind an online URL or user name also encourages bullying. Aricak’s studies have shown that electronic communications associated with anonymity have been shown to promote cyber bullying behaviour.&lt;ref name=&quot;Aricak 2008&quot;&gt;Aricak, T., Siyahhan, S., et al., C. (2008) &quot;Cyberbullying among Turkish Adolescents,&quot; ''Cyberpsychology &amp; behavior'' (11:3)&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.tumblr.com Tumblr], which has an anonymous messaging service built into the website, confirms these studies due to the many instances of online [http://www.dictionary.com/browse/hate-mail “hate mail”] users receive through the anonymous messaging service. This has become commonly known on the website as “anon hate”.

Cyberbullying exhibits all the characteristics of not having a face-to-face communication/experience – facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice and reactions ect.- which can reduce the emotional responsibility and social accountability the bully would normally experience, this consequently makes them feel less guilty when taking part in vindictive or hostile communications.&lt;ref name=&quot;Herring 2002&quot;&gt;Herring, S.C., 2002, ''Annual review of information science'', Chapter 3: Computer-Mediated Communication on the Internet&lt;/ref&gt;  Additionally, the potential for anonymity online in private and public spheres can produce bullies who would never normally take part in traditional face to face bullying – feeling empowered by their anonymous profiles.&lt;ref name=&quot;Campbell 2005&quot;&gt;Campbell, M. (2005) &quot;Cyber bullying: An old problem in a new guise?&quot; in ''Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling'' (15:1), pp 68-76.&lt;/ref&gt;

Cyberbullying therefore thrives off the potential for anonymity created by the internet as well as the continued evolution of technology into a more connected age. Even though it may seem less harmful to bully through the cybernetic world in reality it can be far more destructive than traditional bullying invading both our private and public spheres of communications.&lt;ref&gt;LLC, V. M. (2015, March 9). There is a lack of research on the longterm effects of Cyberbullying. Retrieved March 10, 2016, from http://motherboard.vice.com/read/why-dont-we-have-real-science-on-cyberbullying&lt;/ref&gt;

====Digital Self-Harm====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Elizabeth Englander's study on Digital Munchausen.jpg|framed|Elizabeth Englander's study on Digital Munchausen]]&lt;/div&gt;
Digital self-harm is the act of abusing one-self anonymously online. In 2010 [[w:danah boyd|Dr. danah boyd]] published an online article about &quot;digital self-harm&quot; describing &quot;teens who are self-harassing by 'anonymously' writing mean questions to themselves and publicly answering them&quot;&lt;ref&gt;boyd, danah. (2010, December 7). Digital Self-Harm and Other Acts of Self-Harassment. Retrieved March 10, 2016, from http://www.zephoria.org/thoughts/archives/2010/12/07/digital-self-harm-and-other-acts-of-self-harassment.html&lt;/ref&gt; This phenomenon was initially uncovered by the staff at a website, [https://www.twoo.com/ Formspring] (now known as [[w:Spring.me|Spring.me]]) which investigated some cyber bullying and found that the alleged victims had actually posted the cruel comments against themselves.

A study by [[w:ELizabeth Englander|Elizabeth Englander]] at the [http://marccenter.webs.com/ Massachusetts Agression Reduction Centre] labelled the phenomenon as &quot;Digital Munchausen&quot; as the process undertaken by these teens mirror certain symptoms of the psychiatric disorders [[w:Munchausen syndrome|Munchausen Syndrome]] and [[w:Munchausen syndrome by proxy|Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy]]. The syndroms primary characteristic is the patients infliction of self-harm in a quest for sympathy, attention and admiration as they attempt to cope with their victimization. In 2011 a study was undertaken that discovered that 9% of teens took part in digital self-harm - making a cruel comment anonymously against themselves or cyber bullying themselves: a higher proportion of boys (13%) admitted to this than did girls (8%). About half of these “digital self-harmers” had done this only once or very infrequently; the other half reported that they had cyber bullied themselves more regularly or had one, ongoing episode which lasted at least several months.&lt;ref&gt;Elizabeth Englander, “Preliminary Report: Bullying	and	Cyberbullying	in Massachusetts 2011-12” (presented at the Workshop:	PCP Interventions,  Freehold, NJ,  2011).&lt;/ref&gt;

The potential afforded by anonymous question forums like Formspring, as well as the potential for anonymity on almost any digital or social media has clearly been used as a tool to &quot;harm&quot; and &quot;victimize&quot; oneself for various purposes. danah boyd speculates that teens use online anonymity to harm themselves as an outcry for help, to appear cool or to attempt to trigger compliments. Elizabeth Englander's study shows that they took part in digital self-harm to get the attention of a peer or to prove they could &quot;take it&quot; among other reasons. For both boys and girls, about 35% said that the self-cyberbullying strategy was successful for them, in that it helped them achieve what they wanted, and felt better after their anonymous self-abuse.&lt;ref&gt;Englander, E. (2012, June). DIGITAL SELF-­‐ HARM: FREQUENCY, TYPE, MOTIVATIONS, AND OUTCOMES. Retrieved from http://webhost.bridgew.edu/marc/DIGITAL%20SELF%20HARM%20report.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; It is therefore important to take into account the potential for anonymous self-harm on the internet, which has only become possible due to the potential for anonymity in both online private and public spheres.

====Cyberstalking====
In present day, the idea of going on someone’s personal online profile in social media sites like Facebook seems like the a very common and socially acceptable thing to do, and the term ‘stalking’ can be lightly and jokingly used to define this. A user can spend hours scrolling down a stranger’s personal profile and discover and learn many personal details of said person. However, such seemingly innocent act can very easily and quickly get out of hand, leading to very serious consequences.

The most common (and again, essentially socially acceptable) type of cyberstalking is usually directed towards celebrities, especially of their social media profiles. The fact that the user has chosen to upload such concept and made it publicly available is what motivates other users to spend hours ‘stalking’ it, which could possible be why nobody considers this act to actually be cyberstalking. However, not all users just stop here, which is why cyberstalking is actually a form of cyberbullying.

[[w:Alexis Moore|Alexis Moore]] describes cyberstalking as a technologically-based &quot;attack&quot; on one person who has been targeted specifically for that attack for reasons of anger, revenge or control. Cyberstalking can take many forms, including:
#harassment, embarrassment and humiliation of the victim
#emptying bank accounts or other economic control such as ruining the victim's credit score
#harassing family, friends and employers to isolate the victim
#scare tactics to instill fear and more &lt;ref&gt;Moore, Alexis A. &quot;What is cyberstalking?&quot;. About.com. Retrieved 2016-03-11.&lt;/ref&gt;

The differences between cyber bullying and cyber stalking have been looked at in a Trolling Magnitude (TM) Scale, showing that, while cyber bullying is more strategic, cyber stalking is more about domination.&lt;ref&gt;Bishop, J. (2013). The effect of deindividuation of the Internet Troller on Criminal Procedure implementation: An interview with a Hater. International Journal of Cyber Criminology 7(1), pp. 28-48. Available at [http://www.jonathanbishop.com/Library/Documents/EN/docIJCCPaper_Hater.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.jonathanbishop.com/Library/Documents/EN/docIJCCPaper_Hater.pdf]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! TM !! Motive !! Mode !! Gravity !! Description
|-
| 1 || Playtime || Cyber-bantering || Cyber-trolling || In the moment and quickly regret
|-
| 2 || Tactical || Cyber-trickery || Cyber-trolling || In the moment but don't regret and continue
|-
| 3 || Strategic || Cyber-bullying || Cyber-stalking || Go out of way to cause problems, but without a sustained and planned long-term campaign
|-
| 4 ||Domination ||Cyber-hickery || Cyber-stalking || Goes out of the way to create rich media to target one or more specific individuals
|}

{{Rquote|right| …the Internet, e-mail, or other electronic communication device[s] to create a criminal level of intimidation, harassment, and fear in one or more victims |M. L. Pittaro &lt;ref&gt;Pittaro, M. L. (2011). Cyber stalking. In K . Jaishankar (Ed.), Cyber criminology (pp. 277-297). Retrieved from http://www.crcnetbase.com&lt;/ref&gt;}}
Cyberstalking falls into three main categories: direct communication, indirect communication, which is circulated or posted online, and misrepresentation online.&lt;ref&gt;Quarmby, K. (2014, August 13). How the law is standing up to Cyberstalking in the magazine. . Retrieved from http://europe.newsweek.com/how-law-standing-cyberstalking-264251?rm=eu&lt;/ref&gt; As well as there being four main types of cyberstalkers: the vindictive cyberstalker, the composed cyberstalker, the intimate cyberstalker and collective cyberstalkers. The vindictive type is much more likely to threaten their victims than any other group and can sometimes stalk them offline as well as online. The stalking in these cases typically began with a trivial discussion or argument and ended up with the offender getting upset and setting out on a mission to harm the victim. This type was the most likely to use spam, viruses, and identity theft against the victim. The composed cyberstalker does not want to develop a relationship with the victim, but rather wants only to harass, 
threaten, and annoy the victim. The intimate cyberstalker desires to have a relationship with the victim. This type can be divided into two subcategories: the ex-intimate and the infatuate. The ex-intimate may desire to repair the past relationship, but he may also threaten the victim as well. The harassment begins on the internet in this type, not offline. The infatuate begins by sending the victim an intimate message and desires to develop a relationship with the victim. When the infatuate is rejected, he will then begin to threaten the victim. Lastly, the collective cyberstalkers work together to send the victim many emails, and to spam, threaten, and steal the victim’s identity.&lt;ref&gt;Riplee. (2012, April 6). Cyberstalking: Lurking in anonymity. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from http://ripleeforensicpsych.umwblogs.org/2012/04/06/cyberstalking-lurking-in-anonymity/&lt;/ref&gt; Research also shows that victims of cyberstalking are just as likely to feel fear and helplessness as people who are stalked in real life because cyberstalkers often hide in anonymity making them that much more difficult to deter or catch due to the fact they can stalk from the secrecy afforded by the World Wide Web.&lt;ref&gt;Lipton, J. D. (2011). Combating cyber victimization. Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 26, 1103-1155.&lt;/ref&gt; This allusiveness may make cyberstalkers even more threatening, intimidating, and frightening.

However, as in the case of the vindictive type, cyberstalking can often come hand in hand with offline or 'realtime' stalking in severe cases. This is because if an individual with specific psychological issues is cyberstalking, they most often feel like this is no longer enough for them (after a certain period of time has passed) and decide to take it to the next level; offline stalking. There are consequences of law in offline and online stalking, and cyberstalkers can be put in jail.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;UCF Cyber Stalker’s Sentence Not Harsh Enough, Victim Says&quot;[http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/ucf-cyber-stalkers-sentence-not-harsh-enough-victim-says/]. ABC News. January 23, 2012. Retrieved 2016-03-11.&lt;/ref&gt; [http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/ucf-cyber-stalkers-sentence-not-harsh-enough-victim-says/]. However, this is often not enough to pay for the psychological damages that cyberstalking causes.

According to social psychologist Robin M. Kowalski, cyberbullying and cyberstalking has been shown to cause higher levels of anxiety and depression for victims than normal bullying. Kowalksi states that much of this stems from the anonymity of the perpetrators, which is a common feature of cyberstalking as well.&lt;ref&gt;Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S., &amp; Agatston, P. (2008). Cyber bullying: Bullying in the digital age. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt; According to her study, a quarter of 3,700 bullied middle-school students had been subjected to a form of harassment online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alexis Pilkington Facebook Horror: Cyber Bullies Harass Teen Even After Suicide&quot;[ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/03/24/alexis-pilkington-faceboo_n_512482.html]. Huffingtonpost.com. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 2016-03-11.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hackers and Hacktivism ===

[[w:Hacktivism|Hacktivism]] is a contentious term which, most loosely and most relevantly to this context, refers to the idea of technological hacking to affect social change. Many groups and individuals go to great lengths to conceal their identity due to the nature of their tasks, whether they are ethical or unethical, and some use the pseudonym [[w:Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], one of the most notable hacktivist groups which originated on the forums of [http://www.4chan.org/ 4chan] and are responsible for a number of notable hacking activities.

The idea is that the groups and individuals who identify as hacktivists want their beliefs and actions to be widely known and acknowledged while keeping their identity and details such as location entirely concealed. This is an unusual example of keeping a high profile in the public sphere while maintaining complete anonymity and a disconnect from their private sphere, while using their skills to breach the privacy of other individuals or organisations. There is nothing to be gained personally by this, such as recognition, but it is often activism in the name of political or social beliefs or justice that motivates these kinds of hackers without the repercussions of being identified. This can lead to extremes of [[w:Cyberterrorism|cyberterrorism]], which is sometimes classed under the category of hacktivism.

====Evolution of Hacktivism and Political Hacking====

The origins of computerized activism extend back in pre-Web history to the mid 1980s. As an example, the first version of PeaceNet appeared in early 1986. PeaceNet enabled - really for the first time - political activists to communicate with one another across international borders with relative ease and speed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cleaver 1998&quot;&gt;Cleaver, H. (1998). ''&quot;The Zapatistas and the International Circulation of Struggle: Lessons Suggested and Problems Raised,&quot; Harry Cleaver homepage 1998''. Retrieved 03/10, 2016, from http://www.eco.utexas.edu/faculty/Cleaver/lessons.html)&lt;/ref&gt; The computerized activism of the past has developed through certain stages: Electronic Civil Disobedience activism which acts in the tradition of non-violent direct action and civil disobedience employing typical civil disobedience tactics such as sit ins/physical blockades, and translating them into modern culture: creating virtual blockades. Unlike a traditional sit in the Electronic Civil Disobedience activist can participate in the virtual blockades from home, work or university - anywhere that is attached to the web.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wray 1998&quot;&gt;Wray, S. (1998). &quot;On Electronic Civil Disobedience,&quot; Peace, forthcoming; ''Electronic Civil Disobedience archive 1998''. Retrieved 03/09, 2016, from http://www.nyu.edu/projects/wray/oecd.html)&lt;/ref&gt; It is neccessary to mention ECD activists as they are part of a process which has led towards politicized Hacktervism.

One main distinction between most Politicized Hacking and the type of Electronic Civil Disobedience just mentioned is that while ECD actors don't hide their names, political hacks are generally done by people who want to name anonymous because a lot of what they do is not above board. These hacks are often likely to be undertaken by specific people rather than larger groups. The main reason for anonymity in hacktivsm is that the stakes are much higher, some hacks are unquestionably illegal: like the Sony Pictures hack of 24 November 2014.&lt;ref&gt;Betters, E. (2015, February 5). Sony pictures hack: Here’s everything we know about the massive attack so far. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/131937-sony-pictures-hack-here-s-everything-we-know-about-the-massive-attack-so-far&lt;/ref&gt; However, the nature of the online web affords the opportunity to remain anonymous whilst crossing political boundaries. Few people would question the legality of entering someones personal computer and adding or changing HTML coding. Therefore hacktivists anonymity is a necessary tool.

It is important to remember that hacktivism is very much in its infancy. It is too early to make a definitive statement upon the direction hacktivism will take. Perhaps the entire notion of hacktivism distorts and challenges sets of values and moral and ethical codes abusing the potential for anonymity on the web. [[w:Steven Levy|Steven Levy]] bemoans that &quot;modern-day&quot; hackers are not worthy of the name asthey do not maintain the principles of original [[w:Hacker ethic|Hacker ethics]], and as unethical individuals, should simply be called &quot;computer terrorists&quot; or &quot;juvenile&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mizrach, S. Old and new hacker ethics. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://www2.fiu.edu/~mizrachs/hackethic.html&lt;/ref&gt; In the future there will be some re-thinking involved in hacktervism and we may begin to see a new set of ethical codes for hacking developed.&lt;ref&gt;Wray, S. (2002). Electronic civil disobedience and the world wide web of Hacktivism. Retrieved March 9, 2016, from http://www.webpagefx.com/research/electronic-civil-disobedience-hacktivism.html&lt;/ref&gt;

====Anonymous====
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Anonymous-symbol.jpg|thumbnail|Anonymous' Icon]]&lt;/div&gt;
Anonymous are a vaguely connected international group of hacktivists. The group is thought to have founded in 2003 where their first known activities on 4chan came to light during raids on other social media websites like [[w:Habbo|Habbo]] in 2006.&lt;ref&gt;Knufken, D. (2011, March 23). 5 anonymous campaigns against businesses. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from Business, http://www.businesspundit.com/5-anonymous-campaigns-against-businesses/&lt;/ref&gt; Anonymous members can be identified in public by the stylized [[w:Guy Fawkes mask|Guy Fawkes masks]] that they wear which has become popularized as a symbol for rebellion in films like [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0434409/plotsummary V for Vendetta] and now through its association with Anonymous.
{{cquote| Anyone can be part of it. It is a crowd of people, a nebulous crowd of people, working together and doing things together for various purposes.|author= [[w:Parmy Olson|&lt;big&gt;Parmy Olson&lt;/big&gt;]]&lt;ref&gt;Parmy Olson on anonymous: ‘A growing phenomenon that we Don’t yet understand’. (2012, June 8). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from http://www.rferl.org/content/parmy-olson-on-anonymous-a-growing-phenomenon-that-we-dont-yet-understand/24607895.html&lt;/ref&gt; }}

The group has no leader but rather works around ideas rather than directives, in this way, no singular person or figurehead can be associated with the blame of their hacks. Generally speaking Anon's disagree with internet censorship and control, largely targeting governments, companies and organisations they feel are providing censorship, Anonymous were early supporters of the Arab Spring[[#Arab Spring|''(see section 1.5.4.3.1)'']].&lt;ref&gt;Kelly, B., B. (2012). INVESTING IN A CENTRALIZED CYBERSECURITY INFRASTRUCTURE: WHY ‘ HACKTIVISM ’ CAN AND SHOULD INFLUENCE CYBERSECURITY REFORM. Retrieved from http://www.bu.edu/law/journals-archive/bulr/volume92n4/documents/kelly.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; The group has relatively few rules but those they have include not disclosing their identity, not attacking the media and not talking about the group as a whole.

{{cquote | &quot;We [Anonymous] just happen to be a group of people on the Internet who need—just kind of an outlet to do as we wish, that we wouldn't be able to do in regular society. ...That's more or less the point of it. Do as you wish. ... There's a common phrase: 'we are doing it for the lulz.'
|author= &lt;big&gt;Trent Peacock.&lt;/big&gt;[[w:Search Engine (radio show)|''Search Engine'']]: The face of Anonymous, February 7, 2008.&lt;ref&gt;Brown, Jesse (February 7, 2008). &quot;Community Organization with Digital Tools: The face of Anonymous&quot;. MediaShift Idea Lab: Reinventing Community News for the Digital Age (PBS). Archived from the original on Feb 11, 2008. Retrieved March 11, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; }}

An example of Anonymous' hacktivist acts could be the cyberprotest after the fatal [[w:Shooting of Michael Brown|police shooting of the unarmed African-American Michael Brown]]. A hacktivist organization that claimed to be associated with Anonymous organized cyberprotests against police, setting up a website and a Twitter account to do so.&lt;ref&gt;Bever, Lindsey (August 13, 2014). &quot;Amid Ferguson protests, hacker collective Anonymous wages cyberwar&quot;. The Washington Post. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; The hacktivist group promised and threatened that if at any moment any protesters were harassed or harmed, they would attack the city's servers taking them offline. City officials admitted to the press  that e-mail systems were targeted and phones died, while the Internet crashed at the City Hall.&lt;ref&gt;Hunn, David (August 13, 2014). &quot;How computer hackers changed the Ferguson protests&quot;. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved March 11th 2016&lt;/ref&gt; Later on, members of Anonymous said that they were working on confirming the identity of the undisclosed police officer who shot Brown and would release his name as soon as they did.&lt;ref&gt;Harkinson, Josh (August 13, 2014). &quot;Anonymous' &quot;Op Ferguson&quot; Says It Will ID the Officer Who Killed Michael Brown&quot;. Mother Jones. Retrieved March 11th 2016&lt;/ref&gt; Anonymous then posted on its Twitter feed what it claimed was the name of the officer who shot Michael Brown.&lt;ref&gt;Bosman, Julie; Shear, Michael D.; Williams, Timothy (August 14, 2014). &quot;Obama Calls for Open Inquiry Into Police Shooting of Teenager in Ferguson, Mo&quot;. The New York Times. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Anonymous Releases Alleged Name Of Officer They Say Fatally Shot Michael Brown&quot;. KMOX News Radio 1120. August 14, 2014. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; However, police said the identity released by Anonymous was in fact, incorrect.&lt;ref&gt;Pagliery, Jose (August 14, 2014). &quot;Ferguson police deny Anonymous' ID of alleged shooter&quot;. CNN Money. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; Twitter subsequently suspended the Anonymous account from its service.&lt;ref&gt;Hunn, David. &quot;Twitter suspends Anonymous account : News&quot;. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved March 11th, 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;
It was reported on 19 November 2014 that Anonymous had responded by declaring cyber war on the [[w:Ku Klux Klan|Ku Klux Klan (KKK)]], after the KKK had made death threats following the Ferguson riots. They went on to hack the KKK's Twitter account, attack servers hosting KKK sites, and started to release the personal details of members.&lt;ref&gt;Jamie Bartlett. &quot;Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous by Gabriella Coleman – review&quot;. the Guardian.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Online Piracy and S.O.P.A ===
Whilst piracy has always been an issue, the digital age has amplified it significantly. Before digital media came to prominence, pirating goods such as films or music was more difficult and required a certain degree of technical proficiency. In addition to this, piracy was viewed more as a taboo and the quality of pirated goods was generally poor. Through digital media, an identical quality copy of a piece of media can be produced and distributed at little cost to a mass audience.

The first major file sharing program to exist, and also to be shut down, was [[w:Napster|Napster]], which was also the most prominent example in [[w:peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]] (P2P) file sharing, operating from 1999 to 2001, amassing over 25 million users and 80 million songs. Users could now download and share any music file free of charge. Various artists filed law suits against the site when it would not remove copyrighted material. However, Napster was quick to settle each of these suits. The site was eventually terminated due to legislation introduced by the [[w:Digital Millennium Copyright Act|Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]. This marked the first significant sign of resistance against digital piracy by the media industries.

Internet piracy is when unauthorized copies are downloaded over the internet. This is typically done through [[w:peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]]  file sharing systems, the some prolific examples being [[w:ThePirateBay|The Pirate Bay]] and [[w:LimeWire|LimeWire]]. There are currently hundreds of thousands of [[w:warez|warez]] sites providing unlimited access to downloads for users. The same purchasing rules apply to on-line software purchases as for those bought in [[w:compact disk|compact disk]] format. &lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:BitTorrent network.svg|thumb|right|The middle computer is acting as a seed to provide a file to the other computers which act as peers.]]&lt;/div&gt;


Common Internet piracy techniques are:
*Websites that make [[w:software|software]] available for free download or in exchange for others.
*[[w:Online auction|Online auction]] sites that offer counterfeit or out-of-channel software.
*[[w:peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]] networks that enable unauthorized transfer of copyrighted programs.


Once downloaded, these pirated files are hosted on a BitTorrent client.
Such clients include [[w:μTorrent|μTorrent]], [[w:Xunlei|Xunlei]], [[w:Transmission (BitTorrent client)|Transmission]], [[w:qBittorrent|QBittorrent]], [[w:Vuze|Vuze]], [[w:Deluge (wːsoftware)|Deluge]], and [[w:BitComet|BitComet]].

This type of file sharing is indicative of the public digital sphere intersecting with the private digital sphere. The community collaboration required through the processes of acquisition of the  data, uploading, torrenting and seeding which results in the individual being able to access media that may have otherwise may have been unreachable .

As this method of file-sharing becomes more prominent, the idea that it is a crime comes less ingrained in the [[w:collective consciousness|collective consciousness]], and as file sharing becomes regarded as less deviant behaviour the more it becomes utilized as an everyday too among users. Following McLuhan's model of technological determinism, we have seen social attitudes yield to technological advancements. However, this  relaxed attitude towards downloading unknown software has led to a greater number of breaches in computer security. This lack of ability to verify the sources and quality of downloads is the key issue with file-sharing as it allows numerous other risks to become more prominent, such as the exposure of personal information or increased susceptibility to attacks in the future.

'''Stop Online Piracy Act'''

The [[w:Stop Online Piracy Act|Stop Online Piracy Act]] - or S.O.P.A as it is more commonly known - was a controversial Bill proposed by the US Government in 2011, in an attempt  to clamp down on online piracy. The bill took power away from content creators, and essentially deputised copyright holders in their ability to eradicate piracy. In doing so, this gave copyright holders (in most cases record labels and movie distributors) the power to shut down not just the content but the provider itself, and force all other online services to do the same; provided they have a lawful copyright claim. However, the &quot;deputising&quot; effect of the Bill meant that copyright holders would not be obliged to go through any judicial processing in regards to the claim. This means that corporations would have the ability to shut down a single person's (or an entire company's) online footprint in an instant - forcing other internet services like [[w:PayPal|PayPal]] and social networking sites to comply to the claim, as well as blacklist the perpetrator from ever using the services again. The Bill was praised for its policies on infringement claims outside the US, giving claimant's more power in shutting down illegal content from foreign websites. The Bill also carried stringent policy on illegal streaming, for both the provider of that content and those that consume it - with a 5 year maximum prison sentence for the viewing or listening of illegal content.

Despite receiving strong support in both The Senate and House of Representatives - amongst other organisations and Unions - the Bill was met with great opposition by US citizens. Many felt that the Bill was an infringement on intellectual property law, and claimed that the guidelines for the bill were so broad and vague that one small infringement by a single person could have disastrous repercussions. Others also claimed that the Bill's proposal to block internet search results and to blacklist users from services and information was a violation of the [[w:First Amendment To The United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. The Bill was met with substantial opposition by various online communities - the members of which shaped the future for the Bill and were paramount in its eventual retraction.

[[#Online-activism by Citizens|Online-activism]] does not exclusively encompass issues experienced in the real world, groups can come together for the promotion of issues relating to online freedom and net neutrality. Online community site [[w:Reddit|Reddit]] actively opposed S.O.P.A and its policies, and were pivotal in encouraging other providers and content creators to stand in protest. A subreddit (section of the site dedicated to discourse on a specific subject) was created to discuss both the Bill and ways in which to protest it. Many users noticed the domain hosting site [[w:GoDaddy|GoDaddy]] actively supported S.O.P.A, which prompted a worldwide boycotting of its services. Reddit users collectively pulled their subscriptions, creating a synchronous deficit of 82000 domains&lt;ref name=Boycott&gt;Boycott GoDaddy. (2016) Godaddyboycott.org. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://godaddyboycott.org&lt;/ref&gt; and forcing GoDaddy to denounce their support of S.O.P.A. A statement by CEO [[w:Warren Adelman|Warren Adelman]] confirmed this on 29 December 2011:

::&quot;We have observed a spike in domain name transfers, which are running above normal rates and which we attribute to GoDaddy's prior support for SOPA, which was reversed. GoDaddy opposes SOPA because the legislation has not fulfilled its basic requirement to build a consensus among stake-holders in the technology and Internet communities. Our company regrets the loss of any of our customers, who remain our highest priority, and we hope to repair those relationships and win back their business over time.&quot;&lt;ref name=GoDaddy&gt;McCullagh, D. (2016). GoDaddy bows to boycott, now 'opposes' SOPA copyright bill. CNET. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://www.cnet.com/news/godaddy-bows-to-boycott-now-opposes-sopa-copyright-bill/&lt;/ref&gt;

Theorist [[w:Howard Rheingold|Howard Rheingold]] suggests that these acts of protest are the product of what he describes as [[w:smart mob|&quot;smart mobs&quot;]].&lt;ref name=HRheingold&gt;Rheingold, H. (2003). Smart mobs. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Pub.&lt;/ref&gt; According to Rheingold, even though protests such as Reddit's on S.O.P.A are primarily controlled and coordinated through the use of modern technology, age-old social practices alter the ways in which we us it. Essentially, society affects the way in which we use technology, which ultimately dictates ones behaviour online. Notions of trust, community and cooperation are still prevalent in an online environment; thus creating a symbiotic relationship between human interaction and access to information and widespread communication. In relation to S.O.P.A, this is indicative of something that Rheingold describes as &quot;self-organised mutual aid&quot; - meaning that the technology we use today ([[w:Smartphone|smartphones]] and other wireless devices) gives us the power to not only communicate, but to do so for the mutual benefit of both yourself and others. The societal framework that we have created in online envrionments allows us to organise and coordinate with those who are in our vicinity and those on the other side of the world simultaneously, depending on our needs at the time. Reddit users collaborated on a massive scale, and through the use of common social practices like protesting and boycotting - combined with the powers of technology - were able to make significant change on a much greater scale than if users had done so individually.

'''Website Blackouts in protest of S.O.P.A'''

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;[[File:Wikipedia Blackout Screen1.jpg|thumb|right|Wikipedia's home screen during the SOPA blackout]]&lt;/div&gt;During the collaborative protest efforts by Reddit and other online communities, websites that opposed S.O.P.A created a synchronous &quot;blackout&quot; of their services to show the effects of online censorship. Some sites cut off access completely, whereas other sites &quot;censored&quot; specific content whilst promoting petitions or protests that opposed the bill. Among the websites that organised this blackout were Reddit, Wikipedia, Google and Wired.&lt;ref name=Blackout&gt;News, A. (2012). Wikipedia Protests 'Internet Censorship'. ABC News. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/technology/2012/01/sopa-blackout-wikipedia-google-wired-join-protest-against-internet-censorship/&lt;/ref&gt; English Wikipedia stopped access to its site completely on 18–19 January for 24 hours, and asked those that encountered the blackout to &quot;Imagine a world without free knowledge&quot;. Similarly, Google plastered a black banner over the well-known Google logo, which when clicked redirected to a petition to stop S.O.P.A. The [[w:Electronic Frontier Foundation|Electronic Frontier Foundation]] are a digital rights group who assist with legal aid in digital rights cases and who defend new technologies and oppose infringements on net neutrality and online rights. As well as actively opposing S.O.P.A they too participated in the blackout on 19 January. As well as these websites, it was reported that there were over 7000 sites who contributed to the blackout in some way.&lt;ref name=BlackoutStats&gt;Waugh, R. (2012). U.S Senators withdraw support for anti-piracy bills as 4.5 million people sign Google's anti-censorship petition. Mail Online. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2088860/SOPA-protest-4-5m-people-sign-Googles-anti-censorship-petition.html&lt;/ref&gt;

The response from the blackout was paramount in ensuring the retraction of the Bill, and soon after many websites, Senators and groups who originally supported it began to recant their statements and change their views. The widespread knowledge of the blackout and the media response that it caused was proportionate to that of a real-life protest - with real life effects and repercussions. The internet blackout created a storm of media attention, whilst provoking a strong argument for the importance of freedom to education and information (in this case on the internet). The vast societal impact of the blackout coupled with the communal and cooperative aspects of the synchronous blackouts and protests, strongly corroborates the work of theorist danah boyd. Her work in the notions of always-on culture and the difficulty in discerning between real and virtual life in this age is evocative of the global reaction to S.O.P.A and the blackouts.&lt;ref name=SocialMediaReader&gt;Mandiberg, M. (2012). The social media reader. New York: New York University Press.&lt;/ref&gt; So synonymous are real and virtual lives that the societal influence of disabling access to information online can cause unprecedented damage in the real world. Not dissimilar to a protest of teachers at a school or the shutting down of a library in a budget cut - effects are noticed and people begin to make change. Further endorsing danah boyd's theories, she suggests that technological frameworks often imitate social constructs and communicative patterns - hence why we act and &quot;behave&quot; online similarly to how we would in the real world. Sites like Wikipedia are seen and accessed in the same way one would a library or a series of encyclopedia - through glossaries, indexes and pages. Similarly, news websites are accessed just as one would a newspaper - through various stories on pages. The real and virtual world are so deeply connected to one another, that an upset or change in one can be pivotal in how the other progresses.

=== Deep Web ===

The [[w:Deep web (search)|Deep Web]] refers to websites that cannot be found by conventional means, for example through common search engines like Google. It is said that the Deep Web is much larger than the '''Surface Web''', and is often described as the &quot;bottom of the iceberg&quot;, but there is no way to be sure due to its extremely private and exclusive nature.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wright 2009&quot;&gt;Wright, A, (2009). ''Exploring a ‘Deep Web’ That Google Can’t Grasp'', Retrieved 03/10, 2016 from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/23/technology/internet/23search.html?th&amp;emc=th&amp;_r=0&lt;/ref&gt; People use the Deep Web to test websites before they go &quot;live&quot; on the surface web, and businesses can use the deep web for staff-only information, but the Deep Web is most often talked about when talking about the [[w:Dark web|Dark Web]].

The Dark Web is a part of the Deep web, and refers to all the illegal activity happening within it, like mass drug and weapon trafficking, hitman services, hacking software, terrorists networks, amongst many other examples. Due to the nature of these websites, many people who frequent this part of the web want to do so with the most online anonymity possible. Many use softwares like [[w:Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] that hide the user's location and history so it's extremely difficult for anyone to track any criminals on the Dark Web. A lot of the websites on the Dark web are [[w:Peer-to-peer|peer-to-peer]] or invitation only, which also makes it harder for non-criminals to infiltrate and take down these kinds of sites. The most well-known example of a big Dark Web operation being successfully taken down is the [[w:Silk Road (marketplace)|Silk Road]], which was an online marketplace for drugs, and was taken down by the FBI in 2013.&lt;ref name=&quot;Flitter, 2013&quot;&gt;Flitter, E., (2013). &quot;FBI shuts alleged online drug marketplace, Silk Road&quot;, Retrieved 3/10, 2016 from http://news.yahoo.com/fbi-raids-alleged-online-drug-market-silk-road-153729457.html&lt;/ref&gt; However, many other similar marketplaces popped up on the Dark web almost immediately after. Since both the Dark Web and the Deep Web are so private, and of a completely unknown and unmeasurable size, it's very hard to study it and to take down any of the highly illegal and publicly-dangerous services and information found there.

== Security and Sphere Invasions ==
=== Private Sphere Invasions ===

It is without a doubt that the 21st century of digital media has progressed to the extent that we somewhat live and manage our social and private lives digitally. Interestingly, it seems that due to these on-going inventions of new technology, we are more willing to manage and store our personal and private information on various online/digital forms, as opposed to traditional manual filing. This switch to digital brings with it advantages in terms of quickness, convenience and tidiness, but there are also disadvantages, particularly relating to security and the safety of keeping this information private. Although the introduction of these new technologies were invented specifically to attend to our ‘needs’ or for general convenience, this has sparked concern over whether or not our private information is now more vulnerable to invasion. In today’s digitally orientated world, it would certainly seem that our private spheres and our control over how 'private' they are is shrinking, and nothing is really as private as we would like it to be any more.

The question to be asked here is, ''why do we manage so much of our personal and private information, such banking and contact details through these technologies when there is such a risk of it being invaded?''

Perhaps this is a result of the general public conformity to the digital-way-of-living which has progressed very quickly since the beginning of the 21st century. Branston and Stafford &lt;ref name=&quot;Brandon &amp; Stafford 2010&quot;&gt;Branston, G., &amp; Stafford, R. (2010). The Media Student's Book (5th ed., p. 254). London: Goldsmiths.&lt;/ref&gt; state that one of the main pros of this ''switch to digital'' is the ability to create digital copies or duplicates of information which was once stored manually, allowing for the use of less physical space and the ability to then create more duplicates for backup with minimal effort. We live in a world now where almost everything is done digitally, therefore everyday tasks and management of personal and social information is made much more easy and convenient, so it is understandable why we are so unlikely to covert back to a non digital, manually organised way of living.So, in overview, it seems that today’s technologically advanced society strive for a quick and easy organised digital life which overpowers the concerns over the risk of it all being invaded.

Below are two case study examples of digital media inventions which have brought with them many risks of private sphere invasions for their users.

==== Online Banking and Contactless Bank Cards ====

One example of a way in which we can ‘digitally store’ private information is through online banking. The process of online banking itself is known to be very secure, for example, [https://www.rbsdigital.com/ RBS] users are required to complete a two-page log in process to ensure that it is not being hacked or invaded by outsiders or fraudsters. Accessing this information has been made very secure, however with the introduction of the new [http://www.smartcardalliance.org/publications-contactless-payments-what-who-why/ Contactless bank cards], could our private online banking, or banking in general be under more risk of invasion?

These cards were invented initially in 2005 in America, and were brought to the UK in 2012, where It had proved to be a success, with over [http://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/23/contactless-card-is-too-easy-says-which 58 million] used in the UK by summer 2015. This new payment method was introduced to enhance our experience in managing our payments and expenses. ‘Contactless’ refers to the physical use of the card, as payment can be withdrawn from a bank account without any physical contact between the card and the pin machine, and without the need for any confirmation of the card’s pin code. This enhancement of digital media certainly proved popular shortly after its release in the UK, however, almost just as quickly, concerns began to spread over whether this new ‘convenient’ way of making a payment was really all that secure. With such a new and easy way to pay for goods, the contactless bank card invention was bound to spark concerns over the security of user’s bank details.

One of the main concerns with using these new cards is the risk of having money stolen much easier than it would with traditional, pin coded bank cards. According to an article written by Lisa Bachelor in  [http://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/23/contactless-card-is-too-easy-says-which The Guardian], It was found that, after various testing of contactless cards on ‘fake’ scanning decives, it was found that it is possible to [http://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/23/contactless-card-is-too-easy-says-which  read crucial data that was meant to be hidden], opening up the risk of invasions by fraudsters using such devices. Despite these concerns, it seems that the card is still vastly popular due to social conformity and the general excitement amongst society of this new invention. On top of this, many users concerned over the risk of paying twice due to the card's over sensitivity when in contact with a scanner, however the quickness of payment that it brought with it overshadowed this concern, especially in busy environments such as [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/money-saving-tips/11215583/Contactless-cards-how-to-avoid-paying-twice.html London train stations]. It is also rumoured that this ‘contactless’ motion allows the government to use the card’s function to track its citizens details and whereabouts.

These concerns may seem extreme, and this suggests that the ''Media Multiplier'' effect, as described by Athique,&lt;ref name=&quot;Athique A. (2013)&quot;&gt;Athique, A. (2013). Digital media and society (p.517). Cambridge, England: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt; perhaps plays a part in the growing concerns raised over the use of contactless bank cards. This suggests that the growing discussions of concern between users of the mass media have multiplied to the point that there is a greater worry amongst society than is necessary for how unlikely it is that these events will happen. This reaction is due to the overwhelming hype of this new invention, and the excitement of what is a very 'futuristic' tool that is now so readily available at our hands.

Perhaps today's digital world has made our every day tasks just 'too easy' that we are oblivious to the risks, or perhaps it is this easiness that is sparking the concern amongst society.

==== iPhone Fingerprint Scanning ====

[http://www.apple.com/uk Apple] are notoriously known for their technological advancements, especially with their ever changing and ever improving iPhone device. In 2013, however, Apple introduced the new ''fingerprint scanning'' feature on their iPhone 5 devices which was supposedly a new 'safer' way for the user to unlock their phone. This, however, was quick to spark concerns and kick up a storm amongst its users.

The main concern raised over this new and exiting iPhone feature is how extremely easy it has been found to hack into. Activist groups such as [[w:Anonymous (Group)|Anonymous]] and even our own government have been said to have the greatest control over using this tool for invasions. Not only can these invasions steal personal information stored on the devices, it can also reveal the user's whereabouts, and of course, give a digital print of their fingerprint. This type of information can lead to many issues such as fraud and identity theft, but the main concern amongst society seems so be of its likeliness to allow the government to [http://www.motherboard.vice.com/blog/the-iphones-fingerprint-scanner-has-shady-government-ties-anonymous-says track] its citizens whereabouts.

Perhaps society conformed to using this new Apple feature due to the excitement of advancing technology, as it is different from anything that has been readily available to the public before. Fingerprint scanning is something that society is used to associating with spy-detective type films, or just policing and investigations in general, and this is due to the connotations it has with representations &lt;ref name=&quot;Lacey N. (2009)&quot;&gt;Lacey, N. (2009). Image and Representation (2nd ed., pp. 6-7).&lt;/ref&gt; created through the media. With this media effect in mind, it is clear to see why this feature was received so well.

=== Public Sphere Invasions ===

Although many are concerned with private sphere invasions and the threat of hacking private information, invasions of the public sphere must not be overlooked. There are ways companies and users are creating negative side effects through public spheres such as filter bubbles, echo chambers and trolling. Facebook for example explain how they control your public experience online:

''The stories that show in your News Feed are influenced by your connections and activity on Facebook. This helps you to see more stories that interest you from friends you interact with the most. The number of comments and likes a post receives and what kind of story it is (ex: photo, video, status update) can also make it more likely to appear in your News Feed.'' &lt;ref&gt;Facebook Help center. (2016). Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://www.facebook.com/help/166738576721085&lt;/ref&gt;

In having different experiences through filtering and personalization, where does the line between private and public sphere end? We are building a web for ourselves instead of a web for everyone.

==== Filter Bubbles &amp; Algorithmic Gatekeepers ====

'''[[w:Eli Pariser|Eli Pariser]]''' is the chief executive of Upworthy, a website for &quot;meaningful&quot; viral content and is an internet activist. He discusses Filter Bubbles in his publication ''The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You'' and his [https://www.ted.com/talks/eli_pariser_beware_online_filter_bubbles?language=en TED Talk].

{{Rquote|right|Your filter bubble is your own personal, unique universe of information that you live in online. What’s in your filter bubble depends on who you are, and it depends on what you do. But the thing is that you don’t decide what gets in. And more importantly, you don’t actually see what gets edited out.|[[w:Eli Pariser|Eli Pariser]]&lt;ref&gt;Pariser, E. (2011, May 2). Beware online ‘filter bubbles’. Retrieved March 11, 2016, from https://www.ted.com/talks/eli_pariser_beware_online_filter_bubbles?language=en&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Results on [[w:Google|Google]] for example are now dependent on your location, device being used and [[w:Web browser|browser]] meaning there is no standard Google anymore. This acts as an invisible filtering of the web, with platforms using information they have obtained about you to design your online experience to match you specifically. [[w:Eli Pariser|Pariser]] refers to this invisible algorithmic editing of the web as the work of ‘Algorithmic [[w:Gatekeeper|Gatekeepers]]’. This controlling curation of how we see the world online suffers from focusing too much on relevance. Other information that should be delivered in the public sphere should be important, uncomfortable, challenging and from other points of view according to Pariser. These gatekeepers must have encoded a sense of the public life and civic responsibility, offering us more control over what enters our filters.

However, personalization on the web has led to tailor made results, based on previously visited shopping websites for example, and users experiencing different results online by their own choice also.  This act of filtering comes from the user and has a wider effect on the public sphere. Although advantages come with this act of filtering such as targeted advertisements, which cold act a a 'reminder' that you have visited a particular website in which you may like to return, and results that seem most suitable and relevant, users' ability to manipulate this personalization has side effects. users' tendency to consume information that supports their own opinions leads to a restricted and biased perspective online - receiving information in the public space that is tailored to match their interests. Therefore, certain information online can be ignored by users due to filter bubbles, meaning if information isn't deemed relevant to the user it will be dismissed. This may relate to the information overload online as the amount of information available online can seem overwhelming, irrelevant and distracting - however a balance needs to be met.

==== Echo Chambers ====

An echo chamber is a situation in which information, ideas, or beliefs are amplified or reinforced by transmission and repetition inside an &quot;enclosed&quot; system, where different or competing views are censored, disallowed or otherwise underrepresented. As a result of filter bubbles, echo chambers are created in which mainstream and popular beliefs dominate the public sphere. There is a decrease in original thought and excessive repetition of opinion in order to be validated by like-minded people.

''If you surround yourself with voices that echo similar opinions to those you’re feeding out, they will be reinforced in your mind as mainstream, to the point that it can distort your perception of what is the general consensus.'' Martin, 2013.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cavanagh 2014&quot;&gt;Cavanagh, T. (2014, October, 17). The echo chamber is getting louder. [Web log post] Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/the-university-of-central-florida-forum/the-echo-chamber-is-getti_b-5573734.html&lt;/ref&gt;

Leon Festinger's research into cognitive dissonance shows that people would look to actively seek out reassuring voices in order to confirm their beliefs and resolve their internal conflict.&lt;ref name=&quot;Festinger 1957&quot;&gt;Festinger, L. (1957) A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (California: Stanford University Press)&lt;/ref&gt; This pollutes the public sphere as the online space remains unchallenged and predictable, offering only what user want to see. There is also the issue that not all public interactions are linked to your personal identity, as online identities and anonymity must be considered when looking at invasions of the public sphere. Opposing comments and contrasting opinions for example, can even be mistaken for &quot;trolling&quot;. 
==== Trolling ====
Trolling is where internet users post negative or extreme content with the intention of causing disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;nobullying.com&quot;&gt;http://nobullying.com/what-is-internet-trolling/&lt;/ref&gt; They do this to create a reaction among the public. In some cases they are aware that they do not have an identity to others and appear anonymous so feel this can not be traced to them or their personal identity in the real world. With this identity hidden they lose a sense of morals and reasoning as they have lost all sense of one-to-one contact and no longer see the people they are arguing with as people but as words on the screen. This can be very dangerous as there tends to be no boundaries if the user is anonymous they can do as they please. Some may feel as though they are outspoken &lt;ref&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/better-living-technology/201408/why-the-online-trolls-troll&lt;/ref&gt; in the real world and are stereotyped physically where as online gives them the opportunity to change this as they are anonymous no one can personally attack them as they do not know them. They often want to create an argument or cause trouble which sometimes is not even relevant to the topic others are discussing.&lt;ref name=&quot;nobullying.com&quot;/&gt; Posts can be uploaded in spaces where they know the views of the other user and deliberately post their opposing opinion to cause chaos and disruptive or opposing issues. They are deliberately unsettling the peace just to create an argument. 
Much of the content posted by these types of people are things they would never think of saying to a person if they were interacting in the real world as people are aware of what is socially acceptable but with online taking away the identity and personal aspect interaction becomes much more impersonal. This making trollers very hostile showing little remorse for anyone else. Often they get empowered through these types of activities much like bullying in the real world, especially when they spark a big reaction. This invasion of the public sphere can escalate to serious threats transitioning from the digital space to the real world. The amount of freedom in the public sphere becomes questionable as although we should not be restricted to the laws of algorithmic gatekeepers, our freedom to create our own filter bubbles and take advantage of anonymity online through trolling must be considered.

== Theorists ==

''Here are some of the theorists that help bring this topic together''.

=== Zizi Papacharissi ===

Dr. Zizi Papacharissi was born and raised in Thessaloniki, Greece. She holds a BA in Economics and Media Studies from [[w:Mount Holyoke College|Mount Holyoke College]] (1995), an MA in Communication Studies from [[w:Kent State University|Kent State University]] (1997) and a PhD in Journalism from the [[w:University Texas at Austin|University Texas at Austin]]  (2000). She is the Professor and Head of the Communication Department at the [[w:University of Illinois-Chicago|University of Illinois-Chicago]] for more than seven years now and also the chief editor of the [[w:Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media|Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media]]. Her research focuses on new media technologies and the consequences they carry within them in a sociopolitical level. Her book,  A Private Sphere: Democracy in a Digital Age (Polity Press, 2010),  discusses how we practice politics in a digital age. She has edited  A Networked Self: Identity,  Community,  and Culture on Social Network Sites (Routledge, 2010), and Journalism and Citizenship: New Agendas (Taylor &amp; Francis, 2009). She has studied blogs, online journalism, social network sites, privacy, civility, self presentation in digital environments, and sociability online. She has also researched how terrorism is portrayed in international news, and the uses and consequences of reality TV.[http://comm.uic.edu/comm/people/faculty/zizi-papacharissi]

In her book A Private Sphere (2010) Papacharissi underlines a shift between the relationship of public and private spheres in recent and past societies. In the traditional democratic framework,  people were enabled through the public sphere as the sense of the private was only associated with the enclosed and fractured spaces of ‘home’. In contemporary democracies though, she discusses, ‘the citizen becomes politically emancipated via a private sphere’.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; Participation in online protests, expressing political opinion on blogs, engaging actively or passively with YouTube, posting a comment in an online political discussion ‘represents a dissent with the public agenda, determined by mainstream media and political actors’.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;

{{Rquote|right| Within this private sphere, the citizen is alone, but not lonely or isolated. &lt;&lt;|Zizi Papacharissi &lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; }}

This is the result of the new media as they have a dramatic effect on the compression or expansion of temporal and spatial relations between public and private spheres.  Today more than ever people can participate in public events from the comfort of one’s private zone because of the benefits of the converged technologies. Those modern communication media have the ability of ‘transforming the private sphere of the home into a space that is both public and private’.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; To consolidate her argument Papacharisssi invokes [[w:Raymond Williams|Raymond Williams]] and his concept of [[w:mobile privatization|mobile privatization]], the ability of the media of braking and transcending the spatial and temporal boundaries of the home and travel around the world without mobilising physically the human being.  That’s what she describes as the ‘networked private sphere’ a sphere that is only accessible in the past 10–15 years, as this ability of remaining in the comfort of your well known space while simultaneously being able to encounter the other or the unknown is only provided by the unique hybridity of the online converged technologies.

                        {{ Quote box |quote=“ The private sphere model traces the progression of a citizen who has retreated from the public sphere of interaction to a technologically enabled mobile private sphere of thought, expression, and reaction, in search of ultimate autonomy and expression.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt;     -	Zizi Papacharissi ” }}

She goes on to argue that through this ‘performative storytelling of the self’, in this familiar environment the political discourse is enhanced as the temporally and geographically fluid environments suggest the illusion of ultimate autonomy, control and expression. She defines as the “mobile private sphere’ the one that ‘enables the frequently monitorial citizen to efficiently balance conflicting and potentially overwhelming civic demands”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Papacharissi 2013&quot; /&gt; A Private Sphere: Democracy in a Digital Age (2010) thus, attempts to conceptualise how the self-driven, digitally-enabled private acts can cause a publicly political sensation. [http://www.jameswilldennis.com/blog/book-review-zizi-papacharissi-a-private (Online resource) ]

=== Jürgen Habermas ===
{{Rquote|right|[Public sphere is a] [...] realm of our social life in something approaching public opinion can be formed [...] [and where] access is guaranteed to all citizens [...] [.]&lt;&lt;|Jürgen Habermas&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1989&quot;&gt;Habermas, J. (1989). ''The Public Sphere: An Encyclopaedia Article''. In: Bronner, S. E., Kellner, D. M. (2001). Critical Theory and Society: A Reader. New York: Routledge&lt;/ref&gt;}}

[[w:Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]] is a German sociologist and philosopher who had written extensively on the public sphere in [[w:The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere|''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere'']] ([http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/phil123-net/publicness/habermas_structural_trans_pub_sphere.pdf online resource]).&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1991&quot;&gt;[http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/phil123-net/publicness/habermas_structural_trans_pub_sphere.pdf], Habermas, J. (1991). ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a category of Bourgeois Society''. 5&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; ed. USA:MIT Press Paperback. Retrieved 03/05, 2016, from http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/phil123-net/publicness/habermas_structural_trans_pub_sphere.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; Habermas argues that &quot;European society in the middle ages showed no indication of a public sphere as a 'unique' realm distinct from the private sphere”&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot; /&gt; but nowadays European culture had transitioned from a “representational” culture, to Öffentlichkeit (the public sphere).  Using Marxist theory as a template, Habermas theorised that as representational culture corresponds to the feudal stage of development that there would be a coming of the capitalist stage of development marked the appearance of Öffentlichkeit.

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt; [[File:JuergenHabermas.jpg|thumb|Juergen Habermas|left]] &lt;/div&gt; 
Whereas “representational” culture is primarily concerned with this transition to Öffentlichkeit is characterized by the emergence of a public space where individuals can engage in an exchange of ideas and knowledge, all outside the control of the state. Social institutions such as newspapers, reading clubs, coffeehouses and masonic lodges were all popular meeting places for discussion and media outlets such as letter, books and theatres were used to spread the rhetoric of the public sphere. But the more media rely on advertising-funding, the more they are a gateway for privileged private interests in the public.&lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1991&quot; /&gt;

Speaking about Internet based public spheres providing a forum for those, who wants to participate in a critical debate, Habermas thinking of the public sphere does not imply, that it every member of the populous nor all Internet users can engage in a meaningful discussion. Following that Ubayasiri argues, that &quot;[...] the internet’s potential in creating public spheres, can be and has to be harnessed by ‘public intellectuals’ if the cyberspace is to fulfil its potential as a forum for public spheres.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Ubayasiri 2006&quot; /&gt;

Habermas also researched about media reception and usage, developing his famous [[w:The Theory of Communicative Action|Theory of Communicative Action]]. Within that he thinks about the coordination of social action of communicatively talented humans, meaning communication oriented actions of mature people. He connects living environment perspective (social integration) and systematic perspective (system integration). On that basis he mentions ''media usage as a social action'' for human beings.

===Hamid Van Koten ===
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

[http://www.oneyearintransition.org/#!hamid-van-koten/c198s Hamid van Koten] is an expert and a practitioner in the field of eco-architecture. His work consists of teaching creative enterprise skills as head of Post-Graduate Studies at the Plymouth College of Art as well as previously as director of Design History, Theory and Practice at the University of Dundee. He also contributed to the [[w:Ecovillage Design Education|Findhorn Ecovillage]] at the Findhorn Foundation, Scotland, and is a qualified Transition Towns Trainer. Hamid and family live in an intention community near [[w:Totnes|Totnes]]. 
In ''The Digital Image and the Pleasure Principle: the Consumption of Realism in the Age of Simulation'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Van Koten 2009&quot; /&gt; he talks about McLuhan's ([http://www.marshallmcluhan.com/ Marshall McLuhan]) technocratic determinism. [http://www.chart.ac.uk/chart2005/papers/vankoten.html]
His main research questions are: What are the forces at work in the production and consumption of digital representations

'''Hot and Cool media''' McLuhan classifies different procedures of media through something called a temperature scale in which consists of hot and cool mass Medias. A media type is measured hot if it heavily  and immerses  one logic in particular.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! HOT MEDIA !! COOL MEDIA
|-
| Novel || Poetry
|-
| Photo || Comic
|-
| Written words || Spoken Words
|-
| Low Participation || High Participation 
|-
| Radio || Telephone
|-
| Cinema  || Television
|}

Above is a table which shows a number of hot and cool medias side by side with their counterparts. For example: A photo offering visual information more clearly, whereas a drawing of the same thing may need to be construed in terms of shapes and colours and possibly have a meaning behind it.&lt;ref name=&quot;Van Koten 2009&quot; /&gt; These are the dominant forms of digital representations and the main theories that Van Koten desires to work with. “A shift from the real to the imaginary as the dominant drive”. [https://redjotter.wordpress.com/2008/12/01/everything-is-connected/ Research]

Comparable to McLuhan’s idea of hot and cool media is the notion of 'Light on' 'Light through' media. ‘Light on’ media is when the light source bounces off a surface or object before hitting the viewers’ eyes. Light on would be classed as 'hot' as it is 'all revealing'. 
Therefore the light is projected onto a screen. ‘Light through’ media is light source is positioned in front of audience, making the audience the screen by projecting light onto them. ‘light through’ is less revealing, more “mysterious” so therefore cool.&lt;ref name=&quot;Van Koten 2009&quot; /&gt;

=== Mike S. Schäfer ===


Mike S. Schäfer is a German sociologist, Professor of Science Communication, and Director of the Centre for Higher Education and Science Studies (CHESS) at [[w:University of Zurich|University of Zurich]], . 
Together with Jürgen Gerhards, Professor for macrosociology at the Institute of Sociology of the Free University of Berlin, Schäfer researched the comparative differences of the internet and traditional mass media as conduits of influence on wider society.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gerhards 2010&quot;&gt;[http://nms.sagepub.com/content/12/1/143] Gerhards, J., &amp; Schafer, M. (2010). Is the internet a better public sphere? Comparing old and new media in the USA and Germany. New Media &amp; Society, 12(1), 143-160, Retrieved 5 March 2016, from http://nms.sagepub.com/content/12/1/143&lt;/ref&gt;

Schäfer theorizes that normative theorists of the public sphere, such as [[w:Jürgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]], , have been very critical of the ‘old’ [[w:Mass Media|mass media]], , which were seen as unable to promote free and plural societal communication. The advent of the internet, in contrast, gave rise to hopes that it would make previously marginalized actors and arguments more visible to a broader public. To assess these claims, Schäfer compares the internet and mass media communication.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align: left;font-size:80%&quot;| '''Requirements and impacts of the traditional and internet-based public spheres'''&lt;ref name=&quot;Gerhards 2010&quot; /&gt; 
! Traditional public sphere
! Internet-based public sphere
! Organizational Prerequisites
! Openness for participation
! Impact on society
|-
| Encounters
| Email, messaging, ect.
| Low
| High
| Low
|-
| Public Events
| Discussion boards, blogs, ect.
| Middle
| Middle
| Middle
|-
| Mass Media
| Search engines
| High
| Low
| High
|}

It distinguishes three levels of both the offline and the online public sphere, which differ in their structural prerequisites, in their openness for participation and in their influence on the wider society. Using this model, Schäfer compares the levels that are most strongly structured and most influential for the wider society: the mass media and communication as organized by search engines.

In their study, Schäfer and Gerhards found only minimal evidence to support the idea that the internet is a better communication space as compared to print media. Despite the facts that the internet is an easily accessible medium with low entry barriers, in both public spheres the discourse was dominated by scientific actors without inclusion for others occurring.

=== Brian Loader ===
Brian was born in Zimbabwe in 1958. He grew up in the UK before he began studying at Southampton University in 1978 and continued studies till 1981 where he achieved an honours degree in politics and Sociology he taught in Southampton before he gained a masters in 1989 in Public policy from university of Bristol. He then continued with his teaching in the University of Teesside during his period there he became the founding editor of the international journal of Information, Communication and Society. He is now part the University of York as a senior Lecturer and he follows his interests of New Media.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2016&quot;&gt;http://www.york.ac.uk/sociology/our-staff/academic/brian-loader/&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Cyber space divide'''

In this Brian loader introduces the prospect of an information society and how this will cause a cyberspace divide. Here Loader looks at how the internet will affect the private and the public spheres, he states that

“No sphere of life will be unaffected by the information revolution”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;&gt;Loader,B Cyberspace Divide Equality, agency and policy in the information society 1998 (Published by Rotledge)&lt;/ref&gt;

Because of this loader looks at the implications on social and political structures, as information and communication technologies (ITCs) will be an ever apparent part of life. Loader continues to look at how this will affect the world by looking at the idea of the cyberspace and how this will allow those who use it to be not only “information rich” but cyberspace will  “offers liberating possibilities of ‘ordinary’ people constructing new identities which free them from the imposed classifications of class, race, gender or disability associated with material space”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;/&gt; 
 
This is loaders idea of people having a persona online where they are free from there constraints they may have in their everyday lives. He also adds the idea that anonymity will play a massive role in inventing an alternative version of themselves, and this will only be achieved through “virtual spaces”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;/&gt;  Loader evidently concludes that the information society will be further developed by social forces who will lead it to become a space for people with in the private and the public spheres.

'''Young citizens in the digital age'''
Here loader continues his idea but by looking at youth citizens and their involvement in ITCs with politics. He introduces the idea of ''Cultural displacement'' with young citizens and the political systems that are in place, and how due to information communication technologies (ITCs) it generates a disconnect.

Firstly Loader provides us with an explanation to cultural displacement. Loader sees the disconnect of youth with the political system is due to the politicians as they “Appear distant and self-absorbed and unable to empathise with young people’s experiences of the dramatically changing social and cultural world” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;&gt;Loader,B 2007 Young Citizens in the digital age: political engagement, young people and new media(Published by Rotledge)&lt;/ref&gt; he believes that this disconnect is because of youth culture and how it doesn’t relate with old political systems because of new ITCs and because of this it cause a contrast with youth “communication spaces” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; with this in mind loader also continues to confirm that this provides a “digital divide” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; the idea that through these channels youth are divided from current politics and are more infatuated by celebrity culture.

Loader also comments on the idea of individualisation that is in youth culture and new media. Brian defines individualisation as the
“individualised agendas characterised by the ongoing activates of choosing between various lifestyles and fashion statement shaping and expressing ones persona, celebrating body forms and artistry, and developing and managing social networks of friends, family and associates” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; Loader here is stating that youth culture with the introduction of new media has led to a decline in political culture due to the youth having more pressing personal agendas to attend to, he backs this idea up by looking at the decline in the amount of voters (estimated 37% in 2005 voted)&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; aged 18 to 25 because they are “disaffected citizens”&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt;

Loader does however indicate the importance of new media and politics where he indicates that youth culture will offer more opportunity for understanding politics. This due to the fact new media and its involvement within the political system will “engage in political deliberation and challenge state authority” &lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 2007&quot;/&gt; In turn Brian Loader believes that new media will help with overall engagement in youth activity within the politics of today with help of new media.

=== Nicholas Garnham ===

[[w:Nicholas Garnham|Nicholas Garnham]]  is a British researcher and Emeritus professor at the University of Westminster. He has played an important role in British Media and Communication Studies, and the Political Economy of Communication. His works have covered in particular topics as capitalism and comunication, the cultural industries, public service media, the public sphere, and the theory and sociology of culture.

He is the first one who used the term &quot;[[w:cultural industries|cultural industries]]&quot; for the first time, with which he distances himself from the accepted meaning of cultural industry connected to mass culture. In his Capitalism and Communication ([http://www.triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/viewFile/553/534 online resource])&lt;ref name=&quot;Garnham&quot;&gt;[http://www.triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/viewFile/553/534], Garnham, N. (1990). ''Capitalism and Communication. Global Culture and the Economics of Information''. London: Sage. Retrieved 03/07, 2016, from http://www.triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/viewFile/553/534&lt;/ref&gt;., he argues that “cultural industries” are institutions in which the production and spread of mass culture are influenced by [[w:capitalism|capitalism]]. So, according to Garnham, publishing industry, record companies and business organizations use capitalism in order to achieve more profits. 
After 1977, the term &quot;cultural industries&quot; turns in &quot;[[w:creative industries|creative industries]]&quot;. Garnham argues that the reason of this shift happened not just to give cultural industries an economic importance, but also—and especially—to put in contact cultural industries to the information society and the knowledge-based economy.

Garnham is also the most responsible for introducing the “[[w:public sphere|public sphere]]’ notion into the media debate, arguing that, especially in the case of television, [[w:public service|public service]] is being replaced by privatized markets. [[w:Television|Television]] offers to viewers few options from which they can choose from and it has become increasingly subjected to deregulation and privatization under market control. On the contrary, according to him, public service manages to satisfy more people, based on what they like, rather than just satisfying those tastes that help increase profit. A market allocation of cultural resources, combined with the destruction of public service media, threatens ‘public communication’ which, in his opinion, lies at the heart of democracy.

=== Lincoln Dahlberg ===
Lincoln Dahlberg has broadly published articles in the areas of media politics and public sphere theory.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cccs.uq.edu.au&quot;&gt;[http://cccs.uq.edu.au/dahlberg], Cccs.uq.edu.au,. (n.d.) ''Dr Lincoln Dahlberg - Centre for Critical and Cultural Studies - The University of Queensland, Australia''. Retrieved 4 March 2016, from http://cccs.uq.edu.au/dahlberg&lt;/ref&gt; In one of his last works, he decided to discuss the possibility of enhancing the public sphere through Internet by considering a case study on the Minnesota [[w:E-democracy|E-Democracy]] project. Thus demonstrating that despite some significant limitations, Internet can improve and extend the public sphere but in order to do so it has to meet six crucial criteria.

{{ Quote box |quote=“ Dahlberg (2001) argues six fundamental criteria need to be fulfilled for the Internet to be considered a public sphere – [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]] from state and economic power; exchange and critique of criticizable moral-practical validity claims; reflexivity; ideal role-taking; sincerity; and discursive inclusion and equality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ubayasiri 2006&quot;&gt;[http://ejournalist.com.au/v6n2/ubayasiri622.pdf], Ubayasiri, K. (2006). Internet and the Public Sphere: A glimpse of YouTube. ''Ejournalist'', 6(2). Retrieved from http://ejournalist.com.au/v6n2/ubayasiri622.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

-	Kasun Ubayasiri ” }}

* ''[[w:Autonomy|Autonomy]] from state and economic power:'' according to Dahlberg the interaction between citizens should be free from the influence of the state, meaning that people are allowed (and should have) a [[w:Public opinion|public opinion]] on the state and they should have power on the government. Nevertheless, it should not be the other way around: state and corporate colonization of the [[w:Cyberspace|cyberspace]] should not threaten nor control online public spaces. However, according to Dahlberg, it is not fully possible to avoid the state influence as Internet is strictly connected with the [[w:Political sociology|socio-political]] context.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;/&gt;
* ''Exchange and critique of criticizable moral-practical validity claims:'' “arguments must be addressed not just to those present in conversation but to all others potentially affected by the claims under consideration, to the ‘larger’ or ‘ideal’ or ‘virtual’ community of discussants.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;&gt;[https://www.sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=10-1a.pdf&amp;site=412], Dahlberg, L. (2004). The Habermasian Public Sphere: A Specification of the Idealized Conditions of Democratic Communication. ''Studies In Social And Political Thought'', (10), 2-18. Retrieved from https://www.sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=10-1a.pdf&amp;site=412&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''[[w:Reflexivity (social theory)|Reflexivity]]:'' communication should be based upon relevant arguments, participants should be able to question their own positions regarding their values and beliefs and they should be able to take someone else’s position when validity claims are offered.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;/&gt;
* ''Ideal role taking:'' participants will try to understand and not bypass differences and they will consider a certain situation from other people’s perspectives, it implies an ongoing communication and honesty from the participants. This criteria leads to another important aspect to take in consideration: sincerity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg 2004&quot;/&gt;
* ''Sincerity:'' communication is based upon honesty and openness. The online public sphere requires sincerity in order to exist, information needs to be accurate and people should not intentionally lie. It could be argued that according to Dahlberg’s ideas about honesty, the whole concept of [[w:Persona (psychology)|Persona]] should not exist, as people try to create an [[w:Online identity|online identity]] that not always is an honest depiction of the real identity. Moreover, Internet users do not always share their real thoughts and it is almost impossible to be honest about everything so the condition of honesty is hard to achieve, therefore grand part of Dahlberg’s criteria cannot be fulfilled as they all take in consideration an idealized society.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg,2001&quot;&gt;[http://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/838], Dahlberg, L. (2001). Extending the public sphere through cyberspace: The case of Minnesota E-Democracy. ''First Monday'', 6(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/fm.v6i3.838&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Discursive inclusion and equality:'' everyone should have the same possibility to be part in a discourse, people should not only be formally included but their ideas should be considered at the same level. This criterion, as the other ones, presupposes that social inequalities do not affect the participation. However, Dahlberg himself noted that in the case study of the [http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/fm.v6i3.838 Minnesota E-Democracy] [[w:Social inequality|social]] and [[w:Gender inequality|gender]] related inequalities still tend to favour men over women and people with a specific knowledge rather than people with general interests. As, it happened with the Minnesota E-Democracy project, we can also face exclusion when we are entering a discourse, simply because others may have more predominant personalities, therefore it is hard to achieve the idealised condition where everyone is equally important in a discourse. Hence, we need to put a particular effort in it, so that diverse styles of speaking can be treated with the same respect and can have the same importance.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dahlberg,2001&quot;/&gt;

===John Thompson===

[[w:John Thompson|John Thompson]] is a British Sociology professor at the [[w:University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]] and a Jesus College Elite member. 
In his life, he has studied the influence of [[w:mass media|mass media]] in the development of modern societies, and the creation of new forms of action and interaction beyond temporal and spatial frameworks. 
His work “The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media” &lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot; /&gt; is the attempt to formulate a social theory about mass media, by analysing the complex relationship between the medieval industry and the economic, political and coercive powers. Thompson argues a theory that bears in mind the roles of mass media in the modern society, opposing to those who considerate mass media just as a reflection of the social, economic and political conditions in the previous ages.   
Thompson is strongly influenced by [[w:Hans-Georg Gadamer|Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and the [[w:hermeneutics|hermeneutics]], which studied the philosophy and methodology of text interpretation. 
In “The Media and The Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media”, Thompson analyses the term “mass”, affirming that most of the mass media are not produced for the masses, but for niche markets. Since the term “mass” evokes the image of a vast public (million of individuals), Thompson discusses it, contrasting the concept of “ [[w:mass communication|mass communication]]” (too abused, in his opinion) to a face-to-face interaction and the two-way process that takes place when people talk to each other. He believes that there are more suitable terms when we deal with “mediated communication or, more simply, 'the media' which are less laden with misleading assumptions.”&lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot; /&gt;

Thompson critics [[w:Habermas|Habermas]]’ concept of ‘[[w:public sphere|publich sphere]]’, arguing that in the modern society there is a new form of “mediated publicness”. This mediated publicness has some main characteristics, which are:
*	Despatialized (people don’t need to share the same location to see more things, but they don’t have control of the angle of this extended vision);
*	Non dialogical (for example, presenters on TV are visible to an audience, but not the other way round, so that means they cannot adapt their discourse to the reactions of the public)   
*	Wider and more diverse audiences (people with different education, different social class, different values and beliefs can get the same message).

Now, thanks to this mediated publicness, the many are visible to the few and the few can also see the many:

&quot;Whereas the Panopticon renders many people visible to a few and enables power to be exercised over the many by subjecting them to a state of permanent visibility, the development of communication media provides a means by which many people can gather information about a few and, at the same time, a few can appear before many; thanks to the media, it is primarily those who exercise power, rather than those over whom power is exercised, who are subjected to a certain kind of visibility.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson 1995&quot;/&gt;

== Integrating themes ==

In the last section of this chapter, we will discuss and discover the common themes occurring throughout this Wikibook. In this section, we have looked at Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age. However, Technological and Cultural Determinism&lt;ref&gt;http://study.com/academy/lesson/cultural-determinism-definition-and-theory.html&lt;/ref&gt; can be strongly linked to this section, as well as some points which are taken from [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/An_Internet_of_Everything%3F/Access_to_Knowledge_and_Data_in_Everyday_Life Access to Knowledge and Data in Everyday Life]. We will lastly discuss the section of [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/An_Internet_of_Everything%3F/Surveillance_and_Sousveillance Surveillance and Sousveillance].

Cultural Determinism, as already outlined earlier in this book, is ultimately defined as the way in which society is affected by the cultural change; how this change may affect our character, our beliefs, and our interactions with one another. Technological Determinism is therefore how technology affects our culture and wider society. Marshall McLuhan (1964)&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall McLuhan Understanding Media 1964&quot;&gt;Marshall McLuhan Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964)&lt;/ref&gt; argued that cultural shifts are caused by innovations in media technology. We can see that this is quite prominent in today’s society. As discussed earlier, the invasion of the Private Sphere in the digital age has changed the way we go about our everyday life. Before the creation of the internet and social media platforms, the home was our private space, unless someone called you on your landline, you were unavailable. Now there is pressure to be constantly available through text message or other forms of digital communication.

There can be no doubt that the spread of technology has changed our way of life. This has had many positive effects, it has helped bring people together and has also helped to engage the citizen in a democracy. One of the more interesting arguments is that of a Global Village;&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall McLuhan Understanding Media 1964&quot;/&gt; McLuchan (1964) came up with this idea that due to electronic technology, information can be spread and sent instantly. This could not be more true in today’s society. Thanks to such apps like Facebook Messenger, you could communicate with someone located hundreds of miles away, as if they are were down the street. Which leads us to discuss how important our online identity is. The online identity is also part of the public sphere. The public sphere is how we present ourselves in the public domain, whether this is in person or online, there is a way that we want to portray ourselves. With the rise of the Global Village, more and more people can view our social media activity. Due to this, there is now a pressure, especially among young people, to look and play the part on social media and to be “always on”.

The pressure to be “always on” is discussed in the Access to Knowledge and Data in Everyday Life chapter of this wikibook.  Ultimately, this means that we are pressured to be available twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week to be contacted via social media. Long gone are the days of splendid isolation. Due to the global village effect, our private sphere has been invaded because there is constant pressure to be “always on”. However, this has caused an information overload. As discussed later on in this wikibook, there are some who argue that because social media pacifies human-social-needs, we are shutting ourselves indoors and interacting electronically. An article by John Bingham (2016) entitled “How teenage pregnancy collapsed after birth of social media”&lt;ref&gt;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/12189376/How-teenage-pregnancy-collapsed-after-birth-of-social-media.html&lt;/ref&gt; displays an argument that since the birth of social media the number of teenage pregnancies in the UK has fallen, and asks if there is a correlation. It could also be argued that the boundaries between our public and private spheres are being blurred. This is why many people place private information upon their social media platforms; it is not because they want everyone to know their business, but that it is a way of expressing oneself, all be it on a traditionally public platform.

As I have said earlier, social media has empowered the person and enlightened democracy. It has also, as discussed in Surveillance and Sousveillance, made way for the Citizen Journalist. Now people from their own private sphere can take part in news creation. This is also an example of “Sousveillance”. The Arab Spring has seen vast amounts of citizen journalism, ordinary people witnessing events and instantly documenting them. Also, thanks the rise of social media and different blog sites, the number of news outlets that we have to choose from has greatly increased. Websites such as Another Angry Voice [http://anotherangryvoice.blogspot.co.uk/ (AAV)] and [http://wingsoverscotland.com/ Wings Over Scotland ] have been created and inform many different citizens. As highlighted later on in this wikibook, GCHQ was formed over the 1950s and 1960s and has taken part in many different security operations. The organisations conduct has been called into question lately, and with the Draft Communications Data Bill (2015) proceeding through the UK Parliament; and many different concerns with the proposed law, there is an argument that this Bill, if it became an Act, could intrude further on our already diminishing private sphere. However, due to current security threats, many would argue the proposals are needed.

To conclude, many of the different theories and ideas that are spoken about in this chapter can also be drawn into other chapters within this wikibook. It is important when reading through this book, to remember that all theorists and ideas link together in some shape or form.

== Critical Review ==


As established, the social world has been split into two spheres; public and private. [[Martin Heidegger]] argued that it's through the private sphere where one can truly express themselves. For example, on social networking sites, you can allow your profile to be as private as you like, with options to disable showing certain information to people. One would assume that their information would be completely private and so in this case, Heidegger’s argument is valid. However, can we really assume that our private information is safe? He argues that people will only fully express themselves if they are under the impression that their information is private. For example, Facebook being able to use browser history to create advertisements &lt;ref&gt;http://adage.com/article/digital/facebook-web-browsing-history-ad-targeting/293656/&lt;/ref&gt; completely undermines Heidegger's argument. There will not be an opportunity for users to fully express themselves if they're aware that their information is not as safe as they believe.

[[w:Zizi Papacharissi|Zizi Papacharissi]] argues that there has been a shift in the relationship between public and private spheres in society. The private sphere has always been associated with family or home. Papacharissi argues that nowadays, with the vast amount of portable technology available, members of society can now live and participate in public spheres more than ever but from the comfort of their own home.&lt;ref&gt;
Papacharissi, Z. A., (2013). Private Sphere: Democracy in A Digital Age. Cambridge, Malden, MA: Polity Press.&lt;/ref&gt; This then allows the public and private spheres to merge together, allowing people to have the best of both worlds. It can be argued that, with Heidegger’s point that it doesn’t, nowadays, necessarily mean that the private sphere is valid from the home and it is more to do with the idea of how much information you want to express of yourself, which in turn would make Papacharissi’s argument invalid. It is however a strong argument otherwise and determines the idea that public and private spheres are not poles apart like they once were.

[[w:Brian Loader|Brian Loader]] argues that an information society will cause a cyberspace divide. He states that because people have the opportunity to be someone fake and virtual online, they are in turn able to escape the stigmas they may face in everyday life. This is where Papacharissi's argument of the shift between private and public spheres is really relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian D. Loader 1998&quot;/&gt; If one is wanting to stay in the private sphere when it comes to their online activity but still wants to participate in the things the public sphere has to offer, they are able to create a fake persona with false information that doesn't determine them as a person, but can then still share this information with others. Loader then believes that by doing this, it can give, especially youths of society, a chance to participate in, for example, polls online concerning politics which then helps a young society become more involved in the world.

== Glossary ==
'''Always-on'''&lt;br /&gt;
As explained by danah boyd,&lt;ref name=&quot;boyd 2012&quot; /&gt; the always-on culture is the connection to technology and need to be always available on either social media or online content.

'''Anonymity'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w: Anonymity|Anonymity]] (or, as an adjective, ''anonymous'') refers to when an individual is non-identifiable, unreachable, or untrackable. Online anonymity usually refers to the lack of an individual's personal details, as they communicate through a username.

'''Anonymous (group)'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w: Anonymous|Anonymous]] is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. [[#Anonymous|''(See section 1.7.5.2)'']]

'''Ascetism'''&lt;br /&gt;
As defined by Sennett,&lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot; /&gt; desire for introspection through withdrawal from society in a process self-understanding that ultimately increase the public sphere's coherence. Indeed, this process allows for the achievement of values of control and autonomy, which are essential for a participating citizen.

'''Avatar (computing)'''&lt;br /&gt;
An [[w:Avatar|avatar]] in virtual reality sites is the graphical representation of the user or the user's alter ego or character.

'''Catfishing'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of deceiving another user online by adopting a fake identity (which can be made up or stolen). [[#Catfishing|''(see section 1.7.2.3)'']]

'''Cyberbullying'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of bullying online. [[#Cyberbullying|''(see section 1.7.4)'']]

'''Cookies'''&lt;br /&gt;
In their most basic characterisation, http cookies are a small chunks of data that are sent to a user's browser when a user access a website and stored in the background while using. Every time the user logs back or visits that websites the cookies are sent back to their server, thus brining back information about the user's recent activity.

'''Cyberstalking'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of stalking online. [[#Cyberstalking|''(see section 1.7.4.2)'']]

'''Dark Web'''&lt;br /&gt;
Small section of the &quot;Deep Web&quot; mainly includes small invite-only networks and is infamous for being a hub of illegal activity. See[[#Deep Web|''section 1.7.7'']]

'''Deep Web'''&lt;br /&gt;
Also known as the &quot;hidden&quot; or &quot;invisible&quot; web, the section of the internet that isn't discoverable through regular search engines. See [[#Deep Web|''section 1.7.7'']]

'''Digital Age'''&lt;br /&gt;
The digital age describes the ongoing time frame since the end of the 20th. Characteristically for this age are the possibilities for ever person to store and transfer information digitally which have reciprocally influenced society. Please see [[#Digital Age Definition|disambiguation]].

'''Digital Media'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w:Digital media|digital media]] all media types are counted which are based on digital information and communication technology (i.e. the Internet) as well as technical devices for [[w:digitalization|digitalization]], [[w:Digital recording|recording]], processing, calculation, retention, [[w:Data storage device|storage]], presentation and distribution of digital content and final products such as digital arts or music.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kossek 2012&quot;/&gt;
Please refer to [[#Characteristics of Digital Media|Characteristics of Digital Media]]

'''Digital self harm / Digital Munchausen'''&lt;br /&gt;
The act of users bullying or sending abusive messages to themselves online. Please see [[#Digital self harm|''section 1.7.4.1'']]

'''Dissociation'''&lt;br /&gt;
In psychology, it refers to a detachment from physical and emotional experience. When online, it refers to the physical and emtional detachment from 'real' life as one performs their online identity.

'''Encryption'''&lt;br /&gt;
Encoding of messages and information in order to prevent unauthorised parts to access them. Only those who possess a decryption key can do so.

'''Hacker'''&lt;br /&gt;
An individual that identifies a server's, computer's or network's weaknesses and breaches into them in order to extract knowledge and material that can serve different purposes.

'''Hacktivism'''&lt;br /&gt;
The work of a hacker that promotes a political or social agenda, such as exposure of corruption, human rights, free speech and freedom of information.

'''Identity'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w:identity|Identity]] is the make up of our character and the type of cultural values we choose, therefore impacting on our appearance online.

'''Media Multiplier Effect''' &lt;br /&gt;
As described by Adrian Athique in his book ''Digital Media and Society: An Introduction'', the ''Media Multiplier Effect'' is the multiplying discussions of fear amongst society of its mass media, to the point of creating the impression that media invasions of privacy are more likely to happen than they really are.

'''Mobile Privatization'''&lt;br /&gt;
The ability of the media devices to mobilize and travel an individual while still having a strong sense of being at 'home' because of the attachment and connectivity with the [[W:mobile device|mobile device]]. See[[#Deep Web|''section 1.9.1'']]

'''Narcissism'''&lt;br /&gt;
Although often characterised as a psychological disorder, in Lasch's &lt;ref name=&quot;Lasch 1991&quot; /&gt; and Sennett's &lt;ref name=&quot;Sennett 1977&quot; /&gt; work, it represents the concerning that one's have regarding their own being. Narcissistic practices are self-centred and happen in accordance to a evaluation of which the self is in control but they are not self-motivated. Despite being self-based, they are not selfish.

'''Online Footprint'''&lt;br /&gt;
Amount of data left on the internet by a user and collected either without him knowing (passive footprint) or with his consent in order to share information with others (active footprint).

'''Online Performance'''&lt;br /&gt;
As defined by Mendelson and Papacharissi 2001, online performance is the selectiveness of our behaviour online and impacts on our social lives physically but also online - through social media. Online performance provides a mediated self and is a performance which may not reflect our normal lives.

'''Private Sphere'''&lt;br /&gt;
The part of peoples lives that they are supposed to have full control over, unaffected by institutions like the government, the home is an example. Please see [[#Private Sphere Definition|disambiguation]].

'''Public Displays of Connection'''&lt;br /&gt;
Public Displays of Connection are in reference to the way that we show the people around us the people that are our friends, family and colleagues. It is a concept described by danah boyd and Judith Donath &lt;ref name=&quot;boyd and Donath 2004&quot;/&gt; and in this article it's the way in which we show our connections to other people online, how we do it and the reasons why we do it. See [[#Public Displays of Connection|''(see section 1.5.1)'']]

'''Public Opinion''' &lt;br /&gt;
[[w:Public Opinion|Public opinion]] is &quot;the collective opinion of many people on some issue, problem, etc., especially as a guide to action, decision, or the like.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Dictionary&quot;&gt;[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/public-opinion] Dichtionary.com. (2016). ''Public Opinion''. Retrieved 03/10, 2016 from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/public-opinion&lt;/ref&gt; It is a form of publicity and enforced through public communication. This has to be distinguished from a published opinion, an opinion expressed in public. Please refer to [[#Publicity Online|Publicity Online]]

'''Public Sphere'''&lt;br /&gt;
A &quot;virtual or imaginary community, which does not necessarily exist in any identifiable space. In its ideal form, the public sphere is &quot;made up of private people gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;Habermas 1989&quot; /&gt; Please see [[#Public Sphere Definition|disambiguation]].

'''Username'''&lt;br /&gt;
The 'nickname' an individual uses to identify themselves to the system.

'''Virtual reality'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[w: Virtual Reality|Virtual Reality]] replicates an environment that simulates a physical presence in places in the real world or an imagined world, allowing the user to interact with that world.

'''Web 2.0'''&lt;br /&gt;
The recollection of the collective abilities of members from an online network. A [[w:Web 2.0|Web 2.0]] site may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to Web sites where people are limited to the passive viewing of content.

== External links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=39tvjOATrCA Introduction Video to &quot;The New Digital Age&quot;]
* [https://panopticlick.eff.org/ Online Fingerprint (Find out about your fingerprint here.)]	
* [http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/fm.v6i3.838 Extending the public sphere through cyberspace: The case of Minnesota E-Democracy]
* [http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/494/415 A history of Minnesota Electronic Democracy 1994]
* [http://www.mindswork.co.uk/wpblog/the-persona-the-false-self-and-the-social-network-why-it%E2%80%99s-so-difficult-to-have-your-best-mate-your-mother-and-your-boss-on-facebook/ The persona, the false self, and the social network: who are you on Facebook?]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot;&gt;
{{Print version notice|An Internet of Everything?/Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age|An Internet of Everything?/Public and Private Spheres in the Digital Age/Print_version}}
&lt;/div&gt;
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{{CPTPageNavigationP2|
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{{DISPLAYTITLE:Fundamentals of communication and networkingː IP standards}}
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==IP Standards==

The Internet protocol has evolved over a period of time and undergone several versions.  IP version 4 (IPv4) has been the main version through the explosive growth of the Internet through the 80s, 90s and into the 21st century. With a 32 bit address field there are over 4 billion addresses. However due to the way the addresses were subdivided, the way they were allocated and used and the growth, no more addresses are available for new networks. NAT has gone a long way to alleviate the problem, but demand is such that a new and bigger address space has been developed. This is IP version 6 (IPv6). This new version has a 128 bit address field and many new features.

===IPv4===
[[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4|Ipv4]] is covered by RFP 791 in all its detail.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 auto; text-align: center;&quot;
|+IPv4 Header Format
|-
! style=&quot;border-bottom:none; border-right:none;&quot;| ''Offsets''
! style=&quot;border-left:none;&quot;| [[Octet (computing)|Octet]]
! colspan=&quot;8&quot; | 0
! colspan=&quot;8&quot; | 1
! colspan=&quot;8&quot; | 2
! colspan=&quot;8&quot; | 3
|-
! style=&quot;border-top: none&quot; | [[Octet (computing)|Octet]]
! [[Bit]]
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 0
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 1
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 2
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 3
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 4
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 5
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 6
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 7
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 8
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 9
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 10
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 11
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 12
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 13
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 14
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 15
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 16
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 17
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 18
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 19
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 20
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 21
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 22
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 23
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 24
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 25
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 26
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 27
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 28
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 29
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 30
! style=&quot;width:2.6%;&quot;| 31
|-
! 0
! 0
| colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[#Version|Version]]
| colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[#IHL|IHL]]
| colspan=&quot;6&quot;|[[#DSCP|DSCP]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[#ECN|ECN]]
| colspan=&quot;16&quot;|[[#Total Length|Total Length]]
|-
! 4
! 32
| colspan=&quot;16&quot;|[[#Identification|Identification]]
| colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[#Flags|Flags]]
| colspan=&quot;13&quot;|[[#Fragment Offset|Fragment Offset]]
|-
! 8
! 64
| colspan=&quot;8&quot;|[[#TTL|Time To Live]]
| colspan=&quot;8&quot;|[[#Protocol|Protocol]]
| colspan=&quot;16&quot;|[[#Header Checksum|Header Checksum]]
|-
! 12
! 96
| colspan=&quot;32&quot;|[[#Source address|Source IP Address]]
|-
! 16
! 128
| colspan=&quot;32&quot;|[[#Destination address|Destination IP Address]]
|-
! 20
! 160
| colspan=&quot;32&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffd0d0;{{text default color}};&quot;|[[#Options|Options]] (if IHL &gt; 5)
|}


Fields of interest are
*Version - 4 or 6
*DSCP - This is a priority field allowing for some packets to be marked as higher priority than others.
*Identification - This allows for duplicate packets to be ignored, or missing packets to be flagged up.
*TTL - Time to Live. This is decremented by 1 each time the packet goes through a router. At 0, the packet is deleted.
*Protocol - This describes what the IP packet is encapsulating.
*Source Address - the 32 bit IP address of the Source
*Destination Address - the 32 bit IP address of the destination.

===IPv6===

[[w:IPv6|Ipv6]] was first covered by RFP 2460 in all its detail, but is often being superceeded.

This version allocates 128 bits for addresses. This is 2&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt; addresses ( 7.9×10 &lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt;)


[[File:Ipv6_header.svg | thumb|center]]

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{{DISPLAYTITLE:A-level Computing/AQA/Computer Components, The Stored Program Concept and the Internet/Hardware Devices/Secondary storage devices}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
This section will be looking at the various forms of secondary storage devices (media).  For each device you should be familiar with the following details:
* [[w:Seek time|Seek time]] - The average time taken from requesting data to starting to read the requested data
* Capacity - The amount of data it is possible to store on a medium
* Write type - Whether it is read only, write only, or readable and writable
* Cost - How much it costs per megabyte
* Access type - Whether it uses Random Access or Serial Access
[[File:Random vs sequential access.svg|thumb|400px|center|sequential access requires all memory locations before the one sought to be read, before reaching it. Random access memory allows you to jump directly to the memory location you are seeking]]

Pay special attention to devices with an {{Font color||#ff9933|orange}} background, you need to be able to describe exactly how they work!

== Magnetic media ==
[[w:Magnetic storage|Magnetic media]] stores data by assigning a magnetic charge to metal.  This metal is then processed by a read head, which converts the charges into ones and zeros.  Historically, magnetic media has been very popular for storing programs, data, and making backups. However, solid state technology is starting to be used more and more, storing programs and data on new devices such as mobile phones and cameras.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Magnetic media
|-
! Device
! Size
|- style=&quot;background: #ff9933;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|
Hard Disk
|| Up to 10 Terabytes
|-
| 
Magnetic Tape
|| Up to 2 Terabytes
|}

=== {{Font color||#ff9933|Hard disk}} ===
[[File:HardDisk2.ogg|thumb|Video of exposed hard disk drive (HDD)]]
Hard disks are usually found inside computers to store programs and data.  They are increasingly cheap and more and more companies are using them to back things up.  Hard disks can vary in physical size with some disks getting as small as your thumb. More closely packed platters, greater density of data on each platter to allow for more tracks and cylinders and the ability to write smaller magnetic spots have all been developments in the design of hard disks to increase their storage capacity. The capacity of a commercial disk is currently up to about 4 terabytes allowing users to read and write to them. They are constructed from several key components:
* '''Platter''' - Metallic disks where one or both sides of the platter are magnetised, allowing data to be stored. The platter spins continuously, around one hundred times a second, around a spindle while in use. There may be several platters, with data stored across them. The disk is divided into tracks and sectors with data represented by magnetising spots on the disk. 
* '''Head''' - The head reads magnetic data from the platter.  For a drive with several platters there may be two heads per platter allowing data to be read from top and bottom of each 
* '''Actuator Arm''' - used to move the read heads in and out of the disk so that data can be read and written to particular locations. They allow you to access data in a random fashion, so you don't need to read your way through the entire disk to fetch a particular bit of information, you can jump right there.  Seek time is very low.
* '''Power connector''' - provides electricity to spin the platters, move the read head and run the electronics
* '''IDE connector''' - allows for data transfer from and to the platters
* '''Jumper block''' - used to get the disk working in specific ways such as [[w:RAID|RAID]]
[[File:Hard drive.svg|center|400px]]
For the exam you must be able to explain how a hard disk works:
# The platters spin around the spindle
# Data is requested to be read from a particular area of a platter
# The actuator arm moves the read head to that track
# Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the read head, data is read
# Read data is sent from the IDE connector to main memory
[[File:Cylinder Head Sector.svg|thumb|center|400px|Description of a hard disk platter]]
Writing data is very similar:
# The platters spin around the spindle
# Data is sent to the hard disk using the IDE connector
# The actuator arm moves the write head to the track that will be written to
# Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the write head, data is written to the platter

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Fast seek times}}
{{Plus|Random access}}
{{Plus|High capacities possible}}
{{Plus|Low cost per megabyte}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Very susceptible to damage from physical shocks}}

=== Solid state drive ===
An SSD(Solid state drive) consists of an array of NAND flash memory with a controller that manages the pages and blocks, as well as the complexity of writing. A block is made up of many pages, when you need to overwrite pages it has to be erased before it can be written to however because of the limitations of the technology the whole block must be erased.
NAND flash memory is based on a floating gate transistor which traps and stores charge. 


'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Faster than HDD}}
{{Plus|Lighter than HDD}}
{{Plus|No moving parts means it is more robust than HDD}}
{{Plus|No moving parts means it uses less power than HDD}}
{{Plus|No moving parts means it is quieter than HDD}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|More expensive than HDD}}
{{Minus|Limited life span}}

=== Magnetic Tape drive ===
[[Image:Dds tape drive 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|DDS tape drive. Above, from left  right: [[w:Digital Data Storage|DDS]]-4 tape (20 GB), 112m [[w:Data8|Data8]] tape (2.5 GB), [[w:Quarter Inch Cartridge|QIC]] DC-6250 tape (250 MB), and a 3.5&quot; [[w:floppy disk|floppy disk]] (1.44 MB)]]
Increasingly obsolete, the tape has been a medium to deliver software and back up data since the early days of computing.  Nowadays they are used mostly for corporate backing up and archiving of data. Tapes are sequential data stores, meaning that if you had information stored at the end of the tape you would have to wind your way through the entirety of the tape before you could read it.  There is no random access like with a hard disk!  Tapes can be several terabytes in size and reading and writing can be very fast as long as you read or write continuous sections of the tape at once.

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Fast}}
{{Plus|High capacity}}
{{Plus|Cheap per megabyte}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Serial read and write capabilities}}

== Optical media ==

Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted metallic surface.  There are several different types of disc out there ranging from 650 MB to 128 GB, with the pits and lands getting closer together for higher volume disks.  The principle behind how each of them works is the same.
[[File:Afm cd-rom.jpg|thumb|center|pitted surface visible on the surface of a CD. Massively zoomed in!]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Optical media
|-
! Device
! Type
! Size
! Image
|- style=&quot;background: #ff9933;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|
* [[w:CD-ROM|CD-ROM]]
* CD-R
* CD-RW
||
* Read Only
* Write once then Read only
* re-Writable
|| 650 - 900 MB || [[File:CD logo.png|100px]]
|-
| 
* DVD-ROM
* DVD-R
* DVD-RW
* DVD-RAM
||
* Read Only
* Write once then Read only
* re-Writable
* re-Writable
|| 4.7 - 9.4 GB || [[File:DVD logo.svg|100px]]
|-
| 
* Blu-ray (BD) disc
* HD DVD (obsolete)
||
Re-Writable and Read Only versions available. Uses a blue laser, that is able to recognise smaller pits and lands, which allows for the pits and lands to be more closely packed, and so store more data
|| 25 - 128 GB || [[File:Blu-ray 200GB.png|100px]]
|}
=== {{Font color||#ff9933|CD-ROM}} ===
[[File:CPT Hardware-Secondary-OpticalDrive.svg|thumb|center|400px|close up of the surface of a CD being read]]
A CD-ROM is a metal disc embedded into a plastic protective housing. Each disc has to be 'mastered'; this is the process of creating the CD and placing the data on it. CDs are WORM (Write Once, Read Many) media; this refers to the fact that once they have been mastered, there is no way to change the data on them. 

'''Reading from a CD-ROM'''
# A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this track is made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes of binary data
# A low-powered laser is shone on the metallic surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode sensor, the lands reflect differently to the pits, meaning it can tell the difference between a 1 and a 0
# The disc spins and the laser follows the track
# The binary data (the 1s and 0s) are put together and the CD-ROM has been read

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Cheap}}
{{Plus|Data cannot be written over by the consumer}}
'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Slow seek time}}
{{Minus|Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!}}
{{Minus|Can only be written to with a very high powered laser, which is not usually available in home computers}}
{{Minus|Data cannot be written over}}

=== {{Font color||#ff9933|CD-R}} ===
The CD-R is made of a reflective metal disk with a layer of (usually green, opaque) dye on top.

'''Writing to a CD-R'''
# A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside.
# A high-powered laser is shone onto the CD-R, changing the transparency (permanently) of the dye above. The transparent and opaque parts represent binary 1s and 0s
# The disc spins and the laser follows the track, putting the binary data onto the CD-R in a spiral track
# The data has been written

'''Reading from a CD-R'''
# A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside.
# A low-powered laser is shone on the surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode sensor. The opaque dye will reflect differently to the transparent dye (which would just reflect the metal underneath it), meaning it can tell the difference between a 1 and 0
# The disc spins and the laser follows the track
# The binary data (the 1s and 0s) are put together and the CD-R has been read

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Cheap}}
{{Plus|Can be written to using a conventional home computer}}
'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Slow seek time}}
{{Minus|Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!}}
{{Minus|Data cannot be written over}}

=== {{Font color||#ff9933|CD-RW}} ===
The CD-RW is made of a reflective metal disk with a layer of a special ('phase change') metal on top.

'''Writing to a CD-RW'''
# A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside.
# A high-powered laser is shone onto the CD-RW. Depending on whether this is very high powered or heats at a slightly lower temperature, the top layer of metal cools differently. These will result in different amounts of reflectivity, which represent the 1s and 0s.
# The disc spins and the laser follows the track, putting the binary data onto the CD in a spiral track
# The data has been written

'''Reading from a CD-RW'''
# A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside.
# A low-powered laser is shone on the surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode sensor. The different ways the metal has cooled reflect different amounts, meaning it can tell the difference between a 1 and 0
# The disc spins and the laser follows the track
# The binary data (the 1s and 0s) are put together and the CD-RW has been read

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Cheap}}
{{Plus|Can be written to using a conventional home computer}}
{{Plus|Data can be changed after writing}}
'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Slow seek time}}
{{Minus|Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!}}
{{Minus|Not all CD players (mostly older ones) can read CD-RWs, as opposed to CD-ROMs and CD-Rs}}

== Solid-state memory ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Solid-state memory
|-
! Device
! Description
|- style=&quot;background: #ff9933;{{Text default color}};&quot;
|
USB flash drive
|| Up to 1 TB
|-
| 
Memory card
|| Up to 256 GB
|}

=== {{Font color||#ff9933|USB (''memory stick'') Flash Drive}} ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;  cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right; background:#f9f9f9;{{Text default color}}; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#e7e7e7;{{Text default color}}; text-align:center;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
[[File:Usbkey internals.jpg|350px|]]&lt;br /&gt;'''Internals of a typical USB flash drive'''
|-
!1
|USB Standard-A plug
|-
!2
|USB mass storage controller device
|-
!3
|Test points
|-
!4
|[[w:Flash memory|Flash memory chip]]
|-
!5
|[[w:Crystal oscillator|Crystal oscillator]]
|-
!6
|[[w:LED|LED]]
|-
!7
|[[w:Write protection|Write-protect]] switch (Optional)
|-
!8
|Space for second flash memory chip
|}

USB Flash drives are solid state, that means that there are no moving parts.  This is very useful for seek times as we don't have to wait for mechanical movement, meaning seek time is very low and it allows for fast Random Access Memory.  Flash drives can be set to read only mode, but they will always allow for reading and writing.  The size of flash drives is not as great as a Hard Disk and they are generally much more expensive per megabyte

# put drive into USB socket
# USB driver loads, providing the computer with code on how to read and write from the USB
# The USB is read, giving information on the file and folder structure (File Allocation Table) to the Computer
# [Reading] The user chooses to open a file, the Computer sends the address wanted to the USB port
# [Reading] The USB returns the data at the location requested
# [Writing] The computer sends data to the USB port where it is place into empty space on the drive
# [Writing] The computer then requests a new version of the file and folder structure

'''Pros'''
{{Plus|Very fast seek times}}
{{Plus|Very portable}}

'''Cons'''
{{Minus|Limited capacity}}
{{Minus|Expensive per MB when compared to Hard Disks}}

=== Memory cards ===
Work in much the same way as a Flash drive and can often be converted into Flash Drives.  They have different connectors and are generally smaller than USB Flash drives allowing for them to be used in cameras, mobile phones and game consoles.
[[File:Flash memory cards size.jpg|thumb|center|comparison of different memory cards]]
{{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Secondary Storage}}
{{CPTQuestion|Choose the correct secondary storage device for each of the following scenarios:

A company needs to backup some HD movie files for 4 years.}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* DVD-ROM
* Blu-Ray
* Tape
* Hard Disk
NOTE: not CD-ROM, it is too small and USB might be too expensive an option
}}
{{CPTQuestion|You need to store files for a school project taking up about 70 MB that you can then transport to and from school}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* USB Memory Stick(remember not to say USB on it's own!)
* CD-RW
NOTE: nothing that is ROM!
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Why do some people reckon that Blu-Ray will be the last optical disk format?}}
{{CPTAnswer|
As broadband gets faster and people store more and more of their data online, everything will be transmitted over the internet and there will be no need to have large physical storage at home
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Describe how a Hard Disk writes a file}}
{{CPTAnswer|
# The platters spin around the spindle
# data is sent to the hard disk using the IDE connector
# the actuator arm moves the write head to the track that will be written to
# Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the write head, data is written to the platter
}}
{{CPTQuestion|Describe how a computer reads from a usb}}
{{CPTAnswer|
# put drive into USB socket
# USB driver loads, providing the computer with code on how to read and write from the USB
# The USB is read, giving information on the file and folder structure (File Allocation Table) to the Computer
# The user chooses to open a file, the Computer sends the address wanted to the USB port
# The USB returns the data at the location requested
}}
{{CPTQuestion|What optical disk format would you recommend for the following:
* Making long term backups of some photos}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* CD-R
* DVD-R
NOTE: there is no need for RW or RAM here
}}
{{CPTQuestion|* Distributing a software product that includes 20 minutes of HD video footage}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* DVD-ROM
* Blu-Ray
NOTE: CD-ROM would probably be too small for this
}}
{{CPTQuestion|* Backing up school work at the end of each week to take home}}
{{CPTAnswer|
* USB Flash Drive
* DVD-RW / RAM
* CD-RW
NOTE: Rs wouldn't be suitable as you would have to keep throwing them away!
}}
{{Robox/Close}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog/GROUP PC – Digital stamps generated by personal computer software or online</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>384906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662731</id>
      <parentid>4662121</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T09:58:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662731</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="130342" sha1="b5y6w0kbpy1lobsmylwn2ejnggbvvoe" xml:space="preserve">==&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #1F75FE;&quot;&gt;GROUP PC: Special designs generated by personal computer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;==
[[United_States_Postage_Meter_Stamp_Catalog |&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;''&lt;u&gt;Click here to return to the United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog&lt;/u&gt;''&lt;/span&gt;]]

{{font/top|size=3|color=#08457E}}
'''NOTE''': ''All the stamps listed here are valid only on the date generated. PC stamps with unrestricted validity, i.e. savable for future use, are more like traditional stamps than meter stamps and thus are not cataloged here. PC stamps with unrestricted validity are cataloged in '''&lt;i&gt;USA: Variable Denomination Stamps (1989-2020)&lt;/i&gt;''' by Karim Roder (available on Amazon).''

* Group PC stamps can vary considerably in size, font styles, and color within the same stamp type depending on personal printer settings, available fonts, etc. Size variations or colors other than black are unusual but are user controlled variables (an attempt will be made to note said varieties in the usage lists).

* The stamps are found on plain paper and adhesive labels depending on what the user has in his printer. Self-adhesive labels are sold by the various PC stamp companies and also by outside vendors. These labels exist both with and without fluorescent tagging. As with color and font, paper or label type is a user controlled variable, however to a great extent the parameters are set by United States Postal Service ( see: https://postalpro.usps.com/parcellabelingguide). It is recommended that the collector save the '''entire label'''.

* PC stamps are often found in a frame at the top right of large address labels. To the left of the stamp is a smaller frame containing a large letter or number representing the class of mail. Codes found are: &quot;'''1'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''fcm'''&quot; (first class), &quot;'''P'''&quot; (priority), &quot;'''E'''&quot; (express), &quot;'''M'''&quot; (media), &quot;'''T'''&quot; (parcel post), solid block (media, or other), &quot;'''H'''&quot; (Hazardous), &quot;'''G'''&quot; (Ground Advantage), &quot;'''X'''&quot; (Media). Not all the codes are found with all the stamp types that use the labels.

* 2-Dimensional barcodes occur in two major types and several subtypes:
::::: PDF417 A horizontally stacked 2-dimensional barcode, each consists of  2 punctuators, 2 indicators and a variable number of data blocks.

::::::  subvariety PDF417(4) has 4 datablocks [[File: PDF417-224.png|right|250px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(6) has 6 datablocks [[File: PDF417-226.png|right|275px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(7) has 7 datablocks [[File: PDF417-227.png|right|300px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(8) has 8 datablocks [[File: PDF417-228.png|right|350px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(9) has 9 datablocks [[File: PDF417-229.png|right|375px]]


::::::  subvariety PDF417(12) has 12 datablocks [[File: PDF417-2212.png|right|400px]]


::::: Data matrix is a 2 dimensional barcode consisting of square or rectangular data blocks

::::::  subvariety DM-2H (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged horizontally [[File: DM-2HZ.png|right|100px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-2V (&quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;) has 2 datablocks arranged vertically [[File: DM-2VR.png|right|50px]]


::::::  subvariety DM-4 has 4 datablocks arranged as a square [[File: DM-4SQ.png|right|100px]]


* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-A: Franks from E-Stamp software, ID numbers with 05#E prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All stamps have large, negative “e” logo at top right and &quot;PDF417&quot; bar code across the bottom with identification number at bottom right.
* &quot;US Postage&quot; and date are at top center, usually below a mail classification statement.
* Found both with and without FIM barcode at top left and also with and without slogan or directional slug at left.
* One hundred FD covers were prepared by E-Stamp in cooperation with the National Postal Museum on March 31, 1998. Trials took place for several more months. The first day of national availability was September 27, 1999.
* Although we must assume other mail classes were available, only '''First Class''', '''First-Class''', '''Priority''', and '''Priority Mail''' have been reported.
* E-stamp ceased operations at the end of 2000.
{{font/end}}


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

----

&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-A1 FDC stamp.jpg|right|425px]]

'''PC-A1.10.''' March 31, 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]

: This stamp is found only on the First Day Covers prepared by E-Stamp and the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are large, 4mm tall. 
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''without hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, 4mm tall''}})

'''PC-A1.11.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [RR][[File: PC-A1.11 251004.png|right|375px]]

: This stamp is found only on covers by the National Postal Museum. ({{font|size=2|''See above''}}). They were sold for $100 each.
: The value figures are smaller than on &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot; but larger than on &quot;'''PC-A1.2'''&quot; ettc.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: Mail class: &quot;First Class&quot; ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}}).
: Identification number with 051E prefix  and about the same length as in &quot;'''PC-A1.10'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}}  {{font|size=5|$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;}}  {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''large figures, about 3½mm tall''}})

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1e''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.2.''' 1998. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.1 but with smaller value figures, 2 to 3mm tall.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; normally at bottom left below the barcode. 
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} ({{font|size=2|''small figures, 2-3mm tall''}})

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''.  First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B1'''. Priority {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''B2'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [R]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. With recipient's identity instead of &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at left below bar code field {{space|2}} [RR]
:: '''c'''. With 4-digit ZIP code

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''RA1c and d''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1p3A.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A1.3.''' {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-A1.2 but value figures show decimal fractions of a cent and have wide spacing between the dollar sign and the decimal digit with the other figures.
: ID# with 051E, 052E or 053E prefix.
: With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
:: '''A'''. V/F regular: {{space|4}} ${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''${{space|2}} 0'''.'''00{{space|2}} &lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA1b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A1.4A.jpg|right|535px]]

'''PC-A1.4.'''
:  As PC-A1.3B but the value figures are spaced closely together.
:  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left and PDF(12) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:: '''A'''.  Destination town name at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 051E prefix {{space|4}} [RRRR]&lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''B'''.  &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode, and ID# with 053E prefix {{space|4}} [S]
: The mail classes are the same as for PC-A1.2.
: V/F italic: {{space|4}} ''$0'''.'''00&lt;sup&gt;&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; ''

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; {{space|2}} [R]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|Type PC-A1.4A is possibly the first E-stamp placed in use with paying customers, earlier than when PC-A1.2, PC-A1.3, and PC-A1.4B were issued.}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RA2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-A2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-A2.''' March 2000. {{space|2}} [S]
:  As Type PC-A1.2 but the inscriptions are larger.
: &quot;e-stamp.com&quot; at bottom left below the barcode. 
:  With PDF(7) 2-D barcode across the bottom.
:  ID# with 053E prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $ 0'''.'''00

: &lt;u&gt;Mail classes&lt;/u&gt;: &lt;sup&gt;{{font|color=red|♦}}&lt;/sup&gt;
:: '''A'''. First-Class ({{font|size=2|''with hyphen''}})
:: '''B'''. Priority Mail {{space|2}} [S]

[[File: USA PC-A2a.jpg|right|380px]]
:: '''a'''. With &quot;Additional&quot; instead of mail class above &quot;US Postage&quot; ({{font|size=2|''see below''}}) {{space|2}} [R]
:: '''b'''. &quot;Mailed From ZIP Code&quot; town line with 4-digit ZIP code instead of normal 5-digit code {{space|2}} [RR]

{{font|color=red|♦}} {{font|size=2|&quot;Express&quot; (or &quot;Express Mail&quot;) was an option but has not been reported by collectors.}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-B: Franks from Neopost software, ID numbers with 04#N or NO4#N prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The stamp designs are quite different from each other. One has a four-pointed star logo, two have a torch in hand logo, and one has no logo. Even the bar codes are dissimilar.
* Neopost was the second company to enter the PC postage business with an experimental design sometime in early 1998. Circumstances of the trial remain unknown to us.
* Stamps are found both with and without FIM barcode at top left. Examples are not known with slogan or slug.
* &lt;u&gt;Classes of mail seen on PC-B stamps&lt;/u&gt;:

::{|
| '''A.''' {{space|4}} FIRST CLASS LTR [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''F.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 2 [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|35px]]

| '''M.''' {{space|4}} INTL LETTER

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Aa.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS LTR

| '''G.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 3

| '''N.''' {{space|4}} INTL CAN LTR

|-

| '''B.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVERSZ

| '''H.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 4

| '''P.''' {{space|4}} INTL MEX LTR

|-

| {{space|4}}  '''Ba.''' {{space|4}} 1ST CLASS OVSZ

| '''I.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 5

| '''Q.''' {{space|4}} NEXT DAY EXP MAIL

|-

| '''C'''. {{space|4}} PRIORITY MAIL

| '''J.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 6

| '''R.''' {{space|4}} MEDIA MAIL

|-

| '''D.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY LOCAL

| '''K.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 7

|-

| '''E.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 1

| '''L.''' {{space|4}} PRIORITY ZONE 8

|}
* Mail classes E through L were discontinued in June 2002. Examples are exceptionally rare. Most mail classes except the First Class variations are scarce to very rare.
* Neopost PC stamps became available nationally in May 1999.

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}

{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-B1.''' {{font|color=green|''The stamp previously cataloged here has not been found used on actual mail. For this reason the Type has been deleted and the stamp re-cataloged as Type ESY-DF2 in the Essay section.''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D1.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-B2. ”Postage Plus”™''', '''“PC Stamp™”''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RRR]
: This too is an experimental stamp. It was first seen in live tests in and near Washington DC and parts of northern California. It was offered nationally in May 1999 but saw little use.
: The stamp was used by two different systems, &quot;Postage Plus&quot; which used a live internet connection, and &quot;PC Stamp&quot; which downloaded postage credit into a rented hardware vault. 
: The design shows at top right two horizontal bars with &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; above the top one and the town line below the bottom one. Between the bars at right are a torch-in-hand logo left of small &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; reading up. Also between the ars are the class of mail, the value figures (centered), and the date.
: PDF417(7) barcode across the bottom 
: With &quot;DEVICE and identification number at bottom right. 
: Meter number with N041N, N041NA, or 041N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; at bottom left
:: '''b'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; baarcode at top left


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2a''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-B3.1.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-B3.1. “Simply Postage”™''', 1998. {{space|2}} [RR]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Similar to PC-B2 with torch-in-hand logo and point of sale data mixed with two horizontal bars, but otherwise quite different.
: The stamp is found only on self-adhesive labels with rounded corners and fluorescent red bar across the bottom edge.
: &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is vertical at far right just left of a double line of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Between the bars are the identification number, value figures, and date. Below the bottom bar is the town line, '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: Large value figures, 4½ to 5mm tall
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØ ({{font|size=2|''with slashed zeros''}})


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RC2b''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-D2.jpg|right|380px]]

'''PC-B3.2. “Simply Postage” '''. {{space|2}} [RR]
: As Type PC-B3.1 but the value figures have a tenths of a cent figure.
: Stamp with &quot;PDF417(9)&quot; bar code.
: Meter number with N042N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $Ø'''.'''ØØ&lt;u&gt;ø&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1A''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1A.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.1. “ProMail” ''', 1998? {{space|2}} [S]
: Produced by an internet-connected labeling device.
: Also printed on self-adhesive labels this stamp is much smaller than the PC-B3 stamps and contains the point-of-sale data at left and a square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Point-of-sale data have the value figures at top followed by the class of mail, '''MAILED FROM''' (ZIP code) town line, &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, date and identification number.
: Fluorescent bar at far left just outside two lines of micro-printing reading &quot;NEOPOSTNEOPOST...&quot; vertically.
: Meter number with 045N prefix.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''SA1B''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F1B.jpg|right|330px]]

'''PC-B4.2. “ProMail” '''. {{space|2}} [S]
: As Type PC-B4.1 but the value figures are slightly larger and the text is slightly bolder.
: square &quot;Datamatrix (DM-4)&quot; bar code at right.
: Labels have fluorescent bar at right.
: Meter number with 047N prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $Ø'''.'''ØØø


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-C: Franks generated by software from Stamps.com (StampMaster before 1999), ID numbers with 06#S prefix}}====


{{font/top|color=#0018A8|size=3}}
* The first stamp design has a negative {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''S'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} in oval logo. All others contain {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps.com'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} somewhere in the design. Some time after Stamps.com acquired Endicia in November 2015 (see Sub-group PC-E) the logo {{space|1}}&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black;&quot;&gt;'''stamps'''&lt;sub&gt;'''endicia'''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{space|1}} came into use (see Sub-group PC-I). The individual divisions (Stamps and Endicia) have since returned to a semi-independent status.

* The stamps are found both with and without a FIM barcode at upper left.
* &lt;u&gt;Mail classes found with PC-C stamps&lt;/u&gt;:
::  {{space|4}}  FIRST CLASS, FIRST CLASS MAIL, FCI (first class international)  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  PRIORITY MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  EXPRESS MAIL  &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
::  {{space|4}}  MEDIA MAIL &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt;
: &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;♦&lt;/span&gt; Collectors should be aware that the primary mail classes are found in a multitude of variations. For example, FIRST CLASS can be found as FIRST-CLASS PKG RATE, FIRST-CLASS MAIL PARCEL, FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE INTL, USPS FIRST CLASS MAIL, etc.. We do not know them all. Please inform the catalog manager regarding something different (&quot;'''Alan Knutson, boris1951@charter.net'''&quot;) if possible also include a scan.
* The StampMaster/stamps.com system was first trialed in the Washington DC area and in parts of California sometime before August 1998. It was made available nationally on September 27, 1999.

* PC stamps on labels the sizes of which are recommended by the '''USPS''', the sizes are  4 inches by 6 inches ('''FS''') in two subvarieties, 4 inches by 4 inches ('''FF'''), 6 inches by 2 inches ('''ST'''), and a form for customs declaration included. Many illustrations in the listings are of size 'FS' but with only one or two of the 5 or six horizontal sections of the label.
[[File: ST size.png|right|200px]]

[[File: FS5 size.jpg|left|200px]]
[[File: FF size.png|center|200px]]


[[File: CF size.png|center|400px]]


{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;{{center/top}}* * *
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}{{center/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label &quot;'''size FS5 (with 5 horizontal boxes, A thru E) or size FS6 (with six horizontal boxes, A thru F)'''&quot;, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Icon/ Postage Payment'']}}
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc,{{font|size=2|color=blue| ['''USPS''' ''Service Icon'']}}
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Postage Payment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Service Banner'']}}
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address  {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Address and Delivery Information Segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Intelligent Mail package barcode segment'']}}
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'') {{font|size=2|color=blue|['''USPS''' ''Additional Information and User Segment'']}}

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB1''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C1.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-C1. StampMaster''', summer 1998. {{space|2}} [RRRR]
: Experimental stamp with negative “S”/Internet Postage logo at top center. 
: At top right are value figures, mail class, &quot;US POSTAGE”, and date. 
: &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code across bottom with town line below at left and identification number below at right.
: Identification number with 061S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C2.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-C2.1. stamps.com''', 1999.
: As Type PC-C1 but with &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo instead of the '''S''' in oval logo.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at upper left
: At top right are the value figures, date, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, and town line.
: 2-D barcode PDF417(6} across lower portion
: &quot;STAMPS.COM&quot; is below left of the bar code.
: Identification number with 061S or 062S prefix below right of bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt; 
[[File: USA PC-C2 redate.jpg|right|180px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing, blank below bar code
:: '''d'''. Bottom line present but without bar code
:: '''e'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''f'''. With nonsense characters across the bottom (''system malfunction'')

'''NOTES''':
* The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo can vary considerably in size.
* The system could produce a re-date stamp without postage value, as shown (''right'').
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RB3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-C3.jpg|right|360px]]
[[File: USA PC-C3 redate.jpg|right|200px]]
'''PC-C2.2.''' 2000. 
: As Type PC-C2.1 but with larger inscriptions.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(6)&quot; barcode.
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
[[File:USA stamp type PC2p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]

:: '''a'''. With &quot;ADDITIONAL POSTAGE&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''b'''. With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of class of mail below &quot;US Postage&quot;
:: '''c'''. With bottom line missing (blank below bar code)
:: '''d'''. With &quot;MAIL TO:&quot; and ZIP code above left of the bar code
:: '''e'''. With mailer's name replacing town line
:: '''f'''. With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at the upper left.

'''NOTES''':
* The NOTES below PC-C2.1 apply to PC-C2.2 also.
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right.
* For a similar type inscribed &quot;'''Stamps /Endicia '''&quot; see &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot;


[[File: USA PC-C4B.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C2.3.1''' 2005.

: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Basic stamp without framing

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.2''' 

: &quot;Stamps / Endicia” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: At top left: postage value above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and class of mail. 
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.3.3''' 

: As '''PC-C2.3.2''', [[File: PC-C2.3.3p.png|right|500px]]
: &quot;Stamps.com” logo at far right of 2D &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: Stamp at top right of address label (FS5) with large mail class indicator to its left. 
: Class of mail spelled out below V/F, with type of pricing below
: At top right: meter identification number with 062S prefix above customer ID, above &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00


'''PC-C2.4.1''' 2005.
:  As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
:  Stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
:  Meter number with 062S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
:: '''A'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code
::: '''1'''. Basic stamp without framing[[File: USA PC-C5A.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-C5B.jpg|right|540px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
!
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0005418699
| 
| A7
| B0
| C5
| 11/21/2005
| 02845 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0006097059
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/26/2015
| 40228 
| 
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0005715741
|
| A6
| B3
| C1
| 09/06/2011 
| 66030 
| GARDNER, KS
| Box F split horizontally in two, &quot;Thank You&quot; in bottom half.
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 05/28/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/02/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0008902567
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 07/15/2014
| 19803
| Wilmington, DE
|
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009033522
| 
| A4
| B0
| C0
| 11/09/2016
| 57401
| Aberdeen, SD
| No tracking number in Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009034923
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 11365
| Fresh Meadows, NY
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009143056
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 02/20/2018
| 08080
| Mount Holly, NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009151784
| 
| A2
| B3
| C1
| 06/01/2015
| 92154
| San Diego, CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009200477
| 
| A2
| B3
| C3
| 09/05/2018
| 11355
| Flushing, NY
|
|}


:: '''B'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code
::: '''2'''. Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator or solid block to its left and the class of mail spelled out below.

[[File:USA stamp type PC-C2point4b.jpeg|right|400px]]


'''NOTE''': Sub-type '''B''' has been found printed directly onto a plastic bag. See image below.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4 NOTE.JPG|right|300px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C10.jpg|right|880px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-C2.5. ''' 

'''PC-C2.5.1 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the manufacturer's logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps.com'''&quot;. With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p7.jpg|right|880px]]

'''PC-C2.5.3''' ''2012.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.4 but with date between the &quot;FROM&quot; (ZIP code) and the Stamps.com logo.
: Seen with tracking number at right of the frank, on a customs form.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: PDF417(7) barcode

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;For information on the various types of 2 dimensional barcodes see introduction to &quot;'''Group PC'''&quot; above''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC2point6.jpg|right|500px]]


'''PC-C2.6.0.''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps.com'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-C2.7.1.'''
: With &quot;DPDF417&quot; barcode as with Types PC-C2.1 through PC-C2.5 but without &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo.
: Top panel contains USPS eagle logo and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at left.
: Tracking number above the barcode.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00, {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the 2D barcode


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4B.jpg|right|1000px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G4.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C2.7.2.'''


: Similar to Type PC-C2.7.1 but very wide imprint with '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo above usps.com (without the eagle-head logo)/ &quot;US POSTAGE / PAID&quot; at left.
: Along the bottom are the weight, date, Mailed from ZIP code, and meter identification number with &quot;062S&quot; prefix.
: ''It appears that this stamp is generated only for International Priority and Express mail services.''
: Two versions are known:
:: '''A'''. Tracking barcode at far left in the panel. Smaller lower panel contains the mail class statement.
:: '''B'''. Smaller stamp, traditional barcode at center of panel, USPS logo at far left. A Customs Declaration statement appears above the traditional barcode. No lower panel containing a mail class statement, and no indication anywhere of the mail service being used.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA stamp type PC-C6.jpg|right|140px]]

'''PC-C3.1.''' 2007.
: Stamp with horizontal &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode.
: Small frank with value figures at top above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot;, class of mail, &quot;FROM&quot; ZIP code, and date.
: Below the date are the stamps.com logo, the barcode, and identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-C7.jpg|right|195px]]

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2aa.jpg|right|175px]]
'''PC-C3.2.1'''
:  As Type PC-C3.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
:  '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
:: '''a'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''b'''. Town line without ZIP code showing &quot;FROM&quot; alone
[[File: USA stamp type PC3p2 label.jpg|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''NOTE''': These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. Stamps.com provided L-shaped labels with pink fluorescent bars along the top and right. Other label sizes and shapes exist. See below.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3p3.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-C3.3.''' 2018.
: Identification number and Stamps.com logo read down at far right.
: From the top down, point-of-sale data is:
:: Value figures
:: '''US POSTAGE'''
:: mail class
:: ZIP code and date
:: Horizontal IBI Lite bar code
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-C3.2 250115.png|right|150px]]

'''PC-C3.5.''' 2022.
: Most similar to Type PC-C3.1 but without company identification.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 

::::-A [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
::::-B [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|8px]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|12px]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
[[File:PC-C3.5B 250116.png|right|150px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA PC-F10.jpg|right|940px]]


'''PC-C4.1.1.''' 2002.
:  Very wide design with large &quot;Delivery Confirmation&quot; 1D barcode at center and square Datamatrix barcode at right.
: Above the 2D barcode are the weight, ZIP code, ID# with 062S prefix, and date.
: At far left is the class of mail above “US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID”.
: Without value figures. The &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo is below the 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

 '''PC-C4.1.2.'''. With value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.1.''' (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo below 2D barcode)[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1D.jpg|right|940px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.1.'''. With &quot;stamps.com&quot; logo and value figures at top above the 2D barcode: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 (&quot;stamps.com&quot; logo at top)[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10B.jpg|right|940px]]

:: '''a'''. Without tracking barcode at center[[File: USA stamp type PC-F10aa.jpg|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C4.2.2.'''. Without value figures but otherwise as '''PC-C4.2.1.''' 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9 complete.jpg|right|540px]]


'''PC-C5.1.''' 2011.
:  The point-of-sale text is immediately to the left of the square Datamatrix barcode rather than above. 
: The frank appears unframed at the top of an address label.
: Identification number with 062S prefix.  
: The country name is not in or near the frank, but &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; is found at bottom below the mail class.
: With value figures
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C5.2.'''. As '''PC-C5.1.''',Without value figures[[File: USA stamp type PC-C9B.jpeg|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Types '''SE1''' and '''SE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F7.jpg|right|540px]]
[[File: USA PC-F8.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-C6.3.1.''' 2002.[[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|6px]]V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: Downloaded directly from the Stamps.com web site. 
: Square Datamatrix barcode at right with &quot;stamps.com&quot; reading up to its right. 
: Text left justified as follows: 
: Value figures at top above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, ID number, and ZIP code
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C6.3.2.''' Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; above date, ID# with 062S prefix, ZIP code, rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''PC-C9.1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.1 250331.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} Similar to &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} New &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Mail class indicator using &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font as opposed to &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; in &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.0'''&quot;.
::: {{space|10}} Prefix &quot;'''063S'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with three lines in upper right and &quot;'''Arial Block'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.3'''&quot;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-C9.2.''' 2024.[[File: PC-C2.4.3.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo replacing the stamps / endicia logo at the right of &quot;PDF417(8)&quot; barcode. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer’s Zip code at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} For similar item with with two lines in upper right and &quot;'''New Helvetica'''&quot; font see &quot;'''PC-C2.4.2A.1'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| (063S0002805278)?
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 11/25/2024
| ID number misprinted
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 03/19/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0002805278
| 
| '''G''' (I)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 43228
| Columbus, OH
| 05/19/2025
|
|-

|}


'''PC-C9.3''' 2025.[[File: PC-C2.4.4 250802.png|right|450px]]

::: {{space|10}} As Type PC-C2.3 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
::: {{space|10}} With new &quot;'''Stamps '''&quot;  logo at top right. 
::: {{space|10}} &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; at top left above rate statement.
::: {{space|10}} ID number with 063S prefix above mailer's ID number and mailer’s Zip code at top right below &quot;'''Stamps'''&quot; logo. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;Label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box B2, &lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;City&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5
| 063S0001442661
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0001443346
| 17008527
| '''P''' 
| '''XXXI'''
| A5, B5, C7
| 76006
| Arlington, TX
| 07/10/2026
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950305
| 9786065
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 03580
| 
| 07/28/2025
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950364
| 10606251
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A14, B6, C7
| 20850
| Rockville, MD
| 12/03/2024
|
|-
| FS5
| 063S0014950380 
| 18827628
| '''G''' (II)
| '''VI'''
| A9, B2, C7
| 85274
| Mesa, AZ
| 02/06/2025
|
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.4.''' ''2025.''
: As Type PC-C2.6.0 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE imi&quot; is to the right of the value figures.[[File: PC-C2.6.1.png|right|500px]]
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: New '''Stamps''' logo to the right of the bar code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-C9.5.'''  ''2025''
:  As Type PC-C3.2.1 but the &quot;IBI Lite&quot; barcode is vertical at right next to the identification number reading down at far right. 
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE IMI'''&quot;
:  tHE NEW '''Stamps.com''' logo, identification number with '''063S''' prefix.  
:  Town line &quot;FROM&quot; and ZIP code
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;

[[File: PC-C3.2.3 250217.png|right|360px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''NOTES''':
* These stamps can be printed directly to the mail piece or on labels. 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-D: Franks from Pitney Bowes software, ID numbers with 02#P, 02#W, or 07#P prefix}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* The earlier stamps show logos consisting of an eagle's head and wing. Later stamps are generic, text and bar code only, but most include &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; in the design. One stamp, Type PC-D4, does not include the company name and is identifiable as a Pitney Bowes product only by the identification number with &quot;02&quot; prefix.
* Identification number prefixes seen so far are 022P, 024P, 022W, 026W and 071P.
* Pitney Bowes PC stamps began field testing in the Washington DC area in December 1998.

{{font/end}}
{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D0B.jpg|right|415px]]
'''PC-D0. “ClickStamp Online”''', probably 1998. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with small eagle profile image at upper right. Left of the eagle are the date, value figures,  and “US POSTAGE” with three stars. Above the “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode field are the identification number at left and “Mailed From Zip Code” and ZIP code.

: Identification number with 022P000230 prefix.
:: '''A'''. The type font is somewhat heavy. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has no serif. Three reported:
::: 1) ID number 022P0002300165, ZIP code 20260 
::: 2) ID number 022P0002306771, ZIP code 20032
::: 3) ID number 022P0002307167, ZIP code 13057
:: '''B'''. The type font is somewhat lighter. The &quot;P&quot; in the ID number has serif at bottom. ID number 022P0002306600, ZIP code 20260
: V/F: {{space|2}} $ ~0.00&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 
 
: '''NOTE''': This stamp type was previously cataloged as an essay (ESY-DB4.4) until verifiably postally used covers were identified.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E2.jpg|right|415px]]

'''PC-D1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 21 April 1999. {{space|2}} [''Exceptionally rare'']
: Experimental stamp with eagle with wavy wing below &quot;FIM&quot; barcode. 
: Stamp with “'''PDF417'''(9)” barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, date, value figures, ZIP code, and identification number stacked at right.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Class of mail vertical at left side.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o
 
: '''NOTE''': When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2A.jpg|right|415px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2p2B.jpg|right|430px]]

'''PC-D2.1. “ClickStamp Online”''', 2000. 
: Similar to Type PC-D1 but straight eagle's wing above &quot;PITNEY BOWES&quot;. 
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. Inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; with stops. &quot;MAILED FROM ZIP CODE&quot; one line, all capitals.
:: '''B'''. Inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; without stops. &quot;Mailed from ZIP Code&quot; in two lines, mixed case.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

'''NOTES''':
: 1)  When printed on a color-capable printer, the wing of the eagle is (usually) in red.
: 2)  The system allows for a re-date stamp without postage value (as shown below).

: 3)  Pitney Bowes required at least some users of ClickStamp Online to send them a sample print once a year on an envelope marked withe the components of the user's system. (Example shown below right.)

[[File: USA PC-E3 redate.jpg|left|330px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D2.1 NOTE 3.jpeg|right|500px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-E4.jpg|right|390px]]

'''PC-D2.2. “ClickStamp Online”'''. 
: This is the postage correction frank used with the software system that produced type PC-D2.1.
: The eagle is larger than with type PC-D2.1 and in line with the date which is above &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; rather than below.
: Large “POSTAGE CORRECTION” below eagle.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: Without town line or ZIP code.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00o

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USMETER22041502.png|right|300px]]
{{font/top|size=2|color=red}}
'''Type Note: In the following listings, the descriptions will often include specific details regarding the mailing label, they will referenced as follows'''
::::: Panel or Box A:  '''USPS insignia''' ('' sometimes not present'')
::::: Panel or Box B:  oftentimes subdivided  
::::::: Box B1 &quot;'''F, P.'''&quot; etc, 
::::::: Box B2 includes, barcode, date, identification number
::::: Panel or Box C:  Mail Class
::::: Panel or Box D:  Address 
::::: Panel or Box E:  Tracking number/Bar code
::::: Panel or Box F:  often times blank ('' sometimes not present'')
{{font/end}}
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p1A.jpg|right|345px]]
[[File: USA PC-F6.jpg|right|515px]]

'''PC-D3.1A. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: As with PC-D1 through PC-D2.3, with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the ID number with 071P prefix. 
: Basic stamp without framing. Top line contains value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;. 
::: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.1B. &quot;Shipstream Manager&quot;'''. 
: Box B2 &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; or &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;, date, town line (Mailed from ZIP...) and rate above &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below. Top line &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot;.  With rate statement instead of value figures.
: No Box A, Box B the dividing line extends the entire height of the box. 
: Identification number  071P prefix

:: '''A'''. &quot;'''FCM'''&quot; in Box B1
::: '''a'''.  Box B2 &quot;'''US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID'''&quot;/DATE    &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; / / &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode / &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;     Identification number
:::: '''1'''. Box C: &quot;'''USPS FIRST CLASS'''&quot;
::::: '''-a'''. Box B2: 3rd line &quot;1oz First-Class Parcel rate&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RD5''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1A.jpg|right|530px]]
[[File: USA PC-G1B.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-D3.2.''' 
: Found only on labels downloaded from internet vendor eBay. 
: In panel across the top are the USPS eagle logo at left and the '''eBay''' logo at right.
: Inside the stamp frame: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and rate statement centered above the &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and the identification number with 024P prefix.
: Large rate indicator in frame at left.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: {{font|size=2|color=red|See also '''PC-D3.3B.6'''}}

:: '''A'''. With value figures
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3'''.
: Similar to Type PC-D3.2,
: A large label formatted with as many as 7 subsections (&quot;'''boxes'''&quot;)
: Below &quot;'''Box A'''&quot; if present, or at the top there are two boxes (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; at the left and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; at the right)
: Within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the “'''PDF417(7)'''” 2D barcode there is nothing above the barcode. 
: Also within &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; are 3 '''stacks''', 
: '''Stack B2.1''' &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; (''or variation''), date, “From” and ZIP code, weight, and optionally a Zone number are stacked at left.
: '''Stack B2.2''' Below the barcode are &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; and a rate statement or statements at the center. 
: '''Stack B2.3''' Meter number/ID number at right.
: The ID number has 022W, 024P, or 026W prefix.
: In a smaller box at left (&quot;'''Box B1'''&quot;) is a large letter code representing the mail class.
: In a wide box (&quot;'''Box C'''&quot;) below &quot;'''Box B1'''&quot; and &quot;'''Box B2'''&quot; is the class of mail.
: If present the value figures appear above &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;.
: '''Labels may be framed or unframed'''
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 or nil
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A'''. With value figures
: A large label with 6 boxes &quot;'''FS5'''&quot;(&quot;'''Boxes B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A1'''.
:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3A2'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date   [[File: PC-D3.3A3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''A'''. '''026W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0004

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 32961
| VERO BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897622
| CommPrice
| 10/18/2023
| 29568
| 
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:: '''B'''. '''028W'''  &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;over 10-digit number starting with&lt;/span&gt; 0002

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310688
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2024
| 34293
| VENICE FL
| 
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3A3'''.   '''US POSTAGE IMI''' in one line alone above the date as &quot;'''PC-D3.3A3'''&quot;, Box A with &quot;'''UNITED STATES / POSTAL SERVICE ®'''&quot; and emblem on left.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B'''. With rate statement

'''PC-D3.3B.1'''.[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3.jpg|right|500px]]

::''' Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE''' in one line alone above the date

'''PC-D3.3B.1.1'''.  Prefix &quot;'''21B'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0050723999
| CommPrice
| 07/20/2022
| 07112
| Newark NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060312094
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 07036
| Linden NJ
| Box F: order data
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 021B0060494251
| CommPrice
| 11/28/2022
| 90670
| Santa fe springs CA
| Box F: order data
|}

'''PC-D3.3B.1.2'''.  Prefix &quot;'''26W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
|
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897242
| ComPlsPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 07419
|
|
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 026W0004897590
| 
| 01/02/2021
| 97239
| Portland OR
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897774
| CommPlsPrice
| 07/31/2020
| 60490
| Bolingbrook IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897814
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2021
| 91304
| Los Angeles CA
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
|
|
| 54843
|
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.1C''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4A.0.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.1A.B''' but with customer ID at lower right
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE''' above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VII'''
| 026W0004897326
| 3000093152
| ComPlsPrice
| 12/04/2020
| 91706
| IRWINDALE CA
| ID numbers in larger font
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897491
| 3000008007
| CommPrice
| 05/23/2019
| 48114
| BRIGHTON MI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.2'''.[[File: PC-D3.3B.1.png|right|500px]]

:: '''Box B2::'''.  '''US POSTAGE / PAID''' in two lines  above the date


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 12/29/2021
| 54843 
| Hayward WI
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.3A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.3.png|right|500px]]
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W [[File: PC-D3.3B.3A-H 2501002.png|right|500px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''H'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0002310502
| CommPrice
| 08/04/2025
| 33068
| North Lauderdale FL
| &quot;'''HAZMAT-Surface Transportation Only'''&quot;
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897241
| CommPrice
| 01/26/2023
| 13147
| SCIPIO CENTER NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897242 
| CommPrice
| 08/16/2022
| 93943
| MONTEREY CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897400
| CommPrice
| 05/24/2023
| 16063
| ZELIENOPLE PA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897451
| CommPrice
| 11/24/2023
| 95240
| LODI CA
|
|-
| PS4
| '''P'''
| '''XIII'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/23/2023
| 98239
| COUPEVILLE WA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 03/07/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 02/02/2022
| 92404
| SAN BERNARDINO CA
| 
|-
| PS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 12/06/2023
| 81413
| CEDAREDGE CO
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| PS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897778
| CommPrice
| 02/27/2023
| 76013
| PANTEGO TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 026W0004897790
| CommPrice
| 11/01/2022
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897812
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2023
| 11432
| JAMAICA NY
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897816
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2022
| 33770
| LARGO FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897817
| CommPrice
| 06/20/2023
| 77030
| HOUSTON TX
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897878
| CommPrice 
| 08/25/2022
| 66505
| MANHATTAN KS
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
| 01/23/2023
| 08110
| PENNSAUKEN NJ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 02/04/2022
| 45806
| CRIDERSVILLE OH
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897895
| CommPrice
| 11/21/2023
| 95628
| FAIR OAKS CA
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897939
| CommPrice
| 03/28/2022
| 55304
| ANDOVER MN
|
|-
|
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897942
| CommPrice
| 04/29/2022
| 06514
| HAMDEN CT
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004898023
| CommPrice
| 09/23/2022
| 75150
| MESQUITE TX
|
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.3B'''
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date [[File: PC-D3.3B.3B 250415.png|right|500px]]
:: Meter numbers: 028W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310364
| CommPrice
| 03/18/2024
| 96003
| REDDING CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 02/05/2024
| 34222
| ELLENTON FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311094
| CommPrice
| 08/22/2024
| 11735
| FARMINGDALE NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311374
| CommPrice
| 02/22/2024
| 33436
| BOYNTON BEACH FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311472
| CommPrice
| 03/04/2025
| 92376
| RIALTO CA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.1''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 026W0004897241
| 3001124484
| ComPlsPrice
| 06/17/2022
| 93380
| VISALIA CA
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.4A.2''' 
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310218 
| 3000559694
| 
| 02/03/2023
| 98144
| SEATTLE WA
| Box F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 028W0002310350
| 3001704288
| CommPrice
| 02/03/2023
| 80907
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.4B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.4B.png|right|500px]]
:: As '''PC-D3.3B.3''' but taller, thinner font
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
:: Meter numbers: 028W


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310174
| 3002184618
| CommPrice
| 07/08/2024
| 60647
| CHICAGO IL
| 
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5A''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5a.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 026W

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897798
| CommPrice
| 01/24/2023
| 30907
| MARTINEZ GA
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.5B''' [[File: PC-D3.3B.5B.png|right|500px]]
:: Similar to'''PC-D3.3B.3''' 
:: '''Box B2'''  '''US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
:: Meter numbers: 028W
:: Customer Identification Number below meter number

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D3.3B.6'''
:: A large label with 6 sections, 7 boxes  (&quot;'''Boxes A, B1, B2, C, D, E, F'''&quot;)
:: A box (&quot;'''Box A''') across the top containing the USPS eagle logo and &quot;UNITED STATES/ POSTAL SERVICE&quot; at left and a mailer's logo or identification at right. 
:: {{font|size=2|color=red|'''NOTE:''' ''For examples with'' '''Penalty of Fines Under 18 / USC 3571 for Private Use''' ''see'' '''OO-M1'''}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6A'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / PAID IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1A'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.1.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''026W'''&quot;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897242
| CommPrice
| 01/08/2022
| 19565
| WERNERSVILLE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897406
| CommPrice
| 05/30/2020
| 92859
| ORANGE CA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897486
| CommPrice
| 08/19/2023
| 76002
| ARLINGTON TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 026W0004897525
| CommPrice
| 10/24/2023
| 35952
| SNEAD AL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897526
| CommPrice
| 11/16/2020
| 98243
| Deer Harbor WA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897591
| CommPrice
| 12/18/2020
| 49801
| Iron Mountain MI
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897642
| CommPrice
| 05/11/2020
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| small, 85 x 136mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897623
| CommPrice
| 05/08/2023
| 50010
| AMES IA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 026W0004897876
| CommPrice
| 05/18/2020
| 92404
| San B CAernardino
| small, 83 x 130mm
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| 
| 026W0004897894
| CommPrice
|
| 30513
|
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| 
| 026W0004897941
| CommPrice
|
| 60108
|
|
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6A.1B'''
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;
: identification number starts with &quot;'''028W'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002310428
| 
| 06/18/2024
| 60512
| MONTGOMERY IL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''VIII'''
| 028W0002310575
| 
| 05/31/2024
| 34677
| OLDSMAR FL
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 028W0002311092
| CommPrice
| 06/13/2024
| 11103
| ASTORIA NY
| No Box F, DM1 barcode below Box E
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B'''
:: '''Box B2''' as '''PC-D3.3B.3,  US POSTAGE / &amp; FEES PD IMI''' in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6B.1'''[[File: PC-D3.3B.6B.11.png|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with &quot;''' a preferred / shipping service on ebay '''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897813
| CommPrice
| 06/30/2022
| 07111
| IRVINGTON NJ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6C'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE / AND FEES PAID'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6C.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3C.jpg|right|500px]]
: '''Box A''' with “'''www.pitneybowes.com'''”

{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: For labels of this type used by an US Government Agency and with a Penalty statement see type &quot;'''OO-M1'''&quot;}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XII'''
| 026W0004897572
| CommPrice
| 06/29/2021
| 76155
| 
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D3.3B.6D'''
:: '''Box B2'''   &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot; in two lines above the date
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D3.3B.6D.1'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.3dd.jpg|right|500px]]

: '''Box A''' with “'''www.paypal.com'''”


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6?
| '''X'''
| '''X'''
| 026W0004897485
| CommPrice
| 11/25/2020
| 55422
| 
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3p4.jpg|right|530px]]
'''PC-D3.4'''
: Similar to PC-D3.3 but with tracking number added above the PDF417 2D barcode.
: Stacked at left of the 2D barcode are &quot;usps.com&quot;, the value figures, &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, a rate statement, and in the bottom corner, the date.
: Centered below the 2D barcode are “Mailed from” and ZIP code and “024P”.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}}  $00'''.'''00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{font|color=green|'''''NOTE: The stamp previously cataloged as Type PC-D3.5 is now a sub-type of PC-D3.3.'''''}}
[[File: PC-D3.5.png|right|1000px]]

'''PC-D3.5'''
: &quot;'''US POSTAGE / PAID IMI'''&quot; in two lines
: Unboxed rate class designation letter
: &quot;'''PDF417(7)'''&quot; 2-D barcode on right
: Meter Identification on right above customer Identification number
: Meter identification number: 028W followed by 10 digits
: On customs declaration form (CD)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.1.'''
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G6.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Similar to Type PC-D3.4 but in wider format with the tracking barcode at far left.
: Meter number seen with &quot;024P&quot; prefix.
: With value figures below &quot;PAID&quot;.
: V/F: {{space|4}}  $0'''.'''00
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.2.'''[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D3.7.jpeg|right|1000px]]

: Wide format as with PC-D4.1 but &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; and the mail class are at far left with the tracking barcode below.
: The postage data is found below the PDF417 barcode, as follows:
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix
:: Pitney Bowes (with &quot;CommPrice&quot; [or value figures?] below)
:: date
:: &quot;From&quot; ZIP code
:: weight
:: (destination) zone

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D4.3.1.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.1 260630.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID '''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.3.2.'''[[File: PC-D4.3.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.2 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; 
:: ID# with &quot;026W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D4.4.'''[[File: PC-D4.4 250914.png|right|1000px]]

:: As with PC-D4.4 but with &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot; at right above Identification number.
:: Two black bars complete from left to right
:: ID# with &quot;028W&quot; prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.1.'''
: At right is the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix
: At left: date/ ZIP code/ weight
: Always found on framed address label, and never with value figures.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.1A.''' [[File: USA PC-F9.jpg|right|500px]]
: At left solid block rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix at base


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.1B.'''[[File: PC-D5.1B.png|right|500px]]
: At left outline rate code indicator
: Centered in the middle: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;/ &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;/ rate statement/ identification number with 024P prefix in middle

::: '''-1'''. Meter identification number positioned as in the illustration  for '''PC-D5.1A.'''
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.2.''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B.jpg|right|307px]]
: Similar to Type PC-D4.1 but &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot; is vertical reading up at left.
: The rate, date, ZIP code, and weight are stacked between &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; (italicized) at top and the identification number at bottom.
: Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &quot;'''Found only on International postage/address/customs forms purchased online from the USPS web site.'''&quot;
: The complete form is shown reduced at right. Occurs in at least two types:
::::{{space|5}}  Type I {{space|5}}  &quot;To/From&quot; horizontal
::::{{space|5}}  Type II {{space|4}}  &quot;To/From&quot; vertical
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00 or nil
:{{font|size=2|color=red|NOTE: &quot;'''For labels of this type the collector should save the whole form'''&quot;}}


:: '''A'''. With &quot;ONLINE DISCOUNT RATE&quot; below US POSTAGE PAID  
:: '''B'''. With postage paid shown in dollars and cents [[File: USA stamp type PC-F9point1B.jpg|right|307px]]
:: '''C'''. Without rate, blank between US POSTAGE PAID and the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F9B document.jpg|right|800px]]
[[File: PC-D5.2z.png|right|800px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.3. “Shipstream Manager”''', 2006.[[File: USA PC-F11.jpg|right|888px]]
: Very wide design with square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode at right and large tracking barcode at center.
: Above the 2D barcode are the date, ZIP code, weight, and &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: Below the 2D barcode is the ID number with 024P prefix.
: At far left is “US POSTAGE PAID” above the class of mail.
:: '''A'''. With rate statement instead of value figures.
:: '''B'''. With value figures above the date


[[File: USA stamp type PC-D4point3B.jpeg|right|888px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3point1.jpg|right|570px]]

'''PC-D5.4. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2011. 
:  As Type PC-D4.5 but with &quot;www.pbSmartPostage.com&quot; instead of the eBay logo. 
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
:: '''A'''. With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures but with rate statement

:: '''a'''. With &quot;Commercial Base Pricing&quot; immediately below the &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.5.''' (presumed to be '''“Shipstream Manager”'''), 2013.[[File: USA stamp type PC-F15.jpg|right|888px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D4.3 but with the elements rearranged.
: The identification number, date, &quot;From&quot; Zip code, and weight are below the square &quot;Datamatrix&quot; barcode.
: The tracking barcode is at far left rather than center.
: At near left of the Datamatrix barcode is &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;.
: &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; and the mail class are at far left above the tracking barcode.
:  Identification number with 024P prefix.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


:: '''A'''. With value figures above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
:: '''B'''. Without value figures

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.6. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''', 2006. 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures. {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00 {{space|2}} [scarce]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.7. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA PC-G3B.jpg|right|495px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Service indicator in Box B1 with solid block letters
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  Without value figures but with rate statement


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.8.0 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;'''[[File: USA stamp type PC-G3C.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D5.8.1 &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' [[File: USA stamp type PC-G3D.jpg|right|530px]]

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  V/F: {{space|4}} V/F: $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9. &quot;SmartPostage&quot;''' 

:  Similar to Type PC-D3.2 but with square DataMatrix barcode instead of &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode. 
: “US POSTAGE PAID” at top center above &quot;Pitney Bowes&quot;, a rate statement, and the identification number. 
:  service indicator in Box B1 at left is narrower (not square) and the letter within is outlined rather than solid. 
:  Lettering in the panel [C] at bottom is smaller.
:  Meter identification number with 024P prefix.
:  With value figures or without but with rate statement
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-D5.9A.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260706.png|right|475px]]

:  sans-serif &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629585
| ComBasPrice
| 12/28/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629647
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629652
| ComBasPrice
| 06/21/2014
| 10509
| BREWSTER NY
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007629756
| 
| 03/17/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629758
| ComBasPrice
| 12/11/2012
| 32812
| ORLANDO FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007629777
| ComBasPrice
| 03/15/2017
| 17362
| SPRING GROVE PA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629797
| CommBasPrice
| 10/19/2015
| 01970
| Salem MA
| 108 x 155 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007632129
| ComBasPrice
| 06/01/2019
| 85203
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XV'''
| 024P0007776044
| 
| 02/25/2016
| 32701
| ALTAMONTE SPG FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776131
| ComBasPrice
| 02/10/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776147
| ComBasPrice
| 10/17/2016
| 76251
| MONTAGUE TX
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776172
| ComBasPrice
| 11/27/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776173
| ComBasPrice
| 08/18/2015
| 20904
| SILVER SPRING MD
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776210
| ComBasPrice
| 10/27/2015
| 33187
| MIAMI FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776653
| ComBasPrice
| 09/12/2016
| 12992
| WEST CHAZY NY
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007776711
| ComBasPrice
| 10/12/2016
| 60543
| OSWEGO IL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 01/20/2015
| 85211
| MESA AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007875935
| ComBasPrice
| 10/06/2015
| 33161
| FLORIDA CITY FL
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875960
| CommBasPrice
| 10/05/2015
| 01610
| Worcester MA
| 96 x 151 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876028
| ComBasPrice
| 01/12/2019
| 22301
| ALEXANDRIA VA
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876132
| ComBasPrice
| 11/10/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 024P0007876133
| CommBasPrice
| 06/18/2018
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 92 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876173
| CommBasPrice
| 02/11/2019
| 30097
| Duluth GA
| 101 x 161 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876761
| ComBasPrice
| 10/13/2015
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''XIV'''
| 024P0007876771
| ComBasPrice
| 03/12/2016
| 85541
| PAYSON AZ
|
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.0.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.png|right|475px]]
[[File: PC-D5.9B.0.1 260630.png|right|475px]]
:  Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Small &quot;'''ebay'''&quot;, large space between the base of the &quot;'''y'''&quot; and the frame


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label  Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007629802
| CommBasPrice
| 11/25/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 86 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776072
| CommBasPrice
| 11/19/2018
| 65803
| Springfield MO
| Blue label stock, 96 x 156 mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007776728
| CommBasPrice
| 07/05/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 87 x 140mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007875976
| CommBasPrice
| 11/22/2019
| 02532
| 
| 
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876188
| CommBasPrice
| 05/28/2019
| 92404
| San Bernardino CA
| 96 x 155mm
|-
| FS6
| '''F'''
| '''VI'''
| 024P0007876772
| CommBasPrice
| 12/23/2019
| 98245
| Eastsound WA
| 96 x 155mm
|}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.0.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 4 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9B.2.'''[[File: PC-D5.9B.2 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  As with &quot;'''PC-D5.9B.1.''' Italic &quot;a preferred / shipping service on ebay&quot; in upper right
:  Font in Boxes B2 and C &quot;'''USPSIMB'''&quot; (either Compact or Standard?)
:  F/V $(0)0.00 above 2 lines at left of Box B2


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.0.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.0 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 4 lines at left, Date/Zip Code/ Weight/ Zone


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D5.9C.1.'''[[File: PC-D5.9C.1 250609.png|right|475px]]

:  In &quot;Box A&quot; at upper right &quot;'''www.paypal.com'''&quot;
:  &quot;Box B2&quot; 2 lines at left, Date/Zip Code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-D5.7.jpg|right|360px]]

'''PC-D6.0''', 2021. 
:  Similar to PC-D5.2 but with '''Pitney Bowes''' at the top of the point-of-sale data stacked at left of the Datamatrix barcode. 
:  Datamatrix barcode (DM4) 19 mm square, with 4 data blocks
:  Below '''Pitney Bowes''' are the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''' or '''US POSTAGE IMI''', a mail class statement.
:   a ten-digit number, &quot;3000156428&quot; evidently the customer identification number, the ZIP code and the date.
:  V/F: $0.00o 
:  This stamp arises from the new partnership between eBay and Pitney Bowes for &quot;eBay Delivery Service&quot; shipping.

:: '''A'''.  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE''', identification number with 026W prefix,
:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;


'''NOTE''': Type PC-D6 is nearly identical in appearance to Type QB7. They differ only in color and in the ten-digit number that appears below the identification number, '''black''' and '''3''' for PC-D5.7, and '''red''' and '''2''' for QB7.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-D6.1.0''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left, Datamatrix barcode 20 mm square, with 4 data blocks, identification number with 026W prefix,
:  Datamatrix barcode 15 mm square, with 4 data blocks, or 27mm square,
:  Identification number with 026W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-D6.1.1''', 2024.
:  Inscribed '''US POSTAGE IMI''', with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left,
:  Datamatrix barcode 18-19 mm  with 4 data blocks, 
:  Identification number with 028W prefix,

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types:     &quot;FIRST-CLASS&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-E: Franks from Envelope Manager (Endicia) software, ID numbers mostly with 07#V prefix but also 07#M, 07#S, 06#S and without ID number}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* All the stamps have a generic design, bar code and text. The earlier stamps include &quot;endicia.com&quot; in the design and later ones are identifiable only by the identification number which is most commonly 071V although 071M and 071S are also found. From 2024 on, 062, and 063 are also found. An exception is Type PC-E2.2, Sub-type A, which does not show an identification number.
* When first released (February 2001) the system was labeled by Indicia as &quot;'''DAZzle 2000'''&quot;.

* On November 18, 2015 Stamps.com (see Sub-group PC-C) acquired Endicia. In 2024, Stamps.com and Endicia were once again seperate, being individual divisions under a holding company.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'''''NOTE''': &lt;br&gt;Several stamps in Group Q resemble stamps in Group PC. If you don't find what you are looking for here, check there.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE1''' in 2001 edition''}}

'''PC-E1.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2000. [[File: USA PC-F2A.jpg|right|316px]]
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.
: “US POSTAGE” at top right. 
: Stacked at center: value figures / class of mail / date / town line. 
: ID# with 071M, 071S, or 071V prefix at bottom right.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00 {{space|4}} $0'''.'''000


::'''PC-E1.1A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''.  Top portion above 2D barcode shifted far to the left (shown at right). This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F2aa.jpg|right|316px]]
::: '''b'''.  With &quot;CORRECTION&quot; instead of '&quot;endicia.com&quot; at bottom left
::: '''c'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


::'''PC-E1.1B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F2B.jpg|right|500px]]


::'''PC-E1.1C''' As '''PC-E1.1A''' but with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at bottom left of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode.


::: '''a'''.  With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE2''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F3A.jpg|right|310px]]


'''PC-E1.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: As Type PC-E1.1 but the point-of-sale data is at left rather than in the center, and the sequence of data is different. 
: At top left: value figures/ date/ rate information
: At top right: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;/ &quot;Mailed from ZIP...&quot;
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left
: Identification number with 071V prefix
: Never with &quot;FIM&quot; barcode.
: V/F: $0'''.'''00


:: '''PC-E1.2A'''. Basic stamp without framing


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.
::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.2A-b.png|right|800px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2B'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F3B.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''d'''. Without rate information below the date[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p2dd.jpg|right|500px]]


:: '''PC-E1.2C'''. &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users


'''PC-E1.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.2 but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: “POSTAGE AND FEES PAID” at top above date, ZIP code, and rate statement. 
: “'''endicia.com'''” at bottom left


::'''PC-E1.3A'''. Basic stamp without framing [[File: USA PC-F4A.jpg|right|324px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


::: '''a'''. With text above bar code shifted significantly to left or right. This may be the result of inconsistent software rather than printer variables.[[File: USA PC-F4bb.jpg|right|415px]]


::: '''b'''. On large label ('''STvar''') (see Section PC intro)[[File: PC-E1.3A-b.png|right|800px]]


::'''PC-E1.3B.0'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.[[File: USA PC-F4B.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071V prefix


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Line A Equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00515554
| A13
| 
| OCT 27 2011
| 55337
| BURNSVILLE MN
| NO TRACKING BARCODE
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A11
| C9
| JAN 5 2015
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| APR 12 2016
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| JAN 3 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| FEB 17 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00525268
| A12
| C9
| MAR 1 2017
| 92705
| SANTA ANA CA||-
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''FCM'''
| '''XVI'''
| 071V00548099
| A13
| 
| APR 17 2007
| 83333
|
|
|-
| '''FS5'''
| solid black
| '''VIII'''
| 071V00682520
| A7
| 
| FEB 6 2009
| 80922
| COLORADO SPRINGS CO
|
|-
| '''FS3'''
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 071V01059238
| A11
| C9
| SEP 8 2020
| 30071
| NORCROSS GA
|
|}
{{font/end}}


::: '''.1'''. As '''B''', with question mark after the mail class statement: '''PRIORITY MAIL 2-DAY?'''
::::  (This may be a computer error with the question mark printing in place of a registration mark (''R in circle'').)[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E1p3ee.jpg|right|500px]]


::: '''.2'''. Without the &quot;Box C&quot; containing the class of mail below the frank [[File: USA stamp type PC-E3p1ff.jpg|right|400px]]


::: '''.3'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, no tracking info[[File: PC-E1.3B-g.png|right|300px]]


::: '''.4'''. &quot;Box E&quot; with USPS emblem at left, endicia emblem at right[[File: PC-E1.3B-h.png|right|300px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Line A Equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00500361
| A21
| C9
| NOV 26 2014
| 94306
| PALO ALTO CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V00500361
| A21
| C9
| MAY 5 2015
| 94306
| PALO ALTO CA
| 
|-
| '''FS5'''
| '''F'''
| '''IX'''
| 071V01254386
| A7
| 
| DEC 22 2017
| 94544
| HAYWARD CA
|
|-
|}


::'''PC-E1.3C'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia.com/mac'''&quot; at lower left, produced by systems designed for Apple computer users[[File: USA PC-F4aa.jpg|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 071M prefix


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::'''PC-E1.3D'''. As '''PC-E1.3B''' with &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at lower left, [[File: PC-E1.3D.png|right|500px]]
::: Identification number with 062S prefix

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E1p4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-E1.4. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) “DAZzle 2000” ''', 2002. 
: Similar to Type PC-E1.3B but with logo and &quot;'''endicia'''&quot; at upper right.
: The ID number is above the 2D bar code at right.
: The date is below the mail class designation at left.
: Identification number with &quot;071V&quot; prefix.
: Seem on large label that includes customs information.


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE3''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-F5.jpg|right|530px]]

'''PC-E2.1. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) ''', 2002.
: Found only on the top of large address labels downloaded directly from the USPS web site. 
: In wide box at right is the 2D &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode.
: To the left of the 2D barcode are &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; vertical, &quot;WWW.USPS.COM&quot;, value figures, and date.
: A series of nine 4-digit numbers is above the 2D barcode, and the ZIP code and identification number with 071V prefix are below.
: Very large “P” (for Priority Mail) or “E” (for Express Mail) in box at left. 
: Across the bottom is the class of mail spelled out.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00  [[File:MeterCat 5 spaces.jpg|15px]]$00'''.'''00


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G2 B.jpg|right|580px]]

'''PC-E2.2. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Identification number, with 071V prefix, at right of the ZIP code

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00

:: '''Note'''. For similar item without identification number see &quot;'''PC-G3'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-E2.3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. [[File: USA stamp type PC-G5.jpg|right|1000px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
: Nearly identical to Types PC-C5.2 (Stamps.com) and PC-D3.3 (Pitney Bowes) except for the identification number which has &quot;071V&quot; prefix.


'''PC-E3.1. Endicia.com ''', 2010.

: Square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode at right with company identity reading down at far right.
: Text from top, at left of barcode: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;, mail class (''may be omitted''), date (mmm dd yyyy), ZIP code, rate statement (''may be omitted''), &quot;CommBasePrice&quot; or &quot;CommPlusPrice&quot; (''may be omitted'')
: Later stamps also include a second, more specific, rate statement. (''see the image for &quot;b&quot; below'')
: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


:: '''A1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (longer than DataMatrix is tall), barred &quot;I&quot; font[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12 better.jpg|right|520px]]

::: ID# with 071S or 071V prefix below 2D barcode.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''c'''. Printed on short label containing tracking bar code but not the destination address[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p1cc.jpg|right|320px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


::::: '''e'''. Datamatrix bar code field contains vertical bars, probably caused by a malfunction [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E2p1ee.jpg|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''A2.1'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font 

::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''b'''. Text at top truncated: &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES P&quot;[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12bb.jpg|right|550px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071S00799149
| A17
| Commercial Plus Pricing
| Nov 27 2017
| 37801
| MARYVILLE TN
| 
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 19 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| FS4
| Black
| VIII
| 071S00773763
| A7
|
| Dec 22 2017
| 30605
| ATHENS GA
|
|-
| 
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00913234
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice
| Aug 04 2014
| 33351
| SUNRISE FL
| subtype &quot;b&quot;
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Feb 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| IX
| 071S00917592
| A18
| CommercialBasePrice 
| Oct 11 2014
| 11220
| BROOKLYN NY
|
|}

:: '''A2.2'''. Company identity &quot;endicia.com&quot; (shorter than DataMatrix is tall), unbarred &quot;I&quot; font [[File:PC-E3.1A2.png|right|550px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

::::: '''f'''. Datamatrix bar code field is wider than tall, not square [[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.1ff.jpg|right|380px]]

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label type
! Box  B1 TYPE
! Box C type
! Meter number
! Line A equivalent
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip code
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| black box
| VIII
| 071V00908463
| A16
| 
| Dec 21 2017
| 75104
| CEDAR HILL TX
| 2 copies, framed
|-
| FS4
| '''P'''
| XXXIII
| 071V00970570
| A17
| CommercialBasePrice
| Jun 05 2018
| 28052
|
| shorter Enddicia on right
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}


:: '''B1'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; (''first seen in late 2018'')

::: Unframed
::: ID# with 071S prefix below 2D barcode.

:::::'''-1''' Top two lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-1.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-2''' All but top line and fifth line bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-2.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:::::'''-3''' All lines bold [[File: PC-E3.1B1-3.png|right|540px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


:: '''B2'''. Company identity is a round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; [[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.1B.jpg|right|540px]]

::: ID# with 071V prefix below 2D barcode.

:  ''subtypes unknown ''
::::: '''a'''. Datamatrix barcode field omitted
::::: '''d'''. Printed without the tracking bar code


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA stamp type PC-F12point1.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.2. Endicia.com''', 2014.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 with square &quot;DataMatrix&quot; barcode, but the value figures are at upper left and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; is alone at top center.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA stamp type PC-E2p3.jpg|right|340px]]

'''PC-E3.3A. Endicia.com''', 2015.
: Similar to Types PC-E3.1 and PC-E3.2 but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is lower, below the date and ZIP code.
: The value figures are at far left.
: One seen, with &quot;FIM&quot; bar code at upper left.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads down.
: V/F: {{space|4}} $00'''.'''00


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3p3B.jpg|right|365px]]

'''PC-E3.3B. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: '''endicia.com''' reads up.


Note:  Items formersly listed as &quot;'''PC-E3.3C'''&quot; and &quot;'''PC-E3.3D'''&quot; are now listed  as &quot;'''PC-E3.8.1'''&quot; AND &quot;'''PC-E3.8.2'''&quot; RESPECTIVELY.
      

[[File:USA stamp type PC-E2p4.jpg|right|520px]]

'''PC-E3.4. Endicia.com''', 2016.
: Similar to Type PC-E3.1 but inscribed &quot;U.S. POSTAGE PAID&quot; without &quot;AND FEES&quot;. Also the inscription is centered rather than high.
: Below &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; is &quot;From ZIP ##### and a rate statement.
: Rather than a large mail classification code, the mailer's name and address is found in the box at left.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:USA meter stamp PC-E3.5.jpeg|right|410px]]

'''PC-E3.5. Endicia.com''', 2018.
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types but with round logo and &quot;endicia&quot; horizontal at bottom left instead of vertical at right.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, price modification statement, date, ZIP code, identification number, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID''' identification&lt;/i&gt;) number, and the Endicia logo.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.

: The example reported was used on international mail.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.6. Endicia''', 2024. [[File:PC-E3.6.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.1A2'''
: No line separating Box B1 and Box B2.
: Text at left of barcode: At top (not fully visible in the image): &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; above the weight and mail class, '''IMI''' following mail class
: Price modification statement, date, ZIP code, Mail class 1, Mail class 2, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) number, Mail class 3.
: No value figures are shown
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E3.7. Endicia''', 2025. [[File:PC-E3.7 251201.png|right|410px]]
: Square DataMatrix barcode as with previous PC-E3 types with &quot;endicia&quot; vertical at right but without round logo.
: Most similar to type '''PC-E3.6'''
: Text at left of barcode: At top: &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; above the weight and mail class, 
: Stacked below are:Mail Class I with '''IMI''' following mail class, date, ZIP code, Mail class 2, Mail class 3, Mail class 4, a &quot;CID&quot; (&lt;i&gt;'''C'''ontract '''ID'''entification&lt;/i&gt;) 8 digit number, .
: F/V: &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: ID# with 063S prefix below bar code.

:: '''PC-E3.7.1'''. With green banner to left inscribed &quot;'''USPS CERTIFIED MAIL &lt;sup&gt;TM&lt;/sup&gt;'''&quot;, barcode below

[[File:PC-E3.7.1.png|right|650px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3B.jpg|right|230px]]

'''PC-E3.8.1. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with different endicia logo.
: ID# with 071S prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
'''NOTE''': The extremely narrow stamp impression shown appears to be a printer/feeder error rather than a software variation.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-E3.3D.jpg|right|365px]]
'''PC-E3.8.2. Endicia.com'''.
: As Type PC-E3.3C but with rate statement instead of value figures.
: ID# with 071V prefix seen.
: Circular logo and '''endicia''' read down.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-E3.9. Endicia''' [[File:PC-E3.9 260623.png|right|410px]]
: As Type PC-E3.3A but with &quot;'''IMI'''&quot; on the rate class line
: ID# with '''063S''' prefix seen.
: '''endicia''' reads down.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E4.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E4.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 3 lines at top right, ID at top, customer ID below, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]:  &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE&quot; ['''XXIX''']   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''PC-E5.1. Endicia.com''', 2024. [[File:PC-E5.1 250402B.png|right|410px]]

: Box B1 with block letter indicating postal class, &quot;G&quot; a New Helvetica Block font
: Box B2 with &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID IMI&quot; in top line on left. With 3 lines below indicating rate class.
: 2 lines at top right, ID at top, source zip code at base.
: PDF 417(8) barcode with &quot;endicia&quot; (new logo) at right but without old round logo.

:::::&lt;span style=&quot;color: GREEN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;Known with the following &quot;'''Directive'''&quot; types [BOX C]: &quot;USPS GROUND ADVANTAGE TM&quot; ['''VI'''],  &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL ®&quot; [ “large ‘R-circle’”] ['''XVIII''']  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]''' (Directives/ Directionals)&lt;/u&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-F: Franks generated by EasyPost software, with &quot;easypost&quot; in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* EasyPost is a software company that provides companies with integrated shipping options through USPS and several private carriers.
* The company was founded in 2012 although the first stamp came to our attention in 2016.
{{font/end}}

----
&lt;br&gt;
[[File: USA stamp type PC-G1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F1.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2016 but possibly as early as 2012.
: The stamps we have seen appear on large address labels.
: The stamp contains a PDF417 barcode which sits under &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot; and '''{{font|size=5|easypost}}''' at the right of the stamp.
: Left of the barcode are the date, ZIP code, &quot;CID&quot; (''number'') or &quot;C&quot; (number), and '''COMBASE''' or '''ComBasPrice''' (with no value figures).
: Along the bottom are the weight and identification number with &quot;0901&quot; prefix.
:: '''A'''. The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
:: '''B'''. The stamp appears by itself with no framing or large mail class indicator


&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-F1.2.png|right|475px]]

'''PC-F1.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025 

: As type &quot;'''PC-F1.1'''&quot; With heavier and slightly different typeface and spacing.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &lt;u&gt;label type&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;box B1&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Meter Number&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Customer ID&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Box C&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Date&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Zipcode&lt;/u&gt;
! &lt;u&gt;Note&lt;/u&gt;
|-
| FS5?
| G
| 0901000008391
| C4190745
| 
| 2025-04-08
| 29169
|
|-
| FS5
| G
| 0901000019068
| C4002372
| 
| 2025-05-19
| 90640
|
|-
|}
 
 
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1p2.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.1. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID&quot;
: The text, including '''{{font|size=4|easypost}}''', is in a lighter and wider font than found on PC-F1.
: Also, without &quot;CID&quot; and number and with small '''ComBasPrice''' instead of '''COMBASE'''.
: And finally, the zeros are slashed.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-F2.2 260621mh.jpg|right|480px]]

'''PC-F2.2. &quot;easypost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal).
: Similar to Type PC-F2.1 but inscribed &quot;US POSTAGE PAID IMI&quot; rather than &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot;
: The text/ font is similar to that found on PC-F1.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-F1.3.jpg|right|540px]]

'''PC-F3.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2021.

: As Type PC-F1 but the {{font|size=4|'''easypost.'''}} logo now has a period after it. The web address &quot;{{size=2|'''easypost.com/signup'''}}&quot; was added below the logo.

: This stamp includes a postage value which is preceded by &quot;Retail&quot; on the stamp we have seen.

: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00
: '''Note''': The origin ZIP code and customer ID have been blurred in the stamp photo.


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:Easypost PC-F1.4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F3.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo as PC-F3.1
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}} &quot;'''F'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS FIRST-CLASS PACKAGE&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004578 {{space|4}}C4000013 {{space|4}}83713 {{space|4}}2022-09-02{{space|4}}BOISE, ID
::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000004698 {{space|4}} {{space|4}}28405 {{space|4}}{{space|4}}WILMINGTON, NC


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F4.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.1. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo different
::: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C)
::: No value figures


::: {{space|4}} '''Box B1''' {{space|4}}&quot;'''P'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}}  {{space|4}} &quot;USPS PRIORITY MAIL&quot;
::: {{space|20}} 0901000005499 {{space|4}}C4017644 {{space|4}}83709 {{space|4}}2022-11-18{{space|4}}BOISE, ID


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File:PC-F5.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.2. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2022.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.2a.png|right|650px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F4.4.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-F4.4. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot; without the web address.

: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Label Type
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Stack B2.2 line 2 type
! Date
! Zip
! Customer ID
! Note
|-
| FS5 wide
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000001316
| Commercial
| 2024-11-11
| 43228
| C4018567
| 012.0 ZONE 2
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000008901
| Commercial
| 2023-12-01
| 60607
| C4650528
| 0.10 CUBIC ZONE 3
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 0901000010389
| Commercial
| 2023-12-28
| 63376
| C5299422
| 5.0 OZ ZONE 4
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''XXXI'''
| 0901000014322
| Commercial
| 2024-06-27
| 63376
| C5299422
| 0.20 CUBIC ZONE 4
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.5. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2025.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.


:: '''a'''. With FIM barcode to the left

[[File:PC-F4.5 250415.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-F4.6. &quot;EasyPost&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2026.

::: Easypost Logo same as &quot;'''PC-F4.4'''&quot; without the web address.
::: &quot;'''US POSTAGE PAID IMI'''&quot;


[[File:PC-F4.6 250901B.png|right|500px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F55.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F5. &quot;Chit Chats&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.2'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Chit Chats'''&quot;
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:PC-F6.png|right|500px]]

'''PC-F6. &quot;Sendle&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2023.

::: Similar to &quot;'''PC-F4.1'''&quot;
::: Easypost Logo replaced by &quot;'''Sendle&gt;'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Sub-group PC-G: Franks generated by U.S. Postal Service software, without a vendor's identification number.}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* These stamps are a type of Post Office stamp (Group PO) but because they are generated online at the Postal Services's web site, they are listed here..
* The stamp was first reported in 2021.
{{font/end}}


----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1.jpg|right|400px]]

'''PC-G1.''' (digital), 2021 but possibly earlier.
: The stamp is a large tracking label similar to Type PC-C5.1 with the USPS logo and &quot;Click-N-Ship&quot;® in the top panel. The ''postage'' part of the label is immediately below and at right. It contains in its upper left corner, &quot;usps.com, the value figures, '''US POSTAGE''', and a rate statement. The date is at lower left. At top right is a tracking number. At lower center is '''Mailed from''' and the ZIP code. In the center is a larger '''U.S. POSTAGE PAID''' above a small '''Click-N-Ship'''®, all backed by a field of wavy pale blue lines.
: V/F:  $(00)0.00
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-G1 detail.jpg|left|500px]]
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-G2.1''' (digital), 2023 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G1'''&quot; but with a square Datamatrix barcode at the right of box &quot;'''B2'''&quot;.
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mail Rate Class
! Type
! Date
! Mailed from Zip Code
! &quot;'''Box C'''&quot; Mail Class
|-
| P
| Flat Rate Env
| 05/08/2023 
| 63005
| XXX
|-
| G
| Insured
| 06/20/2024
| 02453
| VI
|-
| 
| 
|
|
|}


: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for Mail Class type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.2.png|right|250px]]
'''PC-G2.2''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but with security print under &quot;US POSTAGE PAID&quot; more heavily segmented
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PPS-G2.3.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.3''' (digital), 2024 but possibly earlier.
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: &quot;Box D&quot; more similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.2'''&quot;
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;
: V/F:  $(00)0.00

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: PC-G2.4.png|right|400px]]
'''PC-G2.4''' (digital), 2024 
: Security print in &quot;Box B2&quot; similar to &quot;'''PC-G2.1'''&quot; but 
: Box A with USPS logo to left, &quot;USPS APIs&quot; to right
: &quot;Box D&quot; only with return address and destination to the right of 2D barcode
: Includes numbers to right of date, perhaps customer ID
: Label type &quot;'''FS6'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-G2.5''' (digital), 2026 [[File: PC-G2.5 260630.png|right|250px]]
: USPS Emblem at left, above &quot;'''USPS APIs'''&quot;
: Barcode at right, above date,  &quot;'''US POSTAGE'''&quot;
: Value &quot;'''$0.00'''&quot;
: Postage class at base (?)
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font|size=1|color=blue|''Type '''RE4''' in 2001 edition''}}[[File: USA PC-G2.jpg|right|550px]]

'''PC-G3. Envelope Manager Software (Endicia Inc.) '''. 
: Stamp similar to PC-E2.1 with &quot;PDF417&quot; barcode but with panel at top containing USPS eagle logo at left and '''Click-N-Ship'''&amp;reg; logo at right.
: This appears to be a replacement for type PC-E2.1.
: Without identification number
: See also &quot;'''PC-E2.2'''&quot; for similar item with identification number starting with &quot;071V&quot;

: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00, 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-H: Franks generated by Francotyp-Postalia software, with &quot;FP&quot; logo in the frank}}====

{{font/top|size=3|color=#0018A8}}
* Francotyp-Postalia first entered the U.S. postage meter market in 2000. Only one stamp has been reported so far, and it is dated from 2019. Earlier dates are likely.
{{font/end}}

{{font|size=3|color=red|'' The status of this item has been questioned, more information or scans would be important to have, please reply to editor.''}}
----
&lt;br&gt;
{{font/top|size=3|color=black}}

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-H1.jpg|right|500px]]

'''PC-H1. &quot;Francotyp-Postalia&quot; ''' (digital/thermal), 2019 but probably earlier.
: The one stamp reported appears on alarge address label with the top (postage) section containing a PDF417 barcode.
: Above the barcode are, at left: the value figures and date, at center: the FP logo, and at right: '''US POSTAGE''', Mailed From [5-digit ZIP code], and the identification number with 032A prefix.

: '''ComBasPrice''' appears below the date on this stamp.
: The stamp is in a frame with large mail class indicator at left and the class of mail spelled out below.

: V/F:  $ (00)0.000
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|1=Sub-group PC-I: Franks generated by stamps/endicia}}====
----
'''PC-I''' 2005.

:  With &quot;{{'}}'''''PC-I4'''''{{'}}
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo  replacing the stamps.com logo right of &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; barcode. 
: &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top left above rate statement.
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I1.'''. 2 lines at upper right, Meter number/zip code (Box B2).
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).


'''PC-I1.1.''' Prefix &quot;'''026W'''&quot; [[File: PC-I1.1 260706.png|right|450px]]
{{font/top|size=2}}
: ’’’Known usage’’’:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 026W00048272786
| &quot;'''FREES'''&quot;
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 04/11/2022
| 07036
| LINDEN, NJ
| Box F: order info?
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
::: '''PC-I1.2.''' Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;  
{{font/top|size=2}}
[[File: PC-C2.4.2A.png|right|450px]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! 
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/16/2019
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 02/25/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/02/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A6
| 
| C5
| 01/30/2020
| 92373
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, 
|-
| FS5
| '''1'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0000618312
| 
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 05/19/2020
| 92324
| INGLEWOOD CA
| Box E: Blank, no tracking #, Framed
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A5
| B7
| C4
| 10/05/2018
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''E'''
| '''XXXV'''
| 062S0006097059
|
| A19
| B2
| C3
| 11/25/2019
| 45177
| VALENCIA CA
| Order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| III
| 062S0009416802
| 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 05/10/2022
| 14150
| Chesterfield MI
| Order info, framed
|}
{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.5C.jpg|right|890px]]
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2p5B.jpg|right|860px]]

'''PC-I1.3 ''' 2014.

: Similar to Type PC-C2.4 but the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is above the right end of the &quot;PDF417{8)&quot; barcode.
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 
: Manufacturer's logo is &quot;'''stamps endicia'''&quot;. 
:: '''.1'''.  With value figures: {{spaces|5}} $00'''.'''00
:: '''.2'''.  With &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; instead of value figures.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
 

'''PC-I1.4''' ''2015.''
: Very similar to Type PC-C2.3B but &quot;U.S. POSTAGE&quot; is right of the value figures rather than below them.
: Meter number with 062S prefix.
: PDF417(7) barcode
: Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo[[File: PC-C2.6B.png|right|500px]]
: V/F: {{space|4}} $(0)0'''.'''00 


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.5.''' 2020.

: With barcode as with  previous PC-C2 types but with the value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot; at top above the date and &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and ZIP code.

: Below the bar code is the '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number at right.
: The identification number prefix is uncertain as the stamp we have seen appears to suffer from a software glitch. (See the illustration.)
: PDF417(4) barcode
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00

:: '''1'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  large 
:: '''2'''. Manufacturer's logo is '''stamps endicia'''  small 
[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.8.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.8B.png|right|400px]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.6.''' 2021.
: Similar to PC-C2.8 but with a rate statement rather than value figures.
: Above the &quot;PDF417(7)&quot; bar code:
:- US POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
:- date, Mailed from ZIP [code]
:- weight and rate statement(s)
: Below the bar code: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at left and the identification number with 062S prefix at right

:: '''1'''. Large '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 7 digits
:: '''2'''. Small '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, 062S with 10 digits, FS5 label 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C2.9.jpg|left|400px]]
[[File: PC-C2.9B.png|right|400px]]


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I1.7.''' 2025. [[File: PC-C8 250601.png|right|360px]]

: Similar to types &quot;'''PC-C2.1, PC-C2.2'''&quot;
: Corporate logo as '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo
: Town line with town, state and ZIP code or with '''MAILED FROM''' and ZIP code.
: Identification number with 062S prefix below right of 2D &quot;PDF417(3)&quot; barcode.
: With &quot;'''FIM'''&quot; barcode at upper left
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I2.1'''. 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). '''Box F''' blank or with Proprietary info.
:::{{space|10}}Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(7) across bottom
[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C2p4ccc.jpg|right|450px]]
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-

| FS5?
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0001435225
| 11675116
| A7
| B1
| 
| 02/24/2023
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F: order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S00014423--
| 8014--
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/12/2022
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442380
| 9726250
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 28674
| PINEHURST, NC
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442584
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442597
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442618
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/10/2023
| 92618
| IRVINE, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442648
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442652
| 7535523
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/16/2022
| 54115
| DE PERE, WI
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442674
| 7460441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/21/2022
| 63367
| LAKE SAINT LOUIS, MO
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001442685
| 9619750
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 94931
| COTATI, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S000144269-
| 7395525
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/11/2023
| 90058
| VERNON, CA
| Box F= order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0001443299
| 6080690
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001484855
| 17633955 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 03/08/2023  
| 68048
| PLATTSMOUTH, (NE)
| PC malfunction? Missing Box B2 barcode and insignia
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0008589402
| 7557381
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022  
| 37211
| NASHVILLE, TN
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009145384
| 8290678 
| A1
| B3
| C1
| 02/05/2018
| 98338  
| GRAHAM, WA
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009146178
| 8239329
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022  
| 60543
| OSWEGO, IL
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5
| '''Black'''
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0009180090
| 7054113
| A7
| B3
| C0
| 08/16/2018
| 19007
| BRISTOL, PA
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0009418949
| 7523319
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 09/22/2020  
| 30518
| Buford, GA
| Box F order info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009564660
| 7778491
| A1
| B3
| C3
| 10/22/2018
| 91304
| CANOGA PARK, CA
| BOX F with Business Info
|-
| FS5?
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0009564837
| 9850040
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 01/23/2020
| 91356 
| TARZANA, CA
| 85 x 140 mm
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0009564879
| 7733098
| A20
| B6
| C3
| 10/17/2022
| 33619
| TAMPA, FL
|
|-
| FS5?
| '''1'''
| '''I'''
| 062S0009565018
| 10860336
| A4
| B0
| C5
| 04/06/2020 
| 33458 
| JUPITER, FL
|
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0010887747
| 8128979
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 06/13/2022
| 33167
| MIAMI, FL
| BOX F with Prop Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010937521
| 10709064
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 02/08/2021
| 92648
| HUNTINGTON BEACH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''X'''
| '''II'''
| 062S0010984631
| 10354575
| A8
| B2
| C3
| 04/27/2020
| 11791
| SYOSSET, FL (ERROR FOR NY)
| BOX F ORDER Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011128915
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 10/19/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011129014
| 8051382
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 09/30/2020
| 53715
| MADISON, WI
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011268712
| 6822160
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 04/24/2020
| 99224
| Spokane, WA
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 02/08/2021
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS4?
| '''P'''
| '''IV'''
| 062S0011682632 
| 10232544
| A3
| B1
| C4
| 09/29/2022
| 31558
| SAINT MARYS, GA
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XXXIV'''
| 062S0011692018
| 9897390
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/30/2020
| 55358
| Maple Lake, MN
| order info in Box F
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0011692109
| 9897299
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 30101
| ACWORTH, GA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584392
| 5455555
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 10/27/2020
| 33458
| JUPITER, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584433
| 16035441
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/19/2022
| 84096
| HERRIMAN, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584494  
| 6916215
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022
| 85298
| GILBERT, AZ
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0012584517
| 17771454
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 08/22/2022
| 32401
| PANAMA CITY, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584551 
| 7778491
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/12/2020
| 91311 
| CHATSWORTH, CA
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584560
| 17663543 
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 09/21/2022 
| 27525 
| FUQUAY VARINA, NC
| Please Do Not Bend
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0012584561
| 8072505
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475 
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352599
| 10538570
| A1
| B1
| C4
| 09/21/2022 
| 45249
| CINCINNATI, OH
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0013352605
| 8072505 
| A1
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2022 
| 06475
| OLD SAYBROOK, CT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| BLACK FILL
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0014949809
| 7542988
| A7
| B1
| 
| 03/25/2024
| 80116
| FRANKTOWN, CO
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950040
| 10137355
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/16/2022  
| 38474
| MOUNT PLEASANT, TN
| BOX F with Order Info

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950074
| 8014787
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 12/15/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| Box F:Thank You For Your Order
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950080
| 8014787
| A5
| B4
| C4
| 12/12/2022  
| 84032
| HEBER CITY, UT
| BOX F &quot;Thank you for your order!&quot;
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''V'''
| 062S0014950085
| 9765391
| A5
| B5
| C4
| 11/11/2022
| 84606
| SPRINGVILLE, UT
| BOX F with order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950089
| 9716903
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/02/2022  
| 83442
| AMMON, ID
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950092
| 9728837
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/10/2022  
| 84026
| FORT DUCHESNE, UT
| BOX F with Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950241 
| 8570771
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 11/19/2022
| 84062
| PLEASANT GROVE, UT
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950278 
| 17957223
| A1
| B1
| C3
| 01/03/2023
| 78245
| SAN ANTONIO, TX
| 
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950365
| 580628?
| A6
| B2
| C3
| 09/13/2023
| 75041
| 
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950507 
| 6080690
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 11/17/2022
| 32174
| ORMOND BEACH, FL
| 
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0014950544 
| 10875452
| A2
| B1
| C3
| 03/14/2023
| 19317
| CHADDS FORD, PA
| 
|}
{{font/end}}


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.2'''. ''2023''
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''Arial Nova Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;
[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.0 250331.png|right|450px]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''P'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001442545
| 7537397
| A3
| B1
| C7
| 01/22/2024
| 48212
| HAMTRAMCK, MI
| Box F: Order info.

|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''III'''
| 062S0001443325
| 11683909
| A2
| B2
| C3
| 06/28/2023
| 46323
| HAMMOND, IN
|

|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950062
| 9717116
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 03/16/2024
| 98467
| UNIVERSITY PL, WA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950187
| 4998344
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 02/27/2024
| 91761
| ONTARIO, CA
| Box F: Order Info
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950544
| 19750766
| A9
| B2
| C7
| 08/22/2024
| 93105
| SANTA BARBARA, CA
| Green band at top and a portion of left
|-
| FS5?
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0014950560
| 17195820
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 10/12/2023
| 85013
| PHOENIX, AZ
|
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| ?
| 6636835
| A14
| B6
| C7
| 05/01/2024
| 43228
| COLUMBUS, OH
| Box F: Order Info
|}

{{font/end}}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
:: '''PC-I2.3'''. ''2024''[[File: PC-C2.4.2C.png|right|450px]]
::: {{space|10}} 3 lines at upper right, Meter number / customer ID number / zip code ('''Box B2'''). 
::: {{space|10}} Stamp at top right of address label with large mail class indicator (of various sizes) or solid block to its left (Box B1) and the class of mail spelled out below (Box C).
::: {{space|10}} Large mail class indicator font is &quot;'''New Helvetica Bold'''&quot;
::: {{space|10}} PDF417(8) across bottom
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''G'''
| '''VI'''
| 062S0001443239
| 6928035
| A9
| B2
| C3
| 01/22/2024
| 91733
| EL MONTE, CA
| Box F: Order info.
|}

{{font/end}}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''PC-I3'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with &quot;'''IBI-Lite'''&quot;  barcode 

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C3.2C label.jpeg|right|380px]]
'''PC-I3.1.'''. '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo, identification number with '''062S''' prefix.

:: '''1'''. Identification number omitted (possible printer misalignment)
:: '''2'''. Numeric month in date, as: {{space|4}} 00/00/2018
:: '''3'''. With &quot;FIM&quot; barcode to left

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C3.4 actual.jpg|right|370px]]

'''PC-I3.2.''' 2021.
: As Type PC-C3.3 but with '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo at right.
: Identification number with 062S prefix. 
: V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;
'''NOTE''': Seen on plain white self-adhesive labels with rounded corners.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4'''
: All group &quot;'''PC-I'''&quot; with DataMatrix 2-D barcode 


'''PC-I4.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[File: USA meter stamp PC-C4.1E.jpg|right|800px]]


'''PC-I4.2.'''. As '''PC-C4.1.1.''', with new company  logo, '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[File: PC-I4.3 260709.png|right|400px]]

'''PC-I4.3 ''' 2023. 

: DataMatrix 2-D barcode at right
: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo is to the right of the &quot;DataMatrix(4)&quot; barcode.
: &quot;FIM&quot; barcode at top left
: Meter number with 062S prefix. 

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.'''. As '''PC-C5.2.''', with  '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo [[File: PC-C5.3.png|right|540px]]

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.3.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071'''&quot;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Apr 15 2022
| 90021
| (RIALTO CA)
|
|-
| FS5
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 071S00894672
| 
| A10
| 
| C6
| Feb 09 2023
| 90021
| (NEWARK NJ)
|
|}


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.4.4.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.3.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Large Mail Class letter, taller than the barcode.[[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3B.jpg|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''071S'''&quot;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''PC-I4.5.1.''' 2020. [[File:USA meter stamp PC-C4.3.jpg|right|390px]]

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S prefix.
: Value figures and &quot;US POSTAGE&quot;, mail class, date, &quot;Mailed from ZIP&quot; and code. V/F: {{space|4}} $0'''.'''00
: &lt;u&gt;''' [[/Mail class and other descriptive types/|Click here for type description]]'''&lt;/u&gt;


&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


{{font/top|size=2|color=black}}
'''PC-I4.5.2.'''. As'''PC-I4.4.1.''', Without value figures. &quot;US POSTAGE &amp; FEES PAID&quot; at top

: '''stamps&lt;sub&gt;endicia&lt;/sub&gt;''' logo reads down at right of the 2D barcode, and the ID number is below the barcode.
: Meter Identification number with 062S or 071S prefix.
: Small Mail Class letter, shorter than the barcode.[[File:PC-C4.3B2.png|right|450px]]
: Prefix &quot;'''062S'''&quot;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Form size
! Box B1 Type
! Box C Type
! &lt;u&gt;Meter no's&lt;/u&gt;
! Customer ID
! Line A type
! Line B type
! Line C type
! Date
! Zip
! City
! Notes
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442198
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jul 05 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0001442222
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Jun 07 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| BLACK
| '''VIII'''
| 062S0009761530
| 13928181
| A7
| B1
| 
| Feb 02 2023
| 48375
| NOVI, MI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''X'''
| 062S0010968105
| 12429570
| A10
|
| C6
| Sep 20 2022
| 32207
| JACKSONVILLE, FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0012584411
| 17222940
| A10
| 
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0013352605
| 17222940
| A10
|
| C6
| Aug 22 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950307
| 17222940
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Nov 10 2022
| 33634
| TAMPA FL
|
|-
| FS4
| '''G'''
| '''XXIX'''
| 062S0014949919
| 11613058
| A14
| B2
| C7
| Sep 04 2024
| 54914
| APPLETON, WI
| 
|-
| FS4
| '''F'''
| '''XI'''
| 062S0014950343
| 11746372
| A1
| B2
| C6
| Mar 06 2023
| 11716
| BOHEMIA NY
|
|}
{{font/end}}
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

===={{font|size=4|color=#2a3439|Franks with &quot;E-postage&quot; or variant in the frank}}====
----

&lt;br&gt;

{{font/top|size=3}}
* Shipping labels with '''E-Postage''', '''ePostage''', '''ePOSTAGE''' and other variants in the frank were first reported in 2011. They are used by online commerce companies with business volumes large enough to justify special arrangements with shippers such as USPS, FedX, and UPS. 

* E-Postage is a program developed by USPS to accommodate the growth of ecommerce. Online merchants such as Amazon and Etsy use ePostage. In 2016 new company Shippo began operation as a shipping aggregator offering ePostage to any business.

* The stamps appear to be more like &quot;post paid&quot; permit stamps rather than metered mail but are shown here until we determine their exact nature.
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F2.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F14.jpg|right|500px]]
[[File: USA stamp type PC-F1bb.jpeg|right|300px]]

* The stamps are found only on address labels with the top section having an enclosed mail-service letter at left and a frank box at right above a panel containing the mail class.
: The central section contains the return address, date, and addressee.
: The stamps show no value figures or identification number.
: The labels do include a tracking bar code and number.
: So far they have been found in two general formats:
:: '''-''' With single-line border surrounding the complete design, printed on label 135 mm tall
:: '''-''' With no outer border, printed on smaller label, 115 mm tall

* Known variations:
:: '''-''' Mail class appears in the frank box
:: '''-''' Incomplete box around mail-service letter at upper left
:: '''-''' Mailer's name repeated at top outside the frank box
:: '''-''' &quot;ComBasPrice&quot; appearing left of the frank box

'''NOTES''':
* Merchants have some control over the appearance of the stamp. The e-Postage designation is found in different fonts. The frank box is found in a variety of sizes with contents left justified or centered.
* When inaugurated in September 2011 only certain mail services were available through e-Postage system: Express Mail, Priority Mail, First-Class Mail parcels, Package Services (except Library Mail), and Parcel Select bar-coded non-presort.
* What is common to all e-Postage stamps is that the frank box contains e-Postage (or variant), U.S. POSTAGE PAID (or variant), and the mailer's identification.
{{font/end}}


----{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>b5y6w0kbpy1lobsmylwn2ejnggbvvoe</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. d4/2...cxd4/3. Nf3</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>396458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662665</id>
      <parentid>4635385</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T07:50:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThatLoG42</username>
        <id>3477033</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 3. Nf3 · Morphy gambit */  corrected white to black gaining a tempo after white queen capture</comment>
      <origin>4662665</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1726" sha1="hyrsdtgsahwps0j0gwisiuel73b3o3r" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Morphy gambit
|eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B21]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5|Sicilian defence]] → [[../|2...cxd4]]
}}
== 3. Nf3 · Morphy gambit ==

Rather than recapture the pawn with their queen, which would allow Black to gain tempo with ...Nc6, White prepares to recapture with their knight. 

This looks to transpose into a regular open Sicilian. Black may play whatever move they would have played after 2. Nf3 ('''3...d6''', '''3...Nc6''' etc.) and allow the transposition.

However, the way to &quot;punish&quot; White for the irregular move order is [[/3...e5|'''3...e5''']], securing the pawn. 4. Nxe5?? fails to 4...Qa5+!. White's best continuation is 4. c3, the Andreaschek gambit, reaching a position similar to the Smith-Morra gambit when declined with ...e5.  

=== History ===

This line was popular in the nineteenth century. One of its earliest appearances was von der Lasa versus Mayet, 1857.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1266123 von der Lasa v. Mayet, 1857. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Paul Morphy|Paul Morphy]] played it frequently to reach open Sicilian positions&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1019056 Morphy v Anderssen, 1858. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1259992 Morphy v Paulsen, 1857. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt; but also faced the line with 3...e5.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1258197 Morphy v Journoud, 1858. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1336531 Morphy v Prett, 1858. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Theory table ==
{{ChessTable}}

{{ChessMid}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>hyrsdtgsahwps0j0gwisiuel73b3o3r</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Open Social Scholarship Annotated Bibliography/Social Justice and Open Knowledge Facilitated by Technology</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>398639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662708</id>
      <parentid>3492517</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T09:25:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WereSpielChequers</username>
        <id>248949</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <origin>4662708</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18826" sha1="eb3816qiifr9d7jio7z81zjxngku9ne" xml:space="preserve">{{Navigate
| Book = Open Social Scholarship Annotated Bibliography
| Curr = Social Justice and Open Knowledge Facilitated by Technology
| Prev = Prototyping
| Next = Action and Activism
| PrevText = ← Prototyping
| NextText = Action and Activism →}}

==Category Overview==
The advent of the digital age has drastically affected the means by which social justice operates today. Authors in this category study how open knowledge is a tool for social justice and how it can enhance fields such as medicine and the humanities, as well as society more generally. The articles vary between those that study the relationship between open knowledge and social justice and those that argue for open knowledge as a means for social justice. Various case studies are addressed, such as the Bringing Europe’s eLectronic Infrastructures to Expanding Frontiers (BELIEF) Project Digital Library, that investigate how social justice activists have worked towards shaping internet technologies in a way that serves their needs (Castelli, Taylor, and Zoppi 2010). Resources also explain how internet technologies are used in rural areas and the Global South (Paliwala 2007). This category addresses issues pertaining to open access and open source, such as Chopra and Dexter’s consideration of Freedom Zero, the freedom to use software in any way or for any purpose (2009). Theoretical approaches to various issues raised by authors are also offered (Christians 2015). Overall, this category addresses the various technologies and approaches that enable the development of open knowledge and social justice. 

==Annotations==
Castelli, Donatella, Simon J.E. Taylor, and Franco Zoppi. 2010. “Open Knowledge on E-Infrastructure: The BELIEF Project Digital Library.” ''IST-Africa, 2010'', 1–15. 
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Castelli, Taylor, and Zoppi discuss the Bringing Europe’s eLectronic Infrastructures to Expanding Frontiers (BELIEF) Project, which aims to ensure the development and adoption of e-infrastructures on a worldwide scale. They focus on providing users with documentation that matches their search criteria based on their professional profiles. The authors outline the objectives of the project, introduce the methodology, provide a technology description, and discuss system developments. In the results section, Castelli, Taylor, and Zoppi analyze the impact of the Digital Library on the target audience and explain that there was a remarkable growth of the community due to the successful outcomes of the organized events. They study statistical data on user’s provenance, top sites, top operations, and yearly trend. On business benefits and sustainability, Castelli, Taylor, and Zoppi summarize their views by explaining that the implementation and operation costs of a Digital Library include training Content Providers’ Correspondents, maintaining the network of liaisons that is necessary to promote the community leveraged by the running Digital Library, and performing harvesting operations to OpenDLib Administrators. They conclude that the effective implementation of the Digital Library was achieved, especially in terms of harmonization of metadata from the various information sources.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt;Chopra, Samir, and Scott Dexter. 2009. “The Freedoms of Software and Its Ethical Uses.” ''Ethics and Information Technology'' 11 (4): 287–97. https://doi:.org/10.1007/s10676-009-9191-0.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Chopra explains that the difference between free and proprietary software is that the latter restricts user actions through end user license agreement while the former eliminates restrictions on users. He starts by explaining the concept of free software, talking about software freedom, the Freedom Zero problem, the ethical use of scientific knowledge, and scientific knowledge and property rights. He then discusses community discourse and Freedom Zero (the freedom to use a software in any way or for any purpose), explaining that Freedom Zero supports deliberative discourse within development and user communities. When exploring the ethical uses of software, Chopra answers the question of whether Freedom Zero is inaccurate and whether a free software licensor could be liable for granting Freedom Zero. The author concludes that Freedom Zero facilitates a broader debate about software’s larger social significance. 
&lt;/div&gt;
Christians, Clifford. G. 2015. “Social Justice and Internet Technology.” ''New Media and Society''. https://doi:.org/10.1177/1461444815604130.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Christians looks at internet technology from a social/cultural point of view. He claims that relativism is a crisis in ethics, proposing an intellectual flow as coherent articulation of social justice with internet technology. This flow consists of ontological realism, justice as intrinsic worthiness, and a human-centred philosophy of technology. Christians discusses relativism as a watershed for ethics, talking about media ethics in particular, and listing a few problems including the Gamergate controversy, Wikileaks.org, privacy in Facebook networks, red envelopes in China, and online hate speech. He then moves to Naturalism, explaining that moral anti-realism denies the validity of an intellectual apparatus for ethics, and that philosophical realism is needed for a credible concept of social justice. The author proposes that justice in the moral realist term is grounded in the inherent dignity of the human species. Christians denies the epistemology of the neutral view on internet technology, and proposes that instead of looking for technical improvements in instruments, one needs to reconceive the technology itself. The author then poses the issue of common good, emphasizing the importance of community. He concludes that through social justice, individuals can do great things to help with the development of today’s world.
&lt;/div&gt;
Dunlop, Judith M., and Graham Fawcett. 2008. “Technology-Based Approaches to Social Work and Social Justice.” ''Journal of Policy Practice'' 7 (2): 140–54. https://doi:.org/10.1080/15588740801937961.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Dunlop and Fawcett investigate the need for integration of traditional and electronic advocacy models in the field of social work. They investigate whether social workers are able to assist organizations enter the information age by using technology-based approaches to help disadvantaged populations, and by implementing electronic advocacy practices to promote social justice in local communities. The authors offer a historical background on social work advocacy by examining traditional and electronic advocacy practices. They continue by exploring types of social or free software that could be used by nonprofit organizations and investigate the application of social software to social work advocacy practices in the age of technology. Dunlop and Fawcett conclude that there is a need for technologically competent social workers for the purpose of organizing virtual communities and providing leadership in the electronic advocacy practice. 
&lt;/div&gt;
Edwards, Heather R., and Richard Hoefer. 2010. “Are Social Work Advocacy Groups Using Web 2.0 Effectively?” ''Journal of Policy Practice'' 9 (3): 220-39. https://doi:.org/10.1080/15588742.2010.489037.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Edwards and Hoefer address social work advocacy efforts and explore the potential of Web 2.0 technology in the field. The authors study social work advocacy, explaining that there are various approaches that allow social workers to succeed in their advocacy efforts. These approaches include communication with decision-makers, resource management, and information sharing. They also investigate Web 2.0 and how it allows decentralized knowledge building by going through examples of social media such as blogs, RSS feeds, wikis, podcasting, video sharing, social networking, and social bookmarking. When discussing web advocacy, Edwards and Hoefer talk about ways social work advocates use Web 2.0. The article continues with a presentation of previous research, and an explanation of the methods employed such as sampling and data collection. The results include two sections: the use of various internet components, and differences between general social work organizations and state chapters of the National Association of Social Workers. The authors then discuss the results and explain that social work organizations do not often use Web 2.0 or previous web technologies for advocacy. They conclude that Web 2.0 technologies enhance inclusion in political discourse, accessibility of information, and the formation of relationships that strengthen the advocacy effort.
&lt;/div&gt;
Farrington, John, and Conor Farrington. 2005. “Rural Accessibility, Social Inclusion and Justice: Towards Conceptualisation.” ''Journal of Transport Geography'' 13 (1): 1–12. https://doi:.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2004.10.002.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Farrington and Farrington explain the concept of accessibility in the rural context and discuss its central placement in social inclusion and social justice policy agenda. Authors discuss accessibility and the welfare concept in human geography, accessibility as normative and relative, and accessibility from the perspective of social inclusion and social justice policy agenda. The authors discuss accessibility and policy, noting that accessibility and social justice are two characteristics of policy adjustment. They list four dimensions that add value to the construct of social justice: space and location, sustainability, integration within the structural view of the causes of social exclusion, and empowerment of citizens through participation. Farrington and Farrington conclude that accessibility is about life opportunities and is thus a necessary condition for social inclusion and justice.
&lt;/div&gt;
Goldkind, Lauri. 2014. “E-Advocacy in Human Services: The Impact of Organizational Conditions and Characteristics on Electronic Advocacy Activities among Nonprofits.” ''Journal of Policy Practice'' 13 (4): 300–315. https://doi:.org/10.1080/15588742.2014.929073.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Goldkind explores the organizational characteristics related to the use of electronic advocacy strategies and conducts a survey on nonprofit executives. She starts with a literature review on policy advocacy and electronic, internet-based interactive tools in the fields of electronic advocacy and nonprofit organizations. Goldkind then studies the barriers to advocacy practice, draws the conceptual framework, and provides her hypotheses, in which she claims that organizations use electronic technologies because their organizational cultures are conducive to them. The author uses two demographic characteristics (organizational age and budget size) in her study. She concludes that organizational success depends on the capacities of organizations to invest in social media tools while being attentive to policy advocacy. 
&lt;/div&gt;
Kline, Jesse. 2013. “Why Canada has Third World Access to the Internet.” ''National Post'', September 24, 2013. http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/jesse-kline-why-canada-has-third-world-access-to-the-internet.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Kline addresses the internet problem that Canada is facing, namely that it pays some of the highest rates for internet access among countries in the developed world. The author argues that this is a result of the lack of competition in the Canadian marketplace. Existing companies have created a monopoly, and Canada has a relatively small population that is widely dispersed across the country, making investment costly. Kline argues that in order to remediate this problem, the Canadian government ought to allow new competitors an easier entry by cancelling the foreign ownership restrictions currently held for Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and wireless carriers in order to create a more profitable opportunity to invest in Canada. Another solution Kline proposes is to have municipalities support building network infrastructure by removing current bureaucratic impediments to place cable in new houses, as well as banishing restrictions on where wireless towers can be built. The author concludes that this problem requires immediate attention. 
&lt;/div&gt;
Langman, Lauren. 2005. “From Virtual Public Spheres to Global Justice: A Critical Theory of Internetworked Social Movements.” ''Sociology Theory'' 23 (1): 42–74. https://doi:.org/10.1111/j.0735-2751.2005.00242.x.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Langman claims that new types of Internet-based social movements and cyber activism require new kinds of theorizations. She explains various perspectives on social movements, including resource mobilization, framing and meaning construction, political process, new social movements, and the Frankfurt School. Langman also explores domination and ideology, as well as the adverse consequences of globalization, and moves toward a critical theory of internetworked social movements (ISMs). The author studies electronic media and “Virtual Public Spheres,” collective identities and social movements, internetworked social movements, alternative media (blogs, global civil societies, alternative professional networks, and radical geeks), global justice, global forums, anti-war movements (global justice, the World Social Forum movement, anti-war mobilization), and the move from virtual networks to cyberactivism. She concludes that the legacy of critical theory offers a comprehensive framework to chart new forms of social mobilizations and to inspire participation in the struggle for global justice.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt;Milberry, Kate. 2006. “Reconstructing the Internet: How Social Justice Activists Contest Technical Design in Cyberspace.” ''Media Culture Journal'' 9 (1): n.p. http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0603/10-milberry.php.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Milberry explores how activists have shaped the internet to fit technical needs and movement goals. She begins by exploring geeks and global justice, namely how tech activism joins the free software ethos and concerns for social justice, explaining that the novelty of tech activism is in the incorporation of democratic goals of the global justice movement (GJM) into the technology itself. Milberry elaborates on the concept of politicizing technology, arguing that tech activists in global justice return to computer technology development for their political action. She addresses movements such as Indymedia and Free Software, and Wild Wild Wikis. The author concludes that since the Internet is socially constructed, users are able to contribute to its development by shaping its future direction, allowing it to bridge the gap between geek and activist communities, and supporting a digital infrastructure for progressive worldwide activism. 
&lt;/div&gt;
Paliwala, Abdul. 2007. “Free Culture, Global Commons and Social Justice in Information Technology Diffusion.” ''Law, Social Justice and Global Development Journal''. 1. n.p.
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
:Paliwala explores the role of digital intellectual property rights in the realm of the digital divide between developing countries of the Global South. He starts by exploring the intellectual property rights in information technology at the World Summit on Information Society (WSIS) and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). The author also studies the nature of change in production relations in the Age of Information, and the importance of Free and Open Source Software and Content (FOSS-C) movements. Paliwala then investigates the potential for digital social justice with regards to the application of arguments based on changed production and property relations in the Global South, the way digital divides are affected by property and piracy issues, and the reformist arguments based on the ''Right to Development''. He concludes that millennial ideologies of new modes of productions are to be cautiously treated as they form hidden modes of domination.
&lt;/div&gt;
==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%; line-height: 1.3em;&quot;&gt; 
*Castelli, Donatella, Simon J.E. Taylor, and Franco Zoppi. 2010. “Open Knowledge on E-Infrastructure: The BELIEF Project Digital Library.” ''IST-Africa'', 2010, 1–15. 

*Chopra, Samir, and Scott Dexter. 2009. “The Freedoms of Software and Its Ethical Uses.” ''Ethics and Information Technology'' 11 (4): 287–97. https://doi:.org/10.1007/s10676-009-9191-0.

*Christians, Clifford. G. 2015. “Social Justice and Internet Technology.” ''New Media and Society''. https://doi:.org/10.1177/1461444815604130.

*Dunlop, Judith M., and Graham Fawcett. 2008. “Technology-Based Approaches to Social Work and Social Justice.” ''Journal of Policy Practice'' 7 (2): 140–54. https://doi:.org/10.1080/15588740801937961.

*Edwards, Heather R., and Richard Hoefer. 2010. “Are Social Work Advocacy Groups Using Web 2.0 Effectively?” ''Journal of Policy Practice'' 9 (3): 220-39. https://doi:.org/10.1080/15588742.2010.489037.

*Farrington, John, and Conor Farrington. 2005. “Rural Accessibility, Social Inclusion and Justice: Towards Conceptualisation.” ''Journal of Transport Geography'' 13 (1): 1–12. https://doi:.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2004.10.002.

*Goldkind, Lauri. 2014. “E-Advocacy in Human Services: The Impact of Organizational Conditions and Characteristics on Electronic Advocacy Activities among Nonprofits.” ''Journal of Policy Practice'' 13 (4): 300–315. https://doi:.org/10.1080/15588742.2014.929073.

*Kline, Jesse. 2013. “Why Canada has Third World Access to the Internet.” ''National Post'', September 24, 2013. http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/jesse-kline-why-canada-has-third-world-access-to-the-internet.

*Langman, Lauren. 2005. “From Virtual Public Spheres to Global Justice: A Critical Theory of Internetworked Social Movements.” ''Sociology Theory'' 23 (1): 42–74. https://doi:.org/10.1111/j.0735-2751.2005.00242.x.

*Milberry, Kate. 2006. “Reconstructing the Internet: How Social Justice Activists Contest Technical Design in Cyberspace.” ''Media Culture Journal'' 9 (1): n.p. http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0603/10-milberry.php.

*Paliwala, Abdul. 2007. “Free Culture, Global Commons and Social Justice in Information Technology Diffusion.” ''Law, Social Justice and Global Development Journal'' 1. n.p.
&lt;/div&gt;

{{Navigation|previous=Prototyping|next=Action and Activism}}

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      <text bytes="33617" sha1="0ttmvxxl7mofqiakd07wb3hvj48ieue" xml:space="preserve">== ABAP ==
Advanced Business Application Programming. Programming language of the R/3 System.
=== ABAP Dictionary ===
Central storage facility containing metadata (data about data) for all objects in the R/3 System. The ABAP Dictionary describes the logical structure of application development objects and their representation in the structures of the underlying relational database. All runtime environment components such as application programs or the database interface get information about these objects from the ABAP Dictionary. The ABAP Dictionary is an active data dictionary and is fully integrated into the ABAP Workbench.
=== ABAP Editor ===
ABAP Workbench tool for developing and maintaining ABAP programs, function modules, screen flow logic, type groups, and logical databases. Besides normal text operations (such as insert, search, and replace), the ABAP Editor offers several special functions to support program development.
=== ABAP Workbench ===
SAP?s integrated graphical programming environment. The ABAP Workbench supports the development of and changes to R/3 client/server applications written in ABAP. You can use the tools of the ABAP Workbench to write ABAP code, design screens, create user interfaces, use predefined functions, get access to database information, control access to development objects, test applications for efficiency, and debug applications.
=== activation ===
Process that makes a runtime object available. The effect of activation is to generate runtime objects, which are accessed by application programs and screen templates.
== activity group ==
Subset of actions from the set of actions that were defined in the Enterprise IMG. From the activity group, you can use the Profile Generator to generate the authorizations needed by R/3 users for these actions.
== Add-On Patch ==
Support Packages that are component patches for add-on software. They are specific to an add-on of a particular R/3 Release. They contain corrections for only the specific add-on.
== ADO ==
Application defined object.
== ALE ==
Application Link Enabling. ALE is a technology for building and operating distributed applications. The basic purpose of ALE is to ensure a distributed, but integrated, R/3 installation. It comprises a controlled business message exchange with consistent data storage in non permanently connected SAP applications. Applications are integrated not through a central database, but through synchronous and asynchronous communication.&lt;br&gt;
ALE consists of three layers:
* Application services
* Distribution services
* Communication services
=== ALE Customizing Distribution ===
Process that enables you to ensure that the Customizing settings related to ALE scenarios are identical on the different R/3 Systems in the system landscape.
== Alert Monitor ==
A tool that enables you to monitor all actions that have been performed with TMS and that draws your attention to critical information.
== API ==
Application Programming Interface. Software package used by an application program to call a service provided by the operating system?for example, to open a file.
== Application data ==
Client-specific data that comprises master data and business transactional data.
== Application server ==
A computer on which at least one R/3 instance runs.
== ArchiveLink ==
Integrated into the Basis component of the R/3 System, a communications interface between the R/3 applications and external components. ArchiveLink has the following interfaces: user interface, interface to the R/3 applications, and interface to external components (archive systems, viewer systems, and scan systems).
=== Archiving object ===
A logical object comprising related business data in the database that is read from the database using an archiving program. After it has been successfully archived, a logical object can be deleted by a specially generated deleting program.
== ASAP ==
AcceleratedSAP. Standardized procedural model to implement R/3.
== Background processing ==
Processing that does not take place on the screen. Data is processed in the background, while other functions can be executed in parallel on the screen. Although the background processes are not visible for a user and are run without user intervention (there is no dialog), they have the same priority as online processes.
== BAPI ==
Business Application Programming Interface. Standardized programming interface that provides external access to business processes and data in the R/3 System.
== Batch input ==
Method and tools for rapid import of data from sequential files into the R/3 database.
== CATT ==
Computer Aided Test Tool. You can use this tool to generate test data, and automate and test business processes.
== CCMS ==
Computing Center Management System. Tools for monitoring, controlling, and configuring the R/3 System. The CCMS supports 24-hour system administration functions from within the R/3 System. You can analyze the system load and monitor the distributed resource usage of the system components.
== Change and Transport Organizers (CTO) ==
The Organizers in the R/3 System for managing change requests as a result of development efforts in the ABAP Workbench and Customizing activities in the IMG. It comprises the Workbench Organizer, the Customizing Organizer, and the Transport Organizer.
=== Change and Transport System (CTS) ===
Tools used to manage changes and development in the R/3 System and their transport to other R/3 Systems. It comprises the Change and Transport Organizers, the Transport Management System, and the operating system level programs, tp, and R3trans.
=== change request ===
Information source in the Workbench Organizer and Customizing Organizer that records and manages all changes made to R/3 Repository objects and Customizing settings during an R/3 implementation project.
== Client copy ==
Function that allows you to copy a client in the same R/3 System (a local client copy) or to another R/3 System (a remote client copy). Client copy profiles determine what will be copied: Customizing data, business application data, and/or user master records.
=== Client copy according to a transp. request ===
Functionality with which you can transport client-specific objects of either a change request or a task between clients in the same R/3 System.
=== Client copy profile ===
A profile that enables you to copy certain data (e.g., Customizing data, application data, or user master records) from a client into another client. SAP provides all possible profiles and requires that you select the appropriate one for what you need to copy from one client to another.
== Client-specific ==
Specific only to one client. Settings in client-specific tables relate only to the client that was accessed during the logon process. Such tables contain the client number in the table?s primary key. Client-specific is synonymous with the formerly used term client-dependent.
=== Client-specific transport route ===
A transport route that consolidates or delivers to an R/3 System and client combination rather than simply an R/3 System. Client-specific transport routes are available with extended transport control in R/3 Release 4.5.
== Component Patch ==
A type of Support Package that applies to a particular software component (SAP_BASIS, SAP_HR, SAP_APPL …) and contains corrections to errors in the Repository and ABAP Dictionary in this component only.
== Controlled Availability (CA) ==
Related to phase FCP in the R/3 Release Strategy. In this phase, a new R/3 Functional Release is available. R/3 Functional Releases are available only for a limited number of customers.
== Correction R/3 Release ==
Corrections used primarily to support the continuous improvement of software quality rather than introduce new functionality are collected together in Correction Releases. SAP provides Support Packages for Correction Releases that correct several types of software errors. SAP recommends a Correction R/3 Release for production activities.
== CPI-C ==
Common Programming Interface-Communication. Programming interface?the basis for synchronous, system-to-system, program-to-program communication.
== Cross-client ==
Relevant for all clients in an R/3 System. Cross-client is synonymous with the formerly used term client-independent.
== Customer development ==
Additions to the standard, delivered SAP software using the ABAP Workbench. Customer developments involve creating customer-specific objects using the customer?s name range and namespace.
== Customizing ==
Adjusting the R/3 System to specific customer requirements by selecting variants, parameter settings, etc.
=== Customizing change request ===
Change request for recording and transporting changed system settings from client-specific tables.
=== Customizing Cross-System Viewer ===
The client comparison tool as of R/3 Release 4.5. In addition to determining the differences in Customizing settings, the Customizing Cross-System Viewer provides for the correction/adjustment of differences. It is often simply referred to as the Cross-System Viewer.
== Data archiving ==
Removing data that is currently not needed from the R/3 database and storing it in archives (see ?archiving object?).
== Database ==
Set of data (organized, for example, in files) for permanent storage on the hard disk. Each R/3 System has only one database.
=== Database instance ===
An administrative unit that allows access to a database. A database instance consists of database processes with a common set of database buffers in shared memory. There is normally only one database instance for each database. DB2/390 and Oracle Parallel Server are database systems for which a database can be made up of multiple database instances. In an R/3 System, a database instance can either be alone on a single computer or together with one or possibly more R/3 instances.
== DBA ==
Database administrator.
== Delta Customizing ==
Customizing activities that the customer needs to do to be able to use new functionality in the business application components after an R/3 Release upgrade. While Upgrade Customizing is mandatory for existing functionality, Delta Customizing is only necessary to make use of new functionality.
== development class ==
A grouping of R/3 Repository objects belonging to a common area. Unlike the objects in a change request, the grouping is logical rather than temporal. The development class is assigned a transport layer to ensure that all objects have the same consolidation route.
== development system ==
System in a system landscape where development and Customizing work is performed.
== dialog box ==
Window that is called from a primary window and displayed in front of that window.
== dialog work process ==
R/3 work process to process requests from users working online.
== dispatcher ==
The process that coordinates the work processes of an R/3 instance.
== EDI ==
Electronic Data Interchange. Electronic interchange of structured data (for example, business documents) between business partners in the home country and abroad who may be using different hardware, software, and communication services.
== enhancement ==
Enhancements generally consist of user exits provided by SAP in the program code to call up external customer-developed programs. The source code of the SAP standard R/3 Release does not need to be changed, as the connected customer objects also lie in the customer name range. The advantage of using enhancements is that during a subsequent upgrade, you do not need to perform a modification adjustment. Enhancements are not affected by upgrading to a new R/3 Release.
== External system ==
An R/3 System defined from within TMS for which no physical system exists. As with virtual systems, an import queue is maintained for them if defined as part of a transport layer. Unlike virtual systems, external systems have their own transport directory that may be explicitly defined.
== Functional R/3 Release ==
An R/3 Release that introduces improved business processes and/or new technology into the R/3 System. Functional Releases are delivered upon request to those customers who want to test the new functionality. For Functional Releases, SAP provides Support Packages that correct major software errors. SAP recommends not using a Functional R/3 Release for production activities.
== General Availability (GA) ==
A phase in the R/3 Release Strategy in which a new R/3 Correction Release is available to all customers.
== SAP GUI ==
Graphical User Interface. The medium through which a user can exchange information with the computer. You use the GUI to select commands, start programs, display files, and perform other operations by selecting function keys or buttons, menu options, and icons with the mouse.
== high availability ==
Property of a service or a system that remains in production operation for most of the time. High availability for an R/3 System means that unplanned and planned downtimes are reduced to a minimum. Good system administration is decisive here. You can reduce unplanned downtime by using preventive hardware and software solutions that are designed to reduce single points of failure in the services that support the R/3 System. You can reduce the planned downtime by optimizing the scheduling of necessary maintenance activities.
== IDoc type ==
Internal document in SAP format, into which the data of a business process is transferred. An IDoc is a real business process formatted in the IDoc type. An IDoc type is described by the following components:
* A control record: Its format is identical for all IDoc types.
* One or more data records:A record consists of a fixed administration segment and the data segment. The number and format of the segments differ for different IDoc types.
* Status records: These records describe stages of processing that an IDoc can go through. The status records have the same format for all IDoc types.
== Implementation Guide (IMG) ==
A tool for making customer-specific adjustments to the R/3 System. For each application component, the Implementation Guide contains:
* All steps to implement the R/3 System
* All default settings and all activities to configure the R/3 System
* A hierarchical structure that maps the structure of the R/3 application components
* Lists of all the documentation relevant to the implementation of the R/3 System
== Import buffer ==
A file at the operating system level containing the list of change requests to be imported into a specific R/3 System. This file resides in the transport directory?buffer. The terms?import buffer?and?import queues?are often used interchangeable.
=== import options ===
Import options that can be assigned either from within TMS import functionality or when using the?tp?command. They are used to cause specific rules of the Change and Transport System (CTS) to be ignored. Traditionally, transport options are known as unconditional modes.
=== import queue ===
The import queue in R/3 reflects the operating system level import buffer and contains the list of requests that will be imported during the next?import all?process. Because of end marks and nonstandard change requests, there may be more requests in the import buffer than are highlighted in the import queue. The terms?import buffer?and?import queues?are often used interchangeable.
== Industry Solution (IS) ==
Industry-specific applications for R/3. For example, IS-H (IS Hospital), IS-RE (IS Real Estate), or IS-PS (IS Public Sector).
== Integration system ==
System in the system landscape where developments and Customizing are carried out and then transported to the consolidation system. Each R/3 Repository object is assigned to an integration system through its development class and transport layer.
== Internet Transaction Server (ITS) ==
Gateway between the R/3 System and the World Wide Web.
== Legacy system ==
Typically refers to a customer?s previous system (for example, a mainframe system). The data in this system has to be reformatted before it is imported into a new system (for example, into a client/server system such as R/3).
== Local change request ==
Change request that cannot be transported to other R/3 Systems.
== Local object ==
A Repository object assigned to a local development class such as the development class $TMP. Local objects are local to the R/3 System on which they are created and cannot be transported.
== Locks ==
The locking of data during transaction processing and R/3 Repository objects during development work.
* If a user changes a data record with a transaction or changes a Repository object, the same record or object cannot be accessed simultaneously by a second user. The record or object is locked for the duration of processing (ENQUEUE), and only afterwards is it released or unlocked (DEQUEUE).
* Repository objects are locked in Workbench change requests until the change request is released.
== Logical system ==
A way of representing a client in an R/3 System without having to define the R/3 System. Logical systems allow applications to run with a common data basis. In SAP terms, a logical system is a client defined in a database. Logical systems can exchange messages and can be used, for example, by ALE.
== Manual transport ==
The recording of Customizing changes to a change request using a manual rather than an automatic method. Some IMG activities can only be transported using a manual transport option.
== Master data ==
Master data is a type of application data that changes infrequently, but is required for the completion of most business transactions. Examples of master data include lists of customers, vendors, and materials, and even the company?s chart of accounts.
== Modification ==
Change made by a customer to SAP-owned R/3 Repository objects. During an R/3 Release upgrade, modifications may require the new SAP standard to be adjusted.
=== Modification Assistant ===
Functionality designed to help manage the repair of a Repository object using the ABAP Workbench tools. The Modification Assistant guides the change process to ensure that changes are well documented, original forms of the objects are preserved, and the change request to which the changes are recorded is indicated.
== Name range ==
A name range is an interval in a namespace. The name range for customer programs is the set of program names beginning with Y or Z. Customer name ranges can be reserved in view V_TRESN.
== namespace ==
Set of all names that satisfy the specific properties of the namespace. A namespace is defined by a prefix SAP provides to the customer or complementary software partner.
== Object checks ==
When activated, object checks subject Repository objects in a change request to checks, such as a syntax check for ABAP programs, prior to the release of the change request.
== Object directory ==
Catalog of R/3 Repository objects that contains the following information: object type, object name, original system, person responsible, and development class.
=== Object list ===
List of R/3 Repository objects and/or Customizing objects in change requests or tasks. Whenever changes are made, objects are added to the object list of a task. When a task is released, its object list is placed in the object list of the request to which it is assigned.
== OCS ==
Online Correction Support. OCS is a global term comprising various tools designed to help you support your production environment by supplying Support Packages.
== Original object ==
The original of an object is normally the version maintained in the development system. Because all changes and developments are made using the original, it may never be overwritten by a transport.
== Presentation server ==
A computer providing GUI services.
== Production system ==
System that contains an enterprise?s active business processes. This is where ?live? production data is entered.
== Profile Generator ==
Automatically generates an authorization profile based on the activities in an activity group.
== Project IMG ==
Subset of the Enterprise IMG, containing only the documentation for the Enterprise IMG components required in a particular Customizing project.
=== Project IMG views ===
Subset of a Project IMG, containing, for example, all mandatory activities for the project.
== Quality assurance system ==
System in which final testing is carried out. Tested, stable development objects and Customizing settings are transported into the quality assurance system from the development system at times defined for final testing. After verification and sign-off, development objects and Customizing settings are delivered to the production system.
== R/3 ==
The full form of SAP R/3 is SAP Realtime, Version 3.
=== R/3 instance ===
Group of resources such as memory and work processes, usually in support of a single application server or database server in an R/3 client/server environment. Instance processes share a common set of buffers and are controlled by the same dispatcher process. An R/3 System can consist of one or more instances.
=== R/3 Repository ===
Central storage facility for all development objects in the ABAP Workbench. These development objects include ABAP programs, screens, and documentation.
=== R/3 runtime environment ===
Set of programs that must be available for execution at runtime. The ABAP interpreters in the runtime environment do not use the original of an ABAP program. Rather, they use a copy generated once only during runtime (early binding). Runtime objects, such as programs and screens, are automatically regenerated (late binding) when a time stamp comparison between the object and the ABAP Dictionary detects a difference.
=== R/3 System ===
Consists of a central instance offering the services DVEBMGS (dialog, update, enqueue, background processing, message, gateway, spool), a database instance, optional dialog instances offering the service D (dialog), and optional PC frontends.
=== R/3 System service ===
Logical function required to support the R/3 System, such as the database service and the application services, which may include the services Dialog, Update, Enqueue, Batch, Message, Gateway, and Spool.
=== R/3 Upgrade Assistant ===
Support tool for R/3 upgrades. The R/3 Upgrade Assistant provides one or more graphical user interfaces for the upgrade control program. It also permits you to execute an R/3 upgrade remotely and monitor its status.
== R3trans ==
A transport utility at the operating system level for the transport of data between R/3 Systems.?R3trans?is also used for the installation of new R/3 Systems, for migration to different R/3 Releases, and for logical backups. Other programs usually call?R3trans, in particular the transport control program?tp?and the upgrade control program?R3up.
== RDBMS ==
Relational Database Management System.
== RDDIMPDP ==
Background job that is scheduled event-periodic. It starts the background jobs that are required for transports. RDDIMPDP is triggered by?tp,?which uses the executable?sapevt?on the operating system level to send event SAP_TRIGGER_RDDIMPDP. RDDIMPDP is also known as transport daemon and transport dispatcher.
== Release ==
The process by which the owner of a change request or task indicates that the contents of the change request or task have been unit tested. Release of a change request of either type Transportable or Customizing initiates the export process.
== Release Customizing ==
Only those IMG activities affected by a given R/3 Release upgrade in the business application components concerned are presented for processing. SAP distinguishes between Upgrade Customizing (corrected or amended functionality) and Delta Customizing (new functionality) for R/3 Release upgrades.
== Repair ==
An R/3 Repository object that is changed in a system other than its original system is entered in a repair. All modifications of SAP standard objects are repairs, because the customer?s system is not the original system for SAP objects.
== Repository Browser ==
ABAP Workbench navigation tool for managing development objects. The user interface of the Repository Browser resembles a file manager where development objects are grouped together in object lists in a hierarchical structure.
== Repository object ==
Object in the R/3 Repository. Repository objects are development objects of the ABAP Workbench.
== Repository switch ==
A procedure during an R/3 upgrade that replaces an existing R/3 Repository with a new R/3 Repository.
== Return code ==
Value that indicates whether a tool (either within R/3 or on the operating system level) ran successfully, with warnings, or with errors.
== RFC ==
Remote Function Call. RFC is an SAP interface protocol, based on CPI-C. It allows the programming of communication processes between systems to be simplified considerably. Using RFCs, predefined functions can be called and executed in a remote system or within the same system. RFCs are used for communication control, parameter passing, and error handling.
== SAP Business Warehouse Patch ==
Support Packages that contain a collection of corrections for the SAP Business Information Warehouse (SAP BW) component.
== SAP Notes ==
SAP?s announcements of corrections or enhancements to R/3. Often, an SAP Note provides solutions, or a solution will be provided in a Support Package.
== SAP Patch Manager (SPAM) ==
SPAM is the R/3 System interface to SAPNet, SAP?s support services, for the purpose of downloading Support Packages and the tool for applying those Support Packages to the R/3 System.
== SAP Reference IMG ==
Complete Implementation Guide containing all Customizing activities supplied by SAP. It is organized according to business application components.
== SAPGUI ==
SAP Graphical User Interface.
== SAProuter ==
A software module that functions as part of a firewall system.
== Session ==
A user session in an SAPGUI window.
=== Session Manager ===
The tool used for central control of R/3 applications. The Session Manager is a graphical navigation interface used to manage sessions and start application transactions. It can generate both company-specific and user-specific menus. The Session Manager is available from R/3 Release 3.0C under Windows 95 and Windows NT. A default change request automatically used to record changes without prompting for a request number. A standard request must be manually set and is valid for a specified period of time.
== Shared memory ==
Main memory area that can be accessed by all work processes in an instance. The term?shared memory?is also used to mean the main memory area shared by the RDBMS processes.
== SID ==
SAP System Identifier. Placeholder for the three-character name of an R/3 System.
== Software component ==
Set of software objects that can only be delivered together. There are usually several release versions of a software component. These components are updated by upgrades. You can apply Support Packages separately to each software component. The Software Component concept is introduced with R/3 Release 4.6
== SPAM Update ==
A type of Support Package that contains improvements and extensions to the SAP Patch Manager.
== Standard transport layer ==
The default transport layer for an R/3 System and the transport layer used by all Customizing change requests released from that system.
== Support Package ==
Support Packages contain corrections for errors in the R/3 Repository and in ABAP Dictionary objects. These corrections are collected periodically in Support Packages and made available in OCS.
== System copy ==
Also known as database copy. If you create an R/3 System using a database copy, the R/3 installation is not set up with the SAP standard database, but with a database whose content is supplied by an existing R/3 System using R/3 migration tools specific to your platform and R/3 Release.
== System landscape ==
The R/3 Systems and clients required for a company?s implementation and maintenance of R/3. For example, a common system landscape consists of a development system, a quality assurance system, and a production system.
== Table logging ==
Activating the logging of all changes to SAP-selected Customizing tables for the purpose of providing an audit history as to who made what changes to the data.
== Target group ==
A group of R/3 System and client combinations to which transport routes can consolidate or deliver. Target groups are available with extended transport control in R/3 Release 4.5.
== Task ==
User-specific information carrier in the Change and Transport Organizers for entering and managing all changes to R/3 Repository objects and Customizing settings. When an object is changed, the changed objects are recorded to a task. Tasks are assigned to a change request.
== Transaction code ==
Succession of alphanumeric characters used to name a transaction?that is, a particular ABAP program in the R/3 System. For example, Transaction VA01 (create customer order).
== Transaction data ==
Data collected during standard business activities/transactions and typically related to specific master data. For example, data relating to a specific sale is regarded as transaction data and can be assigned to the master data of the purchaser.
== Transport ==
The movement (export and import) of change requests between different R/3 Systems.
== Transport control program (tp) ==
An operation system level utility for controlling the transport of change requests between R/3 Systems and R/3 Release upgrades.
== Transport directory ==
Operating system disk space that provides the management facility for all data to be transported between R/3 Systems.
== Transport domain ==
All R/3 Systems to be administered using the Transport Management System (TMS) belong to a transport domain. In this transport domain, system settings such as the transport route settings are identical for all R/3 Systems. To have consistent settings in the transport domain, one R/3 System (the domain controller) has the reference configuration, and all the other R/3 Systems in the transport domain receive copies of this reference configuration.
== Transport group ==
All R/3 Systems in a transport domain that share the same transport directory.
== Transport layer ==
Means by which the integration and consolidation system for R/3 Repository objects are determined. A transport layer is assigned to each development class and thus to all R/3 Repository objects in that development class. It determines the R/3 System in which developments or changes to R/3 Repository objects are performed, and whether objects will be transported to other systems when development work has been completed.
== Transport log ==
Record of the transfer of the objects in a particular change request from a source system to a target system. A transport log contains:
* A summary of transport activities
* A log detailing the export of objects from a source system
* The results of the import check
* A log detailing the import of objects into a target system
== Transport Management System (TMS) ==
The tool in the R/3 System that enables centralized transport configuration, and the execution and monitoring of exports and imports between R/3 Systems in a single transport domain.
=== Transport Organizer (TO) ===
Tool for preparing and managing transports that supplements the more commonly used Workbench Organizer and Customizing Organizer. The Transport Organizer is part of the Change and Transport Organizer.
=== Transport request ===
A released and exported change request. This term is often used synonymously with the term?change request.
=== Transport route ===
Transport routes are used to define both the target system in which you want to consolidate change requests and the R/3 Systems to which change requests are delivered after verification and testing. Transport routes are of either type?consolidation?or type?delivery.
=== Transportable change request ===
Change request that will be exported to a defined consolidation system when released.
== Unit testing ==
Lowest level of testing where the program or transaction is tested and evaluated for faults (contrasted with business integration testing). Unit testing is the first test that is completed, normally during the Customizing and development effort, while business integration testing usually occurs in the quality assurance system. With unit testing, the focus is on the program?s inner functions rather than on system integration.
== User master data ==
Logon and authorization information for R/3 users. Only users who have a user master record can log on to a client in an R/3 System and use specific transactions.
== Version database ==
Storage location for versions of R/3 Repository objects when a change request is released.
== view ==
Virtual table. simultaneously displaying data from several real tables in the ABAP Dictionary. When you create a table, you assign a key to it. However, the fields in the key may be inadequate for solving some problems, so you can generate a view from several tables or parts of tables.
== Virtual system ==
R/3 System configured as a placeholder for an R/3 System that has not yet been set up. Transport routes can be defined for virtual systems, and the import queue can be set up and displayed.
== Workbench change request ==
Change request for recording and transporting R/3 Repository objects and changed system settings from cross-client tables (client-independent Customizing).
== Workbench Organizer (WBO) ==
Tools for managing Workbench change requests required to record changes as a result of development efforts using the tools of the ABAP

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Create Vampires</title>
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        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
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      <text bytes="8390" sha1="pey5wwbtz1h6av985fpxxdj77m21ysx" xml:space="preserve">{{Formatting}}

''Create Vampires'' is a book intended as a guide to avoid literary pitfalls, and as a nonfiction resource for those fascinated by vampires. This book examines vampires through a cultural, literary, and historical lens to help writers create authentic vampire narratives.

== Vampires ''Of The Imagination'' ==

Although vampires are creatures of folklore, monsters from the ''afterlife'' that are sometimes called the &quot;undead,&quot; vampires are uniquely different from ghost, those lingering spirits who refuse to die.

Although vampires, by definition, are animated corpses, most vampires ''of the imagination'' must feed on human blood in order to continue their earthly existence. This unique quality makes vampires a popular and original type of fiction, slightly different from other creatures found in folklore. Because of their unique characteristics, vampires have become massively popular in popular culture and in literature. 

We hope this book will clear up many misconceptions, and common misunderstandings associated with the &quot;undead,&quot; especially a common confusion ''about'' the actual people who did inspire vampire folklore, verses the evolved horror creations called vampires of the imagination.

'''Create Vampires''' aims to treat vampires as a cultural, literary and historical construct. Perhaps Create Vampires should be considered a friendly craft-manual for building a believable vampire concept, available across different medias.

== Preface: The Factual Roots Of Vampires ==
&lt;br /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Factual Basis For Vampires?
|-
| [[/Factual Basis For Vampires/]] is a special page intended to offer information about the factual bases for vampires.
|}
&lt;br&gt;
'''What Type Of Book Is This?'''
&lt;br /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! '''Create Vampires''' is one of many free Wikibooks
|-
|  Wikibooks.org is a part of the Wikimedia project. Writers and contributors are volunteers who cull through websites, &lt;BR&gt; use online search engines to find facts, and volunteer to work on special projects that are open to the public. &lt;BR&gt; Volunteers are people who write, edit, and help people understand the powerful tools at their fingertips.
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Edvard Munch - Love and Pain / Vampire (1895) -  Google Art Project || &quot;Les Vampires&quot;
|-
| [[File:Edvard Munch - Vampire (1895) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Edvard Munch - Vampire (1895) - Google Art Project]] || [[File:Les vampires.jpg|thumb|Les vampires]]
|}

This book will introduce 5 &quot;original&quot; fictional creations (or oddly unique persons):
# vampire-person
# zombie-person
# hungry-ghost-person
# ghost-person
# demon-person

This book, intended as a short guide for people, should focus on why a vampire-person is a original fictional creation. &lt;br /&gt;
We hope this book will include tips that will help writers, and questions that challenge our notions.

What type of book can help people became better writers?

A factual book with useful information. &lt;br /&gt;
A combination text-book, tutorial, and ''self-study'' course-option is intended, yet if done wrong, results may be an experimental book, in need of improvements and development.

 [Many links ''do not'' direct to electronic pages]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Table Of Content
|-
| [[:Category:Book:Create Vampires|List of All Pages in This Book]]
|-
| Introduction: [[Create Vampires/Original Fictional Creations|&quot;Original Fictional Creations&quot;]]
|-
| Proper Spelling: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer| &quot;How Do You Spell Vam-Pai-Yer?&quot;]]
|-
| [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling| &quot;Alternative Spellings&quot;]]
|-
| What ''Is'' A Vampire? [[Create Vampires /ADefinitionForVampire|Create Vampires /ADefinitionForVampire - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]
|-
| Proper Noun? Should Vampire Be Capitalized?
|-
| Why Create A Vampire? : [[Create_Vampires/Why_Create_Vampires]]
|-
| Tips:
|-
|- '''Cultural Origins'''
|-
|'''Cultural Vampire Construct'''
|-
| '''Vampire Folklore: [[Create Vampires/HistoricalAndCross-CulturalOriginsOfVampireArchetypes]]'''
|-
| African Folklore: [[Create Vampires/AfricanFolklore]]
|-
| Latin-American Folklore: [[Create Vampires/LatinAmericanFolklore|Create Vampires/LatinAmericanFolklore - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]
|-
| Asian Folklore: [[Create Vampires/Asian Folklore#Asian Folklore|Create Vampires/Asian Folklore - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]
|-
|Eastern Folklore: [[Create Vampires/Eastern European Folklore| &quot;Eastern European Folklore&quot;]]
|-
| Eastern Folklore: [[Create_Vampires/Dracula_Behind_Vlad-The_Impaler]]
|-
|[[Create Vampires/HowCulturalTraditionsShapedVampireTraits|Create Vampires/HowCulturalTraditionsShapedVampireTraits - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]
|-
|- '''Literary Construct'''
|-
|'''Literary Construct'''
|-
|What Is A Literary Trope? [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope]] 
|-
| Literary And Media Pitfalls To Avoid: [[Create Vampires/Examples Of Literary Pitfalls|Create Vampires/Examples Of Literary Pitfalls - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]
|-
| Authors Who Created Influential Vampires Of The Imagination: [[Create Vampires/Authors Who Created Vampire Tropes]] 
|-
| [[Create Vampires/writers who did not create vampires| &quot;Writers Who Did Not Create Vampires&quot;]]
|-
|'''Are Vampires Real? Historical Construct''' [[Create Vampires/What Is A Historical Construct|Create Vampires/What Is A Historical Construct - Wikibooks, open books]]
|-
|[[Create Vampires/Factual Basis For Vampires]]
|-
|History of Vampires: [[Create Vampires/Vampire History]] 
|-
| Popular Culture: Vampires
|-
|  [[Create Vampires/Scientific Evidence| &quot;Science and Vampirism&quot;]]
|-
| For Vampires: [[Create Vampires/Scientific Evidence For Vampires| &quot;Scientific Evidence For Vampires&quot;]]
|-
| Against Vampires: [[Create Vampires/Scientific Evidence Against Vampirism| &quot;Scientific Evidence Against Vampires&quot;]]
|-
| Writing Vampire Prose: [[Create Vampires/Writing Vampire Prose| &quot;Writing Vampire Prose&quot;]]
|-
|- Are Vampires Real? Historical Construct
|-
| Resource Page: [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page &quot;Wikisource.org&quot;]
|-
|Public Domain Primary Sources: [[Create Vampires/PublicDomainPrimarySources]]
|-
| Information for Spanish speakers: [[:es:Vampiro|&quot;Vampiro&quot;]] &lt;br /&gt;
|-
| [[:w:Vampire|&quot;Wikipedia: Vampire&quot;]]
|}

== Reference ==
{{message box|heading=You should contribute to Wikibooks.|message=Wikibooks is a collection of free textbooks that anyone can edit.}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| How Do You Spell Vam-Pai-Yer?
|-
| 1. Vampiro http://www.es.wikipedia.org &quot;Spanish Wikipedia&quot; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.es.wikipedia.org/wiki/vampiro&lt;/ref&gt;Date: 4/20/2020
|-
| 2. Vampiro https://www.spanishdict.com &quot;Spanishdict&quot; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.spanishdict.com/translate/vampiro&lt;/ref&gt; Date: 2/30/2020
|-
| 3. Vampire https://www.merriam-webster.com &quot;Merrian-Webster&quot; Online Dictionary &lt;ref&gt;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vampire&lt;/ref&gt;Date: 4/27/2020&lt;br /&gt;
|-
| 4. Vampyre &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.urbandictionary.com&lt;/nowiki&gt; &quot;Urban Dictionary&quot; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Vampyre&lt;/ref&gt; Date: June/23/2011 &lt;br /&gt;
|}

&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Writers Who Did Not Create Vampires
|-
| &quot;The Vampire&quot; is a poem by Rudyard Kipling (1897)&lt;br /&gt;
|-
| https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Vampire_(Kipling) &lt;br /&gt;
|}
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Alternative Spelling
|-
| [https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vampire &quot;Dictionary.com: vampire&quot;]
|-
| [https://www.spanishdict.com/translate/vampiro &quot;Spanishdict.com: vampire&quot;]
|}
&lt;br /&gt;

Create A Vampire: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;https://www.wikihow.com/Look-Like-a-Vampire&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Tips: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Stereotypes To Avoid:&lt;br /&gt;
Kid Vampires. Creating &lt;u&gt;child-vampire&lt;/u&gt; types.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[:es:Vampiro]]

 [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Carmilla  &quot;Carmilla by S. L. Fanu&quot;]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Writers Who Did Not Create Vampires:
[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Vampire wiki:The_Vampire]
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Against vampires:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Paul Barber in his book Vampires, Burial and Death has described that belief in vampires resulted from people of pre-industrial societies attempting to explain the natural, but to them inexplicable, process of death and decomposition.
DEATH [[:w:Death]]
&lt;br /&gt;{{WikipediaCredit}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Shelves|Literature|Paranormal|Cultural anthropology}}
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        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
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      <text bytes="3693" sha1="sadka13yjxfpn7ykz8kw4nqz63w1ygx" xml:space="preserve">== Original Fictional Creations ==

&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
 '''''&lt;u&gt;HISTORY AND FOLKLORE&lt;/u&gt;'''''
Before diving in, we must first clarify the difference between History and Folklore.

'''History''', meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek ''historia'', according to Wikipedia. [[Wikipedia: |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History]]&lt;br&gt;
'''History''' is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet &lt;br&gt;
Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
The study of '''History''' is a major discipline in academic fields.  

The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings.   

It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. 

Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools.&lt;br&gt;  
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''Creative writing''' is not a discipline in academic fields. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''&lt;u&gt;Create Vampire&lt;/u&gt;''' is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;   
&lt;br&gt; &lt;u&gt;'''TIP:'''&lt;/u&gt; Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? 


 '''&lt;u&gt;Create Vampires&lt;/u&gt;?''' 
&lt;br&gt;
In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. &lt;br&gt;
In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet ''grave-robbery'' is not...? &lt;br&gt;
In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note?
&lt;br&gt;
Link:  [[Create Vampires/Why Create Vampires]]?

Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;'''

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      <text bytes="4254" sha1="57scy0g0tdofttxqt5udj5w5y2yb70g" xml:space="preserve">== Original Fictional Creations ==

&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
 '''''&lt;u&gt;HISTORY AND FOLKLORE&lt;/u&gt;'''''
Before diving in, we must first clarify the difference between History and Folklore.

'''History''', meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek ''historia'', according to Wikipedia. [[Wikipedia: |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History]]&lt;br&gt;
'''History''' is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet &lt;br&gt;
Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
The study of '''History''' is a major discipline in academic fields.  

According to Wikipedia, folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture, or subculture. [1]  

The academic study of folklore is called folklore studies or folkloristics. Interested students may approach this discipline at the undergraduate, graduate, or Ph. D levels.  

Although there are a few vampire stories that reflect actual historic events, most vampire stories have their roots in folklore.  

The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings.   

It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. 

Imaginative young readers today could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools.&lt;br&gt;  
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''Creative writing''' is not a discipline in academic fields. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''&lt;u&gt;Create Vampire&lt;/u&gt;''' is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;   
&lt;br&gt; &lt;u&gt;'''TIP:'''&lt;/u&gt; Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? 


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Reference Table
!Schlinkert, Jana C. (2002) p.30 
!
!
!
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}


 '''&lt;u&gt;Create Vampires&lt;/u&gt;?''' 
&lt;br&gt;
In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. &lt;br&gt;
In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet ''grave-robbery'' is not...? &lt;br&gt;
In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note?
&lt;br&gt;
Link:  [[Create Vampires/Why Create Vampires]]?

Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;'''

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662572</id>
      <parentid>4662571</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T18:52:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662572</origin>
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      <text bytes="4255" sha1="l83hb2jxr5g2ai0oesvv57sw42q1i96" xml:space="preserve">== Original Fictional Creations ==

&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
 '''''&lt;u&gt;HISTORY AND FOLKLORE&lt;/u&gt;'''''
Before diving in, we must first clarify the difference between History and Folklore.

'''History''', meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek ''historia'', according to Wikipedia. [[Wikipedia: |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History]]&lt;br&gt;
'''History''' is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet &lt;br&gt;
Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
The study of '''History''' is a major discipline in academic fields.  

According to Wikipedia, folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture, or subculture. [1]  

The academic study of folklore is called folklore studies or folkloristics. Interested students may approach this discipline at the undergraduate, graduate, or Ph. D levels.  

Although there are a few vampire stories that reflect actual historic events, most vampire stories have their roots in folklore.  

The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings.   

It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. 

Imaginative young readers today could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools.&lt;br&gt;  
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''Creative writing''' is not a discipline in academic fields. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''&lt;u&gt;Create Vampire&lt;/u&gt;''' is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;   
&lt;br&gt; &lt;u&gt;'''TIP:'''&lt;/u&gt; Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? 


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Reference Table
!Schlinkert, Jana C. (2002) p.30 
!
!
!
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}


 '''&lt;u&gt;Create Vampires&lt;/u&gt;?''' 
&lt;br&gt;
In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. &lt;br&gt;
In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet ''grave-robbery'' is not...? &lt;br&gt;
In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note?

&lt;br&gt;
Link:  [[Create Vampires/Why Create Vampires]]?

Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;'''

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Johto/Goldenrod City</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>4662489</id>
      <parentid>4628088</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:14:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0.9em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250 style=&quot;border: 1em solid white&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large;&quot;&gt;'''Goldenrod City'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''コガネシティ'''&lt;br&gt;''Kogane City''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | 250px
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''The Festive City of Opulent Charm''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
|Region
|Johto
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 35 (North)&lt;br&gt;Route 34 (South)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |Leaders
|Whitney
|-
| ''Badge''
| Plainbadge
|-
| ''Type''
| Normal
|-
|}
'''Goldenrod City''' is the only large city in the Johto region in the Pokémon game.  Similar to Celadon City in Kanto, it features a Game Corner and Department Store. The Gym Leader here is Whitney, a trainer who specializes in Normal-type Pokémon. After players win their 7th badge, Team Rocket takes over the Radio Tower and its broadcasts will all be directed to contact Giovanni.

==Places of interest==
===Department Store===
The Department Store is packed full of items, including healing items, stat boosters, TMs, and beverages. If players are playing from a Game Boy Color or Game Boy Advance, the Mystery Gift option should become available after talking to a girl on the fifth floor. Drowzee (Abra in Crystal) can be traded for Machop, which holds a Gold berry, from a boy on the same floor. On Sundays a woman comes to the department store to hand out TMs on the fifth floor based on one's Pokémon's affection toward its owner. It is also revealed that the Goldenrod Department Store is part of the same chain of department stores as the one in Celadon City in Kanto. In Crystal version the roof can be accsessed where an occasional sale is held where items are on sale at a discount.

The Goldenrod Department Store is the largest mart in the region and contains many items that cannot be bought elsewhere.

===Radio Tower===
The Radio Tower broadcasts music.  The player can use the radio function to tune into this music as opposed to the normal background music of the area.  After the player selects the station, he or she can read what the DJs are saying.  Depending on the station, the people will talk about trainers that the player has met or members of the Elite Four, give that days lucky number (a free lottery based off of the players trainer I.D. for prizes such as a Master Ball), mention where certain species of Pokémon can be found, or give Pokédex information on certain Pokémon.

This is where trainers can get a free Radio Card by answering trivia questions. Trainers should come here often for the Lucky Number drawings. In ''Crystal'', players can also obtain a Blue Card to play Buena's Password at night. Team Rocket will take over the Radio Tower after the 7th badge is obtained.

In the ''Gold'', ''Silver'', and ''Crystal'' games, the revived Team Rocket take over the tower after the player earns his/her seventh badge in an attempt to contact Giovanni in order to convince him to become their leader once again. The player must liberate the tower in order to continue through the game.  After the tower is liberated, the path to Blackthorn City will be opened, and a new Legendary Pokémon will become available.

===Goldenrod City Underground===
An underground alley, this is home to curious shops, including a barber (for Pokémon) and a bitter herb seller.  There are also trainers who will battle the player underground. In addition, there is a second part to the underground where Team Rocket holds the radio director hostage during the Radio Tower Crisis. The exit to the second part of the underground is in the basement of the Goldenrod Department Store.

===Game Corner===
Unlike the game corner of the Red/Blue/Yellow versions, this Game Corner is not affiliated with Team Rocket. There are the classic slot machines here and the new &quot;card flip game&quot; is introduced. Coins earned here are redeemable for prizes, including Pokémon and TMs.  In ''Pokémon Crystal'', a move tutor appears outside the Game Corner every Wednesday and Saturday after Red has been defeated at Mt. Silver. He can teach a move to a Pokémon in exchange for coins.

Most notably, in Gold and Silver a Dratini can be bought at the Game Corner, which gives players an early start on raising the powerful creature. It cannot be purchased in Crystal.

===Magnet Train Station===
This station is for the high-speed train that connects the city with Saffron City in Kanto. It is only available later on when the player defeats Sabrina and receives the Pass.

===Bike Shop===
The bike shop from Cerulean City has moved here, but no one can find it. The owner will give players a bike to advertise where the shop is. After a while, the bike is given to the player as a present.

===Affection Rater===
A woman in a house in the eastern part of Goldenrod City will rate a player's lead Pokémon's affection toward him or her. This is vital as some Pokémon evolve if they are happy toward the trainer.

===National Park===
North of Goldenrod, off of Route 35, a National Park exists that is similar to the Safari Zone in Red, Blue, and Yellow. In the games, a bug-catching competition is held on Sundays, Tuesdays and Thursdays. Some of the Pokémon that can be found are Venonat, Pinsir, Scyther, Beedrill, Kakuna, Weedle, Butterfree, Metapod and Caterpie. If the player wins the competition, they receive a Sun Stone. 2nd and 3rd place prices are Everstone and Gold Berry. The best way to win is to get a Pinsir/Scyther, but Butterfree/Beedrill also work well.

==Demographics==
Goldenrod City's population is about 77, making by far the largest city in Johto. Its population is more than double the second-most-populous city in Johto, Violet City.

{{Pokémon locations}}

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  <page>
    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Hoenn/Fortree City</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>4662485</id>
      <parentid>3884537</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:13:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="3831" sha1="5hme341ott9mjyo2xcf4gnxwibofxcj" xml:space="preserve">{{dewikify}}
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0.9em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250 style=&quot;border: 1em solid white&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large;&quot;&gt;'''Fortree City'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''ヒワマキシティ'''&lt;br&gt;''Hiwamaki City''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Fortreemap.PNG|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''The treetop city that frolics with nature.''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Hoenn]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 120 (East)&lt;br&gt;Route 119 (West)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gym Leader|Leaders]]
| [[List of Hoenn Gym Leaders#Winona|Winona]]
|-
| ''Badge''
| Featherbadge 
|-
| ''Type''
|  Flying
|-
|}
'''Fortree City''', known as '''Hiwamaki City''' (ヒワマキシティ ''Hiwamaki Shiti'') in the original Japanese version, is a city in the region of Hoenn, which is part of the [[Pokémon]] World.  It was built atop the trees (everything except the Pokémon Center, the Poké Mart and the Gym), giving it its name. There is a trainer in [[Pokémon Ruby]] and [[Pokémon Sapphire]] that will trade you a [[Skitty]] for a [[Pikachu]]. In [[Pokémon Emerald]], a younger trainer in the same house wants to trade a [[Plusle]] for a [[Volbeat]].

== Places of interest ==
=== Pokémon gym ===

The main feature of the town is the gym, holding the leader, [[List of Hoenn Gym Leaders#Winona|Winona]], and her badge which the player needs to collect to proceed, the Feather Badge. Unfortunately, it is blocked by an invisible &quot;wall&quot; at first. The player must claim the Devon Scope from Steven a little out of town and use it to scare the [[Kecleon]] hiding there away.

The gym trainers and its leader use only flying types.  The gym itself is set up with turning doors, that when pushed on turn the whole door set and create a puzzle, as the doors can only be opened in one direction. If the player gets by these puzzles, they fight the leader, Winona.

Winona's Emerald Pokémon Set:
*[[Swablu]]-Level 29
*[[Tropius]]-Level 29
*[[Skarmory]]-Level 31
*[[Pelipper]]-Level 30
*[[Altaria]]-Level 33

Winona's Ruby/Sapphire Pokémon set:
*[[Swellow]]-Level 31
*[[Skarmory]]-Level 31
*[[Pelipper]]-Level 30
*[[Altaria]]-Level 33

If she is defeated, the player receives the Feather Badge, the sixth of the eight badges to get into the Pokémon League.

===Other===

In the southeastern part of the city, there is a shop that sells accessories for the player's secret base such as tables and chairs.

West of the city in Route 119 is the Weather Institute.  Not technically part of the city, it is still a critical element of the game's plot.  Here, scientists have invented the weather-controlling Pokémon, [[Castform]]. When Team Magma (in ''Ruby'') or Team Aqua (''Sapphire'' and ''Emerald'') invade the facility, the player must fight them off and receives Castform as a reward for freeing the researchers. At the end of the game in [[Pokémon Emerald]], the Weather Institute plays a larger role by alerting you to the location of the legendary [[Pokémon]], [[Groudon]] and [[Kyogre]].

East of the city is the Scorched Slab, a small cave that can be accessed by surfing in the north lake of Route 120.  The only thing of note inside is the only location of TM11, which allows a pokemon to be taught the move Sunny Day.

==Demographics==
Fortree City is a small city in size, but it has a large population in comparison to other cities with a larger size. The population of Fortree City is 26.

{{Pokémon locations}}
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  <page>
    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Hoenn/Fallarbor Town</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>432469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662486</id>
      <parentid>3884538</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:13:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0.9em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250 style=&quot;border: 1em solid white&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large;&quot;&gt;'''Fallarbor Town'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''ハジツゲタウン'''&lt;br&gt;''Hajitsuge Town''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Fallarbormap.PNG|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''A farm community with small gardens.''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Hoenn]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 113 (East)&lt;br&gt;Route 114 (West)
|-
|}
'''Fallarbor Town''', known as '''Hajitsuge Town''' (ハジツゲタウン ''Hajitsuge Taun'') in the original Japanese version, is a [[fictional city]] in the [[Pokémon]] series, located in the [[Hoenn]] region. It lies north of Mt. Chimney. Most of its inhabitants work in agriculture; the soil is very fertile because of its high content of volcanic ash.

==Places of interest==
=== Pokémon Contest ===
Fallarbor Town is home to the Super Rank contest house.

=== Battle Tent ===
In [[Pokémon Emerald]], the contest house is replaced with a Battle Tent (like every other contest house except the one in Lilycove City). It is similar to the Battle Arena on the [[Battle Frontier]]. The player has to knock out the enemy's Pokémon within three turns, and if the player does not knock out the Pokémon, he or she will be graded on a points system based on their battling (the HP remaining, the effectiveness of moves, and how well the Pokémon used the moves). A circle is two points, a triangle is one point, and a letter X is zero points.

=== Fossil Maniac's House ===
In [[Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire|''Pokémon Ruby'' and ''Sapphire'']], there is a house near Fallarbor Town that gives the player access to a cave, in which the Fossil Maniac gives the player the TM Dig. In Pokémon Emerald, the Desert Underpass appears after becoming the champion, with nothing special except for the other fossil the player has not obtained yet at the Mirage Tower.

=== Professor Cozmo's House ===
In Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire, there is a house in Fallarbor Town where Professor Cozmo resides. After defeating Team Magma/Aqua and recovering the Meteorite, one can return it to Professor Cozmo for a TM, Return.
=== Desert Underpass ===
In [[Pokémon Emerald]], after the player defeats the [[Elite Four]], inside the Fossil Maniac's house is an entrance to the Desert Underpass. It stretches under the town and to the desert. Besides finding wild Pokémon ([[Ditto (Pokémon)|Ditto]], [[Whismur]], and [[Loudred]]), the player will find the fossil he or she did not pick at the Mirage Pillar in the desert.
===Meteor Falls===
'''Meteor Falls''' is a [[waterfall]]-filled [[cave]] located in the near Fallarbor Town. The cavern is particularly distinctive as it's the habitat for [[Lunatone]] (Lunatone can't be found in Emerald) and [[Solrock]].

Though players will initially have to pass through the area early on in the games to save Prof. Cosmo from Team Aqua or Team Magma, the majority of the area is not accessible to players until late in the game, when the Waterfall HM is available. Of interest to trainers is the rare Dragon Pokémon [[Bagon]], which is only found deep inside the caves. Additionally, in [[Pokémon Emerald]] one may challenge [[Steven Stone]] after becoming champion.

==Demographics==
Although Fallarbor Town is small in size, it has a population of 21. It should be noted that the Fossil Maniac is included, only because he lives just outside of the town.

{{Pokémon locations}}
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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Pallet Town</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>432489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662487</id>
      <parentid>3929682</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T16:14:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
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      <text bytes="5905" sha1="lzpw3zzspxeq44turnlzoy3kynqbxe4" xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0.9em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250 style=&quot;border: 1em solid white&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large;&quot;&gt;'''Pallet Town'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''マサラタウン'''&lt;br&gt;''Masara Town''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Pallet-town.png|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''Shades of your journey await!''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Regions|Region]]
| [[A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Regions/Kanto|Kanto]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
| Route 1 (North, by land)&lt;br&gt; Route 21 (South, by sea)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | 
|}

{{nihongo|'''Pallet Town'''|マサラタウン|Masara Taun|'''Masara Town''' in the original Japanese}} is a fictional town in [[A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Regions/Kanto|Kanto]]. This sleepy town lies on the shore, and is primarily known for hosting Professor Oaks lab, as well as for being the hometown of a number of notable Pokémon trainers.

==Demographics==
The population of Pallet Town is 10, making it the smallest town in Kanto.

==Pallet Town in the games==

Pallet Town is the hometown of the main character in [[Pokémon Red and Blue|Pokémon Red, Blue]], Yellow, [[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|FireRed and LeafGreen]], Pokémon Let's go Pikachu and Pokémon Let's go Eevee and can be visited in Pokémon Gold, Silver, Crystal, Pokémon Heart Gold and Pokémon Soul Silver.

Pallet Town is situated south of Viridian City and north of Cinnabar Island.  The route to the north, Route 1, is separated from Pallet by dense grass, and features a slight incline, along with small ledges. The route to the south, Route 21, is a large expanse of water with the exception of a small peninsula directly south of Pallet Town.

Within the game, there are only three buildings in Pallet: two residences in the north and a laboratory belonging to Professor Oak to the southeast.

===Red/Blue/Yellow/FireRed/LeafGreen===
The house in the northwest of Pallet is the residence of the player's character.  The first floor of the house is the kitchen/living room, and the second floor is the player's bedroom. The house to the northeast is the residence of both Professor Oak and his grandchildren.  His grandson, the player's rival, never appears in this house, but his granddaughter Daisy does appear, and gives the player a map of the Kanto region.  After obtaining the NationalDex in FireRed and LeafGreen, Daisy will groom one of the player's Pokémon and tell the player how his or her Pokémon feels.

The laboratory in Pallet is where Professor Oak does most of his research.  The first time the player attempts to leave Pallet Town, Oak leads the player into the lab to choose his first Pokémon. In Pokémon Yellow, instead when you try to leave Oak appears and catches a Pikachu, which is then given to you. There is also a computer in the corner that displays an e-mail to Oak, inviting him to watch a battle at the Indigo Plateau.

===Gold/Silver/Crystal===
The same three houses exist in the Gold and Silver version of the game.  The player's house is now the residence of a non-playable character named Red. Red's rival's name is Blue. Blue's sister, rather than giving a map to the player, will groom one of the player's Pokémon once a day, if the game's internal clock reads between 3:00PM and 4:00PM.

In Gold and Silver, a player can fish for Pokémon like [[Pokémon/Pokédex/Lanturn|Lanturn]] off its shore. Below the town is a grassy spot, where a player can catch [[Pokémon/Pokédex/Tangela|Tangela]] and [[Pokémon/Pokédex/Mr. Mime|Mr. Mime]].

==Pallet Town in the anime==
[[File:Ash Ketchum (5764005330).jpg|thumb|upright|Cosplay of Ash Ketchum]]
In the Pokémon Anime Pallet Town is the starting point and hometown for Ash Ketchum, the main character of the Pokémon anime.

The version of Pallet depicted in the anime is much more visually stunning than in the game.  Although only the same three buildings &amp;mdash; Ash Ketchum's house, Gary Oak's house, and Professor Oak's laboratory &amp;mdash; are seen, given the general lack of buildings in the game it can be assumed that there are more residences in Pallet.  In fact, a sizable group of people arrive at the laboratory in the first episode of the anime to celebrate the beginning of Gary's journey, and it can be presumed that these people live in Pallet. The Professor's laboratory sits on a sizable hill overlooking the rest of the town.

Pallet Town is among the most frequently seen places in the anime, especially in early seasons. Besides Ash's calls to Delia and Professor Oak, he typically returns there at the end of each saga, before going on to the next region. There are also a number of episodes of Pokémon Chronicles set there.

==Real Life Inspiration==
===Geographic===
It's geographical location, considering Kanto is based on the real Japanese region of the same name, is Shimoda on the Izu peninsula. This real life small city is historically notable as the port where many foreigners stopped during the opening of Japan in the 1850's.
===Naming===
A pallet is an artist's mixing tray, and many of the Kanto locations are named after colors: Viridian (Green), Pewter (Grey), Cerulean (Sky Blue), Vermilion (Orange-red), Lavender (Purple), Celadon, Fuschia (Pink), Saffron (Yellow), Cinnabar (Red) and Indigo* (purple-blue)* of Indigo Plateau.
===Gallery===
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;300&quot;&gt;
File:Oil painting palette.jpg|A Palette used for oil painting.
File:Shimoda Port Shimodau Shizuoka pref Japan02s.jpg|The real life port of Shimoda.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

{{Pokémon locations}}
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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Cerulean City</title>
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{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0.9em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250 style=&quot;border: 1em solid white&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large;&quot;&gt;'''Cerulean City'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''ハナダシティ'''&lt;br&gt;''Hanada City''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | 250px
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''A Mysterious, Blue Aura Surrounds It''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| Region
| Kanto
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
| Route 24 (North)&lt;br&gt; Route 5 (South)&lt;br&gt; Route 9 (East)&lt;br&gt; Route 4 (West)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Leaders
| Misty&lt;br&gt;Daisy (Anime only)&lt;br&gt;Lily (Anime) only)&lt;br&gt;Violet (Anime only)
|-
| ''Badge''
| Cascadebadge
|-
| ''Type''
| Water
|-
|}

[[Image:Cerulean City.jpg|thumb|Cerulean City in Pokémon Yellow]]
{{nihongo|'''Cerulean City'''|ハナダシティ|Hanada Shiti|'''Hanada City''' in the original Japanese}} is a fictional in-game city from the Pokémon video games.  It is located in north Kanto and part of the urban plains being very close to Saffron City and Celadon City. It is situated near a sea inlet to the north, with Saffron City to the south, and Mt. Moon to the west. It is home to Misty, the Cerulean City Gym Leader.

==Places of interest==

;Cerulean City Gym
 
Cerulean City Gym is led by Misty, who specializes in Water-type Pokémon. In Pokémon Red/Blue/Yellow/FireRed/LeafGreen Misty will have a Staryu and a Starmie, but in Pokémon Gold/Silver/Crystal she will host more powerful Pokémon such as Lapras and Quagsire. The Gym was also home to wild water Pokémon by fishing off the water. Some say that the wild Pokémon are the Gym's or Misty's Pokémon or a small glitch left in the game.  The glitch only works in the old Pokémon games, Pokémon RBY and not the GSC or FRLG games.    

;The Trader's House 

The Trader's House is famous in Pokémon Red/Blue/FireRed/LeafGreen for hosting a man who is crazy about trading his rare Pokémon, Jynx, for a common Pokémon, Poliwhirl. In Gold/Silver/Crystal, the man, if talked to, will tell you he lives happily with his traded Pokémon (the Pokémon will be in the background). 

;Melanie's House 

Melanie's House is featured only in Yellow (replacing the house where you trade), where the player can receive Bulbasaur as a gift if the player's Pikachu is happy.

;Nugget Bridge 

Nugget Bridge is to the north, where the player can beat five junior trainers in a row. It turns out they are in cahoots with Team Rocket and a Rocket Grunt appears to challenge the player. Once beaten, the player is awarded a nugget and is sent on their way. In Pokémon Yellow version, Damien surrenders his Charmander to the player after leaving the bridge on the northwest side.

;Bill's House

Bill's House is just outside of Cerulean City, at the most northeastern point in Kanto. In Pokémon Red/Blue/Yellow/Fire Red/Leaf Green he asks you to turn him back into a human (he turned himself into a Pokémon), but in Gold/Silver/Crystal you only meet his Grandfather (since Bill is in Goldenrod City). In Red/Blue/Yellow/Fire Red/Leaf Green he gives you a ticket for the ''S.S.Anne''.

;The Bike Shop 

The Bike Shop is important in Red/Blue/Yellow/FireRed/LeafGreen. If you get the Bike Voucher from Vermilion City, you can get a bike here.

;Cerulean Cave

Cerulean Cave, popularly known as '''The Unknown Dungeon''', is the legendary place where you find Mewtwo in Red/Blue/Yellow/FireRed/LeafGreen. It's blocked by a guard from the Elite Four until you defeat your rival at Indigo Plateau and recover a ruby and a sapphire. In Gold/Silver/Crystal its entrance is flooded by water, so you cannot access it, though you get a Berserk Gene. This greatly enhances attack but at the same time causes confusion. It can only be used ONCE in a battle (link battle exempt).

==Cerulean City in the GS generation==
Cerulean City does not change much from Red/Blue/Yellow to Gold/Silver/Crystal, except for the Cerulean Cave's entrance becoming flooded and the Bike Shop moving to Johto.

The Nugget Bridge game has two minor differences:
1.  The game no longer takes place on the bridge, but rather on past the bridge on the way to Bill's house.
2.  The game is still played unfairly, and there are seven trainers rather than six, but the seventh trainer isn't a member of Team Rocket; rather, he is just someone who doesn't think that he can win in a fair battle so he decides to cheat.

Also, Bill no longer lives in his house up the cape, his grandfather does.  He will ask you to show him a relatively rare Pokémon such as a Staryu, and if you do he will give you an evolution stone corresponding to that Pokémon's type (eg. Lickitung-Everstone, Staryu-Water Stone, etc.)  Aside from the everstone you cannot get any of the evolution stones any other way.  Note-he doesn't give you a Sun Stone or a Moon Stone and you can only get one of each item.[http://www.serebii.net/gs/Walkthrough/37-cerulean.shtml]

==In the Anime==

In the anime, Cerulean City is the size of an average town.  It has appeared in a number of episodes, as the gym is run by Misty's sisters.  The Gym battles take place on a swimming pool, which is nowhere near the style of the Water Gym in Sootopolis City.

Misty becomes the Official Gym leader at the end of the Johto saga, and her time at the Gym is a part of Pokémon Chronicles.

==Demographics==
The population of Cerulean City is 23.

{{Pokémon locations}}
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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Pewter City</title>
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{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0.9em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250 style=&quot;border: 1em solid white&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;'''Pewter City'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''ニビシティ'''&lt;br&gt;''Nibi City''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Pewtercity-frlg.png|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''A Stone Gray City''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};;&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Kanto (Pokémon)|Kanto]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
| Route 2 (South)&lt;br&gt;Route 3 (East)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Leaders
| Brock&lt;br&gt;Flint (Anime only)&lt;br&gt;Lola (Anime only)&lt;br&gt;Forrest (Anime only)
|-
| ''Badge''
| Boulderbadge
|-
| ''Type''
| Rock (Brock/Flint/Forrest)&lt;br&gt;Water (Lola)
|-
|}

{{nihongo|'''Pewter City'''|ニビシティ|Nibi Shiti|'''Nibi City''' in the original [[Japanese language|Japanese]]}} is located in northwest Kanto, between [[Viridian Forest]] and Mt. Moon. It is the second nearest city to [[A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Pallet Town|Pallet Town]], hometown of the anime character Ash Ketchum. The Gym leader of the Pewter City Gym is Brock, who in the anime joined Ash in his quest. Brock trains Rock-type Pokémon and owns a [[Geodude]] and [[Onix]]. 

== Overview ==

Pewter City is the first available city with a Gym Leader in the [[Pokémon Red and Blue|Red, Blue]], [[Pokémon Yellow|Yellow]], [[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|FireRed, and LeafGreen]] Pokémon video games and appears in [[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Gold, Silver]] and [[Pokémon Crystal|Crystal]] after completion of the Pokémon League. Brock is the Pewter City Gym Leader specializing in Rock-type Pokémon. Pewter City is also famous for its museum. The museum exhibits Pokémon fossils that were found at Mt. Moon. The museum is closed in the Gold and Silver versions due to renovations.

== The Museum ==
The Museum is one of the main attractions of Pewter City. It has a‎ 50 {{Pokédollar}} admission price. On the first floor are the fossils of [[Pokémon/Pokédex/Aerodactyl|Aerodactyl]] and [[Pokémon/Pokédex/Kabutops|Kabutops]]. The second floor features a space exhibit with a large Space Shuttle Columbia model on display (in [[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen]], it will just be a generic space shuttle due to the then recent STS-107 failure). You can also see Moon Stones that are rumored to have come from the moon. Once you have received HM01 (Cut) and defeated the Cerulean Gym Leader, Misty, you can sneak into the museum through the side. After you talk to the scientist next to the stand, he will secretly give you Old Amber, which you can take to [[Cinnabar Island]] and use to bring Aerodactyl back to life.

==The Path to Mt. Moon==
{{Main|Mt. Moon}}
Pewter City is along the path to Mt. Moon, which contains a variety of Pokémon, including the rare Clefairy. Clefairies are rumored to dance on Monday nights, though they avoid humans.

==Pewter City (Anime version) ==
The first citizen Ash and Misty meet is Flint, Brock's father, unknown to Ash at the time. The Pewter City Pokémon Center is where Ash gets this idea for the Kanto League. Either at the form mention cafe of the P.C. or a fast food joint, Ash leaves Misty stuck with the bill. The Gym is inside a giant Petwer-like rock, where Ash had his battles with Brock. Also not too far away, in a Japanese-style house that home to Brock and his family. 

In the Pokémon Chronicles episode, &quot;A Family That Battles, Stays Together&quot;, Brock returns home to find out that his mom has become a water trainer.  He then has to help his brother to save the Gym. He does and he gives his brother Forrest a few of his Pokémon including Onix, Geodude and Crobat. 

Ash, May, Max and Brock make a stop at Pewter City on the way to their final Battle Frontier area and have to protect the gym from Team Rocket. It seems that Brock's mother painted over inside and outside of the Gym.

==Demographics==
The population of Pewter City is 23.
== Real Life Inspiration ==
=== Gallery ===
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot;&gt;
File:STS-90 Landing - GPN-2000-000823.jpg|The real life Space Shuttle Columbia. A model of this spacecraft can be seen in the Pewter City Museum.
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{Pokémon locations}}
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    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. h3/1...e5</title>
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|Clemenz Opening
|eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]]
|parent=[[../|Clemenz Opening]]
}}

== 1...e5 ==
Black plays the most common continuation. They can obtain a slight advantage by playing obvious developing moves, as White has merely wasted time and has allowed Black to get a larger portion of the centre than they would normally obtain.

== Theory table ==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
{{Chess/theory table |links=1
|line1=2. a3 d5 3. c4 c6 4. cxd5 cxd5 5. d3 Nc6
|eval1={{Chess/not|-}}
|name1=Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defence
|line2=2. ... ... 3. d3 c5 4. e4 Nf6
|eval2={{Chess/not|-}}
|line3=2. ... ... 3. e3 Be6 4. d4 Nc6
|eval3={{Chess/not|-}}
|line4=2. c4 Nc6 3. d3 Nf6 4. a3 d5 5. cxd5 Nxd5 6. Nf3 Bd6 7. Nbd2 O-O
|eval4={{Chess/not|-}}
|line5=2. ... ... 3. ... ... 4. ... ... 5. ... ... 6. ... ... 7. e4 Nde7
|eval5={{Chess/not|-}}
}}
{{ChessFooter}}
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  <page>
    <title>Chess Variants</title>
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      <text bytes="12222" sha1="1koqcp25hdixh1jrlfdgj31by6xqx7o" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
[[File:Hexagonal chess.svg|alt=An image showing the initial setup of Gliński’s hexagonal chess.|thumb|302x302px|'''Gliński’s hexagonal chess''' is the most popular of the hexagonal chess variants. It had around half a million players at its prime.]]
'''Chess variants''' are a family of board games derived from chess. These variants can involve only a slight modification to the rules of chess, or can involve more drastic changes. There are lots of chess variants - the number is in the thousands. ''The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants,'' a chess variant catalogue created in 1994 by chess player David Pritchard, has around 2,000 chess variants listed in its catalogue and notes many more variants were considered too trivial for inclusion.

== History of chess ==
If one wishes to delve into the world of chess variants, it will be a good idea to understand how chess originated and evolved. The most common theory of the origin of chess states that the game originated in India in the sixth century CE, under the name ''chaturanga''. Chaturanga was a strategy game simulating a war between two Indian factions, with pieces representing the four arms of the ancient Indian army - the infantry (pawns), cavalry (knights), elephants (bishops) and chariots (rooks) - as well as two pieces for the king and his advisor. Much like the modern game, the goal of chaturanga was to checkmate the enemy king, although at the time stalemate was also considered a win for the player delivering the stalemate.

Around 600 CE chaturanga spread to Sassanid Persia, where the name became ''shatranj''. Following the conquest of Persia by Islamic forces, the game spread throughout the entire Islamic world, which served as the springboard for shatranj to reach Europe by the 9th century, spreading throughout the entire continent by 1000.

At the same time, shatranj and chaturanga were spread by trade along the Silk Road to East Asia, giving rise to chess's Asian cousins - xiangqi in China, janggi in Korea and shogi in Japan.

Back in Europe, chess went through further development. Some of the pieces were reinterpreted in Catholic eyes - the piece representing the Indian elephant was recast as a Catholic bishop, and coinciding with the strong female leaders arising around this time, the king's advisor was recast as a queen.

Another major development occurred in Germany, also in the 12th century, where a chess variant known as ''Courier Chess'' was created, which introduced the chess-playing world to the diagonal move used by the modern bishop (which in Courier chess was used by that game's titular piece). This move was swiftly granted to the bishop on the 8 by 8 board to speed up the game, and in around 1475 the queen was granted her modern powers (previously, she could only move one square diagonally), creating a variant known as &quot;Mad Queen Chess&quot;.

By the 15th century, a few more modifications had been made to the rules of Mad Queen Chess, such as the pawn double-step, castling and en passant, creating the game of chess as we know it today (although the rules wouldn't be universally standardised until the end of the 19th century).

== Types of variants ==
There are many different types of chess variants, and variants are usually created with the standard game as a starting point. Variant creators often create chess variants to fix an issue they perceive with the standard game or to create new games of interest for chess players. 

Here are some ways in which chess variants differ from the standard game:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Some ways in which chess variants differ from the standard game:
!Difference from standard chess:
!Example:
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Board differences'''''
|-
|Board with a different size or shape
|Chess on a 12 by 12 board - As its name suggests.
|-
|Board with a different topology
|Cylindrical chess - uses a cylindrical board.
|-
|Board with a non-square lattice
|Gliński’s hexagonal chess - Uses a board made up of 91 hexagon-shaped cells.
|-
|Board with more than two dimensions of movement
|Raumschach - Uses a 5 by 5 by 5 board.
|-
|Multiple boards
|Alice chess - Pieces switch between two boards when they move.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Movement differences'''''
|-
| Different basic piece movement rules
| Push chess, Simultaneous chess, and Quantum chess - Very different movement rules.
|-
|Different castling rules
|Shafran's hexagonal chess - Four different types of castling.
|-
| Different pawn promotion rules
|Balbo's chess - Piece replacement types available depend on the file the promoted pawn is in.
|-
|Different piece capture/restore rules
|Circe chess - Pieces taken from the opponent are resurrected on their starting square.
|-
|Non-standard pieces
|Almost chess - The queens are replaced with chancellors, which can move like a rook or a knight.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Player differences'''''
|-
|More than two players
|Four-player chess - Four players play on a cross-shaped board.
|-
|Non-identical setup for both players
|Dunsany's chess - Black has a regular chess army, while White has a horde of 32 pawns.
|-
|Players cooperate
|Cooperative chess - The players play for a mutual win.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Win/lose rule differences'''''
|-
|Different check/checkmate rules
|3-Check chess - The first player to put the other in check 3 times wins.
|-
|Different victory conditions
|Losing chess (also known as suicide chess, antichess or giveaway chess) - The objective is to lose all of one's pieces.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Information differences'''''
|-
|Incomplete game information
|Kriegspiel - Players cannot see each other's pieces.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Randomness differences'''''
|-
|Random starting position
|Fischer random chess (a.k.a., Chess960) - Starting configuration is randomly selected from among 960 possible options.
|-
|Use of cards
|Knightmare chess - Players are dealt cards that can be used to change the rules of the game.
|-
|Use of dice
|Dice chess - Dice rolls determine which pieces can move on a given turn.
|}
Some chess variants have sub-variants of their own - for example, Dunsany's chess has a subvariant named ''Horde chess''.

== Playing chess variants ==
There are many chess variants that can be played with standard equipment, but there are also many variants that require special computer software to play (perhaps because they use non-standard boards or pieces). Some of those variants (such as Gothic chess) have been made into commercially available products, however. Also, the two most notable chess websites online, Chess.com and lichess.org, both offer support for a handful of variants. There are also softwares that have been made specifically to play chess variants, such as Chess Remix, Zillions of Games, Fairy-Max and ChessV.

== A catalogue of variants ==
The variants in this catalogue are sorted by whether or not they use a standard board, pieces and rules.

===Standard Rules===

==== Different Starting Position ====
* [[Chess Variants/Fischer Random Chess|Fischer Random Chess]]

====Different Number of Pieces====
* [[Chess Variants/Dunsany's Chess|Dunsany's Chess]]

====Non-Standard Board====
* [[Chess Variants/Balbo's Game|Balbo's Game]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chess on a 12 by 12 Board|Chess on a 12 by 12 Board]]
* [[Chess Variants/Circular Chess|Circular Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cross Chess|Cross Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cylinder Chess|Cylinder Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Double Chess|Double Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Grid Chess|Grid Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Hexagonal Chess|Hexagonal Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Infinite Chess|Infinite Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Los Alamos Chess|Los Alamos Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Masonic Chess|Masonic Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Minichess|Minichess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Raumshcach|Raumshcach]]
* [[Chess Variants/Triangular Chess|Triangular Chess]]

===Non-Standard Rules, Standard Pieces===

====Standard Board====
* [[Chess Variants/Atomic Chess|Atomic Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Beirut Chess|Beirut Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Checkless Chess|Checkless Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chessplus|Chessplus]]
* [[Chess Variants/Circe Chess|Circe Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Crazyhouse|Crazyhouse]]
* [[Chess Variants/Extinction Chess|Extinction Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Hostage Chess|Hostage Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/King of the Hill|King of the Hill]]
* [[Chess Variants/Knight Relay Chess|Knight Relay Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Legan Chess|Legan Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Losing Chess|Losing Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Monochromatic Chess|Monochromatic Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Patrol Chess|Patrol Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Three-Check Chess|Three-Check Chess]]

====Multi-Move Variants====
* [[Chess Variants/Avalanche Chess|Avalanche Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Marseillais Chess|Marseillais Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Monster Chess|Monster Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Progressive Chess|Progressive Chess]]

====Elements of Chance====
* [[Chess Variants/Dark Chess|Dark Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Dice Chess|Dice Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Knightmare Chess|Knightmare Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Kriegspiel|Kriegspiel]]

====Non-Standard Board and Rules====
* [[Chess Variants/5D Chess with Multiverse Time Travel|5D Chess with Multiverse Time Travel]]
* [[Chess Variants/Alice Chess|Alice Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chad|Chad]]
* [[Chess Variants/Diplomat Chess|Diplomat Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Parallel Worlds Chess|Parallel Worlds Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Rollerball Chess|Rollerball Chess]]

===Non-Standard Rules and Pieces===

===Standard Board===
* [[Chess Variants/Anti-King Chess|Anti-King Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Berolina Chess|Berolina Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cavalier Chess|Cavalier Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cheskers|Cheskers]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chess with Different Armies|Chess with Different Armies]]
* [[Chess Variants/Falcon Hunter Chess|Falcon Hunter Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Grasshopper Chess|Grasshopper Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Knightmate|Knightmate]]
* [[Chess Variants/Musketeer Chess|Musketeer Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Pocket Mutation Chess|Pocket Mutation Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Racing Kings|Racing Kings]]
* [[Chess Variants/Ultima|Ultima]]

===Compound Pieces===
* [[Chess Variants/Almost Chess|Almost Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Capablanca Chess|Capablanca Chess]] (and other 10x8 variants)
* [[Chess Variants/Chancellor Chess|Chancellor Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Grand Chess|Grand Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Maharajah and the Sepoys|Maharajah and the Sepoys]]
* [[Chess Variants/Modern Chess|Modern Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Tutti-Frutti Chess|Tutti-Frutti Chess]]

====Non-Standard Board and Pieces====
* [[Chess Variants/Caïssa Britannia|Caïssa Britannia]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chess on a really big board|Chess on a really big board]]
* [[Chess Variants/Eurasian Chess|Eurasian Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Omega Chess|Omega Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Wildebeest Chess|Wildebeest Chess]]

===Multi-Player Variants===

* [[Chess Variants/Bughouse Chess|Bughouse Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Four-Player Chess|Four-Player Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Three-Player Chess|Three-Player Chess]]

===Historical Variants===

* [[Chess Variants/Chaturanga and Shatranj|Chaturanga and Shatranj]]
* [[Chess Variants/Courier Chess|Courier Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Tamerlane Chess|Tamerlane Chess]]

== Related Wikibooks ==

* [[Chess]] provides an introduction to the standard game.
{{Associated Wikimedia|Chess variants
|Commons             = Chess variants
|Commons category    = Chess variants
|Wikipedia           = Chess variants
|Wikipedia portal    = Chess

}}

{{Shelves|Chess}}
{{Alphabetical|C}}
{{status|50%}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Create Vampires/Why Create Vampires</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>4662573</id>
      <parentid>4636320</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Broke a run-on sentence into two shorter sentences.</comment>
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      <text bytes="6622" sha1="rz3jqcwlkiaihuurpsvfrz9l3idgqui" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, almost un-loveable, and very problematic.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] 

who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662574</id>
      <parentid>4662573</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:07:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662574</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6621" sha1="4jvxtoebbcokj7rt9sxl2rw3rylof4r" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, almost un-loveable, and very problematic.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] 

who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>4jvxtoebbcokj7rt9sxl2rw3rylof4r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662575</id>
      <parentid>4662574</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:09:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>broke maybe into may be...</comment>
      <origin>4662575</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6622" sha1="2y5ib8egv7a7jz1uq2vii7n1laju0xr" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, almost un-loveable, and very problematic.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] 

who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>2y5ib8egv7a7jz1uq2vii7n1laju0xr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662576</id>
      <parentid>4662575</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:10:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Broke a long sentence into two shorted sentences. Removed a comma.</comment>
      <origin>4662576</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6625" sha1="2uyuqxmf36c6zex5ujlvcgz8bgijqla" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics. Vampires are not popular, almost un-loveable and very problematic.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] 

who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>2uyuqxmf36c6zex5ujlvcgz8bgijqla</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662577</id>
      <parentid>4662576</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:11:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>4662577</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6627" sha1="6uixcv9logn4db4o6ejfucjflpxh8ft" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics. Vampires are not popular, almost un-loveable and very problematic.    

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] 

who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>6uixcv9logn4db4o6ejfucjflpxh8ft</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662578</id>
      <parentid>4662577</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:11:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662578</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6631" sha1="s94dgpoxs4wnrwot6c92ouc44u1756v" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics. Vampires are not popular, almost un-loveable and very problematic.        

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] 

who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>s94dgpoxs4wnrwot6c92ouc44u1756v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662579</id>
      <parentid>4662578</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:12:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Blank space added.</comment>
      <origin>4662579</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6639" sha1="cat5uqdzwjzvt8hvfama570sljufzbu" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics. Vampires are not popular, almost un-loveable and very problematic.                

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] 

who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>cat5uqdzwjzvt8hvfama570sljufzbu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662580</id>
      <parentid>4662579</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:13:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662580</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6637" sha1="8vrg3m3jvur8bu0l6k6z6wdya7ckpwr" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics. Vampires are not popular, almost un-loveable and very problematic.                

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt; 

These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;


Sources: 

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>8vrg3m3jvur8bu0l6k6z6wdya7ckpwr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662585</id>
      <parentid>4662580</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:16:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed dead space.</comment>
      <origin>4662585</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6642" sha1="8yxhmf7uujgiw45tfpl05hpxu5z8zjk" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics. Vampires are not popular, almost un-loveable and very problematic.                

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt;These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;

'''Question:''' Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;

Sources:

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>8yxhmf7uujgiw45tfpl05hpxu5z8zjk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662599</id>
      <parentid>4662585</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T20:35:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added new link</comment>
      <origin>4662599</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6789" sha1="g2imge4zitccwnb9rahuxorv73yu0sm" xml:space="preserve">== Why Create Vampires? ==
&lt;br&gt;
What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?&lt;br&gt;
What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? &lt;br&gt;
What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?&lt;br&gt;
These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. &lt;br&gt;
Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. &lt;br&gt;
Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. 

&lt;br&gt;
In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you make takes time to write. This is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events. Your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, &lt;br&gt;
in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is about telling a story in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination may be following their own personal creative spirit. 


'''WARNING: &lt;u&gt;Vampires of the imagination in action!&lt;/u&gt;''' 


Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. 

Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics. Vampires are not popular, almost un-loveable and very problematic.                

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:
!Traits
!
!Characteristics
|-
|Pale / Deadly pale
|
|Enjoy isolation / Loner personality
|-
|Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth
|
|Predator personality
|-
|Thin
|
|Alpha Male type
|-
|Black hair / Brown Hair
|
|&quot;Energy Vampire&quot; : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories.
|-
|Re-animated corpse with failing body issues.
|
|
|}
 
Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Supernatural Vampire Traits
!Traits that are supernatural
!Mythological Creature
|-
|Immortality &lt;br&gt;
Drinking blood &lt;br&gt;
Sunlight Poisoning &lt;br&gt;
Heightened senses &lt;br&gt;
Morphing
|[[File:&quot;Le_Vampire&quot;.jpg|thumb|&quot;Le Vampire&quot;]]
|}
Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors.  In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 &quot;To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair,&quot; it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
'''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. &lt;br&gt;These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called &quot;vampire teeth&quot; by some Writers. &lt;br&gt;

'''Question:''' Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe 
physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?&lt;br&gt;

Sources:

[[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 

[[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com 

[[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com 

&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''&quot;How do you spell vampire?&quot;''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: [[Create Vampires/Dracula Behind Vlad-The Impaler]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope|Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

Link: [[Create Vampires/What Is A Historical Construct|Create Vampires/What Is A Historical Construct - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>g2imge4zitccwnb9rahuxorv73yu0sm</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cascading Style Sheets/Color/Relative colors</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>470542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662743</id>
      <parentid>4446232</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T10:23:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakespeareFan00</username>
        <id>46022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662743</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5973" sha1="fhgm1az5xdgmx65alfoh68a66tlnh7e" xml:space="preserve">{{info|To view these examples, you need Chrome 119+, Edge 119+, Safari 16.4+, Firefox 128+ or Opera 106+.}}
'''Relative colors''' is a great way to define colors. It is a powerful tool to create palettes. It is introduced in Chrome/Edge 119, Safari 16.4, Firefox 128 and Opera 106.

== Uses ==
=== User interfaces ===
Consider the following color palettes: red, olive, teal and violet, as respective variables --base-color.
You can set the following colors for the user interface:
* &lt;code&gt;--background-color: oklch(from var(--base-color) 98% 0.02 h)&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;--foreground-color: oklch(from var(--base-color) 20% 0.1 h)&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;--button-color: oklch(from var(--base-color) 40% 0.2 h)&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;--inverse-color: oklch(from var(--base-color) 99% 0.01 h)&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;--notice-color: oklch(from var(--base-color) 90% 0.1 h)&lt;/code&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;flex-basis: 15em; flex-grow: 1; background: oklch(from red 98% 0.02 h); height: 15em; border: 1px solid black; color: oklch(from red 20% 0.1 h); padding: 0.5em; margin: 0.5em;&quot;&gt;
This is some text.
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em 0.5em; background: oklch(from red 90% 0.1 h);{{Text default color}}; border-radius: 2px;&quot;&gt;
This is a notice.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em; background: oklch(from red 40% 0.2 h); color: oklch(from red 99% 0.01 h); border-radius: 999px; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Button
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;flex-basis: 15em; flex-grow: 1; background: oklch(from olive 98% 0.02 h); height: 15em; border: 1px solid black; color: oklch(from olive 20% 0.1 h); padding: 0.5em; margin: 0.5em;&quot;&gt;
This is some text.
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em 0.5em; background: oklch(from olive 90% 0.1 h);{{Text default color}}; border-radius: 2px;&quot;&gt;
This is a notice.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em; background: oklch(from olive 40% 0.2 h); color: oklch(from olive 99% 0.01 h); border-radius: 999px; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Button
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;flex-basis: 15em; flex-grow: 1; background: oklch(from teal 98% 0.02 h); height: 15em; border: 1px solid black; color: oklch(from teal 20% 0.1 h); padding: 0.5em; margin: 0.5em;&quot;&gt;
This is some text.
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em 0.5em; background: oklch(from teal 90% 0.1 h);{{Text default color}}; border-radius: 2px;&quot;&gt;
This is a notice.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em; background: oklch(from teal 40% 0.2 h); color: oklch(from teal 99% 0.01 h); border-radius: 999px; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Button
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;flex-basis: 15em; flex-grow: 1; background: oklch(from violet 98% 0.02 h); height: 15em; border: 1px solid black; color: oklch(from violet 20% 0.1 h); padding: 0.5em; margin: 0.5em;&quot;&gt;
This is some text.
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em 0.5em; background: oklch(from violet 90% 0.1 h);{{Text default color}}; border-radius: 2px;&quot;&gt;
This is a notice.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;padding: 0.1em 1em; margin: 1em; background: oklch(from violet 40% 0.2 h); color: oklch(from violet 99% 0.01 h); border-radius: 999px; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Button
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Palettes ===
You can create analogous, triadic, split complementary, square and rectangle palettes.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Color
! colspan=&quot;17&quot; | HSL
! colspan=&quot;17&quot; | LCH
! colspan=&quot;17&quot; | OKLCH
|- style=&quot;font-size: 80%;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Analogous
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Triadic
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Split
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 8em;&quot; | Square 
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 8em;&quot; | Rectangle 
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Analogous
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Triadic
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Split
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 8em;&quot; | Square 
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 8em;&quot; | Rectangle 
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Analogous
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Triadic
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 6em;&quot; | Split
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 8em;&quot; | Square 
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;min-width: 8em;&quot; | Rectangle 
|-
! colspan=&quot;52&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Basic HTML colors
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|red|white|Red}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|yellow|black|Yellow}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|lime|black|Lime}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|cyan|black|Cyan}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|blue|white|Blue}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|magenta|white|Magenta}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|maroon|white|Maroon}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|olive|white|Olive}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|green|white|Green}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|teal|white|Teal}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|navy|white|Navy}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|purple|white|Purple}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;52&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Pink colors
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|MediumVioletRed|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|DeepPink|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|PaleVioletRed|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|HotPink|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|LightPink|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Pink|black}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;52&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Red colors
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|DarkRed|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Red|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Firebrick|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Crimson|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|IndianRed|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|LightCoral|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Salmon|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|DarkSalmon|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|LightSalmon|black}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;52&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Orange colors
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|OrangeRed|white}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Tomato|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|DarkOrange|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Coral|black}}
|-
{{CSS relative color palette|Orange|black}}
|}

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>fhgm1az5xdgmx65alfoh68a66tlnh7e</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/sandbox</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>470910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662643</id>
      <parentid>4627885</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:13:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Making [[WB:Requests for deletion|deletion request]]</comment>
      <origin>4662643</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="162" sha1="svb7n3pcsg1wfzi5uirdg3v7yuzcv6t" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Rfd|example=true}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
&lt;span id=&quot;sandbox-thing&quot;&gt;You might want to add &lt;code&gt;withJS=MediaWiki:Sandbox.js&lt;/code&gt; at the end of this URL&lt;/span&gt;.</text>
      <sha1>svb7n3pcsg1wfzi5uirdg3v7yuzcv6t</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662645</id>
      <parentid>4662643</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:14:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Undoing last edit ([[User:Enterprisey/undo-last-edit.js|undo-last-edit]])</comment>
      <origin>4662645</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="118" sha1="3fv5hzz12rasuf1mnlac5hc3jdyfxwi" xml:space="preserve">&lt;span id=&quot;sandbox-thing&quot;&gt;You might want to add &lt;code&gt;withJS=MediaWiki:Sandbox.js&lt;/code&gt; at the end of this URL&lt;/span&gt;.</text>
      <sha1>3fv5hzz12rasuf1mnlac5hc3jdyfxwi</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/luna/CurateThisPage.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>470953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662637</id>
      <parentid>4628289</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:48:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>asynchronizing</comment>
      <origin>4662637</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="4763" sha1="o7k7sqcqqvf9ttafvj17eefm1st8kts" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
importScript(&quot;User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/review.js&quot;);
var parsedTitle = mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, &quot; &quot;);
window.reviewablePage = window.isReviewer &amp;&amp; ([0, 102, 110].includes(mw.config.get(&quot;wgNamespaceNumber&quot;)));
(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;)) {
		var porty = window.addLunaLink({
			id: &quot;luna-ctp&quot;,
			href: &quot;#&quot;,
			text: &quot;Tag (improvement)&quot;,
			tooltip: 'Tag this page for maintenance or improvement',
			onClick: () =&gt; { 
				$(&quot;#CTPdialog&quot;).dialog({ title: &quot;Tag this page for maintenance or improvement&quot;, height: &quot;auto&quot;, width: &quot;auto&quot; })
			}
		});
		if (window.reviewablePage)	{
			var porty2 = window.addLunaLink({
				id: &quot;luna-rev&quot;,
				href: &quot;#&quot;,
				text: &quot;Review&quot;,
				tooltip: &quot;Mark this page as reviewed&quot;,
				onClick: () =&gt; {
					doTheReview(true); 
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe page has been marked as reviewed. Reloading...&quot;);
					setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
				}
			});
		}
	}
})(); 

$(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) !== 0) {
		$(&quot;#bodyContent&quot;).append(`
		&lt;div id=&quot;CTPdialog&quot;&gt;
			How would you like to tag this page? &lt;br /&gt;
			&lt;select name=&quot;CTPtagReason&quot; id=&quot;CTPtagReason&quot;&gt;
				&lt;option&gt;Select the template&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-em&quot;&gt;Query (test)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-dup&quot;&gt;Query (duplicate)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-twwp&quot;&gt;Query (cut-and-paste transwiki)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-scope&quot;&gt;Query (out of scope)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;s-twwp-2&quot;&gt;Dewikify, bookify, adopt&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;attention&quot;&gt;Attention&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;cleanup&quot;&gt;Cleanup&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;unreferenced&quot;&gt;Unreferenced&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;formatting&quot;&gt;Formatting&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;copyedit&quot;&gt;Copy edit&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;outdated&quot;&gt;Outdated&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;stub&quot;&gt;Stub&lt;/option&gt;
		    &lt;/select&gt;
		    &lt;span style=&quot;display: block;&quot;&gt;&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;reviewMark&quot; class=&quot;reviewMark&quot; name=&quot;reviewMark&quot; /&gt;&lt;label class=&quot;reviewMark&quot; for=&quot;reviewMark&quot;&gt;Mark as reviewed&lt;/label&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
		    &lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;notifyAuthor&quot; name=&quot;notifyAuthor&quot; checked /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;notifyAuthor&quot;&gt;Notify page author&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
		    &lt;button type=&quot;button&quot; id=&quot;addTag&quot;&gt;Add tag&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		`);
		(async () =&gt; {
			if (await waitForPreferences()) {
				for (var [i, j] of Object.entries(Luna.myPreferences.CTP)) {
				    $(&quot;#CTPtagReason&quot;).append(`&lt;option id=&quot;${i}&quot;&gt;${j}&lt;/option&gt;`);
				}

			}
			else {
			    console.error(&quot;Luna: Preferences never fully loaded.&quot;);
			}
		})();
		if (!window.reviewablePage) $(&quot;.reviewMark&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;#CTPdialog&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;#addTag&quot;).click(async function() {
			var mySelect = document.getElementById(&quot;CTPtagReason&quot;);
			var critValue = mySelect.value;
			var tag = mySelect.options[mySelect.selectedIndex].id;
			var cmtAuthor;
			var queryComment;
			if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthor&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
				cmtAuthor = prompt(&quot;Why are you tagging this page (press 'Cancel' for use the default reason)? This comment will also be sent to the author of the page.&quot;) || &quot;&quot;;
				queryComment = cmtAuthor;
			}
			else if (tag == &quot;qr-em&quot;) {
				queryComment = prompt(&quot;Why are you querying this page (press 'Cancel' to use the default reason)?&quot;) || &quot;&quot;;
			}
			
			if(critValue == &quot;Select the template&quot;) {
				alert(&quot;You must select a template.&quot;);
				return;
			}
			else {
				var criterion;
				var finalTag;
				if (tag.startsWith(&quot;s-&quot;)) {
					tag = &quot;subst:&quot; + tag.slice(2);
				}

				if ($(&quot;#reviewMark&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
					doTheReview(false);
				}
				criterion = `Adding {{${tag}}} tag`;
				finalTag = tag != &quot;qr-em&quot; ? tag : tag + `|1=${queryComment}`;
				var params = {
					action: 'edit',
					prependtext: `{{${finalTag}}}\n`,
					title: parsedTitle,
					summary: criterion,
					tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
					format: 'json'
				},
				api = new mw.Api();

				try {
					var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params )
					console.log( data );
					
					if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthor&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
						params = {
							action: 'edit',
							appendtext: `\n{{subst:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg|title=${parsedTitle}|tag=${finalTag}|username=${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}|comment=${cmtAuthor ? cmtAuthor : &quot;&quot;}}}`,
							title: `User_talk:${await getAuthor()}`,
							summary: &quot;Notifying author about page tagging&quot;,
							tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
							format: 'json'
						}
						api = new mw.Api();
						data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params )
						console.log( data );
					}
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe tag has been added. Reloading...&quot;);
					setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
				}
				catch (error) {
					console.error(&quot;Luna: Tagging failed.&quot;, error)
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna: Tagging failed. See the console for details.&quot;)
				}
				
			}
		});
	}
});
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>o7k7sqcqqvf9ttafvj17eefm1st8kts</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662639</id>
      <parentid>4662637</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:01:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>semicolons (via [[:m:User:NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh/CodeAjaxEditor.js|CAE]])</comment>
      <origin>4662639</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="4765" sha1="isz8n48n345hbbw4348do16jh8698ef" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
importScript(&quot;User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/review.js&quot;);
var parsedTitle = mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, &quot; &quot;);
window.reviewablePage = window.isReviewer &amp;&amp; ([0, 102, 110].includes(mw.config.get(&quot;wgNamespaceNumber&quot;)));
(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;)) {
		var porty = window.addLunaLink({
			id: &quot;luna-ctp&quot;,
			href: &quot;#&quot;,
			text: &quot;Tag (improvement)&quot;,
			tooltip: 'Tag this page for maintenance or improvement',
			onClick: () =&gt; { 
				$(&quot;#CTPdialog&quot;).dialog({ title: &quot;Tag this page for maintenance or improvement&quot;, height: &quot;auto&quot;, width: &quot;auto&quot; })
			}
		});
		if (window.reviewablePage)	{
			var porty2 = window.addLunaLink({
				id: &quot;luna-rev&quot;,
				href: &quot;#&quot;,
				text: &quot;Review&quot;,
				tooltip: &quot;Mark this page as reviewed&quot;,
				onClick: () =&gt; {
					doTheReview(true); 
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe page has been marked as reviewed. Reloading...&quot;);
					setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
				}
			});
		}
	}
})(); 

$(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) !== 0) {
		$(&quot;#bodyContent&quot;).append(`
		&lt;div id=&quot;CTPdialog&quot;&gt;
			How would you like to tag this page? &lt;br /&gt;
			&lt;select name=&quot;CTPtagReason&quot; id=&quot;CTPtagReason&quot;&gt;
				&lt;option&gt;Select the template&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-em&quot;&gt;Query (test)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-dup&quot;&gt;Query (duplicate)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-twwp&quot;&gt;Query (cut-and-paste transwiki)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;qr-scope&quot;&gt;Query (out of scope)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;s-twwp-2&quot;&gt;Dewikify, bookify, adopt&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;attention&quot;&gt;Attention&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;cleanup&quot;&gt;Cleanup&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;unreferenced&quot;&gt;Unreferenced&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;formatting&quot;&gt;Formatting&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;copyedit&quot;&gt;Copy edit&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;outdated&quot;&gt;Outdated&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;stub&quot;&gt;Stub&lt;/option&gt;
		    &lt;/select&gt;
		    &lt;span style=&quot;display: block;&quot;&gt;&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;reviewMark&quot; class=&quot;reviewMark&quot; name=&quot;reviewMark&quot; /&gt;&lt;label class=&quot;reviewMark&quot; for=&quot;reviewMark&quot;&gt;Mark as reviewed&lt;/label&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
		    &lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;notifyAuthor&quot; name=&quot;notifyAuthor&quot; checked /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;notifyAuthor&quot;&gt;Notify page author&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
		    &lt;button type=&quot;button&quot; id=&quot;addTag&quot;&gt;Add tag&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		`);
		(async () =&gt; {
			if (await waitForPreferences()) {
				for (var [i, j] of Object.entries(Luna.myPreferences.CTP)) {
				    $(&quot;#CTPtagReason&quot;).append(`&lt;option id=&quot;${i}&quot;&gt;${j}&lt;/option&gt;`);
				}

			}
			else {
			    console.error(&quot;Luna: Preferences never fully loaded.&quot;);
			}
		})();
		if (!window.reviewablePage) $(&quot;.reviewMark&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;#CTPdialog&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;#addTag&quot;).click(async function() {
			var mySelect = document.getElementById(&quot;CTPtagReason&quot;);
			var critValue = mySelect.value;
			var tag = mySelect.options[mySelect.selectedIndex].id;
			var cmtAuthor;
			var queryComment;
			if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthor&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
				cmtAuthor = prompt(&quot;Why are you tagging this page (press 'Cancel' for use the default reason)? This comment will also be sent to the author of the page.&quot;) || &quot;&quot;;
				queryComment = cmtAuthor;
			}
			else if (tag == &quot;qr-em&quot;) {
				queryComment = prompt(&quot;Why are you querying this page (press 'Cancel' to use the default reason)?&quot;) || &quot;&quot;;
			}
			
			if(critValue == &quot;Select the template&quot;) {
				alert(&quot;You must select a template.&quot;);
				return;
			}
			else {
				var criterion;
				var finalTag;
				if (tag.startsWith(&quot;s-&quot;)) {
					tag = &quot;subst:&quot; + tag.slice(2);
				}

				if ($(&quot;#reviewMark&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
					doTheReview(false);
				}
				criterion = `Adding {{${tag}}} tag`;
				finalTag = tag != &quot;qr-em&quot; ? tag : tag + `|1=${queryComment}`;
				var params = {
					action: 'edit',
					prependtext: `{{${finalTag}}}\n`,
					title: parsedTitle,
					summary: criterion,
					tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
					format: 'json'
				},
				api = new mw.Api();

				try {
					var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params )
					console.log( data );
					
					if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthor&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
						params = {
							action: 'edit',
							appendtext: `\n{{subst:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg|title=${parsedTitle}|tag=${finalTag}|username=${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}|comment=${cmtAuthor ? cmtAuthor : &quot;&quot;}}}`,
							title: `User_talk:${await getAuthor()}`,
							summary: &quot;Notifying author about page tagging&quot;,
							tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
							format: 'json'
						}
						api = new mw.Api();
						data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params )
						console.log( data );
					}
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe tag has been added. Reloading...&quot;);
					setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
				}
				catch (error) {
					console.error(&quot;Luna: Tagging failed.&quot;, error);
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna: Tagging failed. See the console for details.&quot;);
				}
				
			}
		});
	}
});
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>isz8n48n345hbbw4348do16jh8698ef</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/review.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>470955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662640</id>
      <parentid>4471634</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:08:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>a weight</comment>
      <origin>4662640</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="1725" sha1="4oky69wtfvyxw5j7ln6zv2z1ndkfo5v" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
async function getAuthor() {
	var par = {
        action: 'query',
        prop: 'revisions',
        titles: mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, &quot; &quot;),
        rvprop: 'user',
        rvdir: 'newer',
        rvlimit: 1,
        format: 'json'
    },
    api = new mw.Api();
	const data = await api.get( par );
	return Object.values(data.query.pages)[0].revisions[0].user;
}
async function getRevid() {
	var params = {
	        action: 'query',
	        prop: 'revisions',
	        titles: mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;),
	        rvprop: 'ids',
	        rvlimit: 1,
	        format: 'json'
	    },
	    api = new mw.Api();
	
	const data = await api.get(params);
	return Object.values(data.query.pages)[0].revisions[0].revid;
}
async function doTheReview(commt) {
	if (commt)
		var cmt = prompt(&quot;Leave a comment for the author (press 'Cancel' for no comment).&quot;);
	var params2 = {
	        action: 'review',
	        revid: await getRevid(),
	        comment: 'Marking page as reviewed',
			tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
	        format: 'json'
	    },
	    api = new mw.Api();
	
	api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params2 ).done( function ( data ) {
	    console.log( data );
	} ); 
	if(cmt) {
		await leaveComment(cmt, true);
	}
	
}
async function leaveComment(comment, edit) {
	if (edit) {
		var params2 = {
		        action: 'edit',
		        title: `User_talk:${await getAuthor()}`,
		        appendtext: `\n{{SUBST:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/comment|comment=${comment}}}`,
		        summary: 'Adding comment after reviewing page',
				tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
		        format: 'json'
		    },
		    api = new mw.Api();
		
		var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params2 )
		console.log( data ); 
	}
	return comment;
}
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>4oky69wtfvyxw5j7ln6zv2z1ndkfo5v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662646</id>
      <parentid>4662640</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:14:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>further a sink</comment>
      <origin>4662646</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="1706" sha1="5mso0ai8di618gpbp0h82ax3q7dhhmr" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
async function getAuthor() {
	var par = {
        action: 'query',
        prop: 'revisions',
        titles: mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, &quot; &quot;),
        rvprop: 'user',
        rvdir: 'newer',
        rvlimit: 1,
        format: 'json'
    },
    api = new mw.Api();
	const data = await api.get( par );
	return Object.values(data.query.pages)[0].revisions[0].user;
}
async function getRevid() {
	var params = {
	        action: 'query',
	        prop: 'revisions',
	        titles: mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;),
	        rvprop: 'ids',
	        rvlimit: 1,
	        format: 'json'
	    },
	    api = new mw.Api();
	
	const data = await api.get(params);
	return Object.values(data.query.pages)[0].revisions[0].revid;
}
async function doTheReview(commt) {
	if (commt)
		var cmt = prompt(&quot;Leave a comment for the author (press 'Cancel' for no comment).&quot;);
	var params2 = {
	        action: 'review',
	        revid: await getRevid(),
	        comment: 'Marking page as reviewed',
			tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
	        format: 'json'
	    },
	    api = new mw.Api();
	
	var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params2 )
	console.log( data ); 
	if(cmt) {
		await leaveComment(cmt, true);
	}
	
}
async function leaveComment(comment, edit) {
	if (edit) {
		var params2 = {
		        action: 'edit',
		        title: `User_talk:${await getAuthor()}`,
		        appendtext: `\n{{SUBST:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/comment|comment=${comment}}}`,
		        summary: 'Adding comment after reviewing page',
				tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
		        format: 'json'
		    },
		    api = new mw.Api();
		
		var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params2 )
		console.log( data ); 
	}
	return comment;
}
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>5mso0ai8di618gpbp0h82ax3q7dhhmr</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster (bot)/markAdmins-Data.json</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>471107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662651</id>
      <parentid>4661865</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:49:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster (bot)</username>
        <id>3488561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bot: Updating markAdmins data</comment>
      <origin>4662651</origin>
      <model>json</model>
      <format>application/json</format>
      <text bytes="52423" sha1="o36l6ebrfrtr6sudugsp72wdxdxp5c3" xml:space="preserve">{
	&quot;.snoopy.&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;1234qwer1234qwer4&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;steward&quot;
	],
	&quot;157yagz5r48a5f1a1f&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;1997kB&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;1F616EMO&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;1exec1&quot;: [
		&quot;transwiki&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;1sfoerster&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;20041027 tatsu&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;
	],
	&quot;2005-Fan&quot;: [
		&quot;transwiki&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;uploader&quot;
	],
	&quot;331dot&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;33rogers&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;3MMPEYTON&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;4PlayerChess&quot;: [
		&quot;autoreview&quot;
	],
	&quot;4pillars&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;511KeV&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;
	],
	&quot;94rain&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;A R King&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;A Sulaiman Z&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;A.K.Karthikeyan&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;A09&quot;: [
		&quot;steward&quot;
	],
	&quot;AFBorchert&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;AIProf&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;ALittleSlow&quot;: [
		&quot;autoreview&quot;
	],
	&quot;AManWithNoPlan&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;ATannedBurger&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;AVRS&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aafi&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Abenwagner&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Abigor&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Abitt002&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Abyssal&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Acagastya&quot;: [
		&quot;autoreview&quot;
	],
	&quot;Acalamari&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;Acarologiste&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;AcidBat&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Acrow005&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Actualist&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Adalvis&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Adart001&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Adavyd&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;Addihockey10&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Addihockey10 (automated)&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Adrignola&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;AdventureWriter&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aelxen&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aferg006&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Afett001&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Affe2011&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;
	],
	&quot;Agnerf&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;uploader&quot;
	],
	&quot;Agpires&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Agricola&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Agusbou2015&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ah3kal&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ahecht&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ahonc&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;AiClassEland&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ainz Ooal Gown&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Airpmb&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ajraddatz&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;steward&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aka&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Alanah.97&quot;: [
		&quot;autoreview&quot;
	],
	&quot;Albertoleoncio&quot;: [
		&quot;steward&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Albmont&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Alchimista&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aldnonymous&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aledownload&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Alexlatham96&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Alextejthompson&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Alison&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;
	],
	&quot;AllenZh&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Alphama&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;AlvaroMolina&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;AmandaNP&quot;: [
		&quot;steward&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ambrevar&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Amcgail&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ameisenigel&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;global-sysop&quot;,
		&quot;ombuds&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;AmieKim&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Amire80&quot;: [
		&quot;global-sysop&quot;
	],
	&quot;Anachronist&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Ancient9983&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Andrei Stroe&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Andrew janke&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Andriy.v&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Andyross&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Anil Shaligram&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Animajosser&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Anne Correia&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Anonim Şahıs&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Anonymity&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;AnotherEditor144&quot;: [
		&quot;autoreview&quot;
	],
	&quot;Antanana&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Antandrus&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Anthere&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;AntiCompositeNumber&quot;: [
		&quot;steward&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Antonizoon&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Antonw&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Apfelmus&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aphoneyclimber&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Apocheir&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Aqurs1&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;,
		&quot;global-sysop&quot;
	],
	&quot;AramilFeraxa&quot;: [
		&quot;steward&quot;
	],
	&quot;Arch dude&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Archolman&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Arcticocean&quot;: [
		&quot;ombuds&quot;
	],
	&quot;ArdentPerf&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;uploader&quot;
	],
	&quot;Arlen22&quot;: [
		&quot;transwiki&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
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		&quot;editor&quot;
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	&quot;Artoria2e5&quot;: [
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	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Arunreginald&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;AshLin&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Atcovi&quot;: [
		&quot;sysop&quot;,
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Atiedebee&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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	],
	&quot;Atsme&quot;: [
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	],
	&quot;Auremel&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Austncorp&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;AuthorsAndContributorsBot&quot;: [
		&quot;autoreview&quot;
	],
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	&quot;Avraham&quot;: [
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	&quot;Awesome Princess&quot;: [
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		&quot;global-sysop&quot;
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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	],
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		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
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	],
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		&quot;global-renamer&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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	],
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	],
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		&quot;transwiki&quot;
	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Biplab Anand&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;global-sysop&quot;
	],
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		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;BitterAsianMan&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bluefoxicy&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bluerasberry&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;BobChan2&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bobby Cohn&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bodhisattwa&quot;: [
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;BoldLuis&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Borhan&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;vrt-permissions&quot;
	],
	&quot;Boris1951zz&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bpenn005&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Brewster239&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bridget&quot;: [
		&quot;global-rollbacker&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Brienna.Hall77&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Brim&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Brittanys&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bronwynh&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bsadowski1&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;,
		&quot;steward&quot;
	],
	&quot;Buddpaul&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bullercruz1&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Buncic&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bunnypranav&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;BurakD53&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Burkep&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;ByGrace&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Bykim2012&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;C1203sc&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;CJakes1&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;CKWG - Ada Magica&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Cabayi&quot;: [
		&quot;global-renamer&quot;
	],
	&quot;CaitlinCarbury&quot;: [
		&quot;autoreview&quot;
	],
	&quot;CalciumTetraoxide&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;CalendulaAsteraceae&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Caliburn&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;CallumPoole&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Calvin.Andrus&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Cameron11598&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Camouflaged Mirage&quot;: [
		&quot;editor&quot;
	],
	&quot;Captain-tucker&quot;: [
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  <page>
    <title>Character Encodings/Code Tables/MS-DOS/Code page 857</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-21T10:31:36Z</timestamp>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15525" sha1="nry8hgxvhs95xzuv66gnvdheinphuur" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Computer character set for Turkish}}
'''Code page 857''' (CCSID 857)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=CCSID 0857 information document|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326221821/http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/ccsid/ccsid857.html|archive-date=2016-03-26|url=http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/ccsid/ccsid857.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; (also known as CP 857, IBM 00857, and OEM 857,&lt;ref name=GGDC&gt;{{cite web |url=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/cc305163 |title=OEM 857 |work=Go Global Developer Center |publisher=Microsoft |access-date=13 Nov 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; MS-DOS Turkish&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc195068.aspx |title=Code Page 857 MS-DOS Turkish |work=Developing International Software |date=6 February 2008 |publisher=Microsoft |access-date=13 Nov 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;) is a code page used under DOS in Turkey to write Turkish.&lt;ref name=IBMCP857&gt;{{cite web|title=Code page 857 information document|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214021/http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/cp/cp00857.html|archive-date=2016-03-03|url=https://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/cp/cp00857.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Code page 857 is based on [[w:code page 850]] and [[Character Encodings/Code Tables/MS-DOS/Code page 3846|3846]], but with many changes. It includes all characters from [[w:ISO/IEC 8859-9|ISO 8859-9]].

CCSID 9049 is the euro currency update of code page/CCSID 857, which adds the euro sign at code point D5&lt;sub&gt;hex&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;ref name=IBMCP857/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=CCSID 9049 information document|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129223749/http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/ccsid/ccsid9049.html|archive-date=2014-11-29|url=http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/ccsid/ccsid9049.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

FreeDOS [[Character Encodings/Code Tables/MS-DOS/Code page 30033|code page 30033]] adds the hryvnia sign instead of the euro sign at code point D5&lt;sub&gt;hex&lt;/sub&gt;. 

==Character set==
Each character is shown with its equivalent Unicode code point. Only the second half of the table (code points 128&amp;ndash;255) is shown, the first half (code points 0&amp;ndash;127) being the same as code page 850.

{|{{chset-table-header1|Code page 857&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Code Page CPGID 00857 (pdf)|url=https://public.dhe.ibm.com/software/globalization/gcoc/attachments/CP00857.pdf|publisher=IBM}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Code Page CPGID 00857 (txt)|url=https://public.dhe.ibm.com/software/globalization/gcoc/attachments/CP00857.txt|publisher=IBM}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=International Components for Unicode (ICU), ibm-857_P100-1995.ucm|url=https://github.com/unicode-org/icu/blob/master/icu4c/source/data/mappings/ibm-857_P100-1995.ucm|date=2002-12-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=GGDC/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/VENDORS/MICSFT/PC/CP857.TXT |title=cp857_DOSTurkish to Unicode table |format=TXT |publisher=The Unicode Consortium |access-date=13 Nov 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|8x&lt;br/&gt;128}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C7|Alt+128&amp;#10;U+00C7 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA|Ç}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00FC|Alt+129&amp;#10;U+00FC LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH DIAERESIS|ü}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E9|Alt+130&amp;#10;U+00E9 LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE|é}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E2|Alt+131&amp;#10;U+00E2 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH CIRCUMFLEX|â}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E4|Alt+132&amp;#10;U+00E4 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH DIAERESIS|ä}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E0|Alt+133&amp;#10;U+00E0 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH GRAVE|à}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E5|Alt+134&amp;#10;U+00E5 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH RING ABOVE|å}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E7|Alt+135&amp;#10;U+00E7 LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA|ç}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00EA|Alt+136&amp;#10;U+00EA LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX|ê}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00EB|Alt+137&amp;#10;U+00EB LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH DIAERESIS|ë}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E8|Alt+138&amp;#10;U+00E8 LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH GRAVE|è}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00EF|Alt+139&amp;#10;U+00EF LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS|ï}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00EE|Alt+140&amp;#10;U+00EE LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH CIRCUMFLEX|î}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=0131|Alt+141&amp;#10;U+0131 LATIN SMALL LETTER DOTLESS I|ı|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C4|Alt+142&amp;#10;U+00C4 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH DIAERESIS|Ä}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C5|Alt+143&amp;#10;U+00C5 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH RING ABOVE|Å}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|9x&lt;br/&gt;144}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C9|Alt+144&amp;#10;U+00C9 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH ACUTE|É}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E6|Alt+145&amp;#10;U+00E6 LATIN SMALL LETTER AE|æ}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C6|Alt+146&amp;#10;U+00C6 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER AE|Æ}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F4|Alt+147&amp;#10;U+00F4 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH CIRCUMFLEX|ô}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F6|Alt+148&amp;#10;U+00F6 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH DIAERESIS|ö}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F2|Alt+149&amp;#10;U+00F2 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH GRAVE|ò}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00FB|Alt+150&amp;#10;U+00FB LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH CIRCUMFLEX|û}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F9|Alt+151&amp;#10;U+00F9 LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH GRAVE|ù}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=0130|Alt+152&amp;#10;U+0130 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH DOT ABOVE|İ|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D6|Alt+153&amp;#10;U+00D6 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH DIAERESIS|Ö}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00DC|Alt+154&amp;#10;U+00DC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH DIAERESIS|Ü}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F8|Alt+155&amp;#10;U+00F8 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH STROKE|ø}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A3|Alt+156&amp;#10;U+00A3 POUND SIGN|£|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D8|Alt+157&amp;#10;U+00D8 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH STROKE|Ø}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=015E|Alt+158&amp;#10;U+015E LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH CEDILLA|Ş|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=015F|Alt+159&amp;#10;U+015F LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH CEDILLA|ş|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|Ax&lt;br/&gt;160}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E1|Alt+160&amp;#10;U+00E1 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH ACUTE|á}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00ED|Alt+161&amp;#10;U+00ED LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH ACUTE|í}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F3|Alt+162&amp;#10;U+00F3 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH ACUTE|ó}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00FA|Alt+163&amp;#10;U+00FA LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH ACUTE|ú}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F1|Alt+164&amp;#10;U+00F1 LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH TILDE|ñ}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D1|Alt+165&amp;#10;U+00D1 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N WITH TILDE|Ñ}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=011E|Alt+166&amp;#10;U+011E LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G WITH BREVE|Ğ|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=011F|Alt+167&amp;#10;U+011F LATIN SMALL LETTER G WITH BREVE|ğ|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00BF|Alt+168&amp;#10;U+00BF INVERTED QUESTION MARK|¿|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00AE|Alt+169&amp;#10;U+00AE REGISTERED SIGN|®}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00AC|Alt+170&amp;#10;U+00AC NOT SIGN|¬|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00BD|Alt+171&amp;#10;U+00BD VULGAR FRACTION ONE HALF|½}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00BC|Alt+172&amp;#10;U+00BC VULGAR FRACTION ONE QUARTER|¼}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A1|Alt+173&amp;#10;U+00A1 INVERTED EXCLAMATION MARK|¡|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00AB|Alt+174&amp;#10;U+00AB LEFT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK|«|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00BB|Alt+175&amp;#10;U+00BB RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK|»|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|Bx&lt;br/&gt;176}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2591|Alt+176&amp;#10;U+2591 LIGHT SHADE|░|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2592|Alt+177&amp;#10;U+2592 MEDIUM SHADE|▒|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2593|Alt+178&amp;#10;U+2593 DARK SHADE|▓|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2502|Alt+179&amp;#10;U+2502 BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT VERTICAL|│|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2524|Alt+180&amp;#10;U+2524 BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT VERTICAL AND LEFT|┤|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C1|Alt+181&amp;#10;U+00C1 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH ACUTE|Á}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C2|Alt+182&amp;#10;U+00C2 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH CIRCUMFLEX|Â}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C0|Alt+183&amp;#10;U+00C0 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH GRAVE|À}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A9|Alt+184&amp;#10;U+00A9 COPYRIGHT SIGN|©}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2563|Alt+185&amp;#10;U+2563 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE VERTICAL AND LEFT|╣|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2551|Alt+186&amp;#10;U+2551 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE VERTICAL|║|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2557|Alt+187&amp;#10;U+2557 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE DOWN AND LEFT|╗|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=255D|Alt+188&amp;#10;U+255D BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE UP AND LEFT|╝|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A2|Alt+189&amp;#10;U+00A2 CENT SIGN|¢|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A5|Alt+190&amp;#10;U+00A5 YEN SIGN|¥|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2510|Alt+191&amp;#10;U+2510 BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DOWN AND LEFT|┐|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|Cx&lt;br/&gt;192}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2514|Alt+192&amp;#10;U+2514 BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT UP AND RIGHT|└|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2534|Alt+193&amp;#10;U+2534 BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT UP AND HORIZONTAL|┴|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=252C|Alt+194&amp;#10;U+252C BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DOWN AND HORIZONTAL|┬|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=251C|Alt+195&amp;#10;U+251C BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT VERTICAL AND RIGHT|├|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2500|Alt+196&amp;#10;U+2500 BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT HORIZONTAL|─|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=253C|Alt+197&amp;#10;U+253C BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL|┼|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00E3|Alt+198&amp;#10;U+00E3 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH TILDE|ã}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C3|Alt+199&amp;#10;U+00C3 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH TILDE|Ã}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=255A|Alt+200&amp;#10;U+255A BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE UP AND RIGHT|╚|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2554|Alt+201&amp;#10;U+2554 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE DOWN AND RIGHT|╔|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2569|Alt+202&amp;#10;U+2569 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE UP AND HORIZONTAL|╩|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2566|Alt+203&amp;#10;U+2566 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE DOWN AND HORIZONTAL|╦|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2560|Alt+204&amp;#10;U+2560 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE VERTICAL AND RIGHT|╠|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2550|Alt+205&amp;#10;U+2550 BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE HORIZONTAL|═|style=background:#EF;{{Text default color}};F}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=256C|Alt+206&amp;#10;U+256C BOX DRAWINGS DOUBLE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL|╬|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A4|Alt+207&amp;#10;U+00A4 CURRENCY SIGN|¤}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|Dx&lt;br/&gt;208}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00BA|Alt+208&amp;#10;U+00BA MASCULINE ORDINAL INDICATOR|º|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00AA|Alt+209&amp;#10;U+00AA FEMININE ORDINAL INDICATOR|ª|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00CA|Alt+210&amp;#10;U+00CA LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX|Ê}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00CB|Alt+211&amp;#10;U+00CB LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH DIAERESIS|Ë}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00C8|Alt+212&amp;#10;U+00C8 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH GRAVE|È}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=20AC|Alt+213&amp;#10;U+20AC EURO SIGN|€|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00CD|Alt+214&amp;#10;U+00CD LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH ACUTE|Í}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00CE|Alt+215&amp;#10;U+00CE LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH CIRCUMFLEX|Î}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00CF|Alt+216&amp;#10;U+00CF LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS|Ï}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2518|Alt+217&amp;#10;U+2518 BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT UP AND LEFT|┘|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=250C|Alt+218&amp;#10;U+250C BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DOWN AND RIGHT|┌|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2588|Alt+219&amp;#10;U+2588 FULL BLOCK|█|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2584|Alt+220&amp;#10;U+2584 LOWER HALF BLOCK|▄|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A6|Alt+221&amp;#10;U+00A6 BROKEN BAR|¦|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00CC|Alt+222&amp;#10;U+00CC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH GRAVE|Ì}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=2580|Alt+223&amp;#10;U+2580 UPPER HALF BLOCK|▀|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|Ex&lt;br/&gt;224}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D3|Alt+224&amp;#10;U+00D3 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH ACUTE|Ó}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00DF|Alt+225&amp;#10;U+00DF LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S|ß}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D4|Alt+226&amp;#10;U+00D4 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH CIRCUMFLEX|Ô}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D2|Alt+227&amp;#10;U+00D2 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH GRAVE|Ò}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F5|Alt+228&amp;#10;U+00F5 LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE|õ}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D5|Alt+229&amp;#10;U+00D5 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE|Õ}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B5|Alt+230&amp;#10;U+00B5 MICRO SIGN|µ}}
|{{chset-cell1|||style=background:#DDA}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D7|Alt+232&amp;#10;U+00D7 MULTIPLICATION SIGN|×|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00DA|Alt+233&amp;#10;U+00DA LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH ACUTE|Ú}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00DB|Alt+234&amp;#10;U+00DB LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH CIRCUMFLEX|Û}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00D9|Alt+235&amp;#10;U+00D9 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH GRAVE|Ù}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00EC|Alt+236&amp;#10;U+00EC LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH GRAVE|ì|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00FF|Alt+237&amp;#10;U+00FF LATIN SMALL LETTER Y WITH DIAERESIS|ÿ|style=background:#FFD;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00AF|Alt+238&amp;#10;U+00AF MACRON|¯}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B4|Alt+239&amp;#10;U+00B4 ACUTE ACCENT|´}}
|-
|{{chset-left1|Fx&lt;br/&gt;240}}
|{{chset-ctrl1|u=00AD|Alt+240&amp;#10;U+00AD SOFT HYPHEN|{{sc|SHY}}}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B1|Alt+241&amp;#10;U+00B1 PLUS-MINUS SIGN|±|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|||style=background:#DDA}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00BE|Alt+243&amp;#10;U+00BE VULGAR FRACTION THREE QUARTERS|¾|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B6|Alt+244&amp;#10;U+00B6 PILCROW SIGN|¶|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A7|Alt+245&amp;#10;U+00A7 SECTION SIGN|§|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00F7|Alt+246&amp;#10;U+00F7 DIVISION SIGN|÷|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B8|Alt+247&amp;#10;U+00B8 CEDILLA|¸}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B0|Alt+248&amp;#10;U+00B0 DEGREE SIGN|°|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00A8|Alt+249&amp;#10;U+00A8 DIAERESIS|¨}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B7|Alt+250&amp;#10;U+00B7 MIDDLE DOT|·|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B9|Alt+251&amp;#10;U+00B9 SUPERSCRIPT ONE|¹}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B3|Alt+252&amp;#10;U+00B3 SUPERSCRIPT THREE|³}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=00B2|Alt+253&amp;#10;U+00B2 SUPERSCRIPT TWO|²}}
|{{chset-cell1|u=25A0|Alt+254&amp;#10;U+25A0 BLACK SQUARE|■|style=background:#EFF;{{Text default color}};}}
|{{chset-ctrl1|u=00A0|Alt+255&amp;#10;U+00A0 NO-BREAK SPACE|{{sc|NBSP}}}}
|}
{{legend|#EFF|Symbols and punctuation}}
{{legend|#FFD|Differences from code page 850}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Code Page 857}}</text>
      <sha1>nry8hgxvhs95xzuv66gnvdheinphuur</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/luna/rfd.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>471464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662641</id>
      <parentid>4628490</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:12:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>asynchronizing</comment>
      <origin>4662641</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="3364" sha1="2iqt0gezt95tu0s1ls7y2dk3lcnts04" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
importScript(&quot;User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/review.js&quot;);
var rfdPage = &quot;Wikibooks:Requests for deletion&quot;;
var isACategoryOrAFile = [6, 14].includes(mw.config.get(&quot;wgNamespaceNumber&quot;));
var parsedTitle = mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, &quot; &quot;); 
parsedTitle = isACategoryOrAFile ? `:${parsedTitle}` : parsedTitle; 

async function getAuthor() {
	var par = {
        action: 'query',
        prop: 'revisions',
        titles: parsedTitle,
        rvprop: 'user',
        rvdir: 'newer',
        rvlimit: 1,
        format: 'json'
    },
    api = new mw.Api();
	const data = await api.get( par );
	return Object.values(data.query.pages)[0].revisions[0].user;
}
(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) &gt; 0) {
		var porty = window.addLunaLink({
			id: 'luna-rfd', 
			text: `RfD`,
			href: '#', 
			tooltip: 'File a deletion request for this page',
			debug: true,
			onClick: () =&gt; {
				$(&quot;#RFDdialog&quot;).dialog({ title: &quot;Request deletion&quot;, width: &quot;auto&quot; });
			}
		}); 
	}
})();
(async function () {
    await Luna.preferencesReady;

    if (Luna.getPref(&quot;debug&quot;, false)) {
        rfdPage = `User:${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}/luna/RFD`;
    }
})();

$(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) !== 0) {
		$(&quot;#bodyContent&quot;).append(`
		&lt;div id=&quot;RFDdialog&quot;&gt;
			Please enter the reason for deletion:
			&lt;textarea name=&quot;RFDreason&quot; id=&quot;RFDreason&quot; placeholder=&quot;Reason for deletion&quot;&gt;&lt;/textarea&gt;
		    &lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;notifyAuthor2&quot; name=&quot;notifyAuthor2&quot; checked /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;notifyAuthor2&quot;&gt;Notify page author&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
		    &lt;button type=&quot;button&quot; id=&quot;reqDel&quot;&gt;Request deletion&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		`);
		$(&quot;#RFDdialog&quot;).hide();
		
		$(&quot;#reqDel&quot;).click(async function() {
			var myText = document.getElementById(&quot;RFDreason&quot;);
			var reason = myText.value;
			
			if (!reason) alert(&quot;You must provide a reason.&quot;);
			else {
				if (window.isReviewer) {
					await doTheReview();
				}
				var params = {
					action: 'edit',
					prependtext: `&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Rfd|example=${Luna.isDebug}}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;\n`,
					title: parsedTitle,
					summary: &quot;Making [[WB:Requests for deletion|deletion request]]&quot;,
					tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
					format: 'json'
				},
				api = new mw.Api();
				try {
					var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params )
					console.log( data );
					if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthor2&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
						params = {
							action: 'edit',
							appendtext: `\n{{subst:Rfd warning|${parsedTitle}|~~~~}}`,
							title: `User_talk:${await getAuthor()}`,
							summary: &quot;Notifying author about page tagging&quot;,
							tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
							format: 'json'
						}
					
						var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params )
						console.log( data );
					}
					params = {
						action: 'edit',
						appendtext: `\n== [[${parsedTitle}]] ==\n${reason} ~~~~`,
						title: rfdPage,
						summary: `Adding deletion request for [[${parsedTitle}]]`,
						tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
						format: 'json'
					}
				
				data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params )
					console.log( data );
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe page has been nominated for deletion. Reloading...&quot;);
					setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
				}
				catch (error) {
					console.error(&quot;Luna: Deletion nomination failed.&quot;, error);
					mw.notify(&quot;Luna: Deletion nomination failed. See the console for details.&quot;);
				}
				
			}		
		});
	}
});
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>2iqt0gezt95tu0s1ls7y2dk3lcnts04</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Module:IPAddress</title>
    <ns>828</ns>
    <id>471503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662647</id>
      <parentid>4525204</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:28:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add bodged temporary account detection</comment>
      <origin>4662647</origin>
      <model>Scribunto</model>
      <format>text/plain</format>
      <text bytes="2771" sha1="a5kv5wmd7rocz6jkuhwf7akgy963wgt" xml:space="preserve">local p = {}

function p._isIpV6(s)
	local dcolon, groups
	if type(s) ~= &quot;string&quot;
		or s:len() == 0
		or s:find(&quot;[^:%x]&quot;) -- only colon and hex digits are legal chars
		or s:find(&quot;^:[^:]&quot;) -- can begin or end with :: but not with single :
		or s:find(&quot;[^:]:$&quot;)
		or s:find(&quot;:::&quot;)
	then
		return false
	end
	s, dcolon = s:gsub(&quot;::&quot;, &quot;:&quot;)
	if dcolon &gt; 1 then return false end -- at most one ::
	s = s:gsub(&quot;^:?&quot;, &quot;:&quot;) -- prepend : if needed, upper
	s, groups = s:gsub(&quot;:%x%x?%x?%x?&quot;, &quot;&quot;) -- remove valid groups, and count them
	return ( (dcolon == 1 and groups &lt; 8) or (dcolon == 0 and groups == 8) )
		and ( s:len() == 0 or (dcolon == 1 and s == &quot;:&quot;) ) -- might be one dangling : if original ended with ::
end

function p._isIpV4(s)
	local function legal(n) return (tonumber(n) or 256) &lt; 256  and not n:match(&quot;^0%d&quot;) end
	if type(s) ~= &quot;string&quot; then return false end
	local p1, p2, p3, p4 = s:match(&quot;^(%d+)%.(%d+)%.(%d+)%.(%d+)$&quot;)
	return legal(p1) and legal(p2) and legal(p3) and legal(p4)
end

function p._isIp(s)
	return p._isIpV4(s) and &quot;4&quot; or p._isIpV6(s) and &quot;6&quot;
end

function p._isIpV4Range(s)
	return p._isIpV4(s:gsub(&quot;/%d+$&quot;, &quot;&quot;)) and (p._isIpOrRange(s) == 'range')
end

function p._isIpV6Range(s)
	return p._isIpV6(s:gsub(&quot;/%d+$&quot;, &quot;&quot;)) and (p._isIpOrRange(s) == 'range')
end

function p._isIpOrRange(s)
	local modip = require('Module:IP')
	local success, ip = pcall(modip.IPAddress.new, s)
	if success then
		return 'ip'
	end
	success, ip = pcall(modip.Subnet.new, s)
	if success then
		return 'range'
	end
	return ''
end

function p._isTemporaryAccount(s)
	return s:match(&quot;^~2[%d-]*%d$&quot;)
end

local function input(frame)
	-- Return input parameter after replacing any of following directional markers.
	-- LRM : LEFT-TO-RIGHT MARK (U+200E)         : hex e2 80 8e = 226 128 142
	-- LRE : LEFT-TO-RIGHT EMBEDDING (U+202A)    : hex e2 80 aa = 226 128 170
	-- PDF : POP DIRECTIONAL FORMATTING (U+202C) : hex e2 80 ac = 226 128 172
	-- This is required for MediaWiki:Blockedtext message.
	return (frame.args[1] or ''):gsub('\226\128[\142\170\172]', ' ')  -- replace LRM, LRE, PDF with space delimiter
end

function p.isIpV6(frame) return p._isIpV6(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end
function p.isIpV4(frame) return p._isIpV4(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end
function p.isIpV6Range(frame) return p._isIpV6Range(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end 
function p.isIpV4Range(frame) return p._isIpV4Range(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end 
function p.isIp(frame) return p._isIp(input(frame)) or &quot;&quot; end
function p.isTemporaryAccount(frame) return p._isTemporaryAccount(input(frame)) or &quot;&quot; end

function p.isIpOrRange(frame)
	-- {{#invoke:IPAddress|isIpOrRange|x}} → 'ip' (IPv4/IPv6) or 'range' (CIDR IPv4/IPv6) or '' (invalid)
	return p._isIpOrRange(input(frame))
end

return p</text>
      <sha1>a5kv5wmd7rocz6jkuhwf7akgy963wgt</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662648</id>
      <parentid>4662647</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:30:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ensure proper typing</comment>
      <origin>4662648</origin>
      <model>Scribunto</model>
      <format>text/plain</format>
      <text bytes="2779" sha1="nfziqdumiwjrv226t22dpsjsbts44pm" xml:space="preserve">local p = {}

function p._isIpV6(s)
	local dcolon, groups
	if type(s) ~= &quot;string&quot;
		or s:len() == 0
		or s:find(&quot;[^:%x]&quot;) -- only colon and hex digits are legal chars
		or s:find(&quot;^:[^:]&quot;) -- can begin or end with :: but not with single :
		or s:find(&quot;[^:]:$&quot;)
		or s:find(&quot;:::&quot;)
	then
		return false
	end
	s, dcolon = s:gsub(&quot;::&quot;, &quot;:&quot;)
	if dcolon &gt; 1 then return false end -- at most one ::
	s = s:gsub(&quot;^:?&quot;, &quot;:&quot;) -- prepend : if needed, upper
	s, groups = s:gsub(&quot;:%x%x?%x?%x?&quot;, &quot;&quot;) -- remove valid groups, and count them
	return ( (dcolon == 1 and groups &lt; 8) or (dcolon == 0 and groups == 8) )
		and ( s:len() == 0 or (dcolon == 1 and s == &quot;:&quot;) ) -- might be one dangling : if original ended with ::
end

function p._isIpV4(s)
	local function legal(n) return (tonumber(n) or 256) &lt; 256  and not n:match(&quot;^0%d&quot;) end
	if type(s) ~= &quot;string&quot; then return false end
	local p1, p2, p3, p4 = s:match(&quot;^(%d+)%.(%d+)%.(%d+)%.(%d+)$&quot;)
	return legal(p1) and legal(p2) and legal(p3) and legal(p4)
end

function p._isIp(s)
	return p._isIpV4(s) and &quot;4&quot; or p._isIpV6(s) and &quot;6&quot;
end

function p._isIpV4Range(s)
	return p._isIpV4(s:gsub(&quot;/%d+$&quot;, &quot;&quot;)) and (p._isIpOrRange(s) == 'range')
end

function p._isIpV6Range(s)
	return p._isIpV6(s:gsub(&quot;/%d+$&quot;, &quot;&quot;)) and (p._isIpOrRange(s) == 'range')
end

function p._isIpOrRange(s)
	local modip = require('Module:IP')
	local success, ip = pcall(modip.IPAddress.new, s)
	if success then
		return 'ip'
	end
	success, ip = pcall(modip.Subnet.new, s)
	if success then
		return 'range'
	end
	return ''
end

function p._isTemporaryAccount(s)
	return not not s:match(&quot;^~2[%d-]*%d$&quot;)
end

local function input(frame)
	-- Return input parameter after replacing any of following directional markers.
	-- LRM : LEFT-TO-RIGHT MARK (U+200E)         : hex e2 80 8e = 226 128 142
	-- LRE : LEFT-TO-RIGHT EMBEDDING (U+202A)    : hex e2 80 aa = 226 128 170
	-- PDF : POP DIRECTIONAL FORMATTING (U+202C) : hex e2 80 ac = 226 128 172
	-- This is required for MediaWiki:Blockedtext message.
	return (frame.args[1] or ''):gsub('\226\128[\142\170\172]', ' ')  -- replace LRM, LRE, PDF with space delimiter
end

function p.isIpV6(frame) return p._isIpV6(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end
function p.isIpV4(frame) return p._isIpV4(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end
function p.isIpV6Range(frame) return p._isIpV6Range(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end 
function p.isIpV4Range(frame) return p._isIpV4Range(input(frame)) and &quot;1&quot; or &quot;0&quot; end 
function p.isIp(frame) return p._isIp(input(frame)) or &quot;&quot; end
function p.isTemporaryAccount(frame) return p._isTemporaryAccount(input(frame)) or &quot;&quot; end

function p.isIpOrRange(frame)
	-- {{#invoke:IPAddress|isIpOrRange|x}} → 'ip' (IPv4/IPv6) or 'range' (CIDR IPv4/IPv6) or '' (invalid)
	return p._isIpOrRange(input(frame))
end

return p</text>
      <sha1>nfziqdumiwjrv226t22dpsjsbts44pm</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Userlinks if anon</title>
    <ns>10</ns>
    <id>471507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662650</id>
      <parentid>4459881</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:31:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>temp account migration</comment>
      <origin>4662650</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="382" sha1="g7yy8jdng7cnuz87xexvm4vj8ijv96s" xml:space="preserve">{{&lt;includeonly&gt;safesubst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;#if:{{&lt;includeonly&gt;safesubst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;Is temporary account|{{{1|Username}}}}}|{{anonlinks|{{{1|Username}}}}}|{{userlinks|{{{1|Username}}}}}}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Doc|content={{subst only}} If the &lt;code&gt;1&lt;/code&gt; parameter is a temporary account, it returns its anonymous user information; otherwise it returns its user information.
}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>g7yy8jdng7cnuz87xexvm4vj8ijv96s</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/luna/unlink.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>471508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662626</id>
      <parentid>4628242</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:06:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>asynchronizing</comment>
      <origin>4662626</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="2050" sha1="4127ncj42bdai3rwpzr1u41oazn8z96" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgNamespaceNumber&quot;) &gt;= 0 &amp;&amp; window.isReviewer) {
	var unlinkLink = window.addLunaLink({
		id: 'luna-unlink', 
		text: 'Unlink', 
		href: '#', 
		tooltip: 'Remove all links to this page',
		onClick: unlink
	}); 
}
async function getBacklinks() {
    var params = {
		action: 'query',
		format: 'json',
		list: 'backlinks',
		bllimit: 'max',
		bltitle: mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;)
	},
	api = new mw.Api();

	const data = await api.get(params);
	return data.query.backlinks;
}
async function getUnlinkedContent(title, unlinked) {
	var params = {
		action: 'parse',
		page: title,
		prop: 'wikitext',
		format: 'json'
	},
	api = new mw.Api();
	const data = await api.get(params);
	var text = data.parse.wikitext['*'];
	var myPage = new Morebits.wikitext.Page(text);
	var newText = myPage.removeLink(unlinked).getText();
	return newText;
}
	
async function unlink() {
	if (window.isReviewer) {
		var doIt = confirm(&quot;You are about to remove all of the links to this page. If you mess up, this is likely to be very difficult to reverse. Are you *ABSOLUTELY SURE* you want to do this?&quot;);
		if (!doIt) return;
		var backlinks = await getBacklinks();
		var params, api;
		for (var b of backlinks) {
			var content = await getUnlinkedContent(b.title, mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;));
			params = {
				action: 'edit',
				format: 'json',
				text: content,
				title: b.title,
				summary: `Removing link(s) to [[${mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, ' ')}]]`,
				tags: &quot;Luna&quot;
			};
			api = new mw.Api();

			try {
				var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params );
				console.log(data)
			}
			catch (error) {
				console.error(&quot;Luna: Unlink failed.&quot;, error)
			}
		}
		var remaining = await getBacklinks();
		if (remaining.length &gt; 0) 
			alert(&quot;It looks like not all of the backlinks were removed. This is most likely because you hit the rate limit. Please try again later.&quot;);
		else alert(&quot;Done!&quot;);
	}
	else {
		alert(&quot;Luna: You must be a reviewer or administrator to use this tool.&quot;);
		return;
	}
}
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>4127ncj42bdai3rwpzr1u41oazn8z96</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/sandbox2</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>471509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662629</id>
      <parentid>4662237</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:14:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing link(s) to [[User:JJPMaster/sandbox3]]</comment>
      <origin>4662629</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23" sha1="0zlb0u1vklptwz4u6p47gwkax60opih" xml:space="preserve">User:JJPMaster/sandbox3</text>
      <sha1>0zlb0u1vklptwz4u6p47gwkax60opih</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662630</id>
      <parentid>4662629</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:14:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Undoing last edit ([[User:Enterprisey/undo-last-edit.js|undo-last-edit]])</comment>
      <origin>4662630</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="27" sha1="qych40ktnep89mq3orepog1ir77m0v9" xml:space="preserve">[[User:JJPMaster/sandbox3]]</text>
      <sha1>qych40ktnep89mq3orepog1ir77m0v9</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/luna/fileunlink.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>471516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662627</id>
      <parentid>4628246</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:07:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>asynchronizing</comment>
      <origin>4662627</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="2113" sha1="fxaz5hspuhc9c2joupzypr2wf8zsqkv" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgNamespaceNumber&quot;) == 6 &amp;&amp; window.isReviewer) {
	var fileunlinkLink = window.addLunaLink({
		id: 'luna-fileunlink', 
		text: 'Unlink (file uses)', 
		href: '#', 
		tooltip: 'Remove all uses of this file',
		onClick: fileUnlink
	}); 

}
async function getImageUses() {
    var params = {
		action: 'query',
		format: 'json',
		list: 'imageusage',
		iulimit: 'max',
		iutitle: mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;)
	},
	api = new mw.Api();

	const data = await api.get(params);
	return data.query.imageusage;
}
async function getFileUnlinkedContent(title, unlinked) {
	var params = {
		action: 'parse',
		page: title,
		prop: 'wikitext',
		format: 'json'
	},
	api = new mw.Api();
	const data = await api.get(params);
	var text = data.parse.wikitext['*'];
	var myPage = new Morebits.wikitext.Page(text);
	var newText = myPage.commentOutImage(unlinked.substr(5), &quot;Commented out&quot;).getText();
	return newText;
}
	
async function fileUnlink() {
	if (window.isReviewer) {
		var doIt = confirm(&quot;You are about to remove all of the links to this page. If you mess up, this is likely to be very difficult to reverse. Are you *ABSOLUTELY SURE* you want to do this?&quot;);
		if (!doIt) return;
		var uses = await getImageUses();
		var params, api;
		for (var u of uses) {
			var content = await getFileUnlinkedContent(u.title, mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;));
			params = {
				action: 'edit',
				format: 'json',
				text: content,
				title: u.title,
				summary: `Removing use(s) of [[${mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, ' ')}]]`,
				tags: &quot;Luna&quot;
			};
			api = new mw.Api();
			
			try {
				var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params );
				console.log(data)
			}
			catch (error) {
				console.error(&quot;Luna: Unlink failed.&quot;, error)
			}
		}
		var remaining = await getImageUses();
		if (remaining.length &gt; 0) 
			alert(&quot;It looks like not all of the image uses were removed. This is most likely because you hit the rate limit. Please try again later.&quot;);
		else alert(&quot;Done!&quot;);
	}
	else {
		alert(&quot;Luna: You must be a reviewer or administrator to use this tool.&quot;);
		return;
	}
}
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>fxaz5hspuhc9c2joupzypr2wf8zsqkv</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/luna/templateunlink.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>472307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662628</id>
      <parentid>4628244</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:13:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>asynchronizing</comment>
      <origin>4662628</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="2y88zmnx0jrfzlj6f8i8wxptg2v5wh8" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgNamespaceNumber&quot;) &gt;= 0 &amp;&amp; window.isReviewer) {
	var tempunlinkLink = window.addLunaLink({
		id: 'luna-tempunlink', 
		text: 'Unlink (transclusions)', 
		href: '#', 
		tooltip: 'Remove all transclusions of this page',
		onClick: templateUnlink
	}); 
}
	
var templateTitle = mw.config.get(&quot;wgCanonicalNamespace&quot;) == &quot;Template&quot; ? mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).substr(9) : mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;);
async function getTransclusions() {
    var params = {
		action: 'query',
		format: 'json',
		list: 'embeddedin',
		eilimit: 'max',
		eititle: mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;)
	},
	api = new mw.Api();

	const data = await api.get(params);
	return data.query.embeddedin;
}
async function getTemplateUnlinkedContent(title, unlinked) {
	var params = {
		action: 'parse',
		page: title,
		prop: 'wikitext',
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      <text bytes="22545" sha1="dyekiiuz2991sdqc72ctfqkt69s6wms" xml:space="preserve">= Alkanes =

Alkanes are ''saturated hydrocarbons''. This means that they contain '''only carbon and hydrogen atoms''' and they contain '''no carbon-carbon double bonds'''.

The alkane homologous series has the general formula of &lt;math&gt; C_{n} H_{2n+2} &lt;/math&gt;. An exception is the cycloalkanes which lose two hydrogens so that the carbon can form another C-C bond; cycloalkanes have the general formula of &lt;math&gt; C_{n} H_{2n} &lt;/math&gt;

==Physical Properties==

There are a few things you will need to know about their physical properties in an exam:

===Boiling/Melting Point===

As the relative molecular mass, or number of carbon atoms in an alkane increases, so does its boiling or melting point:

{| style=&quot;margin:0 auto 0 auto;&quot; border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| ''Alkane''
| ''Molecular Mass''
| ''Molecular Formula''
| ''Boiling Point (K)''
|- 
| Methane
| 16
| CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
| 109
|-
| Ethane
| 30
| C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;
| 185
|-
| Propane
| 44
| C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;
| 231
|-
| Butane
| 58
| C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;
| 273
|-
| Pentane
| 72
| C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;
| 309
|}

As you should be aware, alkanes are held together by ''induced dipole-induced dipole (ID-ID) forces''. The larger a molecule is, the more electrons it has. This means it can form ''larger dipoles'' and its ID-ID forces will be larger. It will therefore take ''more energy to break the bonds'' and so the boiling and melting point will be higher.

Some alkanes can be branched instead of straight-chained. Boiling point ''decreases as a molecule becomes more branched''. This is because ''branched molecules cannot pack so tightly together'', so their ''ID-ID forces must act over larger distances'' (intensity of the ID-ID forces decreases) and thus ''require less energy to break''. For example, hexane has five isomers:

{| style=&quot;margin:0 auto 0 auto;&quot; border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| ''Isomer''
| ''Structural Formula''
| ''Boiling Point (K)''
|- 
| Hexane
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 342
|-
| 3-Methylpentane
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 337
|-
| 2-Methylpentane
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 333
|-
| 2,3-Dimethylbutane
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 331
|-
| 2,2-Dimethylbutane
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 323
|}

==Reactions==

The alkanes are fairly unreactive, as the C-H bond is non-polar. However they undergo three reactions.

===Reactions of alkanes===

Take the alkane C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;. It will undergo combustion to form CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O.

It will undergo radical substitution reactions (e.g. with Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to create C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt;Cl + HCl)

It will also undergo cracking reactions to create a smaller alkane and at least one alkene, in this case, C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; or CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;

The most important of these being combustion. Alkanes are very volatile and burn easily when in the presence of plentiful amounts of oxygen and thus are major fuels.

===Cracking===

Longer chain molecules have higher boiling points and are more difficult to ignite. These long chain molecules can be broken into shorter chain (more useful) molecules through catalytic cracking. Any alkane from &lt;math&gt; C_4 &lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt; C_{50} &lt;/math&gt; can be cracked. As it is catalytic cracking it requires a catalyst, previously this catalyst was either &lt;math&gt; SiO_2 &lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt; Al_2 O_3 &lt;/math&gt;, but now zeolite is preferred. These reactions also need high temperatures (773&amp;nbsp;K or 450&amp;nbsp;°C is usually used).

The products from cracking can vary.  For example you can create several moles of one alkene and hydrogen from cracking an alkane if done right.  However you can also create a mixture of alkenes &amp; alkanes or just a mixture of alkenes.

Example:
&lt;math&gt; C_8 H_{18} \rightarrow \; 4 C_2 H_4 + H_2 &lt;/math&gt;

Under conditions of 450&amp;nbsp;°C and with an &lt;math&gt; Al_2 O_3 &lt;/math&gt; catalyst present.

===Radical substitution===

Alkanes are very unreactive due to the non-polar C-H bond, so most reactions are not possible. However, radical substitutions are possible due to the reactivity a radicals. Radical substitution involves a halogen and UV light to initiate homolytic fission.

An example with methane.

Initiation reaction:

&lt;math&gt; Cl_2 \rightarrow\; Cl^\bullet + Cl^\bullet &lt;/math&gt;

Propagation:

&lt;math&gt; Cl^\bullet + CH_4 \rightarrow HCl + CH_3^\bullet &lt;/math&gt;

This sets into motion the chain reaction, where one free radical reacts with a stable species to form another stable species and a free radical.

The next propagation steps:

&lt;math&gt; CH_3^\bullet + Cl_2 \rightarrow CH_3Cl + Cl^\bullet &lt;/math&gt;

Or

&lt;math&gt;CH_3^\bullet + CH_3Cl \rightarrow C_2H_6 + Cl^\bullet &lt;/math&gt;

This goes on until 2 radicals meet and combine to form a stable species. Once all the radicals have done this, the reaction terminates, hence why it is the termination step.

In this reaction we have 3 possible termination steps:

&lt;math&gt;CH_3^\bullet + Cl^\bullet \rightarrow CH_3Cl &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Cl^\bullet + Cl^\bullet \rightarrow Cl_2 &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;CH_3^\bullet + CH_3^\bullet \rightarrow C_2H_6 &lt;/math&gt;

Henceforth, the reaction ends.

Note that a free-radical hydrogen is never produced.

==Problems==

As we know from above, alkanes burn readily in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide, which is a weak greenhouse gas and thus a contributor to global warming.

Alkanes must burn in excess oxygen for complete combustion and the production of carbon dioxide:

: CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 2 O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Incomplete combustion comes from a reduced supply of oxygen and produces water and carbon monoxide:

: CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 1½ O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CO + 2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Carbon monoxide is poisonous when inhaled.  It binds irreversibly to haemoglobin in red blood cells and makes carboxyhaemoglobin. The red blood cells can no longer carry oxygen and this can cause suffocation if enough cells are carrying carboxyhaemoglobin.

UK regulations ensure that all gas equipment must be annually serviced and that all gas installations require adequate ventilation.

[[File:Bus black smoke.JPG|thumb|Black smoke from a bus exhaust]]

Incomplete combustion can also produce soot (carbon particulates):

: CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; C + 2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

= Alkenes =

Alkenes are [[Organic Chemistry/Glossary#A|aliphatic]] [[Organic Chemistry/Glossary#H|hydrocarbons]] containing carbon-carbon double bonds and general formula C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt;.

=Naming Alkenes=
Alkenes are named as if they were alkanes, but the &quot;-ane&quot; suffix is changed to &quot;-ene&quot;.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
'''propane:''' C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br&gt;
'''propene:''' C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; (CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CHCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

If it is unclear where the double bond is, then the carbons should be numbered in such a way as to give the first of the two double-bonded carbons the lowest possible number, and that number should precede the &quot;-ene&quot; suffix with a dash, as shown below.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
'''correct:''' pent-2-ene (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH=CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br&gt;
'''incorrect:''' pent-3-ene (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH=CHCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br&gt;
''The second one is incorrect because flipping the formula horizontally results in a lower number for the alkene.''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

If there is more than one double bond in an alkene, all of the bonds should be numbered in the name of the molecule. The numbers should go from lowest to highest, and be separated from one another by a comma. The IUPAC numerical prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, etc) are used to indicate the number of double bonds.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
'''octa-2,4-diene:''' CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH=CHCH=CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''deca-1,5-diene:''' CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH=CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Note that the numbering of &quot;2,4&quot; above yields a molecule with two double bonds separated by just one single bond.  Double bonds in such a condition are called &quot;conjugated&quot;, and they represent an enhanced stability of conformation, so they are energetically favoured as reactants in many situations and combinations.

==Diastereomerism==

===Restricted rotation===
Because of the characteristics of &amp;pi;-bonds, alkenes have very limited rotation around the double bonds between two atoms. In order for the alkene structure to rotate the &amp;pi;-bond would first have to be broken - which would require about 250 to 300 kJ of energy per mole.  For this reason alkenes have different chemical properties based on which side of the bond each atom is located.

For example, but-2-ene exists as two [[Organic Chemistry/Chirality/Diastereomers|diastereomers]]:

{| style=&quot;margin 0 auto 0;&quot; BORDER
|-
|
 ||
|-
| (''Z'')-but-2-ene || (''E'')-But-2-ene
|-
|[[Image:Cis-2-butene.svg|200px]]||[[Image:Trans-2-butene.svg|200px]]
|-
| ''cis''-but-2-ene || ''trans''-but-2-ene
|}


==''E-Z'' Notation==

The C=C bond does not rotate. This is because rotation would break the π bond. Without rotation, the atoms attached to the C=C carbons are fixed in position and we can have two different '''stereoisomers'''.

Using cis/trans notation to describe the isomers, cis- means same side and trans- means opposite side. The cis/trans notation sometimes breaks down and is best used only if we can see H atoms on the same, or opposite sides.

[[Image:EZNotation3.png|thumb|400px|center|(''Z'')-but-2-ene (cis-but-2-ene) and (''E'')-but-2-ene (trans-but-2-ene)]]

The above example is pretty straight-forward. On the left, we have two hydrogen atoms on the same side, so it is cis-but-2-ene. And on the right, we have them on opposite sides, so we have trans-but-2-ene. So in this situation, the cis/trans notation works.

[[Image:EZNotation5.png|thumb|759px|center|(''E'')-3-methylpent-2-ene and (''Z'')-3-methylpent-2-ene]]

From the example above, how would you use cis and trans? Which is the same side and which is the opposite side? Whenever an alkene has 3 or 4 differing substituents, one must use ''E-Z'' nomenclature, coming from the German words, Entgegen (opposite) and Zusammen (same).

{| style=&quot;width:75%&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;background-color: #FFF7F7;{{Text default color}}; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em; vertical-align:top;&quot; |

'''E''': Entgegen, opposite sides of double bond&lt;br&gt;
'''Z''': Zusammen, same sides (zame zides) of double bond
|}

Let's begin with (''Z'')-3-methylpent-2-ene. We begin by dividing our alkene into left and right halves. On each side, we assign a substituent as being either a high priority or low priority substituent. The priority is based on the atomic number of the substituents. So on the left side, hydrogen is the lowest priority because its atomic number is 1 and carbon is higher because its atomic number is 6.

On the right side, we have carbon substituents on both the top and bottom, so we go out to the next bond. On to the top, there's another carbon, but on the bottom, a hydrogen. So the top gets high priority and the bottom gets low priority.

Because the high priorities from both sides are on the same side, they are Zusammen (as a mnemonic, think 'Zame Zide').

Now let's look at (''E'')-3-methylpent-2-ene. On the left, we have the same substituents on the same sides, so the priorities are the same as in the Zusammen version. However, the substituents are reversed on the right side with the high priority substituent on the bottom and the low priority substituent on the top. Because the High and Low priorities are opposite on the left and right, these are Entgegen, or opposite.

The system takes a little getting used to and it's usually easier to name an alkene than it is to write one out given its name. But with a little practice, you'll find that it's quite easy.

===Comparison of ''E-Z'' with cis-trans===

{| BORDER
|-
|
 ||
|-
| (''Z'')-but-2-ene || (''E'')-but-2-ene
|-
|[[Image:Cis-2-butene.svg|200px]]||[[Image:Trans-2-butene.svg|200px]]
|-
| ''cis''-but-2-ene || ''trans''-but-2-ene
|}

To a certain extent, the ''Z'' configuration can be regarded as the ''cis-'' isomer and the E as the ''trans-'' isomers. This correspondence is exact only if the two carbon atoms are identically substituted.

In general, cis-trans should only be used if each double-bonded carbon atom has a hydrogen atom (i.e. R-CH=CH-R').

[http://goldbook.iupac.org/C01093.html IUPAC Gold book on cis-trans notation.]

[http://goldbook.iupac.org/E01882.html IUPAC Gold book on E-Z notation.]

=Properties=

Alkenes are molecules with carbons bonded to hydrogens which contain at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond, where the carbon atoms, in addition to an electron pair shared in a ''sigma'' (&amp;sigma;) bond, share one pair of electrons in a ''pi'' (&amp;pi;) bond between them.

The general formula for an aliphatic alkene is: C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt; -- e.g. C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; ''or'' C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;

=Reactions=

==Preparation==

There are several methods for creating alkenes.

===Dehydrohalogenation of Halogenoalkanes===

[[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_-_Dehydrohalogenation3.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene by dehydrohalogenation]]

Halogenoalkanes are converted into alkenes by dehydrohalogenation: elimination of the elements of hydrogen halide. Dehydrohalogenation involves removal of the halogen atom together with a hydrogen atom from a carbon adjacent to the one bearing the halogen. It is not surprising that the reagent required for the elimination of what amounts to a molecule of acid is a strong base for example: alcoholic KOH.

In some cases this reaction yields a single alkene. and in other cases yield a mixture. 1-chlorobutane, for example, can eliminate hydrogen only from C-2 and hence yields only but-1-ene. 2-chlorobutane, on the other hand, can eliminate hydrogen from either C-l or C-3 and hence yields both but-1-ene and but-2-ene. Where the two alkenes can be formed, but-2-ene is the chief product.

===Dehydration of alcohols===

[[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_-_Dehydration_of_alcohol.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene by dehydration of an alcohol]]
An alcohol is converted into an alkene by dehydration: elimination of a molecule of water. Dehydration requires the presence of an acid and the application of heat. It is generally carried out in either of two ways, heating the alcohol with sulfuric or phosphoric acid to temperatures as high as 200, or passing the alcohol vapor over alumina, Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; , at 350-400, alumina here serving as a Lewis acid.

Ease of dehydration of alcohols : 3° &gt; 2° &gt; 1° 

Where isomeric alkenes can be formed, we again find the tendency for one isomer to predominate. Thus, butan-2-ol, which might yield both but-2-ene and but-1-ene, actually yields almost exclusively the 2-isomer

The formation of but-2-ene from butan-1-ol illustrates a characteristic of dehydration that is not shared by dehydrohalogenalion: the double bond can be formed at a position remote from the carbon originally holding the -OH group. It is chiefly because of the greater certainty as to where the double bond will appear that dehydrohalogeation is often preferred over dehydration as a method of making alkenes.

==Electrophilic Addition Reactions==

===Catalytic addition of hydrogen===
Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes produce the corresponding alkanes. The reaction is carried out under pressure in the presence of a metallic catalyst. Common industrial catalysts are based on platinum, nickel or palladium, but for laboratory syntheses, [[w:Raney nickel|Raney nickel]] (formed from an alloy of nickel and aluminium) is often employed.

The catalytic hydrogenation of ethene to yield ethane proceeds thusly:
:CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + catalyst → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

===Halogenation===

Addition of elementary bromine or chlorine in the presence of an organic solvent to alkenes yield vicinal* dibromo- and dichloroalkanes, respectively. (*&quot;Vicinal&quot; means &quot;adjacent&quot; e.g. the halogen atoms become attached to carbon atoms 1 and 2.).

The decoloration of a solution of bromine in water is an analytical test for the presence of alkenes: CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; → BrCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Br

The reaction works because the high electron density at the double bond causes a temporary shift of electrons in the Br-Br bond causing a temporary induced dipole. This makes the Br closest to the double bond slightly positive and therefore an electrophile.

[[File:Electrophilic reaction of bromine with ethene.png|thumb|500px|centre|Mechanism of electrophilic addition of bromine to ethene]]

===Hydrohalogenation===
Addition of hydrohalic acids like HCl or HBr to alkenes yield the corresponding haloalkanes.

[[File:Generic mechanism for electrophilic addition of H-X to ethene.svg|thumb|500px|centre|Mechanism for electrophilic addition of H-X to ethene]]

:an example of this type of reaction is: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + HBr → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CHBr-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

[[File:Hidrojen halajen katilmasi Propen 1.svg|thumb|500px|centre|Mechanism for electrophilic addition of H-Br to propene: Step 1 - the electrons from the C=C bond form a new bond with the H&lt;sup&gt;δ+&lt;/sup&gt; electrophile. The H-Br bond breaks.]]

[[File:Hidrojen halajen katilmasi Propen 2.svg|thumb|400px|centre|Mechanism for electrophilic addition of H-Br to propene: Step 2 - the :Br&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; nucleophile bonds to the carbocation.]]

If the two carbon atoms at the double bond are linked to a different number of hydrogen atoms, the halogen is found preferentially at the carbon with less hydrogen substituents (Markovnikov's rule).

====Markovnikov's Rule====

Before we continue discussing reactions, we need to take a detour and discuss a subject that is very important in alkene reactions, &quot;Markovnikov's Rule.&quot; This is a simple rule stated in 1869 by the Russian Vladimir Markovnikov (1837-1904), as he was showing the orientation of addition of HBr to alkenes.

His rule states: &quot;When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a hydrogen halide to give a halogenoalkane, the hydrogen adds to the carbon of the alkene that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents, and the halogen to the carbon of the alkene with the fewer number of hydrogen substituents&quot; (This rule is often compared to the phrase: &quot;The rich get richer and the poor get poorer.&quot; Aka, the Carbon with the most Hydrogens gets another Hydrogen and the one with the least Hydrogens gets the halogen)

This means that the nucleophile of the electrophile-nucleophile pair is bonded to the position most stable for a carbocation, or partial positive charge in the case of a transition state. 

=====Examples=====

: CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H-Br → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CHBr-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

Here the Br attaches to the middle carbon and not the terminal carbon, because of Markovnikov's rule, and this is called a Markovnikov product.

=====Why it works=====

Markovnikov's rule works because of the stability of carbocation intermediates. Carbocations are planar molecules, with a carbon that has three substituents at 120° to each other and a vacant p-orbital that is perpendicular to the trisubstituent plane.

[[Image:Carbocation Stability Trend.png|thumb|600px|center|Carbocation_Stability_Trend]]

This leads to a stabilising effect called ''hyperconjugation''. Hyperconjugation occurs between an unfilled p orbital and a filled C-H &amp;sigma; bond orbital next to each other†. The result is that the filled C-H &amp;sigma; orbital interacts with the unfilled p-orbital and stabilises the carbocation. Any alkyl group attached to the C&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion can contribute a C-H &amp;sigma; bond orbital to the hyperconjugation. More alkyl groups, therefore, create more hyperconjugation.

[[File:Carbocation intermediate has an empty p orbital on carbon.svg|thumb|270px|left|The carbocation intermediate has an empty p-orbital]]

[[File:Hyperconjugated carbocation.png|thumb|90px|right|The ethyl carbocation, highlighting the C-H &amp;sigma; bond that can conjugate with the empty p-orbital.]]

In the ethyl carbocation illustrated, one C-H &amp;sigma; bond can be in the same plane as the unfilled p-orbital. The &amp;sigma; bond and the p-orbital can conjugate. If the C&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion had a second or third alkyl group attached, a C-H &amp;sigma; bond from each alkyl group could also conjugate with the p-orbital, increasing the structure's stability.

†It is beyond the scope of A-level, but hyperconjugation can also occur in neutral molecules between an unfilled &amp;pi; bond orbital, or an &quot;antibonding&quot; &amp;pi;* orbital, and a filled C-H &amp;sigma; bond orbital.

The ''inductive effect'' is often used to explain the increased stability of secondary carbocations. Alkyl groups are supposed to release partial electron character onto the C&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion, which makes it more stable. This explanation does not account for carbon being more electronegative than hydrogen; Why does replacing H with C allow C&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; to take more electrons?

===Oxidation===

Alkenes are oxidised with a large number of oxidising agents. For example, alkaline potassium manganate(VII) will oxidise alkenes and turn from purple to green or brown in the process. Acidified potassium manganate(VII) will oxidise alkenes and turn from purple to pale pink.

===Polymerisation===
Polymerisation of alkenes is an economically important reaction which yields polymers of high industrial value, such as the plastics polyethylene and polypropylene.

Addition polymers, at this level, are always based on ethene. The C=C bond becomes a C-C bond, and the C-C units link to one another. Whatever atoms are attached to the C=C unit will be attached to the C-C chain.


[[File:Vinyl chloride Polymerization V1.svg|thumb|250px|centre|Poly Vinyl Chloride (poly(chloroethene)) formation]]

[[File:Polymerization of polypropylene - en.svg|thumb|400px|centre|PolyPropylene (poly(propene)) formation]]

[[File:Polystyrene formation.svg|thumb|700px|centre|PolyStyrene (poly(phenylethene)) formation]]

[[File:Polymethylpenten polymerisation.svg|thumb|400px|centre|Poly(4-MethylPent-1-ene) formation]]

=References=
&lt;references/&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>dyekiiuz2991sdqc72ctfqkt69s6wms</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Chemistry/WJEC/Module 2/Halogenoalkanes</title>
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      <text bytes="15061" sha1="otf4v6wmzso9yyyg9451ikbkiesl3b8" xml:space="preserve">'''Halogenoalkanes''' are otherwise simple alkanes that contain one or more members of the halogen family. In practice, the halogens found in organic molecules are chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), fluorine (F), and iodine (&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;). Some texts refer to this class of compounds as '''haloalkanes''' or '''alkyl halides'''. The chemical literature will frequently use the terms interchangeably.

''Note:'' The X in R-X represents a generic halogen atom.

==Naming Halogenoalkanes==

Haloalkanes are named by adding a prefix to the name of the alkane from which they are derived. The prefix denotes the particular halogen used.

'''F''' = ''Fluoro-''&lt;br&gt;
'''Cl''' = ''Chloro-''&lt;br&gt;
'''Br''' = ''Bromo-''&lt;br&gt;
'''&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;''' = ''&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;odo-''&lt;br&gt;

If other substituents need to be named, all prefixes are still put in alphabetical order. When necessary, numbers identify substituent locations.

===Example names of halogenoalkanes===

{| CELLPADDING=&quot;3&quot;
|-
|
 || '''IUPAC name''' || '''Common name'''
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;F || FluoroMethane || Methyl fluoride
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Cl || ChloroMethane || Methyl chloride
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Br || BromoMethane || Methyl bromide
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;odoMethane || Methyliodide
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; || DiFluoroMethane
| Methylene fluoride
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;ClCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; || DiChloroMethane
| Methylene chloride
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;FCl || ChloroFluoroMethane
|
|-
| CHBrClF || BromoChloroFluoroMethane ||
|-
| HCCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; || TriChloroMethane
| Chloroform
|-
| CHX&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; || Haloforms (X=halogen) || 
|-
| CCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; || TetraChloroMethane
| Carbon tetrachloride
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CHCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; || 1,1-DiChloroEthane
|
|-
| [[Image:1,6-Dichloro-2,3,5-trimethy.png]]
| 1,6-DiChloro-2,5-DiMethylHexane ||
|}

==Physical properties==

'''R-X bond polarity:''' most polar C—F &gt; C—Cl &gt; C—Br &gt; C—&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt; least polar

{| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
|'''atom''' &lt;nowiki&gt;| &lt;/nowiki&gt;
|''' electronegativity''' &lt;nowiki&gt;| &lt;/nowiki&gt;
|''' difference from C''' (= 2.5) &lt;nowiki&gt;| &lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|F
|4.0
|1.5
|-
|Cl
|3.0
|0.5
|-
|Br
|2.8
|0.3
|-
|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;
|2.5
|0.0
|}

The difference in electronegativity of the carbon-halogen bonds range from 1.5 in C-F to almost 0 in C-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;. This means that the C-F bond is extremely polar, though not ionic, and the C-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt; bond is almost nonpolar.

'''Physical appearance:''' Halogenoalkanes are colourless when pure. However bromo and iodo alkanes develop colour when exposed to light. Many volatile halogen compounds have sweet smell.

'''Boiling point:''' Halogenoalkanes are generally liquids at room temperature. Halogenoalkanes generally have a boiling point that is higher than the alkane they are derived from. This is due to the increased molecular weight due to the large halogen atoms and the increased intermolecular forces due to the polar bonds, and the increasing polarisabilty of the halogen.

For the same alkyl group, the boiling point of halogenoalkanes decreases in the order R&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt; &gt; RBr &gt; RCl &gt; RF. This is due to the increase in [[w:van der Waals forces|van der Waals forces]] when the size and mass of the halogen atom increases.

For isomeric halogenoalkanes, the boiling point decreases with increase in branching.

'''Density:''' Halogenoalkanes are generally more dense than the alkane they are derived from and usually more dense than water. Density increases with the number of carbon and halogen atom. It also increases with the increase in mass of halogen atom.

'''Solubility:''' The halogenoalkanes are only very slightly soluble in water, but dissolve in organic solvents. This is because for dissolving halogenoalkanes in water the strong hydrogen bonds present in water have to be broken. When dissolved in organic (non polar) solvents, the intermolecular attractions are almost same as that being broken.

'''Bond Length:''' shortest C—F &lt; C—Cl &lt; C—Br &lt; C—&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt; longest

{|style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
|'''bond'''
|'''length''' (pm)
|-
|C-F
|138
|-
|C-Cl
|177
|-
|C-Br
|193
|-
|C-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;
|214
|}

Larger atoms means larger bond lengths, as the orbitals on the halogen is larger the heavier the halogen is. In F, the orbitals used to make the bonds is 2s and 2p, in Cl, it's 3s and 3p, in Br, 4s and 4p, and in &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;, 5s and 5p. The larger the principal quantum number, the bigger the orbital. This is somewhat offset by the larger effective nuclear charge, but not enough to reverse the order.

==Chemical properties==

'''Bond strength:''' strongest C—F &gt; C—Cl &gt; C—Br &gt; C—&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt; weakest

{|style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
|'''bond'''
|'''strength''' (kJ mol&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
|C-F
|484
|-
|C-Cl
|338
|-
|C-Br
|276
|-
|C-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;
|238
|}

'''Bond reactivity:''' least reactive C—F &lt; C—Cl &lt; C—Br &lt; C—&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt; most reactive

Stronger bonds are more difficult to break, making them less reactive.

=Reactions=

==Substitution reactions of halogenoalkanes==

R-X bonds are very commonly used throughout organic chemistry because their polar bonds make them reasonably reactive. In a '''substitution reaction''', the halogen (X) is replaced by another substituent (Y). The alkyl group (R) is not changed.

Reminder: The &quot;''':'''&quot; in a chemical formula represents a pair of unbound electrons (a &quot;lone pair&quot;).

'''A general substitution reaction'''

Y: + R—X &amp;rarr; R—Y + X:

Substitutions involving halogenoalkanes involve a type of substitution called '''Nucleophilic substitution''', in which the substituent Y is a '''nucleophile'''. A nucleophile is an electron pair donor. The nucleophile replaces the halogen, which becomes a '''leaving group'''. Nucleophilic substitution reactions are abbreviated as S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt; reactions.

For general discussion of these reaction, we can use &quot;Nu:&quot; or &quot;Nu:&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;&quot; to represent a generic nucleophile.

Nu:&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + R—X &amp;rarr; R—Nu + X:&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
Nu: + R—X &amp;rarr; R—Nu&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + X:&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

{| CELLPADDING=&quot;3&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
|+'''Common Nucleophiles'''
|-
| '''Reagent''' || '''Nucleophile''' || '''Name''' || Product || Product name
|-
| NaOH/KOH || :O&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;H || Hydroxide || R—OH || Alcohol
|-
| NaOR' || :O&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;R' || Alkoxide || R—O—R' || Ether
|-
| ||:S&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;H || Hydrosulfide || R—SH || Thiol
|-
| NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; || :NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; || Ammonia || R—NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; || Alkylammonium ion
|-
| KCN || :C&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;N || Cyanide || R—CN || Nitrile
|-
| AgCN || Ag-CN: || Silver cyanide || R-NC || isonitrile
|-
| || :C&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;equiv;C—H || Acetylide
| R-C&amp;equiv;C—H || Alkyne
|-
| NaI || :I&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; || Iodide || R—I || Alkyl Iodide
|-
|R'&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;M&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; || :R'&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; || Carbanion || R-R' || Alkane
|-
| KNO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ||O=N&amp;mdash;O || Nitrite || R&amp;ndash;O&amp;mdash;N=O || Alkyl nitrite
|-
| AgNO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ||Ag&amp;mdash;&amp;Ouml;&amp;mdash;N=O || Silver nitrite ||  R&amp;mdash;NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; || Nitroalkane
|-
| LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; || H || Hydrogen ||  RH || alkane
|-
| R'COOAg || R'COO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; || Alkanoate || R'COOR || Ester
|}

'''Example:''' Suggest a reaction to produce the following molecule.

[[File:1-ethoxy-3-methylbutane.gif]]

'''Answer:'''

[[File:1-bromo-3-methylbutane.gif]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;[[File:Ethanolat-Ion.svg|150px|Ethanolate]]

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;OR&lt;/span&gt;

[[File:3-methylbutan-1-olate.gif]]&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;[[File:Bromoethan.svg|120px|Bromoethane]]

''Any halogen could be used instead of Br''

=== Reaction mechanisms ===

Nucleophilic substitution can occur in two different ways, but we only consider the S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2 mechanism.

[[File:Mechanismus von SN2 Reaktionen v 2.svg|thumb|500px|center|Illustration of the S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2 mechanism. First, the electrons in the nucleophile (1 :OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) attack the central carbon atom of BromoMethane (2) from the side opposite the leaving group (in this case, a bromine atom). In the transition state, the electrons form a new bond between the central carbon atom and the OH, and the C-Br bond breakes. A the bromide ion (5) leaves the newly formed methanol molecule (4).]]

==Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction Mechanism==

In nucleophilic substitution, a '''nucleophile''' attacks a molecule and takes the place of another nucleophile, which then leaves. The nucleophile that leaves is called the '''leaving group'''. A nucleophile has a lone pair of electrons and is often negatively charged. The leaving group is the part of the organic molecule which breaks free and forms a new nucleophile.

===S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2===

The '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reaction is a 1-step reaction where the attacking nucleophile, because of its higher affinity for and stronger bonding with the carbon, forces the leaving group to leave. These two things happen in a single step.

In '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reactions, the single step of the nucleophile coming together with the reactant from the opposite side of the leaving group, is the key to its rate. Because of this, the rate is dependent on both the concentration of the nucleophile as well as the concentration of the reactant. The higher these two concentrations, the more frequent the collisions. Thus the reaction rate is a second-order reaction:

:Rate = ''v'' = ''k''[Nu:][RX] (where Nu: is the attacking nucleophile)

There are primarily three things that affect whether an '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reaction will take place or not. The most important is structure. That is whether the halogenoalkane is on a methyl, primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. The other two components that determine whether an '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reaction will take place or not, are the nucleophilicity of the nucleophile and the solvent used in the reaction.

{| WIDTH=&quot;99%&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;background-color: #FFF7F7;{{Text default color}}; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;&quot; valign=&quot;bottom&quot; |
&lt;H3&gt;Reactivity Due to Structure of S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2&lt;/H3&gt;
CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;X &gt; RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;X &gt; R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CHX &gt;&gt; R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CX

|}

The structure of the halogenoalkane has a great effect on mechanism. CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;X &amp; RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;X are the preferred structures for '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2'''. R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CHX can undergo the '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' under the proper conditions (see below), and R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CX rarely, if ever, is involved in '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reactions.

[[Image:SN2CompleteReactionMechanism3.png|frame|center|S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2 nucleophilic substitution of bromine with a generic nucleophile]]

The reaction takes place by the nucleophile attacking from the opposite side of the bromine atom. Notice that the other 3 bonds are all pointed away from the bromine and towards the attacking nucleophile. When these three bonds are C-H bonds, there's very little steric hindrance of the approaching nucleophile. However, as the number of R groups increases, so does the steric hindrance, making it more difficult for the nucleophile to get close enough to the carbon, to expel the bromine atom. In fact, tertiary carbons (R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CX) are so sterically hindered as to prevent the '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' mechanism from taking place at all.

In the case of this example, a secondary carbon, there is still a great deal of steric hindrance and whether the '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' mechanism will happen will depend entirely on what the nucleophile and solvent are. '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reactions are preferred for methyl halides and primary halogenoalkanes.

Another important point to keep in mind, and this can be seen clearly in the example above, during an '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reaction, the molecule undergoes an inversion. The bonds attached to the carbon are pushed away as the nucleophile approaches. During the transition state, these bonds become planar with the carbon and, as the bromine leaves and the nucleophile bonds to the carbon, the other bonds fold back away from the nucleophile. This is particularly important in chiral or pro-chiral molecules, where an R configuration will be converted into an S configuration and vice versa.

'''Examples:'''

:OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;—Cl → HO—CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; is the nucleophile, CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;—Cl is the electrophile, HO—CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is the product, and Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; is the leaving group.

or,

:Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-Br → &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;Br&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

The above reaction, taking place in acetone as the solvent, sodium and iodide disassociate almost completely in the acetone, leaving the iodide ions free to attack the CH-Br molecules. The negatively charged iodide ion, a nucleophile, attacks the methyl bromide molecule, forcing off the negatively charged bromide ion and taking its place. The bromide ion is the leaving group.

====Leaving Group====
The leaving group is the group on the substrate that leaves. In the case of a halogenoalkane, this is the halide ion that leaves the carbon atom when the nucleophile attacks. The tendency of the nucleophile to leave is

{| WIDTH=&quot;25%&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;background-color: #FFF7F7;{{Text default color}}; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;&quot; valign=&quot;bottom&quot; |

&lt;H3&gt;Relative Reactivity of Leaving Groups&lt;/H3&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Verdana;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt; &gt; Br&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt; &gt; Cl&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt; &gt;&gt; F&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

Fluoride ions are '''very poor leaving groups''' because they '''bond very strongly''' and are very rarely used in halogenoalkane substitution reactions.

==Elimination Reactions==

With alcoholic potassium hydroxide, halogenoalkanes lose H-X and form the corresponding alkene.

Nucleophilic substitution reactions and elimination reactions share a lot of common characteristics, on top of which, the reactions can sometimes compete and, since their products are different, it's important to understand them both. Without understanding both kinds of mechanisms, it would be difficult to get the product you desire from a reaction.

In addition, the '''S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2''' reaction will be referenced quite a bit by way of comparison and contrast, so it's probably best to read that section first and then continue here.

Elimination reactions create alkene products from halogenoalkane reactants. Elimination, unlike substitution, does not occur with methyl halides because the reaction creates a double bond between two carbon atoms and methylhalides have only one carbon.

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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Johto/Mahogany Town</title>
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|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};font-size: 1.29em &quot; | '''Mahogany Town'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''チョウジタウン'''&lt;br&gt;''Chōji Town''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Mahoganytownmap.PNG|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''Welcome to the Home of the Ninja!''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Johto]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 43 (North)&lt;br&gt;Route 44 (East)&lt;br&gt;Route 42 (West)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gym Leader|Leaders]]
| [[List_of_Johto_Gym_Leaders#Pryce|Pryce]]
|-
| ''Badge''
| Glacierbadge
|-
| ''Type''
| Ice
|-
|}
'''Mahogany Town''' is a town in the [[Pokémon]] series, appearing in ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Pokémon Gold]]'', ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Silver]]'', and ''[[Pokémon Crystal|Crystal]]'' [[computer and video games|video games]].  It is tucked in the northeastern area of [[Johto]], between Routes 42, 43, and 44.

==Gym==

Mahogany Town's Gym is run by [[List of Johto Gym Leaders#Pryce|Pryce]], who specializes in ice Pokémon. This gym is only accessible after defeating Team Rocket in their underground hideout.  Several trainers need to be fought and an ice puzzle needs to be solved before Pryce can be challenged.

==Lake of Rage==
Lake of Rage lies north of Mahogany Town past Route 43.  A lake thought to be created by [[Gyarados]], it houses a level 30 Red ([[Shiny_Pokemon|Shiny]]) Gyarados.

After you defeat the [[Team Rocket|Rocket Grunt]]s, the Lake is a famous fishing spot home to bountiful [[Magikarp]] (and the occasional Gyarados, returned to normal color with the defeat of the Rockets). A man seeking the largest Magikarp will give you a prize depending on the size of the caught Magikarp.

Lake of Rage, however, has some coding behind it that unveils a town meant for the area northwest of the lake, but scrapped. The town also contains a Gym, as seen in the beta town.

==Rocket Hideout==

The Rocket hideout is located underneath a store that sells some strange items. In the video games, it features passwords and an alarm system. It also has traps in the floor that were left behind by the ninjas that used the hideout before Team Rocket occupied it.

In ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Pokémon Gold]]'', ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Silver]]'', and ''[[Pokémon Crystal|Crystal]]'', [[Lance (Pokémon)|Lance]], the current champion of the [[Pokémon League]] feels suspicious about this store, and along with the main character, breaks in and enters the Rocket hideout. In the final room that must be entered, there are six [[Electrode (Pokémon)|Electrodes]] powering a machine that emits radio waves to force Pokémon to evolve. Lance and the main character must each battle three of the Electrode in order to shut down the generator.

In the [[Pokémon Adventures]] manga, [[Lt. Surge]] finds the Rocket Hideout because he detected machines running under the store due to his sensitivity to electricity. There, he battles [[Mask of Ice]] and loses, but manages to escape.

== Ice Path ==
The Ice Path is a cave located at the east of Mahogany Town. This large maze connects Mahogany Town and [[Blackthorn City]] It contains many items such as the HM Waterfall and many Pokémon not found in the wild before.

==Demographics==
Mahogany Town's [[population]] is 14, making it the third smallest town in [[Johto]]. This is only because it is a very small town in area.

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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Johto/Blackthorn City</title>
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|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}}; font-size: 1.29em &quot; | '''Blackthorn City'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''フスベシティ'''&lt;br&gt;''Fusube City''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Blackthorncitymap.PNG|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''A Quiet Mountain Retreat''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Johto]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 45 (South)&lt;br&gt;Route 44 (West)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gym Leader|Leaders]]
| [[List of Johto Gym Leaders#Clair|Clair]]
|-
| ''Badge''
| Risingbadge
|-
| ''Type''
| Dragon
|-
|}

'''Blackthorn City''', also known as the '''Dragon City''', is the birthplace of Pokémon League Elite Four (and Johto Champion) [[Lance (Pokémon)|Lance]]. It is located in northeast [[Johto]], and west of the city is [[Mahogany Town]] and the Ice Path. [[Clair]], Lance's cousin and the Gym Leader of the Blackthorn City Gym, specialises in Dragon-type Pokémon. North of the city is the Dragon's Den, which is home to Dragon-type Pokémon. South of the city is the Dark Cave and New Bark Town. Blackthorn also contains a move deleter, who will delete the moves of your Pokemon for free.

The music from Blackthorn City and [[Azalea Town]] was remixed for use in [[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen]]. The remixed music is used on Four and Five Islands.

==The Dragon's Den==
The Dragon's Den has some minor importance in [[Pokémon Gold|''Gold'']] and [[Pokémon Silver|''Silver'']] where, after being bested by the player, Gym Leader Clair sends him down to fetch the Dragon Fang. Once the Dragon Fang is collected, Clair will appear out of nowhere, admire the strange item for a moment, and relinquish the Rising Badge and the ''Dragonbreath'' [[Technical Machine|TM]].

In [[Pokémon Crystal|''Crystal'']], the trainer is sent down to the Den to take a Pokémon quiz given by Clair's grandfather, the Dragon Clan Elder. After you answer all the questions (which are mostly about how you care for Pokémon), Clair's grandfather will make her give up the Rising Badge and her TM. The elder will also give you a [[Dratini]] if you talk to him, but if you answered all of the questions with the best responses, the Dratini will have the move ''Extremespeed'', which it can't normally learn otherwise.

[[Magikarp]] make up most of the wild Pokémon in the Dragon's Den, although [[Dratini]] can also be occasionally found in the den. There is also a slim (5%) chance of encountering [[Dragonair (Pokémon)|Dragonair]].

==Demographics==
Blackthorn City's [[population]] is 27. This high number is due, in part, to the existence of the Dragon Clan which resides in the city.

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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Vermilion City</title>
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|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};font-size: 1.29em &quot; | '''Vermilion City'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''クチバシティ'''&lt;br&gt;''Kuchiba City''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Vermilion_Map.png|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''The Port of Exquisite Sunsets''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Kanto (Pokémon)|Kanto]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
| Route 6 (North)&lt;br&gt; Route 11 (East)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gym Leader|Leaders]]
| [[List of Kanto Gym Leaders#Lt. Surge|Lt. Surge]]
|-
| ''Badge''
| Thunderbadge
|-
| ''Type''
| Electric
|-
|}
{{nihongo|'''Vermilion City'''|クチバシティ|Kuchiba Shiti|'''Kuchiba City''' in the original [[Japanese language|Japanese]]}} is a fictional [[city]] in the ''[[Pokémon (video games)|Pokémon]]'' series of [[Computer and video games|video game]]s. It is a port city located to the south of [[Saffron City]] on the urban plains in the center of the [[Kanto (Pokémon)|Kanto]] region, the setting for the first generation of the series. It houses the third [[Pokémon Gym]], where Pokemon trainers can challenge local [[Gym Leader]] [[List of Kanto Gym Leaders#Lt. Surge|Lt. Surge]] for the Thunder Badge, as well as the Pokémon Fan Club, and the cruise ship SS Anne is docked here when the player first arrives.

==Places of interest==
===Gym leader===
In ''[[Pokémon Red and Blue|Pokémon Red]]'', ''[[Pokémon Red and Blue|Pokémon Blue]]'', ''[[Pokémon Yellow]]'', ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Gold]]'', ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Silver]]'', ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|Pokémon FireRed]]'' and ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|Pokémon LeafGreen]]'', Vermilion City is home to the electric type-using gym leader Lt. Surge.  To get to this point, the player must retrieve the [[List of Pokémon items#Technical Machine|Hidden Machine]] (HM) ''Cut'' from the S.S. Anne.

===S.S Anne===
The S.S. Anne makes its appearance here in the Red, Blue/Green, Yellow, FireRed and LeafGreen versions. It also has an appearance in Ruby/Sapphire/Emerald as the Abandoned Ship. The S.S. Aqua travels to this city from [[Olivine City]] in [[Johto]]. In the Fire Red and Leaf Green versions, the Seagallop ferries also depart from this port towards the [[Sevii Islands]]. The route which the ship takes is sometimes known as the Kanto-Johto Sea Route. East of the city is the Diglett's Cave.

In Red, Blue, and Yellow, as well as LeafGreen and FireRed, the player must retrieve the important HM, Cut, by receiving the S.S Anne pass from [[Pokémaniac Bill]], board the S.S. Anne, and rub the captain's back, who has [[sea-sickness]]. He then gives you the HM. On your way, you encounter your rival. On the ship, there are a number of trainers who seek battle inside the cabins. The second type of [[Poké Ball]], Great Ball, can also be found in the kitchen area in one of the bins in Red, Blue, and Yellow. In LeafGreen and FireRed, you simply find [[berry|berries]] in the bins, although the Great Ball can still be found in this room.

==Anime==
Vermilion City makes an appearance in Episode #14, ''Electric Shock Showdown'', in which [[Ash Ketchum]] fights against Lt. Surge.  The following episode, ''Battle Aboard The St. Anne'', Ash, Misty, and Brock board the S.S Anne, although it sinks with them on it. In the following episode, they escape, leading up to the three (and Team Rocket) washing up on an amusement park. Notably, in the anime, the S.S. Anne is called by its Japanese name, the St. Anne.

==Additional information==
This city is also home of the Pokémon fan club, where the chairman gives you a Bike voucher in [[Pokémon Red|Red]], [[Pokémon Blue|Blue]], [[Pokémon Yellow|Yellow]], [[Pokémon FireRed|FireRed]], and [[Pokémon  LeafGreen|LeafGreen]].  In [[Pokémon Gold|Gold]], [[Pokémon Silver|Silver]], and [[Pokémon  Crystal|Crystal]], he simply gives you a rare candy.  Also noted is that in FireRed and LeafGreen, a girl inside the Pokémon Center gives you a [[List of Pokémon items#Vs. Seeker|VS. Seeker]].  Vermilion also leads to Route 12, where there is a [[Snorlax]] in the way of the road.

In the Yellow version, which parallels the anime, Officer Jenny will give the player [[Squirtle]] after the Thunderbadge has been won.

If a player gets the cut HM from another trainer, the S.S Anne never takes off.If the player goes back and uses surf next to the ship, there is a truck. This started many fake rumors of how to get Mew. Interestingly, The mysterious truck also appears in Fire Red/Leaf Green, but all you get for finding it is a lava cookie, an item predominatly found in the Ruby, Sapphire and Emerald games.

==Demographics==
The [[Population]] of Vermilion City is 21

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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Mt. Moon</title>
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|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}}; font-size: 1.29em &quot; | '''Mt. Moon'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:MtMoon.png|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Kanto (Pokémon)|Kanto]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 3 (West)&lt;br&gt;Route 4 (East)
|}

'''Mt. Moon''' is a fictional mountain in the [[Pokémon]] world situated between [[Pewter City]] and [[Cerulean City]], connecting Routes 3 and 4. It appears in the first and second generation games as well as in [[FireRed]] and [[LeafGreen]]. Because it's impossible to climb, it must be passed through the caves, which include many large floors. Its name may be based on the [[Clefairy]] found there, which are said to be from the moon.

== Pokémon Found ==

In the first and third generations, Mt. Moon is the first place where the player can find [[Zubat]] and [[Geodude]], Pokémon often found in any cave. Apart from those, [[Paras]] and [[Clefairy]] are also found there. Paras can be found later in the game in the [[Safari Zone]], but Clefairy can only be found there and its very rare to find.

In the second generation, Mt. Moon was also the only place to find Clefairy.

== Appeareance in the different generations ==

[[Image:MtMoonSquare.PNG|thumbnail|250px|Two Clefairy dancing around a stone in the Mt. Moon Square.]]
Originally, Mt. Moon was a three-floor dungeon with many paths to confuse the player. Most of them lead to an item and a trainer, while one leads to a scientist that discovered two fossils (''Helix Fossil'' and ''Dome Fossil'') and you could select which to take.

In the second generation, Mt. Moon was reduced to a simple path with an additional exit, which leaded to the Mt. Moon Square, an open space in the middle of Mt. Moon where Clefairy play during the Monday nights. If the player went there on a Monday night, he would see two Clefairy dancing around a rock. Then they will notice the player and flee, leaving the stone. If the player broke the stone with ''Rock Smash'', he would find a Moon Stone. This was the only way to get one.

== References ==

*In-game content of ''Pokémon Red, Blue, Yellow, Gold, Silver, Crystal, FireRed'' and ''Leafgreen''
*Nintendo Power. ''Official Nintendo Pokémon FireRed &amp; Pokémon LeafGreen Player’s Guide''. Nintendo of America Inc., August 2004. {{#isbn:193020650X}}

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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Johto/Mt. Silver</title>
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|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};font-size: 1.29em &quot; | '''Mount Silver'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''シロガネやま'''&lt;br&gt;''Mount Shirogane''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Mt silver map.png|250px]]
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Johto]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
| Route 28 (East)
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{{nihongo|'''Mount Silver'''|シロガネやま|Mount Shirogane|'''Mount Shirogane''' in the original [[Japanese language|Japanese]]}}is a location in the [[fiction]]al [[Pokémon]] series. It is a mountain that is located within the [[Johto]] region, which resembles the [[Mount Fuji]] in Japan.

==In the anime==
In the [[Pokémon (anime)|anime]], Mt Silver is the home of the [[Johto]] League and [[Silver Town]] in the Pokémon anime.  It is the location where the Johto League Conference is held annually, in which trainers fight for the Johto League Trophy and the title of Champion of the Johto League. 

==In the video games==
===Red===
In the [[Pokémon Gold and Silver|''Gold'']], [[Pokémon Gold and Silver|''Silver'']], and [[Pokémon Crystal|''Crystal'']] versions, trainers battle [[Red (Pokémon)|Red]] or [[Ash Ketchum]] at Silver Cave, a small cave near the peak of the mountain. The name and design implies that he is the protagonist from the [[Pokémon Red and Blue|''Red'']], [[Pokémon Red and Blue|''Blue'']], and [[Pokémon Yellow|''Yellow'']] versions of the game, though the Pokémon in his team (specifically a high level [[Pikachu]]) may imply that he is also based on Red from the manga older games.  He says nothing to the player before and after the battle. Mount Silver can only be accessed by beating all 16 gym leaders from the [[Kanto (Pokémon)|Kanto]] and [[Johto]] regions and proving as much to [[Professor Oak]] in the game.
Red's Pokémon are:
*Espeon (Level 73)
*Blastoise (Level 77)
*Charizard (Level 77)
*Venusaur (Level 77)
*Snorlax (Level 75)
*Pikachu (Level 81)

===Wild Pokémon===
Silver Cave is home to [[Pokémon]] with levels around 40-50. However, there is a chance you will find a Lv. 51 Donphan and possibly a Lv. 51 Golbat. (Silver only) It is the only place in the game where you can catch [[Larvitar]] and [[Misdreavus]], the latter appearing only at night. The grass and fields outside the Silver Cave entrance are full of [[Rapidash]], [[Ursaring]] and [[Magmar]]. Although technically located on the Johto side, it can only be accessed through Kanto by way of Route 28 unless you fly from Johto after visiting once.

==Demographics==
In the [[Pokémon (anime)|anime]], Mount Silver has an accompanying city called [[Silver Town]]. However, in the games, there is no such city, making its [[population]] possibly 2, consisting of the old lady in the Pokémon Center and the &quot;celebrity&quot; in a house along the road (the nurses of the Pokémon Center do not count as inhabitants).

==See also==
* [[Johto]]
* [[Silver Town]]
* [[Red (Pokémon)|Red]]

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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Lavender Town</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};font-size: 1.29em &quot; |'''Lavender Town'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''シオンタウン'''&lt;br&gt;''Shion Town''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Lavendertown.png|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''The Noble Purple Town''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Kanto (Pokémon)|Kanto]]
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| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 10 (North)&lt;br&gt;Route 12 (South)&lt;br&gt;Route 8 (West)
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{{nihongo|'''Lavender Town'''|シオンタウン|Shion Taun|'''Shion Town''' in the original [[Japanese language|Japanese]]}} is a fictional town in the eastern part of the [[Kanto (Pokémon)|Kanto]] region of the [[Pokémon]] universe mainly characterised by the Pokémon Tower.
In the ''[[Pokémon Red and Blue|Red and Blue]]'' and ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|FireRed and LeafGreen]]'' versions, Lavender Town has a tower called [[Lavender Tower|Pokémon Tower]], which is a tall tower filled with the graves of Pokémon that have died.  In the tower there are many Channellers that have been possessed by the ghost of [[Marowak]] and will fight you with their ghost Pokémon (Specifically a level 25-35 Gastly, and one of them has a Haunter). A Channeller lucky enough not to be possessed has sealed a section with white magic. Stepping in this section will heal your Pokémon. A Lv. 30 [[Marowak]]'s spirit will challenge you on the sixth floor after you have retrieved the Silph Scope from the Rocket Game Corner in [[Celadon City]]. Three Rockets will challenge you on the seventh floor in the ''[[Pokémon Red and Blue|Red and Blue]]'' and ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|FireRed and LeafGreen]]''  versions before you can rescue Mr. Fuji. In the ''[[Pokémon Yellow]]'' version [[Team Rocket|Jessie and James]] will challenge you instead.
In the tower the wild pokémon are:
Level 15-25 [[Gastly]], and [[Cubone]].
Rarer Pokémon are Level 20-25 [[Haunter]], and [[Marowak]]. 

In the ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Gold and Silver]]'' and ''[[Pokémon Crystal|Crystal]]'' versions, the tower was replaced by a radio tower, and the Pokémon graves were moved.

===Mr. Fuji and the PokéFlute===
After rescuing Mr. Fuji from Pokémon Tower, he will return home to the Lavender Volunteer Pokémon House, a somewhat small day care for Pokémon. He will thank you for helping him and bestow upon you the Pokéflute. This item not only allows the awakening of the two [[Snorlax]] in Kanto, but it also revives your Pokémon from Sleep during battle.  It will also revive your opponent's pokémon as well as your teammate's (in a double battle).

===The Name Rater===
In ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen]]'', there is a house south of the Lavender Volunteer Pokémon House that belongs to a man who rates the nicknames of your Pokémon. This is the only way you can change the nickname of your Pokémon after you catch it. If you do not like the nickname you gave it, you are free to change it at anytime. However, you cannot change the nickname of a Pokémon received in a trade. The Name Rater claims that the nickname represents a bond between the Pokémon and its original trainer, and he will not interfere. The music that plays in here is happier than the music that plays in this town; it is the same music from Cerulean City/Fuschia City.

===Music===
In ''[[Pokémon Red and Blue|Red and Blue]]'', Lavender Town's theme is a solemn, creepy one, while Pokémon Tower's theme is just as creepy, but a different tune. This differed greatly in ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver|Gold and Silver]]'', where the theme was a soft, much happier version of the song. This may be due to the fact that Pokémon Tower had become a radio tower. In ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen]]'', it is the same theme as Red, Blue, and Yellow, but an updated version. Many fans consider this version of the theme their favorite.{{fact}}

==Demographics==
The [[Population]] of Lavender Town is 33

{{Pokémon locations}}
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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Hoenn/Oldale Town</title>
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|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;'''Oldale Town'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''コトキタウン'''&lt;br&gt;''Kotoki Town''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:Oldalemap.PNG|250px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''Where things start off scarce.''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| [[Region]]
| [[Hoenn]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 103 (North)&lt;br&gt;Route 101 (South)&lt;br&gt;Route 102 (West)
|-
|}

'''Oldale Town''' is a [[fictional]] city in the [[Pokémon]] series, located in the [[Hoenn]] region. It is the second town one visits in [[Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire]] and [[Pokémon Emerald]]. It is a minor town, which has the first [[Pokémart]] and [[Pokémon Center]] one visits. The first time one arrives here, one will be stopped from going any further. Route 103 is situated above here, and is the location of your rival. You must wait to access Route 102, to the left, as a man discovered mysterious footprints (that turned out to be his own footprints). After you defeat May/Brendan and get the [[Pokédex]]/[[Poké Ball]]s, you can enter.  It is based on [[Saga, Saga]].

==Pokémon==
===Route 103===
#Wingull
#Zigzagoon
#Poochyena

===Route 102===
#Surskit (not in Emerald)
#Ralts
#Lotad (Sapphire/Emerald)
#Seedot (Ruby/Emerald)
#Wurmple
#Zigzagoon
#Poochyena

==Oldale Town in the anime==
There is more to Oldale Town in the [[Pokémon (anime)|animé]].  Above it are some ruins that hold a secret to ancient Pokémon. This is also the place where Ash and May first meet Team Magma, who try to steal the secret. They leave emptyhanded, but then Ash and May get to see a group of [[Relicanth]].

== Demographics ==

The population of Oldale Town in the game is 13.

{{Pokémon locations}}
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    <title>A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Hoenn/Mauville City</title>
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| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccf;{{Text default color}};&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large;&quot;&gt;'''Mauville City'''&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | '''キンセツシティ'''&lt;br&gt;''Kinsetsu City''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | 250px
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | ''The bright and shiny city of fun!''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Location Info
|-
| Region
| Hoenn
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Connecting Routes
|Route 111 (North)&lt;br&gt;Route 110 (South)&lt;br&gt;Route 118 (East)&lt;br&gt;Route 117 (West)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#eef;{{Text default color}};&quot; | Gym Info
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | Leaders
| Wattson
|-
| ''Badge''
| Dynamobadge 
|-
| ''Type''
| Electric
|-
|}
'''Mauville City''', known as '''Kinsetsu City''' (キンセツシティ ''Kinsetsu Shiti'') in the original Japanese, is a junction city in the Hoenn region in the fictional world of Pokémon. Roads from Mauville lead west to Verdanturf Town, south to Slateport City, east to Fortree City and Lilycove City, and north to Fallarbor Town and Lavaridge Town. It has the Mauville City Gym under leader Wattson. 

==Places of interest==
===Gym===
Wattson is a local figure that trains Electric-type Pokémon. His gym is equipped with electrical fields that alternate and block a challenger's path.

He uses in ''Pokémon Ruby'' and ''Sapphire'':
*Voltorb - level 20
*Magnemite - level 22
*Magneton - level 23

In Pokémon Emerald:
*Voltorb - level 20
*Electrike - level 22
*Magneton - level 23
*Manectric - level 24

===Rydel's Cycles===
A bicycle shop. Rydel is a benevolent shop owner who sometimes gives his merchandise away to travelers. Trainers may choose between a Mach Bike or Acro Bike. The Mach Bike is fast, but it can't do any tricks, and the Acro Bike isn't as fast, but it can do tricks. Rydel will hold the other bike for the player until he or she decides to switch bikes. 

===Game Corner===
A casino featuring slot machines and roulette. You need the Coin Case in order to play at it, which can be obtained by trading Harbor Mail for one in a house in Mauville. You can either play slots, or roulette tables. Players can win dolls and TMs. The dolls that can be won are ones of Treecko, Torchic, and Mudkip, while the TMs that can be won are TM13, TM24, TM29, TM32, and TM35.

===New Mauville===
New Mauville is an underground facility that can only be accessed after you get the Basement Key from Wattson, as well has HM03, Surf. The Basement Key is specifically for entering New Mauville, but Surf is needed solely since it is in the water near the city.

It holds Mauville's power generator, which needs to be turned off as soon as you have access to it. There is a puzzle of switches in New Mauville which always block parts of the path, but some of the switches have Voltorb disguised as Poké Balls on them. Wild Pokémon you can find are Magnemite and Voltorb, and to a lesser extent, Magneton and Electrode.

==Demographics==
Although Mauville City is a fairly big city, it has a small population in comparison to other cities. The population of the city is just 28.

{{Pokémon locations}}
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    <title>A User's Guide to Reason/Physics, Biology, Psychology, and Ethics</title>
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      <comment>/* The unity of all goods and all minds */ The universal good is the existence of a community that welcomes all minds, so that they may help one another to bring into being this community of welcome and mutual aid among all minds.</comment>
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      <text bytes="22908" sha1="9sfvy8nvuja3r4l4atgwjomr25ahn1a" xml:space="preserve">Physics is the science of matter. Biology is the science of life. Psychology is the science of the mind. Ethics is the science of good and evil.

== What is matter? ==

''&quot;I say that whatever possesses any power whatsoever, whether to act upon any naturally similar thing, or to be affected—even to the slightest degree by the action of the weakest agent, and even if this happens only once—all this, I say, truly exists. And, consequently, I posit by the very definition that defines beings that they are nothing but potentiality.&quot;'' (Plato, ''The Sophist'' or ''On Being'', 247e)

A material being must be detectable. If no detector is capable of detecting it, then it is not material.

The detection of material beings depends on their interactions.

If A acts upon B, A acts and B is affected.

A detected being acts upon the detector. Therefore, a being that does not act upon any material being cannot be material. The laws of physics further dictate that a being that acts must also be acted upon. Therefore, to be material, a being must interact with other material beings. Is this a sufficient condition?

Descartes supposed that a soul is an immaterial substance that interacts with the body. But physics has never found such an immaterial substance or its laws of interaction with matter. As far as we know, matter interacts only with matter. We can therefore adopt the following principle:

''A being is material if and only if it interacts with other material beings.''

The nature of matter is to interact with matter. The properties of a piece of matter (elementary particle, atom, molecule, solid, liquid, or gaseous material...) are always determined by its ways of interacting with other pieces of matter. Matter always does this: interact with matter, and nothing else. There is nothing more to know about matter than its interactions. When we understand how material beings interact, we know everything there is to know about them.

We are sensitive to a being when it acts upon our senses. Our sensory organs are specialized to receive the action of external objects. They are not sufficient to know all material beings and all their interactions, but they still provide a great deal of information. Observational and measuring instruments, and all the detection systems we can construct, are like sensory prostheses. They extend the field of perception. They enable us to know material beings to which the senses are not directly sensitive. They reveal to us other forms of action and sensitivity.

Matter can always be detected because its nature is to interact. As soon as it acts upon another piece of matter, that piece becomes a detector. Our senses, supplemented by all conceivable detection systems, thus enable us, in principle, to know all material beings and all their properties. Nothing can remain hidden. Everything can be perceived, because the nature of matter is to be perceptible.

When we perceive an object with our senses, we believe we know it that way. For example, if we see that the wall is white, we naturally believe that it is truly white. But isn't that a mistake? All we know is that our eyes give us a sensation of white. The white seems to be on the wall, but it is primarily in our eyes. It could even be that the wall doesn't exist, that we only have the illusion of a white wall. Should we conclude from this that we never truly know the external world, that we can only know our sensations and ourselves, that perception is always introspective?

The wall is truly white because it is capable of affecting all beings sensitive to white light, and in particular because it is capable of eliciting the sensation of white in our eyes. More generally, all the properties and relations that determine the existence of a material being are detectable by other material beings. Therefore, we need not fear that perception will maliciously deprive us of what it seems to give us: true representations of the perceived beings.

But this argument in favor of the truth of perceptions seems to prove far too much, since it suggests that all perceptions should be true. If the detected property is always the property of being detectable in this way, it follows that all detection is true, since what is detected is necessarily detectable in this way. How then can false perceptions exist?

The possibility of falsehood arises from the existence of a standard of truth. If a measuring instrument has not been properly calibrated, it gives a false result. The result is false only in relation to the standard of measurement. The same applies to perception. Perceptions can only be false if there is a standard that determines what should be perceived. In the absence of a standard, they are always true because they always reveal the effect of the object on our senses. Even a false perception reveals a truth about the object because it is true that it can be perceived in that way.

''The being of matter is to have an effect on matter. This is how it appears. Matter appears as it is because its being is to appear.''

== What is life? ==

''&quot;If the feet and hands had a will of their own, they would never be in their proper order except by submitting this particular will to the primary will that governs the entire body. Otherwise, they are in disorder and misery; but by desiring only the good of the body, they do their own good.&quot;'' (Blaise Pascal, ''Christian Morality'' 23, Laf. 374, Sel. 406)

''&quot;An organized product of nature is one in which everything is both end and, conversely, also means.&quot;'' (Kant, ''Critique of Judgment,'' §66, 1790)

''A hand separated from the body is not a hand, but merely a piece of a corpse.''

The unity of a living body is much more than its mechanical strength:

''All parts of a living body provide services to other parts and receive services in return. This is the essence of life.''

The unity of a living body is not only that of its organs, but also that of its molecules:

''A living body is essentially an autocatalytic network''. (Kauffman)

A system of molecules is an autocatalytic network if and only if the synthesis of each molecule is catalyzed by other molecules in the system.

To catalyze means to accelerate without being consumed. If a reaction is very slow, it can be considered impossible, and to catalyze means to bring into existence.

DNA is a catalyst for the synthesis of DNA and RNA. RNA is a catalyst for the synthesis of RNA, DNA, and proteins. Proteins are catalysts for the synthesis of DNA, RNA, proteins, and all other molecules produced in a living organism.

An autocatalytic network can feed itself by building large molecules from the small molecules it absorbs. It can then grow and reproduce.

== What is the mind? ==

''A mind is a being that perceives, imagines, is moved, decides, and acts.''

Willpower is the capacity to decide and to stick to one's decisions. Speech is an action. Thought is the imagining of speech. Attention is a form of perception, whether directed by the will or not.

Imagination is like a perception of the absent, the past, the future, or the purely imaginary. Perception is like an imagining of the present, directed by sensations.

To imagine is always to imagine that we are someone else, in another place, at another time, or in another world. We understand other minds by putting ourselves in their place, by imagining that we are them. We play as if we were thinking what they think, wanting what they want, feeling what they feel, perceiving what they perceive, doing what they do, imagining what they imagine. ''&quot;Nothing human is alien to me.&quot;'' (Terence, ''Heautontimoroumenos'', v. 77)

A mind is self-aware. It is conscious that it perceives, imagines, is moved, decides, and acts, as if it were perceiving itself.

Consciousness is always self-awareness. One cannot be conscious of what one sees without being conscious that one sees it. However one might be conscious, one cannot be conscious without being conscious of being conscious. One might fear that this would lead to an infinite regress: one cannot be conscious without being conscious of being conscious of being conscious, and so on ad infinitum. But being conscious and being conscious of being conscious are inseparable. They are not two moments of consciousness, but one. Being conscious without being conscious of being conscious seems inconceivable, and it is not our way of being conscious. Similarly, being conscious of being conscious of being conscious is not a new moment of consciousness added to the previous one. It is still simply being conscious. Self-consciousness, therefore, is not subject to an infinite regress.

A mind knows the truth about itself because it is self-aware. A mind cannot exist without revealing its existence to itself.

To act upon the world and upon itself, a mind must adapt to external and internal reality, therefore perceive them. To perceive the external world and act upon it, a mind must interact with it. A mind must therefore have a body. The nervous system, including the brain, is a network of neurons that connects the sensory organs to the effector organs, especially the muscles. It enables us to perceive and act upon external and internal reality.

We do not know how consciousness arises from the life of the body. What makes the difference between a network of neurons with consciousness and a network of neurons without consciousness? (Chalmers, ''The Conscious Mind'', 1995)

All parts of the brain devoted to perception, imagination, and emotion can contribute to decision-making. All parts of the brain devoted to action, perception, imagination, and emotion must obey the decisions that have been made, even emotion, because we are capable of controlling it. But there is no leader who would make decisions like a dictator. The decision is the result of a collective deliberation in which all forms of perception, imagination, and emotion can participate. The brain of a conscious being is like a centralized administration without a central administrator (Shallice, Baars, Changeux, Dehaene...). Decisions imposed on the community are made by the community without a leader.

I cannot think that I think without thinking that I am, because I am that which thinks. I think, therefore I am. But this argument of Descartes is not truly conclusive. It would be better to say I think, therefore I am not, because there are only thoughts and there is nothing that thinks.

A mind is nothing more than a flow of perceptions, dreams, thoughts, memories, emotions, decisions, and actions. The being of a mind is to be this flow, or this collection. The distinction between persons is similar to the distinction between rivers. They are separate, yet they are all made of the same water, and they are nothing more than that water.

By teaching that the self does not exist, the Buddha simultaneously teaches how to be liberated from hatred. We experience hatred when we believe we have a self that is under attack. But if there is no self, there is no one under attack, and hatred disappears.

== What is speech? == 

Speech is a sequence of words that has meaning.

How can a sequence of words have meaning?

We always perceive beings by perceiving their properties and relations, therefore by perceiving concepts.

Imagination is a simulation of perception. It attributes concepts to absent beings, as if they were present and perceived.

''With speech, we can say what we perceive and imagine what we say. We can say what we perceive because we can name concepts. We can imagine what we say because we can simulate the perception of the concepts we name. The name of a concept is like a note on a musical score. Simulating the perception of that concept is like hearing that note. Words are like the scores of our dreams.''

== What is Good? ==

It is always foolish to do evil or not to do good when it is necessary. Intelligence is always about adapting to reality, both external and internal, to do good, as much as one can and as is appropriate.

=== The fundamental goods ===

The fundamental good is having a sound mind in a sound body. ''The fundamental goods are physical health, good perception, good imagination, good emotions, good decisions, and good actions.''

This list of the six fundamental goods is similar to the list of the eight fundamental goods given by the Buddha: the Eightfold Path.

All fundamental goods are interdependent, as if they were all on the same wheel:
* To act well is always to act for the good. To decide well is always to decide to act well.
* Imagining well is always about imagining in order to make good decisions, act well, perceive well, and be moved well.
* Perceiving well is always about perceiving in order to make good decisions, act well, imagine well, and be moved well.
* To be moved well is always to be moved in order to adapt to reality; it is not about always feeling good. Even suffering can be a positive emotion if it helps us adapt to reality. To be moved well is always about being moved in order to make sound decisions and to act well.

The fundamental evils are poor physical health, bad perception, bad imagination, bad emotion, bad decision-making, and bad action.

Derived goods are means of attaining the fundamental goods. Derived evils are causes of fundamental evils.

=== It is unity that creates good ===

One being does good to another if it helps it to come into being, if it helps it to persevere in its being, or if it helps it to be what it should be.

One being can do good to another indirectly. If A does good to B, who does good to C, then A does good to C.

Doing good to a being is not always doing good, because one does harm by helping evil to come into being or by helping it persevere in its being. Doing good to a being only means giving it strength. It is not always good.

Doing good to a good is always doing good. One helps a good to come into being when one helps a being to be good, therefore doing good is always doing good to a good.

To be a good, one must do good. A being that never does good is not a good. We recognize a good by observing that it is a source of good, that it benefits other goods.

Beings are united when they do good to one another. In a united community, each member is a good for all the others, therefore a common good. A healthy living body is a united community because each of its parts helps the others to persevere in their being. A healthy mind is a united community because all its fundamental goods benefit one another. A body and its mind, both healthy, are united.

The beings of a united community are all goods by being goods for one another. We observe that they are all goods by observing that they are all united. It is unity that creates good. The unity of beings makes them goods. A good is always a good by being united with other goods, by being a good for all the members of the community to which it belongs. A good is always a common good for a community. To be a good is to have one's place among other goods. We recognize a good by observing its integration among other goods. An evil is always an evil by being opposed to one or more goods.

The concept of good can be defined from the concepts of force and unity. A force is not necessarily good. It can be evil, or neither good nor evil. But if forces are all united, they are good to one another, and that is how they are all good. To be good is to be a force united with other forces.

A good for one being is not always a good for another, because communities of goods can be in conflict. The tiger's teeth are a good for the tiger but not for its prey.

=== Living for the good of all minds ===

A mind must desire one's own good, but that is not enough. Not desiring the good of other minds is an evil, because it is a misuse of one's will. Thus, we recognize the fundamental principle of ethics:

''The good of a mind is to live for the good of all minds.''

This principle does not require completely renouncing one's own self-interest. Doing good for oneself is good. But a mind that does not use its power for the good of others is a weak mind, an unfulfilled mind. A hand separated from the body is not a hand, but merely a piece of a corpse (Aristotle, Pascal). Selfishness is a stunting of the mind.

When one truly knows how to be of service, one does one's own good as well as that of others, and one reveals oneself to be truly competent, truly strong, truly powerful, truly good.

When one wills and does good, one benefits oneself. When one wills and does evil, one harms oneself. This is why the criminal will is a punishment. In Dostoevsky's novel, ''Crime and Punishment'', Raskolnikov becomes obsessed with his will to kill and experiences it as torture. He finally kills in order to be freed from his will to kill. Afterward, he is relieved. He mounts the scaffold feeling at peace. His true punishment lies not after, but before the crime.

Living for the good of others requires considering them as an end in themselves, never merely as a means. This leads us to one of the formulations of Kant's categorical imperative:

''Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.'' (Kant, ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', 1785)

That the good of a mind is to live for the good of all minds has an immediate consequence: to desire the good of a mind, one must desire that this mind desire the good, since one's good is to live for the good, and therefore to desire it. For example, parents desire the good of their children by wanting them to become honest citizens. But how do we do this? And are we even capable of doing it? Isn't this asking the impossible?

=== The unity of all goods and all minds ===

A good is universal if and only if it is a good for all minds.

The good of a mind is to live for the good of all minds. A good for one mind must therefore be a good for all minds, or at least not be an evil.

The good of one mind is always a good for all others, because every mind is a common good for all minds. For minds, therefore, only universal goods are truly goods. Even a selfish good can be a good for all minds, if it does no harm to anyone, because the good of one mind is always a good for all minds.

Individual interests often conflict. The individual interests of one person may conflict with the individual interests of another, and they may also conflict with each other. The enlightened self-interest of an individual must have overcome the conflicts between their individual interests. The general interest must have overcome the conflicts between individuals. The enlightened self-interest of an individual is never in conflict with the general interest, because unity with other minds takes precedence. The general interest is never in conflict with the enlightened self-interest of an individual, because it must be a good for all minds. The enlightened self-interest of an individual is always a good of the general interest, because the good of one mind is a good for all minds. The individual interests of individuals may conflict, but never their enlightened self-interests. In practice, finding the enlightened self-interest of individuals and the general interest is not always easy, because conflicts must be overcome.

By being goods for all minds, goods are goods for one another. A good is therefore always united with all other goods. The unity of goods is universal.

Evils are sometimes united by doing good to each other, organized crime for example, but they are not good for that reason, because a good must be universal to be truly a good. A unity of evils is never as great as the universal unity of all goods. There is no great unity of all evils, because very often they are opposed to one another. Similarly, there is a universal unity of all truths, but there is no great unity of all lies.

The universal good is the existence of a community that welcomes all minds, so that they may help one another to bring into being this community of welcome and mutual aid among all minds.

The universal good is like a circle, yet it is not a vicious one. Good exists for the sake of good. Wisdom exists for the sake of wisdom. It is a virtuous circle. It is the wheel of all goods.

The following chapter shows that the unity of all knowledge is a manifestation of the universal unity of all goods and all minds.

=== Rules for the direction of the mind ===

To be good is to be as one ought to be. To say what ought to be is to define an ideal. A good is always the realization of an ideal, because it is as the ideal says it ought to be.

An ideal is defined by ends and rules. The ideal is realized when the ends are achieved and the rules are respected. A rule can be considered an end, the end being to obey the rule. It is an end that is never fully attained, except upon death, because one can always disobey as long as one is alive.

An ideal is an end that is reached when the ideal is realized.

An ideal is not always good. It is bad if it proposes bad ends, or if it cannot be achieved and thus condemns us to frustration.

Why give ourselves rules? By adopting the rule of taking all our steps in the same direction, we go much further than by walking like a drunkard who changes direction with every step. The same is true for all good ideals. They make us more competent, more powerful, more capable of achieving distant goals.

Laws are sometimes restrictions on freedoms because they impose prohibitions. But good laws, on the contrary, have a liberating effect. By forbidding wrong paths, good laws reveal the right paths. They are like a guide that shows us the way. We are guided by ideas when we obey their laws. A good ideal empowers the mind because it enables us to reach ends we could not otherwise achieve, and which we wouldn't even think of.

The truths about an ideal are like the truths about a game. The rules of the game are true by definition of the game. In the same way, the laws of the ideal are true by definition of the ideal. But these truths by definition do not prove that an ideal is a good ideal.

An ideal is a driving force if it awakens the desire for its realization. The ideal precedes the reality it inspires. The word that defines the ideal precedes the being of which it is the truth.

The right word shows the end and the path to reach it. I hear the voice and I see the way. In french, voice, see and way are almost the same word : voix, vois et voie. J'entends la voix et je vois la voie.

An ideal is like an instrument for observing good and evil, because it prescribes good and forbids evil.

The following chapter shows that the ideal of knowledge is an instrument for observing all knowledge and that it provides the means to acquire it.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>A-level Chemistry/WJEC/Module 4/Alcohols and phenols</title>
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      <text bytes="13740" sha1="jwbta3929yiscvgkld80xii5p80llq7" xml:space="preserve">==Basic Information==
The hydroxy-group is one of many functional groups studied in organic chemistry. The presence of a hydroxy group indicates that the molecule is either an alcohol or a carboxylic acid. The chemical representation of a hydroxy group is –OH, indicating an oxygen atom covalently bonded to a hydrogen atom. 

Within the general functional group of alcohol, there are three subgroups: primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. An alcohol is classified as a primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the carbon it is attached to. An alcohol is primary if it is attached to a carbon with only one carbon-carbon bond. By the same token, an alcohol is secondary if the carbon to which it is attached is bound to two other carbons, and tertiary if the carbon’s remaining three bonds are bonded to other carbons.  The following examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols are ethanol, isopropanol (IUPAC nomenclature: propan-2-ol), and tert-butyl alcohol (IUPAC nomenclature: 2-methylpropan-2-ol), respectively.

{| style=&quot;background:transparent;color:inherit;&quot;
 |- style=&quot;background:#transparent;color:inherit;&quot;
 |[[File:Ethanol-2D-skeletal.svg‎|100px|thumb|Ethanol, a primary alcohol]]||[[File:2-Propanol.svg|100px|thumb|Isopropanol, a secondary alcohol]]||[[File:Tert-butyl-alcohol-2D-skeletal.svg|100px|thumb|t-Butyl Alcohol, a tertiary alcohol]]
 |}

== Physical Properties of Alcohols ==
The bond existing between oxygen and hydrogen is significantly shorter than the bonds formed between carbon and hydrogen. Hydroxy groups are inherently polar. The oxygen in the [[Structural Biochemistry/Chemical Bonding/Covalent bonds|covalent]] bond is highly electronegative; thereby, pulling the majority of the electron density shared in the covalent bond towards itself. From this information it becomes clear that the oxygen bears a significant partial negative charge, while the hydrogen bears a partial positive charge of the same magnitude. 

The presence of a highly electronegative group allows alcohols to hydrogen bond with other molecules. For example, in ethanol, the negatively charged oxygen on one ethanol molecule is attracted to a positively charged hydrogen molecule on another ethanol molecule. The ability of alcohols to hydrogen bond amongst themselves explains their high melting points. Alcohols also have higher boiling points than the hydrocarbons and ethers which contain a comparable number of carbon atoms. 

The solubility of alcohols in water is interesting because alcohols have hydrophobic and hydrophilic centres, making them amphipathic or amphiphilic. The hydrocarbon portion of the alcohol is nonpolar, and thus resists dissolving in water; the polar alcohol group is hydrophilic and thereby promotes dissolution in water. In a small molecule such as propanol, the alcohol dissolves because the polar alcohol group outweighs the very short hydrogen chain. However, as the hydrocarbon chain increases beyond butanol to pentanol and hexanol, alcohols become virtually immiscible in water. 

Alcohols are amphoteric species that may exist as both acids and bases. At low pH, or when surrounded by strong acids, they may be protonated to alkyloxonium ions. In contrast, at high pH and when surrounded by strong bases, they may exist as alkoxide ions.

[[Image:Alcohols.jpg]]

==Phenols==
[[File:Phenol.svg|thumb|Structure of Phenol]]
Phenols are hydroxy-arenes. They have some similarities to alcohols in chemical reactivity at oxygen, but they are much more acidic and much less basic. They appear to be enols (hydroxy attached to an alkene) and should be unstable relative to the keto form, but the gain in aromaticity in being in the enol favours the enol form relative to the keto. Examination of the resonance forms indicates that the hydroxyl donates electron density to the ring, hence the hydroxyl group is activating and ortho-para directing.
[[File:Phenol resonance.svg|500x150px]]

===Nomenclature of Phenols===
Substituted phenols are named as derivatives of the parent compound phenol with the hydroxyl-bearing carbon being designated as C-1. Some examples are:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! 2-Methyl-4,6-dinitrophenol !! Benzene-1,3-diol
|-
| [[File:2-Methyl-4,6-dinitrophenol.svg|200x172px]] || [[File:Resorcinol.svg‎|200x104px]]
|}

===Acidity of Phenols===
The p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; of phenols is around 8-10. Phenols are substantially more acidic than alcohols. This is because phenoxide (the corresponding conjugate base) is resonance-stabilised.

[[File:Phenoxide-anion-resonance-2D-skeletal.png|500px]]

===Synthesis of Phenols: Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution===
Direct concerted displacement of leaving groups on aromatic rings is not possible. In appropriately substituted rings, leaving groups may be replaced by hydroxyl involving nucleophilic processes via a 2-step mechanism: nucleophilic aromatic substitution. 
[[File:Nucleophilic aromatic substitution example.PNG|500px]]

===Alcohol-like Reactivity of Phenols===
Phenols undergo many of the same reactions as alcohols, especially where the nucleophicity of the corresponding phenoxide (alkoxide) is concerned.
	
'''Phenol alkylation via Williamson-Type Reaction'''&lt;br&gt;
[[File:PhenolAlkylation.svg|500px]]

== Synthesis of Alcohols ==

In industry, methanol is made on a multibillion-pound scale from a pressurised mixture of CO and H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; called synthesis gas. The reaction involves a catalyst consisting of copper, zinc oxide and chromium(III) oxide.

Changing the catalyst to rhodium or ruthenium leads to 1,2-ethanediol (ethylene glycol), an important industrial chemical that is the principal component of automobile antifreeze.
Ethanol is prepared in large quantities by fermentation of sugars or by the phosphoric acid-catalysed hydration of ethene (ethylene).

On a smaller than industrial scale, we can prepare alcohols from a wide variety of starting materials. For example, conversions of haloalkanes into alcohols by nucleophilic substitution processes featuring hydroxide and water. These methods are not as widely used as one might think, however, because the required halides are often accessible only from the corresponding alcohols. They also suffer from the usual drawbacks of nucleophilic substitution: elimination can be a major side reaction. Some of these drawbacks are overcome by the use of polar, aprotic solvents.

Conceptually, the easiest way to reduce a carbonyl group would be to add hydrogen, H-H, across the carbon-oxygen double bond directly. Although this can be done, it requires high pressures and special catalysts. A more convenient way is a polar process, in which a hydride ion, and a proton, are delivered to the double bond, either simultaneously or sequentially.

== Nomenclature ==

The system used to name organic molecules – IUPAC – is relatively simple to use for alcohols, though it can get more complicated if the molecule containing the alcohol group contains substituents containing other functional groups, such as alkenes, alkynes or halogens. The simplest case is when the molecule contains only hydrocarbons and the hydroxy group is the sole functional group, making it purely an alcohol.

In general, the presence of functional groups is indicated by a characteristic suffix that is distinct for each functional group and a number designating the location of the functional group on the molecule. For alcohols, the characteristic suffix used is –ol. 

Case 1: Hydrocarbons and alcohols
In this case, the longest chain of the hydrocarbons is counted – this becomes the primary hydrocarbon chain of the molecule. Then the longest carbon chain is numbered with the goal of putting as small a number as possible on the hydroxyl group. The longest chain is named as it is for alkanes, but the suffix for alcohols is –ol. Thus, for a propane chain which contains an alcohol group on the second carbon is named propan-2-ol or 2-propanol. Because the alcohol is the only functional group, it does not matter which of the two names is used. It is assumed that the “2” corresponds with the location of the hydroxy group. However, this rule does not always hold  true when other functional groups are present. 

Case 2: This is more complex because there is a hierarchy of functional groups in organic chemistry. Each functional group when isolated wants to be labelled as the smallest number. However, some functional groups are of “higher importance” and thus are numbered first. Also, if the alcohol is no longer the most “important” functional group, the molecule does not the suffix for the alcohol. This may present a slight problem initially, because the –ol was the only hint that the molecule possessed an –OH group. However, the presence of the –OH group is designated by using the word “hydroxy” after the number of the carbon on which the –OH group is bound to. An example is: 1-chloro-2-hydroxybenzene. 

If there are multiple –OH groups present, the nomenclature is modified only slightly. The suffix used in the name is the number of alcohol groups followed by –ol. For example, a compound containing two –OH groups has a suffix of “diol”; for a compound with three –OH groups, the suffix is a “triol.” The numbers of the carbons containing the alcohol groups are stated in the same manner as if there were only one; giving the hydroxy group the lowest number possible. For example, a diol would be named as 3,3-pentanediol. This name indicates that the third carbon in the five-carbon chain is bonded to two –OH groups.

== Unique Infrared Spectroscopy of Alcohols and Phenols ==
Infrared Spectroscopy is a technique used by chemists to elucidate structural information about an organic compound. Organic molecules absorb electromagnetic radiation in the infrared region and promote specific vibrational states. These vibrations are called fundamental absorptions, and they arise from the excitation from the ground state to the lowest-energy excited state. These modes of vibration are then picked up by a machine which interprets the radiation in the form of a spectrum. Since every type of covalent bond has a different natural frequency of vibration, two different molecules will never share the same infrared spectrum. The absorption of certain bonds have very distinct vibrational frequencies. A small range of absorption can be allocated to a specific type of bond. For instance, an absorption around 1715 is normally due to the carbonyl group. 

Alcohols and Phenols have unique Infrared spectrum and usually show strong and broad stretching bands between 3400 and 3300&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;. In solution, it is sometimes possible to observe a free stretching band at around 3600 cm&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; with a sharp but weaker peak. 

The broad peak that is well known as the alcohol or phenol peak is created by the stretching vibrations between the O-H. Intermolecular [[Structural Biochemistry/Chemical Bonding/Hydrogen bonds|hydrogen]] bonding usually weakens the O-H bond, and shifts the band to a lower frequency. Phenols are known to have a broader O-H band than alcohols. However, it is hard to determine the difference by looking at the O-H band due to their similar shapes. The bending vibrations between the C-O-H usually yield weak and broad peaks around 1440–1220&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;. However, these peaks are difficult to see due to interference by similar bands from strong CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; bending peaks. Strong C-O bond stretches are observed from 1260 – 1000&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;. Since the C-O bond is adjacent to the C-C bond, the shape and size of the peak can be used to determine whether an alcohol is primary, secondary, or tertiary. It can also be used to distinguish between phenols and alcohols. In addition, alcohols that are present in amides, ethers, and aldehydes can also be distinguished in IR spectrum. Infared spectroscopy is a useful analytical tool that is used to identify which function groups are present or which ones are not.

[[File:EtOH Spectra.png|alt=IR Spec|Infrared Spectrum of Ethanol]]

{{BookCat}}

== NMR of alcohol groups ==

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a technique used to identify organic compounds. Since the atomic nucleus has a spinning  charge due to the positively charged protons, it can generate a magnetic field. Because of this, the protons will have two orientations, a β and α spin state that have different energies in the presence of an external magnetic field. When the compound is exposed to electromagnetic radiation, resonance (when the nuclei is flipped back and forth between orientations) will occur and when the amount of radiation matched the difference in energy of the two spin states, an NMR signal is recorded and the NMR detector records peaks. 

One of the most common forms of NMR is the proton NMR (H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; NMR). The NMR spectrum is read by the chemical shift of the different groups. In a proton NMR a compound with an   -OH group will have a chemical shift (peak) at around 0.5-5.0 ppm. For example, ethanol will have a peak at around 4.0 ppm indicating the hydroxide groups while its two other peaks at around 1.0 ppm and around 3.0 ppm will indicate the position of the C-H protons in accordance to their position in the compound.

[[File:1H NMR Ethanol Coupling shown.svg|1H NMR Ethanol Coupling shown|620px]]

==References==
1. Schore, Neil E. (2011). Organic Chemistry Structure and Function 6th edition. W. H. Freeman.

2. Hammond, Christina N., Mohrig, Jerry R., Schatz, Paul F.. (2010). Techniques in Organic Chemistry 3rd Edition. W.H. Freeman.

3. Atkins, Peter, Jones, Loretta. (2008). Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight 4th Edition. W.H. Freeman.</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-level Chemistry/WJEC/Module 4/Carboxylic acids</title>
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      <text bytes="16126" sha1="blz1vloz4t3zwp1wmoocgwtb16d97ve" xml:space="preserve">A carboxylic acid is characterised by the presence of the ''carboxyl group'' -COOH. The chemical reactivity of carboxylic acids is dominated by the very positive carbon, and the resonance stabilisation that is possible should the group lose a proton. These two factors contribute both to acidity and to the group's dominant chemical reaction: nucleophilic substitution.

=Preparation=

1) from primary alcohols

: RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + 2 [O] → 3 RCOOH + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

: 3 RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + 2 K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Cr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; + 8 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; → 3 RCOOH + 2 Cr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + 2 K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 11 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Aliphatic carboxylic acids are formed from primary alcohols or aldehydes by reflux with potassium dichromate(VI) acidified with sulfuric acid.

2) from MethylBenzene (&quot;toluene&quot;) etc.

: C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + 2 KMnO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; → C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + 2 MnO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2 KOH

Alkyl benzenes (MethylBenzene, EthylBenzene, etc) all react with potassium manganate(VII) to form benzoic acid. All alkyl benzenes give the same product, because all but one alkyl carbon is lost.

No acidification is needed. The reaction is refluxed and generates KOH. The benzoic acid is worked up by adding a proton source (i.e. an acid, such as HCl).

3) hydrolysis of nitriles and amides

The hydrolysis of an amide or a nitrile by a dilute acid leads to a carboxylic acid. Hydrolysis using sodium hydroxide produces the sodium salt of the acid, plus ammonia.

Examples:

: ethanamide + hydrochloric acid → ethanoic acid + ammonium chloride

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CONH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + HCl → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Cl

: propanenitrile + sodium hydroxide → sodium propanoate + ammonia

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CN + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + NaOH → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COONa + NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

4) hydrolysis of esters and acid chlorides

Acid chlorides rapidly hydrolyse if water is present:

: ethanoyl chloride + water → ethanoic acid + hydrochloric acid

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COCl + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + HCl

Esters also hydrolyse but much more slowly. An acid or alkali catalyst is usually required. If an alkali catalyst is used then the product is the salt of the carboxylic acid:

: methyl propanoate + water → propanoic acid + methanol

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;OH

: methyl octadecanoate + sodium hydroxide → sodium octadecanoate + methanol

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;COOCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + NaOH → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;COONa + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;OH

Sodium salts of long-chain fatty acids (e.g. sodium octadecanoate) are soaps, and the alkaline hydrolysis of long-chain fatty acid esters is called &quot;saponification&quot;.

=Properties=

==Nomenclature==
The systematic IUPAC nomenclature for carboxylic acids requires the longest carbon chain of the molecule to be identified and the -e of alkane name to be replaced with -oic acid.

The traditional names of many carboxylic acids are still in common use.

{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|+'''Nomenclature of carboxylic acids'''
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef;{{Text default color}};&quot;
! formula !! IUPAC name !! traditional name 
|- 
| HCOOH
| methanoic acid
| formic acid
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
| ethanoic acid
| acetic acid
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
| propanoic acid
| propionic acid
|-
| CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH-COOH 
| propenoic acid
| acrylic acid
|- 
| HOOCCOOH or (COOH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| ethanedioic acid
| oxalic acid
|-
|}

The systematic approach for naming dicarboxylic acids (alkanes with carboxylic acids on either end) is the same as for carboxylic acids, except that the suffix is -dioic acid.

==Acidity==
Most carboxylic acids are weak acids. To quantify the acidities we need to know the p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values: The pH above which the acids start showing mostly acidic behaviour:
Ethanoic acid:  4.8
Phenol:           10.0
Ethanol:          15.9
Water:            15.7

{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|+'''Acidity of carboxylic acids in water'''
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef;{{Text default color}};&quot;
! acid !! formula !! ''pK''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; 
|- 
| methanoic acid
| H-COOH
| 3.75
|-
| ethanoic acid
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-COOH
| 4.75
|-
| propanoic acid
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-COOH
| 4.87
|-
| propenoic acid
| CH2=CH-COOH
| 4.25
|-
| benzoic acid
| C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-COOH
| 4.19
|-
| trifluoroethanoic acid
| CF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-COOH
| 0.3
|-
| phenol
| C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-OH
| 10.0
|-
| ethanol
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-OH
| 15.9
|-
| water
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| 15.7
|}

Data from CRC Handbook of Chemistry &amp; Physics, 64th edition, 1984 D-167-8 Except http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifluoroacetic_acid

Clearly, the carboxylic acids are remarkably acidic for organic molecules. Somehow, the release of the H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion is favoured by the structure.
Two arguments:
The O-H bond is polarised by the removal of electrons to the carbonyl oxygen.
The ion is stabilised by resonance: the carbonyl oxygen can accept the charge from the other oxygen.
The acid strength of carboxylic acid are strongly modulated by the moiety attached to the carboxyl. Electron-donor moiety decrease the acid strength, whereas strong electron-withdrawing groups increase it.

=Reactions of Carboxylic Acids=

==Reduction==
 
: RCOOH + LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(ether) → RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH

N.B. NaBH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; reduces aldehydes and ketones, but it does not reduce carboxylic acids.


==Acid Chloride Formation==
Carboxylic acids are converted to acid chlorides by a range of reagents:
SOCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, PCl&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; or PCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; are the usual reagents. Other products are HCl &amp; SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, HCl &amp; POCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; respectively. The conditions must be dry, as water will hydrolyse the acid chloride in a vigorous reaction. Hydrolysis forms the original carboxylic acid.

CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + SOCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COCl + HCl + SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + PCl&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COCl + HCl + POCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

3 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + PCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 3 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COCl + H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

==Esterification==

Alcohols will react with acid chlorides or carboxylic acids to form esters. This reaction is catalysed by acidic or basic conditions.

C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COCl + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH &amp;rarr; C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + HCl

With carboxylic acids, the condensation reaction is an unfavourable equilibrium, promoted by using non-aqueous solvent (if any) and a dehydrating agent such as sulfuric acid (non-nucleophilic), catalysing the reaction.

CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH ⇌ CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

[[Image:Esterification.PNG|thumb|upright=2.0|centre|Ethanoic Acid reacts with Propan-1-ol to form Propyl Ethanoate]]

Reversing the reaction is simply a matter of refluxing the ester with plenty of aqueous acid. This hydrolysis produces the carboxylic acid and the alcohol.

C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;OH

Alternatively, the reflux is done with aqueous alkali, in which case the salt of the carboxylic acid is produced.

==Amide  Formation==

Conceptually, an amide is formed by reacting an acid with ammonia or an amine compound, releasing water. 

: RCOOH + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NR' &amp;rarr; RCONHR' + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

However, the acid-base reaction is much faster:  

: RCOOH + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NR' &amp;rarr; RCOO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;NR'&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; 

Heating the ammonium salt is required to produce the amide:

: RCOO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;NR'&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; RCONHR' + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Alternatively, an acyl chloride can be used instead of the carboxylic acid:

: RCOCl + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NR' &amp;rarr; RCONHR' + HCl

===Decarboxylation===

When carboxylic acids are heated with soda lime, their -COOH groups are replaced with a simple -H atom. Soda lime is a mixture of NaOH and CaO. In equations, it is generally written as simply &quot;NaOH&quot;, and the inorganic product is Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Usually, the sodium salt of the carboxylic acid is chosen to react with soda lime.

: RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COONa + NaOH + heat → RCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

: C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + 2 NaOH + heat → C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + 2 NaOH → CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Note how a carbon is lost from the main chain. The product of the reaction may be easier to identify than the original acid, helping us to find the structure.

===Polyester Formation===

Polyester can be made by reacting a diol (ethane-1,2-diol) with a dicarboxylic acid (benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid).

: ''n'' HO-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-OH + ''n'' HOOC-C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;-COOH &amp;rarr; (-O-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O-OC-C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;-CO-)&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; + (''n''-1) H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Polyester makes reasonable fibres, it is quite inflexible so it does not crease easily; but for clothing it is usually combined with cotton for comfort.
The plastic is not light-sensitive, so it is often used for net curtains. Film, bottles and other moulded products are made from polyester.

===Distinguishing carboxylic acids from phenols===

Although carboxylic acids are acidic, they can be distinguished from phenol because:

Only carboxylic acids will react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to form CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

2 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COONa + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; 

C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COONa + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Some phenols react with FeCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; solution, giving a characteristic purple colour.

== Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids ==

The carboxyl group (abbreviated -CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H or -COOH) is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in chemistry as well as biochemistry. The carboxyl group of a large family of related compounds called Acyl compounds or '''Carboxylic Acid Derivatives'''.

All the reactions and compounds covered in this section will yield Carboxylic Acids on hydrolysis, and thus are known as Carboxylic Acid Derivatives. Hydrolysis is one example of ''Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution'', which is a very important two step mechanism that is common in all reactions that will be covered here.

===Structure===
This group of compounds also contains a carbonyl group, but now there is an electronegative atom (oxygen, nitrogen, or a halogen) attached to the carbonyl carbon. This difference in structure leads to a major change in reactivity.

===Nomenclature===

The systematic IUPAC nomenclature for carboxylic acid derivatives is different for the various compounds which are in this vast category, but each is based upon the name of the carboxylic acid closest to the derivative in structure. Each type is discussed individually below.

====Acyl Groups====
Acyl groups are named by stripping the ''-ic acid'' of the corresponding carboxylic acid and replacing it with ''-yl''.

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH = ''ethanoic acid'' &lt;br&gt;
: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CO-R = ''ethanoyl-R''

====Acyl Halides====
Simply add the name of the attached halide to the end of the acyl group. 

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH = ''ethanoic acid''
: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COBr = ''ethanoyl bromide''

====Esters====
Esters are created when the hydrogen on a carboxylic acid is replaced by an alkyl group. Esters are known for their pleseant, fruity smell and taste, and they are often found in both natural and artificial flavors. Esters (RCOOR&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) are named as ''alkyl alkanoates''. The alkyl group directly attached to the oxygen is named first, followed by the acyl group, with ''-ate'' replacing ''-yl'' of the acyl group.

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH = ''ethanoic acid''
: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH = ''butan-1-ol''
: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = ''butyl ethanoate''

====Amides====
Amides which have an amino group (-NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) attached to a carbonyl group (RC=O) are named by replacing the ''-oic acid'' or ''-ic acid'' of the corresponding carboxylic acid with ''-amide''.

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH = ''ethanoic acid''
: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CONH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = ''ethanamide''

====Nitriles====
Nitriles (RCN) can be viewed a nitrogen analogue of a carbonyl and are known for their strong electron withdrawing nature and toxicity. Nitriles are named by adding the suffix ''-nitrile'' to the longest hydrocarbon chain (including the carbon of the cyano group).

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CN = ''propanenitrile''

==Structure and Reactivity==
Stability and reactivity have an inverse relationship, which means that the more stable a compound, generally the less reactive - and vice versa. Since acyl halides are the least stable group listed above, it makes sense that they can be chemically changed to the other types. Since the amides are the most stable type listed above, it should logically follow that they cannot easily changed into the other molecule types, and this is indeed the case.

The stability of any type of carboxylic acid derivative is generally determined by the ability of its functional group to donate electrons to the rest of the molecule. In essence, the ''more electronegative'' the atom or group attached to carbonyl group, the ''less stable'' the molecule. This readily explains the fact that the acyl halides are the most reactive, because halides are generally quite electronegative. It also explains why acid anhydrides are unstable; with two carbonyl groups so close together the oxygen in between them cannot stabilize both by resonance - it can't ''loan'' electrons to both carbonyls.

The following derivative types are ordered in decreasing reactivity (the first is the most reactive):

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Acyl Halides '''(CO-X)''' &gt; Acyl Anhydrides '''(-CO-O-OCR)''' &gt; Acyl Thioester '''(-CO-SR)''' &gt; Acyl Esters '''(-CO-OR)''' &gt; Acyl Amides '''(-CO-NR&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)'''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

As mentioned before, any substance in the preceding list can be readily transformed into a substance to its right; that is, the more reactive derivative types (acyl halides) can be directly transformed into less reactive derivative types (esters and amides). Every type can be made directly from carboxylic acid (hence the name of this subsection) but carboxylic acid can also be made from any of these types.

==Reactions of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives==

===Acyl Chlorides===

====Conversion to acids====

: R-COCl + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O ----&gt; R-COOH + HCl

====Conversion to esters====

: R-COCl + R'-OH --- pyridine ---&gt; R-COOR' + Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + pyr-H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

====Conversion to amides====

: R-COCl + R'NHR&quot; (excess) ---&gt; R-CONR'R&quot; + R'NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;R&quot;Cl

R' and/or R&quot; may be H

===Esters===

====Hydrolysis====

: R-COOR' + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &lt;--- HA ---&gt;  R-COOH + R'-OH
: R-COOR' + OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ----&gt; RCOO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + R'-OH

===Amides===

====Hydrolysis====

: R-CON(R'R&quot;) + H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;  --- H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O ---&gt; R-COOH + R'-N&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;R&quot;
: R-CON(R'R&quot;) + OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;  --- H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O ---&gt; R-COO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + R'-NHR&quot;
R,R' and/or R&quot; may be H.

====Dehydration (conversion to nitriles)====

: R-CONH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  --- P&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;, heat ---&gt; R-CN + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

===Nitriles===

====Hydrolysis====

: R-CN + H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + 2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + heat ---&gt; RCOOH + NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
: R-CN + OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + heat ---&gt; RCOO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

====Reduction to amine====

: R-CN + LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; ---&gt; R-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>blz1vloz4t3zwp1wmoocgwtb16d97ve</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/luna/RFD</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>482313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662644</id>
      <parentid>4627844</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:13:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adding deletion request for [[User:JJPMaster/sandbox]]</comment>
      <origin>4662644</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="440" sha1="twddcb6rjbzevngg3ndwyxmsknh12pt" xml:space="preserve">
== [[User:JJPMaster/sandbox2]] ==
test [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:17, 28 March 2026 (UTC)
== [[User:JJPMaster/sandbox]] ==
this is a test [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 04:13, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>twddcb6rjbzevngg3ndwyxmsknh12pt</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JJPMaster/luna/csd/unstable.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>482429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662620</id>
      <parentid>4662279</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T01:54:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm duplicate getAuthor() function and fix notification bug</comment>
      <origin>4662620</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="8990" sha1="tdz1phk9ecfe6a3lhdclt4k7u3g10u2" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
importScript(&quot;User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/gsr.js&quot;);
var parsedTitle = mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, &quot; &quot;);

function changeSelection(sel, check, text) {
	let initVal = $(sel).val()
	$(check).on(&quot;change&quot;, () =&gt; {
		if($(check).prop('checked')) {
			initVal = $(sel).val()
			if (!$(&quot;#realCriterion&quot;).length)
				$(sel).append(`&lt;option id='realCriterion'&gt;${text}&lt;/option&gt;`);
			$(sel).val(text);
		}
		else {
			$(&quot;#realCriterion&quot;).remove();
			$(sel).val(initVal);
		}
	});
}
(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) &gt; 0) {
		var porty = window.addLunaLink({
			id: 'luna-csd', 
			text: `CSD`,
			href: '#', 
			tooltip: 'Nominate this page for speedy deletion',
			debug: true,
			onClick: () =&gt; {
				$(&quot;#CSDdialog&quot;).dialog({ title: &quot;Mark this page for speedy deletion&quot;, width: &quot;auto&quot; });
			}
		}); 
	}
})();
$(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) !== 0) {
		var isDebug = false;
		$(&quot;#bodyContent&quot;).append(`
		&lt;div id=&quot;CSDdialog&quot;&gt;
			Why would you like the page to be deleted? &lt;br /&gt;
			&lt;select name=&quot;CSDtagReason&quot; id=&quot;CSDtagReason&quot;&gt;
				&lt;option&gt;Select the criterion&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;spam&quot;&gt;Spam&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;demandmoreinfo-copyvio&quot;&gt;Copyright violation (include link to source)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;req&quot;&gt;Author request&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;scope&quot;&gt;Out of scope&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;redirect&quot;&gt;Implausible orphaned redirect&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;demandmoreinfo-repost&quot;&gt;Repost of deleted material (include title of RfD)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;vandalism&quot;&gt;Vandalism&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;nonsense&quot;&gt;Nonsense&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;test&quot;&gt;Test page&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;blank&quot;&gt;No content&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;query&quot;&gt;[[WB:NMC|Abandoned material with no improvement after seven days]]&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;encyclopedic&quot;&gt;Encyclopedic articles belong at [[w:|Wikipedia]]&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;demandmoreinfo-other&quot;&gt;Other (please specify)&lt;/option&gt;
		    &lt;/select&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
			&lt;div id=&quot;csdAdminContainer&quot; style=&quot;display: none;&quot;&gt;
				&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;csdTalk&quot; name=&quot;csdTalk&quot; ${mw.config.get(&quot;wgCanonicalNamespace&quot;) != &quot;User&quot; ? &quot;checked&quot; : &quot;&quot;} /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;csdTalk&quot;&gt;Delete associated talk pages&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
				&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;csdSubs&quot; name=&quot;csdSubs&quot; ${mw.config.get(&quot;wgCanonicalNamespace&quot;) != &quot;User&quot; ? &quot;checked&quot; : &quot;&quot;}  /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;csdSubs&quot;&gt;Delete subpages&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
				&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;csdReds&quot; name=&quot;csdReds&quot; checked /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;csdReds&quot;&gt;Delete redirects&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
			&lt;/div&gt;
			&lt;span style=&quot;display: block;&quot;&gt;&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot; name=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot; class=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot;  /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot; class=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot;&gt;Use the deletion reason currently on the page&lt;/label&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
			&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;notifyAuthorCSD&quot; name=&quot;notifyAuthorCSD&quot; checked /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;notifyAuthorCSD&quot;&gt;Notify page author&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
		    &lt;button type=&quot;button&quot; id=&quot;addTagCSD&quot;&gt;Mark for deletion&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		`);
		(async () =&gt; {
			if (await waitForPreferences()) {
				for (var [i, j] of Object.entries(Luna.myPreferences.CSD)) {
					$(&quot;#CSDtagReason&quot;).append(`&lt;option id=&quot;${i}&quot;&gt;${j}&lt;/option&gt;`);
				}
				if (Luna.myPreferences.debug) {
					isDebug = true;
					$(&quot;#notifyAuthorCSD&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;, false);
				}
			
			}
			else {
				console.error(&quot;Luna: Preferences never fully loaded.&quot;);
			}
			if((await myRights).indexOf(&quot;delete&quot;) &gt;= 0) {
				let bigReason = null;
				const csdReason = document.querySelector(&quot;#csd-template-reason&quot;);
				const queryReason = document.querySelector(&quot;#query-template-reason&quot;);
				if (csdReason) {
					bigReason = csdReason;
				}
				else if (queryReason) {
					bigReason = queryReason.cloneNode(true);
					bigReason.innerText = &quot;[[WB:NMC|Abandoned material with no improvement after seven days]]: &quot; + bigReason.innerText;
				}
				let parsedReason = bigReason ? parseHtmlToWikitext(bigReason) : &quot;&quot;;
				if (parsedReason) {
					$(&quot;.givenReasonCSD&quot;).show();
					changeSelection(&quot;#CSDtagReason&quot;, &quot;#givenReasonCSD&quot;, parsedReason.replace(&quot;[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]&quot;, &quot;&quot;).trim())
				}
			}
		})();
		var isAdmin = false;
		(async () =&gt; {
			if ((await myRights).indexOf(&quot;delete&quot;) &gt;= 0) {
				$(&quot;#csdAdminContainer&quot;).show();
				isAdmin = true;
			}
		})();
		$(&quot;#CSDdialog&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;.givenReasonCSD&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;#addTagCSD&quot;).click(async function() {
			var mySelect = document.getElementById(&quot;CSDtagReason&quot;);
			var critValue = mySelect.value;
			var criterion;
			var tag = mySelect.options[CSDtagReason.selectedIndex].id;
			var finalTag; 
			var realCrit = &quot;&quot;;
			var contin = true;
			
			if (!tag) alert(&quot;You must select a criterion.&quot;);
			else {
				if(!tag.startsWith(&quot;demandmoreinfo&quot;)) {
					criterion = `Marking for speedy deletion: ${critValue}`;
					finalTag = `Delete|example=${isDebug}|${critValue}`;
					realCrit = critValue;
				}
				else {
					var innerCrit = prompt(&quot;Please provide more information. Leaving this field blank will abort the deletion tagging.&quot;);
					if(innerCrit) {
						if(tag == &quot;demandmoreinfo-repost&quot; || tag == &quot;demandmoreinfo-copyvio&quot;) {
							realCrit = `${critValue.split(&quot; (&quot;)[0]}: ${innerCrit}`;
							criterion = `Marking for speedy deletion: ${realCrit}`;
							finalTag = `Delete|example=${isDebug}|1=${realCrit}`;
						} 
						else {
							criterion = `Marking for speedy deletion: ${innerCrit}`;
							finalTag = `Delete|example=${isDebug}|1=${innerCrit}`;
							realCrit = innerCrit;
						}
					}
					else contin = false;
				}
				if (contin) {
					var params;
					var noticeText = `\n{{subst:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg|title=${parsedTitle}|username=${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}|tag=delete|csdReason=${realCrit}}}`;
					var sysopConfirm = false;
					var existingDelTemp = null;
					if (isAdmin) {
						sysopConfirm = confirm(&quot;You are an administrator. Would you like to delete this page yourself?&quot;);
						if (sysopConfirm) {
							let noticeText = `\n{{subst:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/dbNotice|title=${parsedTitle}|username=${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}|csdReason=${realCrit}}}`
							let author = await getAuthor();
							await runBatchDeletion([parsedTitle], $(&quot;#csdTalk&quot;), $(&quot;#csdSubs&quot;), $(&quot;#csdReds&quot;), realCrit);
							if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthorCSD&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
								params = {
									action: 'edit',
									appendtext: noticeText,
									title: `User_talk:${author}`,
									summary: &quot;Notifying author of speedy deletion&quot;,
									tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
									format: 'json'
								},
								api = new mw.Api();
							
								var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params );
								console.log(data);
							}
							mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe deletion has been performed. Reloading...&quot;);
							setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
						}
					}
					if (!sysopConfirm) {
						var delTempIds = document.querySelector(&quot;#csd-template-reason, #rfd-big-text, #upcoming-deletion-bold-text&quot;);
						var continueDespiteExistingTemplate = true;
						if(delTempIds !== null) {
							switch (delTempIds.id) {
								case &quot;csd-template-reason&quot;:
									existingDelTemp = &quot;{{Delete}}&quot;;
									break;
								case &quot;rfd-big-text&quot;:
									existingDelTemp = &quot;{{Rfd}}&quot;;
									break;
								case &quot;upcoming-deletion-bold-text&quot;:
									existingDelTemp = &quot;{{Upcoming deletion}}&quot;;
									break;
							}
							continueDespiteExistingTemplate = confirm(`It looks like there already is a deletion-related template (${existingDelTemp}) on this page. Do you wish to nominate the page for deletion anyway?`);
						}
						if (continueDespiteExistingTemplate) {
							var metaReq = confirm(&quot;Would you like to request that a global sysop delete this page?&quot;);
							if (metaReq) { 
								var metaReqPage = isDebug ? `User:${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}/luna/GSR` : &quot;Global sysops/Requests&quot;;
								makeMetaReq(summaryAd, parsedTitle, realCrit, metaReqPage);
							}
							params = {
								action: 'edit',
								prependtext: `&lt;noinclude&gt;{{${finalTag}}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;\n`,
								title: parsedTitle,
								summary: criterion,
								tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
								format: 'json'
							},
							api = new mw.Api();
						
							api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params ).done( function ( data ) {
								console.log( data );
							} );
							(async function() {
								if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthorCSD&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
									params = {
										action: 'edit',
										appendtext: noticeText,
										title: `User_talk:${await getAuthor()}`,
										summary: &quot;Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination&quot;,
										tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
										format: 'json'
									},
									api = new mw.Api();
								
									api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params ).done( function ( data ) {
										console.log( data );
									} );	
								}
							})();
							mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe tag has been added. Reloading...&quot;);
							setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
						}
						else return;
					}
				}
			}
		});
	}
});
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>tdz1phk9ecfe6a3lhdclt4k7u3g10u2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662621</id>
      <parentid>4662620</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T01:58:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correcting deletion reason</comment>
      <origin>4662621</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="8996" sha1="cvovsyocb6whka8nglg2y7tq2f77clg" xml:space="preserve">// &lt;nowiki&gt;
importScript(&quot;User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/gsr.js&quot;);
var parsedTitle = mw.config.get(&quot;wgPageName&quot;).replace(/_/g, &quot; &quot;);

function changeSelection(sel, check, text) {
	let initVal = $(sel).val()
	$(check).on(&quot;change&quot;, () =&gt; {
		if($(check).prop('checked')) {
			initVal = $(sel).val()
			if (!$(&quot;#realCriterion&quot;).length)
				$(sel).append(`&lt;option id='realCriterion'&gt;${text}&lt;/option&gt;`);
			$(sel).val(text);
		}
		else {
			$(&quot;#realCriterion&quot;).remove();
			$(sel).val(initVal);
		}
	});
}
(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) &gt; 0) {
		var porty = window.addLunaLink({
			id: 'luna-csd', 
			text: `CSD`,
			href: '#', 
			tooltip: 'Nominate this page for speedy deletion',
			debug: true,
			onClick: () =&gt; {
				$(&quot;#CSDdialog&quot;).dialog({ title: &quot;Mark this page for speedy deletion&quot;, width: &quot;auto&quot; });
			}
		}); 
	}
})();
$(() =&gt; {
	if (mw.config.get(&quot;wgArticleId&quot;) !== 0) {
		var isDebug = false;
		$(&quot;#bodyContent&quot;).append(`
		&lt;div id=&quot;CSDdialog&quot;&gt;
			Why would you like the page to be deleted? &lt;br /&gt;
			&lt;select name=&quot;CSDtagReason&quot; id=&quot;CSDtagReason&quot;&gt;
				&lt;option&gt;Select the criterion&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;spam&quot;&gt;Spam&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;demandmoreinfo-copyvio&quot;&gt;Copyright violation (include link to source)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;req&quot;&gt;Author request&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;scope&quot;&gt;Out of scope&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;redirect&quot;&gt;Implausible orphaned redirect&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;demandmoreinfo-repost&quot;&gt;Repost of deleted material (include title of RfD)&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;vandalism&quot;&gt;Vandalism&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;nonsense&quot;&gt;Nonsense&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;test&quot;&gt;Test page&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;blank&quot;&gt;No content&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;query&quot;&gt;[[WB:NMC|Abandoned material with no improvement after seven days]]&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;encyclopedic&quot;&gt;Encyclopedic articles belong at [[w:|Wikipedia]]&lt;/option&gt;
				&lt;option id=&quot;demandmoreinfo-other&quot;&gt;Other (please specify)&lt;/option&gt;
		    &lt;/select&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
			&lt;div id=&quot;csdAdminContainer&quot; style=&quot;display: none;&quot;&gt;
				&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;csdTalk&quot; name=&quot;csdTalk&quot; ${mw.config.get(&quot;wgCanonicalNamespace&quot;) != &quot;User&quot; ? &quot;checked&quot; : &quot;&quot;} /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;csdTalk&quot;&gt;Delete associated talk pages&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
				&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;csdSubs&quot; name=&quot;csdSubs&quot; ${mw.config.get(&quot;wgCanonicalNamespace&quot;) != &quot;User&quot; ? &quot;checked&quot; : &quot;&quot;}  /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;csdSubs&quot;&gt;Delete subpages&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
				&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;csdReds&quot; name=&quot;csdReds&quot; checked /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;csdReds&quot;&gt;Delete redirects&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
			&lt;/div&gt;
			&lt;span style=&quot;display: block;&quot;&gt;&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot; name=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot; class=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot;  /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot; class=&quot;givenReasonCSD&quot;&gt;Use the deletion reason currently on the page&lt;/label&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
			&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; id=&quot;notifyAuthorCSD&quot; name=&quot;notifyAuthorCSD&quot; checked /&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;notifyAuthorCSD&quot;&gt;Notify page author&lt;/label&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
		    &lt;button type=&quot;button&quot; id=&quot;addTagCSD&quot;&gt;Mark for deletion&lt;/button&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		`);
		(async () =&gt; {
			if (await waitForPreferences()) {
				for (var [i, j] of Object.entries(Luna.myPreferences.CSD)) {
					$(&quot;#CSDtagReason&quot;).append(`&lt;option id=&quot;${i}&quot;&gt;${j}&lt;/option&gt;`);
				}
				if (Luna.myPreferences.debug) {
					isDebug = true;
					$(&quot;#notifyAuthorCSD&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;, false);
				}
			
			}
			else {
				console.error(&quot;Luna: Preferences never fully loaded.&quot;);
			}
			if((await myRights).indexOf(&quot;delete&quot;) &gt;= 0) {
				let bigReason = null;
				const csdReason = document.querySelector(&quot;#csd-template-reason&quot;);
				const queryReason = document.querySelector(&quot;#query-template-reason&quot;);
				if (csdReason) {
					bigReason = csdReason;
				}
				else if (queryReason) {
					bigReason = queryReason.cloneNode(true);
					bigReason.innerText = &quot;[[WB:NMC|Abandoned material with no improvement after seven days]]: &quot; + bigReason.innerText;
				}
				let parsedReason = bigReason ? parseHtmlToWikitext(bigReason) : &quot;&quot;;
				if (parsedReason) {
					$(&quot;.givenReasonCSD&quot;).show();
					changeSelection(&quot;#CSDtagReason&quot;, &quot;#givenReasonCSD&quot;, parsedReason.replace(&quot;[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]&quot;, &quot;&quot;).trim())
				}
			}
		})();
		var isAdmin = false;
		(async () =&gt; {
			if ((await myRights).indexOf(&quot;delete&quot;) &gt;= 0) {
				$(&quot;#csdAdminContainer&quot;).show();
				isAdmin = true;
			}
		})();
		$(&quot;#CSDdialog&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;.givenReasonCSD&quot;).hide();
		$(&quot;#addTagCSD&quot;).click(async function() {
			var mySelect = document.getElementById(&quot;CSDtagReason&quot;);
			var critValue = mySelect.value;
			var criterion;
			var tag = mySelect.options[CSDtagReason.selectedIndex].id;
			var finalTag; 
			var realCrit = &quot;&quot;;
			var contin = true;
			
			if (!tag) alert(&quot;You must select a criterion.&quot;);
			else {
				if(!tag.startsWith(&quot;demandmoreinfo&quot;)) {
					criterion = `Marking for speedy deletion: ${critValue}`;
					finalTag = `Delete|example=${isDebug}|${critValue}`;
					realCrit = critValue;
				}
				else {
					var innerCrit = prompt(&quot;Please provide more information. Leaving this field blank will abort the deletion tagging.&quot;);
					if(innerCrit) {
						if(tag == &quot;demandmoreinfo-repost&quot; || tag == &quot;demandmoreinfo-copyvio&quot;) {
							realCrit = `${critValue.split(&quot; (&quot;)[0]}: ${innerCrit}`;
							criterion = `Marking for speedy deletion: ${realCrit}`;
							finalTag = `Delete|example=${isDebug}|1=${realCrit}`;
						} 
						else {
							criterion = `Marking for speedy deletion: ${innerCrit}`;
							finalTag = `Delete|example=${isDebug}|1=${innerCrit}`;
							realCrit = innerCrit;
						}
					}
					else contin = false;
				}
				if (contin) {
					var params;
					var noticeText = `\n{{subst:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg|title=${parsedTitle}|username=${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}|tag=delete|deletereason=${realCrit}}}`;
					var sysopConfirm = false;
					var existingDelTemp = null;
					if (isAdmin) {
						sysopConfirm = confirm(&quot;You are an administrator. Would you like to delete this page yourself?&quot;);
						if (sysopConfirm) {
							let noticeText = `\n{{subst:User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/dbNotice|title=${parsedTitle}|username=${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}|deletereason=${realCrit}}}`
							let author = await getAuthor();
							await runBatchDeletion([parsedTitle], $(&quot;#csdTalk&quot;), $(&quot;#csdSubs&quot;), $(&quot;#csdReds&quot;), realCrit);
							if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthorCSD&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
								params = {
									action: 'edit',
									appendtext: noticeText,
									title: `User_talk:${author}`,
									summary: &quot;Notifying author of speedy deletion&quot;,
									tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
									format: 'json'
								},
								api = new mw.Api();
							
								var data = await api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params );
								console.log(data);
							}
							mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe deletion has been performed. Reloading...&quot;);
							setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
						}
					}
					if (!sysopConfirm) {
						var delTempIds = document.querySelector(&quot;#csd-template-reason, #rfd-big-text, #upcoming-deletion-bold-text&quot;);
						var continueDespiteExistingTemplate = true;
						if(delTempIds !== null) {
							switch (delTempIds.id) {
								case &quot;csd-template-reason&quot;:
									existingDelTemp = &quot;{{Delete}}&quot;;
									break;
								case &quot;rfd-big-text&quot;:
									existingDelTemp = &quot;{{Rfd}}&quot;;
									break;
								case &quot;upcoming-deletion-bold-text&quot;:
									existingDelTemp = &quot;{{Upcoming deletion}}&quot;;
									break;
							}
							continueDespiteExistingTemplate = confirm(`It looks like there already is a deletion-related template (${existingDelTemp}) on this page. Do you wish to nominate the page for deletion anyway?`);
						}
						if (continueDespiteExistingTemplate) {
							var metaReq = confirm(&quot;Would you like to request that a global sysop delete this page?&quot;);
							if (metaReq) { 
								var metaReqPage = isDebug ? `User:${mw.config.get(&quot;wgUserName&quot;)}/luna/GSR` : &quot;Global sysops/Requests&quot;;
								makeMetaReq(summaryAd, parsedTitle, realCrit, metaReqPage);
							}
							params = {
								action: 'edit',
								prependtext: `&lt;noinclude&gt;{{${finalTag}}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;\n`,
								title: parsedTitle,
								summary: criterion,
								tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
								format: 'json'
							},
							api = new mw.Api();
						
							api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params ).done( function ( data ) {
								console.log( data );
							} );
							(async function() {
								if ($(&quot;#notifyAuthorCSD&quot;).prop(&quot;checked&quot;)) {
									params = {
										action: 'edit',
										appendtext: noticeText,
										title: `User_talk:${await getAuthor()}`,
										summary: &quot;Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination&quot;,
										tags: &quot;Luna&quot;,
										format: 'json'
									},
									api = new mw.Api();
								
									api.postWithToken( 'csrf', params ).done( function ( data ) {
										console.log( data );
									} );	
								}
							})();
							mw.notify(&quot;Luna:\nThe tag has been added. Reloading...&quot;);
							setTimeout(() =&gt; window.location.reload(), 2000);
						}
						else return;
					}
				}
			}
		});
	}
});
// &lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>cvovsyocb6whka8nglg2y7tq2f77clg</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Create Vampires/What Is A Literary Trope</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>483299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662590</id>
      <parentid>4635562</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:26:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added an opening introduction.</comment>
      <origin>4662590</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="702" sha1="q7ngfv812tigkcvy1gahkphld8sad0i" xml:space="preserve">What Is A Literary Trope?

Storytellers often try to find the right form, or structure to shape their words around.

'''What Is A Trope?'''

According to Merriam-Webster, a trope is &quot;a word or expression used in a figurative sense: Figure of Speech.&quot; 2. Cliche 3. Motif

[[mwod:trope|TROPE Definition &amp; Meaning - Merriam-Webster]]

A trope is a reoccurring plot device, motif, archetype, or theme used by storytellers. Tropes build structure. Think of a trope as a construct used by creators to build narratives.

Examples of popular trope plots include a &quot;love triangle&quot; or a &quot;damsel in distress.&quot;

[https://www.poetryfoundation.org/education/glossary/trope Trope | The Poetry Foundation]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>q7ngfv812tigkcvy1gahkphld8sad0i</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662592</id>
      <parentid>4662590</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:32:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added a clarifying sentence.</comment>
      <origin>4662592</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="809" sha1="49txhmayyzqfuecqhht2d2ymb0iw8le" xml:space="preserve">What Is A Literary Trope?

Storytellers often try to find the right form, or structure to shape their words around. In Literature, many vampire constructs have been created. A construct is an idea, or a conceptual model.  

'''What Is A Trope?'''

According to Merriam-Webster, a trope is &quot;a word or expression used in a figurative sense: Figure of Speech.&quot; 2. Cliche 3. Motif

[[mwod:trope|TROPE Definition &amp; Meaning - Merriam-Webster]]

A trope is a reoccurring plot device, motif, archetype, or theme used by storytellers. Tropes build structure. Think of a trope as a construct used by creators to build narratives.

Examples of popular trope plots include a &quot;love triangle&quot; or a &quot;damsel in distress.&quot;

[https://www.poetryfoundation.org/education/glossary/trope Trope | The Poetry Foundation]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>49txhmayyzqfuecqhht2d2ymb0iw8le</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662593</id>
      <parentid>4662592</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:35:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added a link</comment>
      <origin>4662593</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="955" sha1="sv95jcvuhqe3c158pjgmku5r1zobbqv" xml:space="preserve">What Is A Literary Trope?

Storytellers often try to find the right form, or structure to shape their words around. In Literature, many vampire constructs have been created. A construct is an idea, or a conceptual model.  

'''What Is A Trope?'''

According to Merriam-Webster, a trope is &quot;a word or expression used in a figurative sense: Figure of Speech.&quot; 2. Cliche 3. Motif

[[mwod:trope|TROPE Definition &amp; Meaning - Merriam-Webster]]

A trope is a reoccurring plot device, motif, archetype, or theme used by storytellers. Tropes build structure. Think of a trope as a construct used by creators to build narratives.

Examples of popular trope plots include a &quot;love triangle&quot; or a &quot;damsel in distress.&quot;

[https://www.poetryfoundation.org/education/glossary/trope Trope | The Poetry Foundation]


Link: [[Create Vampires/Examples Of Literary Pitfalls|Create Vampires/Examples Of Literary Pitfalls - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>sv95jcvuhqe3c158pjgmku5r1zobbqv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662596</id>
      <parentid>4662593</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:47:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662596</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="987" sha1="csuo2uqaftj41ajahapob3vuw0d2gjx" xml:space="preserve">What Is A Literary Trope?

Storytellers often try to find the right form, or structure to shape their words around. In Literature, many vampire constructs have been created. A construct is an idea, or a conceptual model. A trope is a type of construct.  

'''What Is A Trope?'''

According to Merriam-Webster, a trope is &quot;a word or expression used in a figurative sense: Figure of Speech.&quot; 2. Cliche 3. Motif

[[mwod:trope|TROPE Definition &amp; Meaning - Merriam-Webster]]

A trope is a reoccurring plot device, motif, archetype, or theme used by storytellers. Tropes build structure. Think of a trope as a construct used by creators to build narratives.

Examples of popular trope plots include a &quot;love triangle&quot; or a &quot;damsel in distress.&quot;

[https://www.poetryfoundation.org/education/glossary/trope Trope | The Poetry Foundation]


Link: [[Create Vampires/Examples Of Literary Pitfalls|Create Vampires/Examples Of Literary Pitfalls - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>csuo2uqaftj41ajahapob3vuw0d2gjx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Create Vampires/Vampire History</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>483372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662606</id>
      <parentid>4636140</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T21:06:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link</comment>
      <origin>4662606</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5987" sha1="9a2t3jujllgky1qlpxbz6bgohapeg3k" xml:space="preserve">== '''Vampire History''' ==

Although reports of vampiric 'beings' have been recorded in cultures from around the world, the term ''vampire'' was coined in Western Europe, after being popularized following reports of mass hysteria during the 18th century. These reports fueled a pre-existing folk belief in vampires in Southeastern and Eastern Europe. &lt;br&gt;
This delusion led to accusations of vampirism, and led to the corpses of suspected future vampires being pierced with wooden stakes.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
In modern times, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity. Early folk beliefs in vampires has sometimes been ascribed to the ignorance of decomposition, the body's process of decaying after death. &lt;br&gt;
Perhaps people in pre-industrial societies tried to reason about death, creating the vampire archetype to explain the mysteries of death. &lt;br&gt;
Porphyria was linked with vampirism in 1985, and generated many media reports in popular culture, but has largely been discredited. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Cultural practices, designed to keep the recently deceased from turning into a undead revenant, often arose around the world. &lt;br&gt;
For example, burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects near the grave, in order to appease the dead, so they would stay in their coffins. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
In Greek folklore, about the vrykolakas, a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription &quot;Jesus Christ conquers&quot; was put on the corpse, to prevent the body from turning into a vampire. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Other methods popular in Europe, included disjoining the tendons at the knees, or placing poppy seeds, or sand on the grave site of a presumed vampire, this was to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the grains. A similar Chinese narrative reports that if a vampiric being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain. This archetype emerged in many myths from the Indian subcontinent, as well as in South American tales of witches and other mischievous beings. 

[[wikipedia:Vampire|Vampire - Wikipedia]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 
|-
| &lt;u&gt;'''Historic Media Vampiric Reports'''&lt;/u&gt;                                                                                                                                             &lt;br&gt;                                                                                                                                                                                                           
|}

The 12th century British historians and chroniclers Walter Map and William of Newburgh recorded accounts of revenants. [1] [2]

An early recording of the time came from the region of Istria in modern Croatia, in 1672. Local reports reported a panic amongst the villagers, reacting on their belief that Jure Grando had become a vampire after dying in 1656, drinking his victim's blood and sexually harassing his widow. The leader of the village ordered a stake be driven through Grando's heart. His corpse was later beheaded. [3]

In the 18th century, the belief in vampires was once again on the rise. 

One infamous vampire occurrence involved the corpse of Peter Blagojevic from Serbia. At the age of 62, Blagojevic was reported as dead, but he allegedly returned after his death, asking his son for food. After the son refused, he was found dead the following day. It was believed that Blagojevic returned and attacked some of his neighbors who died from blood loss. [4]

Another infamous case, is of the ex-soldier-turned farmer, Milos Cecar. He was allegedly attacked by a vampire years before he died while haying. After his death, people in the surrounding area began to die. It was believed that Milos had returned from the dead to prey on his neighbors.

The Blagojevic and Cecar incidents were well-documented. Officials examined the bodies, wrote reports, and even published books, popular throughout Europe.

Many rural vampire attacks generated much superstition, and influenced actions taken by locals, such as digging up bodies, and in some cases, stalking them. Government officials joining the village people, engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires. [4]

The hysteria commonly referred to as the &quot;vampire controversy,&quot; continued for a generation. [5] Dom Augustine Calmet, a French Theologian and Scholar, published a comprehensive treatise in 1751 titled '''Treastise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants''' which investigated and analyzed the evidence for vampirism.

In modern day Romania, in February 2004, Toma Petre's relatives, fearing he had become a vampire, dug up his corpse. They tore out his heart, burned it, then mixed its ashes with water, to better drink it. [6] 


Link: [[Create Vampires/Vampire Historic Fiction|Create Vampires/Vampire Historic Fiction - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 
|-
! References
|-
| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire
|-
|1. Cohen, Daniel (1989). The Encyclopedia of Monsters: Bigfoot, Chinese Wildman, Nessie, Sea Ape, Werewolf and many more ... London: Michael O'Mara Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-948397-94-3.
|-
|2. William of Newburgh; Halsall, Paul (2000). &quot;Book 5, Chapter 22–24&quot;. Historia rerum Anglicarum. Fordham University. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2007
|-
|3. Bohn, Thomas M. (2019). The Vampire: Origins of a European Myth. Cologne: Berghahn Books. pp. 47–49. ISBN 978-1-78920-293-9.
|-
|4. Barber, Paul (1988). Vampires, Burial and Death: Folklore and Reality. New York: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04126-2.
|-
|5. Melton, J. Gordon (1994). &quot;Vampire&quot;. The Vampire Book. Visible Ink Press. p. 630. the vampire controversy of the 1730s [p.467] ... the eighteenth-century vampire controversy [p. 630]
|-
|6. Taylor, T. (28 October 2007). &quot;The real vampire slayers&quot;. The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2007
|}


&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>4662616</id>
      <parentid>4662606</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T00:05:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added a question and answer section.</comment>
      <origin>4662616</origin>
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      <text bytes="6466" sha1="aijkk3gncdn65o54e05x1ihwvhft884" xml:space="preserve">== '''Vampire History''' ==

Although reports of vampiric 'beings' have been recorded in cultures from around the world, the term ''vampire'' was coined in Western Europe, after being popularized following reports of mass hysteria during the 18th century. These reports fueled a pre-existing folk belief in vampires in Southeastern and Eastern Europe. &lt;br&gt;
This delusion led to accusations of vampirism, and led to the corpses of suspected future vampires being pierced with wooden stakes.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
In modern times, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity. Early folk beliefs in vampires has sometimes been ascribed to the ignorance of decomposition, the body's process of decaying after death. &lt;br&gt;
Perhaps people in pre-industrial societies tried to reason about death, creating the vampire archetype to explain the mysteries of death. &lt;br&gt;
Porphyria was linked with vampirism in 1985, and generated many media reports in popular culture, but has largely been discredited. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Cultural practices, designed to keep the recently deceased from turning into a undead revenant, often arose around the world. &lt;br&gt;
For example, burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects near the grave, in order to appease the dead, so they would stay in their coffins. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
In Greek folklore, about the vrykolakas, a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription &quot;Jesus Christ conquers&quot; was put on the corpse, to prevent the body from turning into a vampire. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Other methods popular in Europe, included disjoining the tendons at the knees, or placing poppy seeds, or sand on the grave site of a presumed vampire, this was to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the grains. A similar Chinese narrative reports that if a vampiric being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain. This archetype emerged in many myths from the Indian subcontinent, as well as in South American tales of witches and other mischievous beings. 

[[wikipedia:Vampire|Vampire - Wikipedia]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 
|-
| &lt;u&gt;'''Historic Media Vampiric Reports'''&lt;/u&gt;                                                                                                                                             &lt;br&gt;                                                                                                                                                                                                           
|}

The 12th century British historians and chroniclers Walter Map and William of Newburgh recorded accounts of revenants. [1] [2]

An early recording of the time came from the region of Istria in modern Croatia, in 1672. Local reports reported a panic amongst the villagers, reacting on their belief that Jure Grando had become a vampire after dying in 1656, drinking his victim's blood and sexually harassing his widow. The leader of the village ordered a stake be driven through Grando's heart. His corpse was later beheaded. [3]

In the 18th century, the belief in vampires was once again on the rise. 

One infamous vampire occurrence involved the corpse of Peter Blagojevic from Serbia. At the age of 62, Blagojevic was reported as dead, but he allegedly returned after his death, asking his son for food. After the son refused, he was found dead the following day. It was believed that Blagojevic returned and attacked some of his neighbors who died from blood loss. [4]

Another infamous case, is of the ex-soldier-turned farmer, Milos Cecar. He was allegedly attacked by a vampire years before he died while haying. After his death, people in the surrounding area began to die. It was believed that Milos had returned from the dead to prey on his neighbors.

The Blagojevic and Cecar incidents were well-documented. Officials examined the bodies, wrote reports, and even published books, popular throughout Europe.

Many rural vampire attacks generated much superstition, and influenced actions taken by locals, such as digging up bodies, and in some cases, stalking them. Government officials joining the village people, engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires. [4]

The hysteria commonly referred to as the &quot;vampire controversy,&quot; continued for a generation. [5] Dom Augustine Calmet, a French Theologian and Scholar, published a comprehensive treatise in 1751 titled '''Treastise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants''' which investigated and analyzed the evidence for vampirism.

In modern day Romania, in February 2004, Toma Petre's relatives, fearing he had become a vampire, dug up his corpse. They tore out his heart, burned it, then mixed its ashes with water, to better drink it. [6]  

=== Question: What did we learn from periods of mass vampire hysteria, and how did this change cultural practices? Human behavior or society? ===

=== Answer: People learned better burial methods, and better techniques for treating the dead. The 1985 media scare that mistakenly linked porphyria, a rare blood disorder, to vampirism shaped late-80s subcultures, and modern vampire tropes. People became more aware of porphyria, and the people effected by the disorder. ￼ ===


Link: [[Create Vampires/Vampire Historic Fiction|Create Vampires/Vampire Historic Fiction - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 
|-
! References
|-
| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire
|-
|1. Cohen, Daniel (1989). The Encyclopedia of Monsters: Bigfoot, Chinese Wildman, Nessie, Sea Ape, Werewolf and many more ... London: Michael O'Mara Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-948397-94-3.
|-
|2. William of Newburgh; Halsall, Paul (2000). &quot;Book 5, Chapter 22–24&quot;. Historia rerum Anglicarum. Fordham University. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2007
|-
|3. Bohn, Thomas M. (2019). The Vampire: Origins of a European Myth. Cologne: Berghahn Books. pp. 47–49. ISBN 978-1-78920-293-9.
|-
|4. Barber, Paul (1988). Vampires, Burial and Death: Folklore and Reality. New York: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04126-2.
|-
|5. Melton, J. Gordon (1994). &quot;Vampire&quot;. The Vampire Book. Visible Ink Press. p. 630. the vampire controversy of the 1730s [p.467] ... the eighteenth-century vampire controversy [p. 630]
|-
|6. Taylor, T. (28 October 2007). &quot;The real vampire slayers&quot;. The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2007
|}


&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

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    <revision>
      <id>4662617</id>
      <parentid>4662616</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T00:06:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Question: What did we learn from periods of mass vampire hysteria, and how did this change cultural practices? Human behavior or society? */</comment>
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      <text bytes="6466" sha1="samof7avqv8bznppa6v22s3ijeamsow" xml:space="preserve">== '''Vampire History''' ==

Although reports of vampiric 'beings' have been recorded in cultures from around the world, the term ''vampire'' was coined in Western Europe, after being popularized following reports of mass hysteria during the 18th century. These reports fueled a pre-existing folk belief in vampires in Southeastern and Eastern Europe. &lt;br&gt;
This delusion led to accusations of vampirism, and led to the corpses of suspected future vampires being pierced with wooden stakes.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
In modern times, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity. Early folk beliefs in vampires has sometimes been ascribed to the ignorance of decomposition, the body's process of decaying after death. &lt;br&gt;
Perhaps people in pre-industrial societies tried to reason about death, creating the vampire archetype to explain the mysteries of death. &lt;br&gt;
Porphyria was linked with vampirism in 1985, and generated many media reports in popular culture, but has largely been discredited. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 
Cultural practices, designed to keep the recently deceased from turning into a undead revenant, often arose around the world. &lt;br&gt;
For example, burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects near the grave, in order to appease the dead, so they would stay in their coffins. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
In Greek folklore, about the vrykolakas, a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription &quot;Jesus Christ conquers&quot; was put on the corpse, to prevent the body from turning into a vampire. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Other methods popular in Europe, included disjoining the tendons at the knees, or placing poppy seeds, or sand on the grave site of a presumed vampire, this was to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the grains. A similar Chinese narrative reports that if a vampiric being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain. This archetype emerged in many myths from the Indian subcontinent, as well as in South American tales of witches and other mischievous beings. 

[[wikipedia:Vampire|Vampire - Wikipedia]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 
|-
| &lt;u&gt;'''Historic Media Vampiric Reports'''&lt;/u&gt;                                                                                                                                             &lt;br&gt;                                                                                                                                                                                                           
|}

The 12th century British historians and chroniclers Walter Map and William of Newburgh recorded accounts of revenants. [1] [2]

An early recording of the time came from the region of Istria in modern Croatia, in 1672. Local reports reported a panic amongst the villagers, reacting on their belief that Jure Grando had become a vampire after dying in 1656, drinking his victim's blood and sexually harassing his widow. The leader of the village ordered a stake be driven through Grando's heart. His corpse was later beheaded. [3]

In the 18th century, the belief in vampires was once again on the rise. 

One infamous vampire occurrence involved the corpse of Peter Blagojevic from Serbia. At the age of 62, Blagojevic was reported as dead, but he allegedly returned after his death, asking his son for food. After the son refused, he was found dead the following day. It was believed that Blagojevic returned and attacked some of his neighbors who died from blood loss. [4]

Another infamous case, is of the ex-soldier-turned farmer, Milos Cecar. He was allegedly attacked by a vampire years before he died while haying. After his death, people in the surrounding area began to die. It was believed that Milos had returned from the dead to prey on his neighbors.

The Blagojevic and Cecar incidents were well-documented. Officials examined the bodies, wrote reports, and even published books, popular throughout Europe.

Many rural vampire attacks generated much superstition, and influenced actions taken by locals, such as digging up bodies, and in some cases, stalking them. Government officials joining the village people, engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires. [4]

The hysteria commonly referred to as the &quot;vampire controversy,&quot; continued for a generation. [5] Dom Augustine Calmet, a French Theologian and Scholar, published a comprehensive treatise in 1751 titled '''Treastise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants''' which investigated and analyzed the evidence for vampirism.

In modern day Romania, in February 2004, Toma Petre's relatives, fearing he had become a vampire, dug up his corpse. They tore out his heart, burned it, then mixed its ashes with water, to better drink it. [6]  

=== Question: What did we learn from periods of mass vampire hysteria, and how did this change cultural practices, human behavior or society? ===

=== Answer: People learned better burial methods, and better techniques for treating the dead. The 1985 media scare that mistakenly linked porphyria, a rare blood disorder, to vampirism shaped late-80s subcultures, and modern vampire tropes. People became more aware of porphyria, and the people effected by the disorder. ￼ ===


Link: [[Create Vampires/Vampire Historic Fiction|Create Vampires/Vampire Historic Fiction - Wikibooks, open books for an open world]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 
|-
! References
|-
| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire
|-
|1. Cohen, Daniel (1989). The Encyclopedia of Monsters: Bigfoot, Chinese Wildman, Nessie, Sea Ape, Werewolf and many more ... London: Michael O'Mara Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-948397-94-3.
|-
|2. William of Newburgh; Halsall, Paul (2000). &quot;Book 5, Chapter 22–24&quot;. Historia rerum Anglicarum. Fordham University. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2007
|-
|3. Bohn, Thomas M. (2019). The Vampire: Origins of a European Myth. Cologne: Berghahn Books. pp. 47–49. ISBN 978-1-78920-293-9.
|-
|4. Barber, Paul (1988). Vampires, Burial and Death: Folklore and Reality. New York: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04126-2.
|-
|5. Melton, J. Gordon (1994). &quot;Vampire&quot;. The Vampire Book. Visible Ink Press. p. 630. the vampire controversy of the 1730s [p.467] ... the eighteenth-century vampire controversy [p. 630]
|-
|6. Taylor, T. (28 October 2007). &quot;The real vampire slayers&quot;. The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2007
|}


&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

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    <title>User:Kayden Swanson</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
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        <id>3600285</id>
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      <text bytes="1284" sha1="13fimll79lt5mgya58sqg3f5yc12vlz" xml:space="preserve">Hello, my name is Kayden Swanson and I am a 12 year old prodigy! I hope you all like my Wikibook, ''[[The Geoguide|The Geoguide.]]'' I am currently learning German, Yiddish, HTML, and even Klingon! My ''Qapla''' never ends. I also have a conlang called Cavzoelk. Feel free to check it out at my pastebin link, https://pastebin.com/tKPGqZRp, which I update every few weeks or days-- it fluctuates against my creativity. If you would like to see my other conlang, Vanlojo, go to my other pastebin https://pastebin.com/8EfnxpQr. If you want to learn about my fictional government, TAAI, you can read it from https://pastebin.com/R0jwqkh6. Also, if you would like to play me game i made, you can play it at https://neon-strike-frontier.base44.app. I am now working on a new wikibook called ''The Linguide'' which will contain dozens of cool sounding words like expeditiously and indubitably, even scientific words like ''photophosphorylation'' and even ''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'', the 45 letter long word lung disease where very fine volcanic silica dust is inhaled. Alongside this, future ones might include ''The Cavguide, The Codeguide,'' and maybe ''The Bioguide''! 

Contact me

If you have any questions, feel free to email me at kscotts2014(at)gmail(dot)com!</text>
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      <text bytes="1410" sha1="7uwd1ibqfhjk2vpjqgd4m6bctlsh1kc" xml:space="preserve">Hello, my name is Kayden Swanson and I am a 12 year old prodigy! I hope you all like my Wikibook, ''[[The Geoguide|The Geoguide.]]'' I am currently learning German, Yiddish, HTML, and even Klingon! My ''Qapla''' never ends. I also have a conlang called Cavzoelk. Feel free to check it out at my pastebin link, https://pastebin.com/tKPGqZRp, which I update every few weeks or days-- it fluctuates against my creativity, and my Cavzoelk course on Elon.io, https://elon.io/view-course/75299. If you would like to see my other conlang, Vanlojo, go to my other pastebin https://pastebin.com/8EfnxpQr or my Vanlojo course, https://elon.io/view-course/75383. If you want to learn about my fictional government, TAAI, you can read it from https://pastebin.com/R0jwqkh6. Also, if you would like to play me game i made, you can play it at https://neon-strike-frontier.base44.app. I am now working on a new wikibook called ''The Linguide'' which will contain dozens of cool sounding words like expeditiously and indubitably, even scientific words like ''photophosphorylation'' and even ''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'', the 45 letter long word lung disease where very fine volcanic silica dust is inhaled. Alongside this, future ones might include ''The Cavguide, The Codeguide,'' and maybe ''The Bioguide''! 

Contact me

If you have any questions, feel free to email me at kscotts2014(at)gmail(dot)com!</text>
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      <text bytes="1461" sha1="j2x0czw5joi5ckb3ibfihg8chlts3bt" xml:space="preserve">Hello, my name is Kayden Swanson and I am a 12 year old prodigy! I hope you all like my Wikibook, ''[[The Geoguide|The Geoguide.]]'' I am currently learning German, Yiddish, HTML, and even Klingon! My ''Qapla''' never ends. I also have a conlang called Cavzoelk. Feel free to check it out at my pastebin link, https://pastebin.com/tKPGqZRp, which I update every few weeks or days-- it fluctuates against my creativity, and my Cavzoelk course on Elon.io, https://elon.io/view-course/75299. If you would like to see my other conlang, Vanlojo, go to my other pastebin https://pastebin.com/8EfnxpQr or my Vanlojo course, https://elon.io/view-course/75383. If you want to learn about my fictional government, TAAI, you can read it from https://pastebin.com/R0jwqkh6. Also, if you would like to play me game i made, you can play it at https://neon-strike-frontier.base44.app. I am now working on a new wikibook called ''The Linguide'' which will contain dozens of cool sounding words like expeditiously and indubitably, even scientific words like ''photophosphorylation'' and even ''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'', the 45 letter long word lung disease where very fine volcanic silica dust is inhaled. Alongside this, future ones might include ''The Cavguide'' and ''The Vanguide'' (possibly in Wikitionary)'', The Codeguide,'' and maybe ''The Bioguide''! 

Contact me

If you have any questions, feel free to email me at kscotts2014(at)gmail(dot)com!</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Aros/Platforms/RISC-V support</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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==Introduction==

RISC-V ISA (Instruction Set) aim to be an additional open hardware option to closed Arm or x86 ISAs used in most CPUs. 

[https://www.thegoodpenguin.co.uk/blog/an-overview-of-opensbi/ OpenSBI] is an [https://github.com/riscv/opensbi open-source reference implementation] of the RISC-V Supervisor Binary Interface [https://github.com/riscv/riscv-sbi-doc SBI] specification. Firmware running at a higher privilege level that setups hardware and allows lower privilege levels, like an operating system, to call up to it for power-cycling or allocating CPU cores. 

With [https://riscv.org/technical/specifications/ RISC-V], userspace at ‘U’, the kernel at ‘S’ (supervisor) and the firmware at ‘M’ (machine). 

RISC-V knows 3 privilege levels:
&lt;pre&gt;
    M (machine) mode:
        highest privilege
        low-level firmware (e.g. OpenSBI), system boot, and security (e.g. secure execution environments)
        handles critical system traps
        return to lower-privileged levels using mret instruction
    S (supervisor) mode:
        intermediate privilege
        used by operating system kernels to manage memory and hardware resources
        restrict direct access to machine-level configuration registers and physical memory protection (PMP)
        uses Memory Management Unit (MMU) and virtual memory
        ecall instruction to request kernel services
        return to U-mode using sret instruction
    U (user) mode:
        lowest privilege
        cannot execute privileged instructions, access physical memory directly without virtual memory translations, or directly alter core control registers
        user space executing standard applications
        prevents incorrect or malicious application code from interfering with other running programs or the operating system itself
&lt;/pre&gt;

Thus ‘S’ and ‘VS’ refer to the kernel (where ‘VS’ relates to virtual s-mode when virtualisation is in use).

QEMU can emulate both 32-bit and 64-bit RISC-V CPUs. Use the qemu-system-riscv64 executable to simulate a 64-bit RISC-V machine, It also supports 64-bit CPUs.


===Native===

'''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Milk-V Titan] opensbi-riscv64-contrib opensbi-riscv64-system RVA22 

Youtube [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTSmlnChJTc RISC-V boot], [], 


==Hardware==

[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1dfa83fe021e22e0bf7d324f204506d5ffc72398 processor resource], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/429ed36588d77368633c1fd1e08265270459941a resolving crash dumps], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3743b4d464dafa2409de358029a34ecef7f123cb dwmac], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/374f6e910e0206549450db1c25428e719a1ac2c1 bootable], [], 


64bit

 
*  with RVA30 in 2030? 


*  with RVA23p2 


*  with RVA23p1 


 None of the below beat an Intel N100 but closer to Pi5 in synthetic CPU benchmarks but it is getting better 


* with Ventana Veyron V2 
* with Alibaba XuanTie T-Head C950 
* with tenstorrent TT-Ascalon 
* with Akeana 


 Start of AI enabled SoCs 

*Milk-V Jupiter 2 with SpacemiT K3 64-bit RISC-V 8 X100 and 8 A100 AI npu RVA23 compliant with PowerVR B BXM-4-64 gpu proprietary driver, Raysan Ram, realtek , kingston ufs nand, pci-e nvme, type-c psu and dp out, 1 realtek rtl8127 10GbE - 
*Banana Pi BPI-SM10 (K3-Com260) with SpaceMIT K3 and proprietary driver gpu (binary blob) - lpddr5 - ufs - 
*Sipeed  with Zhihe A210 8-core 4x C920 cores at up to 2.3 GHz and 4x C908 cores at 1.9 GHz 64-bit RISC-V CPU RVA23 compatible and proprietary driver gpu -  


 Lifecycle of CPUs from 1 to 1.5 years 

*[https://milkv.io/titan Milk-V Titan] UltraRISC UR-DP1000 2x4c 64-bit UR-CP100 “RV64GCBHX” cores SoC but lacks some vector extension on a mini-itx board with dwmac ethernet - 1x PCIe x16 Slot (PCIe Gen4, 16‑lane) for gfx card - 
*[https://docs.banana-pi.org/en/BPI-F3/BananaPi_BPI-F3 Banana Pi BPI-F3] with 64bit SpaceMiT K1 8-core (2x4) RISC-V X60 (RV64GCVB) RVA22 RVV1.0 - eMMC - LPddr4 - 2 GbE - IMG BXE-2-32@819MHz proprietary driver - RTL8852BS WIFI6 - 
*SiFive's HiFive Premier P550 Eswin EIC7700X SoC with a quad-core SiFive P550 and Imagination Technologies' GPU IP proprietary (binary blob) - 
*Milk-V Megrez RISC-V AI PC with the ESWIN EIC7700X SoC and Imagination Technologies' GPU IP proprietary (binary blob) - 
*[http://www.orangepi.org/html/hardWare/computerAndMicrocontrollers/details/Orange-Pi-RV2.html Orange Pi RV2] RISC-V SBC with SpaceMiT X60 8-core Ky X1 64-bit RISC-V, 2 TOPS NPU, 4 GB of LPDDR4 RAM - ethernet with PHY YT8531C-CA - Wi-Fi + Bluetooth 2-in-1 Module AP6256 - imagination bxe-2-32 gpu proprietary driver (binary blob) - 


*StarFive Star64 Model A - StarFive JH-7110 SoC combines a quad-core SiFive U74 with IM BXE-4-32-G52-2EE GPU proprietary driver (binary blob) - 
*Milk-V Mars StarFive JH7110 SoC 
*VisionFive 2 SBC StarFive JH7110 SoC with dwmac 
*Lichee Pi 4 A (LPi4A) is a Pi like with 64bit Pinto Alibaba T-Head TH1520 quad-core Xuantie C910 with BXM-4-64 GPU proprietary driver {binary blob} - dwmac 
*BeagleBoard [https://github.com/beagleboard/beaglev-starlight BeagleV] beta prototypes produced only 


*Milk-V Jupiter with Spacemit M1 64bit RISC-V SoC Mini-ITX PC up to 16GB -  PCIe slot for gpus 
*StarFive VisionFive V1 with JH7100 64bit SoC 
* with [https://docs.aw-ol.com/d1/en/d1_dev/ Allwinner D1-H] 1core C906 sun20i HDMI and sun8i ethernet, 
*[https://www.sifive.com/boards/hifive-unmatched sifive hifive unmatched] with SiFive Freedom FU540 and later U740 (FU740) SoC 
*Ox64 Single Board Computer features a Bouffalo Lab BL808 RISC-V SoC  


32bit
*HiFive1 Rev B FE310-G002 processor, which includes a 32-bit RV32IMAC core 


==Reference==

[https://www.codethink.co.uk/articles/2026/deep-dive-into-upstream-risc-v-boot-chain.html Risc-V Boot]
[https://download.haiku-os.org/nightly-images/riscv64/ HaikuOS alpha builds]
[]


[https://github.com/asicguy/gplgpu Open hardware GPU], [https://www.furygpu.com/ Fury GPU] is still an issue for many boards but some software efforts are happening for [https://www.reddit.com/r/RISCV/comments/1kz493p/orange_pi_rv2_gpu_acceleration/ later BXM BXE GPUs] 

Open Hardware GPU needs a frame buffer, Pixel processor (Fragment shader and Rasterizer) - geometry processor (aka vertex shader), output signal generator (Timing generator, scalers, interpolators). 

Newer gpus have unified shaders etc 


{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>nwm8hv0ydngzkszm3q738p0cvvgj9ya</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662431</id>
      <parentid>4662429</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:07:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeff1138</username>
        <id>301139</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>4662431</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6644" sha1="n9qtcfymz96gc3spdjh3egg34q8fmkl" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==

RISC-V ISA (Instruction Set) aim to be an additional open hardware option to closed Arm or x86 ISAs used in most CPUs. 

[https://www.thegoodpenguin.co.uk/blog/an-overview-of-opensbi/ OpenSBI] is an [https://github.com/riscv/opensbi open-source reference implementation] of the RISC-V Supervisor Binary Interface [https://github.com/riscv/riscv-sbi-doc SBI] specification. Firmware running at a higher privilege level that setups hardware and allows lower privilege levels, like an operating system, to call up to it for power-cycling or allocating CPU cores. 

With [https://riscv.org/technical/specifications/ RISC-V], userspace at ‘U’, the kernel at ‘S’ (supervisor) and the firmware at ‘M’ (machine). 

RISC-V knows 3 privilege levels:
&lt;pre&gt;
    M (machine) mode:
        highest privilege
        low-level firmware (e.g. OpenSBI), system boot, and security (e.g. secure execution environments)
        handles critical system traps
        return to lower-privileged levels using mret instruction
    S (supervisor) mode:
        intermediate privilege
        used by operating system kernels to manage memory and hardware resources
        restrict direct access to machine-level configuration registers and physical memory protection (PMP)
        uses Memory Management Unit (MMU) and virtual memory
        ecall instruction to request kernel services
        return to U-mode using sret instruction
    U (user) mode:
        lowest privilege
        cannot execute privileged instructions, access physical memory directly without virtual memory translations, or directly alter core control registers
        user space executing standard applications
        prevents incorrect or malicious application code from interfering with other running programs or the operating system itself
&lt;/pre&gt;

Thus ‘S’ and ‘VS’ refer to the kernel (where ‘VS’ relates to virtual s-mode when virtualisation is in use).

QEMU can emulate both 32-bit and 64-bit RISC-V CPUs. Use the qemu-system-riscv64 executable to simulate a 64-bit RISC-V machine, It also supports 64-bit CPUs.


===Native===

'''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Milk-V Titan] opensbi-riscv64-contrib opensbi-riscv64-system RVA22 

Youtube [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTSmlnChJTc RISC-V boot], [], 


==Hardware==

[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1dfa83fe021e22e0bf7d324f204506d5ffc72398 processor resource], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/429ed36588d77368633c1fd1e08265270459941a resolving crash dumps], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3743b4d464dafa2409de358029a34ecef7f123cb dwmac], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/374f6e910e0206549450db1c25428e719a1ac2c1 bootable], [], 


64bit

 
*  with RVA30 in 2030? 


*  with RVA23p2 


*  with RVA23p1 


 None of the below beat an Intel N100 but closer to Pi5 in synthetic CPU benchmarks but it is getting better 


* with Ventana Veyron V2 
* with Alibaba XuanTie T-Head C950 
* with tenstorrent TT-Ascalon 
* with Akeana 


 Start of AI enabled SoCs 

*Milk-V Jupiter 2 with SpacemiT K3 64-bit RISC-V 8 X100 and 8 A100 AI npu RVA23 compliant with PowerVR B BXM-4-64 gpu proprietary driver (binary blob), Raysan Ram, realtek , kingston ufs nand, pci-e nvme, type-c psu and dp out, 1 realtek rtl8127 10GbE - 
*Banana Pi BPI-SM10 (K3-Com260) with SpaceMIT K3 and proprietary driver gpu (binary blob) - lpddr5 - ufs - 
*Sipeed  with Zhihe A210 8-core 4x C920 cores at up to 2.3 GHz and 4x C908 cores at 1.9 GHz 64-bit RISC-V CPU RVA23 compatible and proprietary driver gpu (binary blob) -  


 Lifecycle of CPUs from 1 to 1.5 years 

*[https://milkv.io/titan Milk-V Titan] UltraRISC UR-DP1000 2x4c 64-bit UR-CP100 “RV64GCBHX” cores SoC but lacks some vector extension on a mini-itx board with dwmac ethernet - 1x PCIe x16 Slot (PCIe Gen4, 16‑lane) for gfx card - 
*[https://docs.banana-pi.org/en/BPI-F3/BananaPi_BPI-F3 Banana Pi BPI-F3] with 64bit SpaceMiT K1 8-core (2x4) RISC-V X60 (RV64GCVB) RVA22 RVV1.0 - eMMC - LPddr4 - 2 GbE - IMG BXE-2-32@819MHz proprietary driver (binary blob) - RTL8852BS WIFI6 - 
*SiFive's HiFive Premier P550 Eswin EIC7700X SoC with a quad-core SiFive P550 and Imagination Technologies' GPU IP proprietary (binary blob) - 
*Milk-V Megrez RISC-V AI PC with the ESWIN EIC7700X SoC and Imagination Technologies' GPU IP proprietary (binary blob) - 
*[http://www.orangepi.org/html/hardWare/computerAndMicrocontrollers/details/Orange-Pi-RV2.html Orange Pi RV2] RISC-V SBC with SpaceMiT X60 8-core Ky X1 64-bit RISC-V, 2 TOPS NPU, 4 GB of LPDDR4 RAM - ethernet with PHY YT8531C-CA - Wi-Fi + Bluetooth 2-in-1 Module AP6256 - imagination bxe-2-32 gpu proprietary driver (binary blob) - 


*StarFive Star64 Model A - StarFive JH-7110 SoC combines a quad-core SiFive U74 with IM BXE-4-32-G52-2EE GPU proprietary driver (binary blob) - 
*Milk-V Mars StarFive JH7110 SoC and IMGBXE-4-32 GPU (binary blob) 
*VisionFive 2 SBC StarFive JH7110 SoC and IMGBXE-4-32 GPU (binary blob) with dwmac 
*Lichee Pi 4 A (LPi4A) is a Pi like with 64bit Pinto Alibaba T-Head TH1520 quad-core Xuantie C910 with BXM-4-64 GPU proprietary driver {binary blob} - dwmac 
*BeagleBoard [https://github.com/beagleboard/beaglev-starlight BeagleV] beta prototypes produced only 


*Milk-V Jupiter with Spacemit M1 64bit RISC-V SoC Mini-ITX PC up to 16GB -  PCIe slot for gpus 
*StarFive VisionFive V1 with JH7100 64bit SoC and no 3D (binary blob) - 
* with [https://docs.aw-ol.com/d1/en/d1_dev/ Allwinner D1-H] 1core C906 sun20i HDMI and sun8i ethernet, gfx (binary blob), 
*[https://www.sifive.com/boards/hifive-unmatched sifive hifive unmatched] with SiFive Freedom FU540 and later U740 (FU740) SoC 
*Ox64 Single Board Computer features a Bouffalo Lab BL808 RISC-V SoC 


32bit
*HiFive1 Rev B FE310-G002 processor, which includes a 32-bit RV32IMAC core 


==Reference==

[https://www.codethink.co.uk/articles/2026/deep-dive-into-upstream-risc-v-boot-chain.html Risc-V Boot]
[https://download.haiku-os.org/nightly-images/riscv64/ HaikuOS alpha builds]
[]


[https://github.com/asicguy/gplgpu Open hardware GPU], [https://www.furygpu.com/ Fury GPU] is still an issue for many boards but some software efforts are happening for [https://www.reddit.com/r/RISCV/comments/1kz493p/orange_pi_rv2_gpu_acceleration/ later BXM BXE GPUs] 

Open Hardware GPU needs a frame buffer, Pixel processor (Fragment shader and Rasterizer) - geometry processor (aka vertex shader), output signal generator (Timing generator, scalers, interpolators). 

Newer gpus have unified shaders etc 


{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>n9qtcfymz96gc3spdjh3egg34q8fmkl</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. a3/1...e5/2. h3</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>485276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662631</id>
      <parentid>4660269</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dollarnickel</username>
        <id>3621061</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
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      <text bytes="1057" sha1="k8x09s6fn24jk2k9pmy6p0oly6n2hwg" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Anderssen's Opening|
   |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|=
   |pd|pd|pd|pd|  |pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |pd|  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|  |  |  |  |  |  |pl|=
   |  |pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|  |=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]]
|parent=[[../../|Anderssen's Opening]] → [[../|1...e5]]
|aka=Creepy Crawly Formation, Global Opening
}}

== 2. h3 ==

2. h3 is a passive move that offers Black complete control of the center after the [[/2...d5|Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defence]]. This setup is also known as the Creepy Crawly Formation, a humorous opening named for the wing pawns' formation. It may also be reached with the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. h3|Clemenz Opening]] after 1. h3 e5 2. a3.

== Theory table ==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
{{Chess/theory table |links=1
|name1=Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defense
|line1=2...d5 3. c4 c6 4. cxd5 cxd5 5. d3 Nc6
|eval1={{Chess/not|-}}
}}
{{ChessMid}}
=== See also ===
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>k8x09s6fn24jk2k9pmy6p0oly6n2hwg</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. a3/1...e5/2. h3/2...d5</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dollarnickel</username>
        <id>3621061</id>
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      <text bytes="1193" sha1="q8qrexqww8tvq9yq9yra1iru631adf8" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defence|
   |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|=
   |pd|pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|pd|  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|  |  |  |  |  |  |pl|=
   |  |pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|  |=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]]
|parent=[[Chess_Opening_Theory/1. h3|Anderssen's Opening]] → [[../../|1...e5]] → [[../|2. h3]]
}}

== 2...d5 · Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defence ==

2...d5 takes full control of the center, punishing White's passive two moves. Black is allowed to dictate the game and can continue to develop rapidly, possibly attacking the h3 pawn with a kingside pawn storm if White chooses to castle on the kingside.

== Theory table ==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
{{Chess/theory table |links=1
|name1=Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defense
|line1=3. c4 c6 4. cxd5 cxd5 5. d3 Nc6
|eval1={{Chess/not|-}}
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== See also ===
* {{cite book  | author=Eric Schiller | year=2002 | edition=2nd | title=Unorthodox Chess Openings  | publisher=Cardoza | isbn=1-58042-072-9 }}

{{ChessMid}}

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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      <contributor>
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      <text bytes="1851" sha1="2xvpy6z8zmmvp91gpa3jcxhiaido9bl" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|=
|Anderssen's Opening: Hippopotamus Attack|
   |rd|  |bd|qd|  |rd|kd|  |=
   |pd|pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |nd|bd|  |nd|  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|pd|  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]]
|parent=[[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._h3|Anderssen's Opening]] → [[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._h3/1...e5|1...e5]] → 2. b3 → 2... d5 → 3. c3 → 3... Nf6 → 4. d3 → 4...Nc6 → 5. e3 → 5...Bd6 → 6. f3 → 6...O-O
}}

== Hippopotamus Attack ==

White opens the game with a misguided swarm of one-square pawn pushes. However, if Black is not careful, then this barricade of pawns may impede Black's plans.

White's pawn structure inhibits the natural development squares for the knights. In addition, White's king becomes more vulnerable after a potential pawn storm on the kingside, and none of White's pieces can be developed easily lest White pushes a pawn forward, opening up the position.

There exists a variation of White's moves with '''1. a3 g6 2. b3 Bg7 3. c3 d5 4. d3 c5 5. e3 e5 6. f3 Ne7 7. g3 Nbc6'''&lt;ref&gt;In Schiller's ''Unorthodox Chess Openings'', it is named the Hippopotamus Formation.&lt;/ref&gt; where Black chooses to maintain an iron grip over the d4-square while freeing the f-pawn to potentially explore pawn breaks on the kingside.

== Theory table ==
{{Chess/theory table |links=0
|line1=7...e4! 8. dxe4 dxe4 9. f4 Ne7 10. Bg2 Nf5 11. Ne2
|eval1={{Chess/not|--}}
|line2=7... ... 8. fxe4 dxe4 9. d4 Ne7 10. Bg2 Nf5 11. Ra2!?
|eval2={{Chess/not|--}}
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
* {{cite book  | author=Eric Schiller | year=2002 | edition=2nd | title=Unorthodox Chess Openings  | publisher=Cardoza | isbn=1-58042-072-9 }}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>3621061</id>
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|Anderssen's Opening: Hippopotamus Attack|
   |rd|  |bd|qd|  |rd|kd|  |=
   |pd|pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |nd|bd|  |nd|  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|pd|  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]]
|parent=[[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._h3|Anderssen's Opening]] → [[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._h3/1...e5|1...e5]] → 2. b3 → 2...d5 → 3. c3 → 3...Nf6 → 4. d3 → 4...Nc6 → 5. e3 → 5...Bd6 → 6. f3 → 6...O-O
}}

== Hippopotamus Attack ==

White opens the game with a misguided swarm of one-square pawn pushes. However, if Black is not careful, then this barricade of pawns may impede Black's plans.

White's pawn structure inhibits the natural development squares for the knights. In addition, White's king becomes more vulnerable after a potential pawn storm on the kingside, and none of White's pieces can be developed easily lest White pushes a pawn forward, opening up the position.

There exists a variation of White's moves with '''1. a3 g6 2. b3 Bg7 3. c3 d5 4. d3 c5 5. e3 e5 6. f3 Ne7 7. g3 Nbc6'''&lt;ref&gt;In Schiller's ''Unorthodox Chess Openings'', it is named the Hippopotamus Formation.&lt;/ref&gt; where Black chooses to maintain an iron grip over the d4-square while freeing the f-pawn to potentially explore pawn breaks on the kingside.

== Theory table ==
{{Chess/theory table |links=0
|line1=7...e4! 8. dxe4 dxe4 9. f4 Ne7 10. Bg2 Nf5 11. Ne2
|eval1={{Chess/not|--}}
|line2=7... ... 8. fxe4 dxe4 9. d4 Ne7 10. Bg2 Nf5 11. Ra2!?
|eval2={{Chess/not|--}}
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
* {{cite book  | author=Eric Schiller | year=2002 | edition=2nd | title=Unorthodox Chess Openings  | publisher=Cardoza | isbn=1-58042-072-9 }}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>7g4p0v3anlcgwcsji9go3liww6ix9xu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662636</id>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>3621061</id>
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|Anderssen's Opening: Hippopotamus Attack|
   |rd|  |bd|qd|  |rd|kd|  |=
   |pd|pd|pd|  |  |pd|pd|pd|=
   |  |  |nd|bd|  |nd|  |  |=
   |  |  |  |pd|pd|  |  |  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
   |pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|  |=
   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |pl|=
   |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
|eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]]
|parent=[[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._a3|Anderssen's Opening]] → [[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._a3/1...e5|1...e5]] → 2. b3 → 2...d5 → 3. c3 → 3...Nf6 → 4. d3 → 4...Nc6 → 5. e3 → 5...Bd6 → 6. f3 → 6...O-O
}}

== Hippopotamus Attack ==

White opens the game with a misguided swarm of one-square pawn pushes. However, if Black is not careful, then this barricade of pawns may impede Black's plans.

White's pawn structure inhibits the natural development squares for the knights. In addition, White's king becomes more vulnerable after a potential pawn storm on the kingside, and none of White's pieces can be developed easily lest White pushes a pawn forward, opening up the position.

There exists a variation of White's moves with '''1. a3 g6 2. b3 Bg7 3. c3 d5 4. d3 c5 5. e3 e5 6. f3 Ne7 7. g3 Nbc6'''&lt;ref&gt;In Schiller's ''Unorthodox Chess Openings'', it is named the Hippopotamus Formation.&lt;/ref&gt; where Black chooses to maintain an iron grip over the d4-square while freeing the f-pawn to potentially explore pawn breaks on the kingside.

== Theory table ==
{{Chess/theory table |links=0
|line1=7...e4! 8. dxe4 dxe4 9. f4 Ne7 10. Bg2 Nf5 11. Ne2
|eval1={{Chess/not|--}}
|line2=7... ... 8. fxe4 dxe4 9. d4 Ne7 10. Bg2 Nf5 11. Ra2!?
|eval2={{Chess/not|--}}
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
* {{cite book  | author=Eric Schiller | year=2002 | edition=2nd | title=Unorthodox Chess Openings  | publisher=Cardoza | isbn=1-58042-072-9 }}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Tunticha/sandbox</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>485328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662442</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T14:43:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tunticha</username>
        <id>3622844</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;== '''Buy Now, Pay Later (BNPL)''' == '''Buy Now, Pay Later (BNPL)''' is a type of short-term financing that allows consumers to purchase goods or services immediately and pay for them over time. Payments are usually divided into several installments. Many BNPL plans do not charge interest when payments are made on time.  BNPL services are commonly available as a payment option in online and physical stores.  == '''How BNPL Works''' == A typical BNPL transaction involves...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="4069" sha1="o2hsapu3cj5q3av1gy3v8bl8qjbfln6" xml:space="preserve">== '''Buy Now, Pay Later (BNPL)''' ==
'''Buy Now, Pay Later (BNPL)''' is a type of short-term financing that allows consumers to purchase goods or services immediately and pay for them over time. Payments are usually divided into several installments. Many BNPL plans do not charge interest when payments are made on time.

BNPL services are commonly available as a payment option in online and physical stores.

== '''How BNPL Works''' ==
A typical BNPL transaction involves the following steps:

# A customer selects BNPL at checkout.
# The BNPL provider reviews the transaction and customer information.
# If approved, the purchase is completed.
# The customer repays the amount through scheduled installments.

For example, a '''$400 purchase''' using a four-payment plan may be divided into four payments of '''$100'''.

== '''Data Used in BNPL''' ==
BNPL providers may collect and process several types of information, including:

* Personal information, such as name, email address, and phone number
* Payment and financial information
* Purchase and transaction history
* Repayment history
* Account and device information

This information can be used to process transactions, manage customer accounts, assess risk, prevent fraud, and provide services.

== '''Data Governance''' ==
'''Data governance''' refers to the policies and processes used to manage data throughout its lifecycle.

For BNPL providers, data governance is important because they process personal and financial information. Important practices include:

* Collecting only necessary information
* Maintaining accurate customer and transaction records
* Controlling who can access sensitive information
* Protecting stored data
* Establishing data retention and deletion policies
* Monitoring how information is used

Effective data governance can reduce privacy and security risks while improving the reliability of financial records.

== '''CIA Triad in BNPL''' ==
The '''CIA Triad''' is an information-security model based on three principles: confidentiality, integrity, and availability.

=== '''Confidentiality''' ===
Confidentiality protects customer information from unauthorized access.

BNPL providers can use '''encryption, access controls, strong authentication, and multi-factor authentication''' to protect personal and financial information.

=== '''Integrity''' ===
Integrity ensures that information remains accurate and is not changed without authorization.

For example, purchase amounts, outstanding balances, payment dates, and repayment records should not be modified by unauthorized users. Audit logs and transaction validation can help maintain data integrity.

=== '''Availability''' ===
Availability ensures that customers and authorized users can access BNPL services when required.

BNPL providers may use '''backup systems, system monitoring, disaster recovery, and redundant infrastructure''' to reduce service interruptions.

=== '''Risks''' ===
BNPL services may involve several risks, including:

* Overspending and accumulating multiple debts
* Late-payment fees or other charges depending on the provider
* Privacy risks from the collection of consumer data
* Fraud and unauthorized account access
* Data breaches and other cybersecurity threats
* Service outages

== '''Conclusion''' ==
BNPL provides consumers with a convenient way to divide purchases into smaller payments. However, these services also process significant amounts of personal, financial, and transaction data.

'''Data governance''' helps organizations manage this information responsibly, while the '''CIA Triad''' provides a framework for protecting its confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Together, these principles are important for maintaining secure and reliable BNPL services.

== '''References''' ==

* Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB). ''Buy Now, Pay Later: Market Trends and Consumer Impacts''.
* National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). ''Information Security Glossary''.
* NIST. ''Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability definitions''.</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-20T19:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Syed.ruman.kushali</username>
        <id>3622910</id>
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      <comment>/* */ born on 27 January famous personality</comment>
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      <text bytes="110" sha1="h2s8fbtdccaolcvmciw7ljt63l4gbhq" xml:space="preserve">January 27 famous personality 

Syeda amaira Fatima

Daughter of Syed ruman khushali

Mother of Noor mohammadi</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Create Vampires/What Is A Historical Construct</title>
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      <id>4662598</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T20:33:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
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      <comment>Created 4 new paragraphs, 1 new link</comment>
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      <text bytes="520" sha1="94ypu372srz9j8nz4lvmsfqdjaz14na" xml:space="preserve">== What Is A Historical Construct? ==
&lt;br&gt;
A historical construct is an idea that groups human behavior and human actions together, bound by social norms. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Collective beliefs form most historical constructs. These beliefs evolve as we gather better information. As human perspectives change, our mental constructs change. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Many writers attempt to reconstruct History from new perspectives, or through a modern cultural lens. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Link: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Create_Vampires/Vampire_History</text>
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    <title>Create Vampires/Vampire Historic Fiction</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-20T21:04:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>3393808</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;== Historic Fiction == &lt;br&gt; How To Write Fiction with Historic Truths  Do your research. &lt;br&gt; Keep the book's atmosphere historic and gothy. &lt;br&gt; Use historic settings that were popular vampire locations. &lt;br&gt; Use vampire troupes &lt;br&gt;  Subgenres and Themes &lt;br&gt; Gothic Period Pieces &lt;br&gt; Alternate History: Books like Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter by Seth Grahame-Smith. &lt;br&gt; Mythological Deep Dives &lt;br&gt;&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="406" sha1="od9w87modafu61skzhbog4ph8rkpwt0" xml:space="preserve">== Historic Fiction ==
&lt;br&gt;
How To Write Fiction with Historic Truths

Do your research. &lt;br&gt;
Keep the book's atmosphere historic and gothy. &lt;br&gt;
Use historic settings that were popular vampire locations. &lt;br&gt;
Use vampire troupes &lt;br&gt;

Subgenres and Themes &lt;br&gt;
Gothic Period Pieces &lt;br&gt;
Alternate History: Books like Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter by Seth Grahame-Smith. &lt;br&gt;
Mythological Deep Dives &lt;br&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662607</id>
      <parentid>4662605</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T21:10:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
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      <text bytes="408" sha1="omqt6k9d91bgol790xs9e2ihm3j68s0" xml:space="preserve">== Historic Fiction ==
&lt;br&gt;
How To Write Fiction with Historic Truths

Do your research. &lt;br&gt;
Keep the book's atmosphere historic and gothy. &lt;br&gt;
Use historic settings that were popular vampire locations. &lt;br&gt;
Use vampire troupes &lt;br&gt;

Subgenres and Themes &lt;br&gt;
Gothic Period Pieces &lt;br&gt;
Alternative History: Books like Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter by Seth Grahame-Smith. &lt;br&gt;
Mythological Deep Dives &lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>omqt6k9d91bgol790xs9e2ihm3j68s0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662609</id>
      <parentid>4662607</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-20T21:37:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>corrected typo</comment>
      <origin>4662609</origin>
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      <text bytes="407" sha1="ka8cwnry1oqciwxcg0s4xdtw4bwhsio" xml:space="preserve">== Historic Fiction ==
&lt;br&gt;
How To Write Fiction with Historic Truths

Do your research. &lt;br&gt;
Keep the book's atmosphere historic and gothy. &lt;br&gt;
Use historic settings that were popular vampire locations. &lt;br&gt;
Use vampire tropes &lt;br&gt;

Subgenres and Themes &lt;br&gt;
Gothic Period Pieces &lt;br&gt;
Alternative History: Books like Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter by Seth Grahame-Smith. &lt;br&gt;
Mythological Deep Dives &lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>ka8cwnry1oqciwxcg0s4xdtw4bwhsio</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4662618</id>
      <parentid>4662609</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T00:40:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3MMPEYTON</username>
        <id>3393808</id>
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      <origin>4662618</origin>
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      <text bytes="563" sha1="ndem9ywexk9113sraqyyisef76733jl" xml:space="preserve">== Historic Fiction ==
&lt;br&gt;
'''How To Write Fiction with Historic Truths'''

Do your research. &lt;br&gt;
Keep the book's atmosphere historic and gothy. &lt;br&gt;
Use historic settings that were popular vampire locations. &lt;br&gt;
Use mythic origin locations. &lt;br&gt;
Use vampire tropes &lt;br&gt;
Write about a historic period when people believed in the existence of vampires.

'''Subgenres and Themes''' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
''Gothic Period Pieces:'' &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
''Alternative History'': Books like Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter by Seth Grahame-Smith. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
''Mythological Deep Dives:'' &lt;br&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:Pamela Talemwa</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>485333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662622</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T02:01:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
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      <comment>Notifying author of speedy deletion</comment>
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      <text bytes="712" sha1="teb3kvx3iy5or25toa2j77tu7suikvq" xml:space="preserve">
== Your page has been speedily deleted ==
Hi! I'm JJPMaster, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Pamela Talemwa/sandbox]]. However, it does not meet Wikibooks's [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?|standards for inclusion]], and it has therefore been [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy|deleted]]. The reason I provided was: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Out of project scope&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; If you believe that your page should not have been deleted, or you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:JJPMaster|let me know]]. Thank you! [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:01, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Ruth Bulyaba M</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>485334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662623</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T02:03:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Notifying author of speedy deletion</comment>
      <origin>4662623</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="712" sha1="gcpoez67u5owmhp2ha8s4pp3p951w5x" xml:space="preserve">
== Your page has been speedily deleted ==
Hi! I'm JJPMaster, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Ruth Bulyaba M/sandbox]]. However, it does not meet Wikibooks's [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?|standards for inclusion]], and it has therefore been [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy|deleted]]. The reason I provided was: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Out of project scope&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; If you believe that your page should not have been deleted, or you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:JJPMaster|let me know]]. Thank you! [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:03, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>gcpoez67u5owmhp2ha8s4pp3p951w5x</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Samah2025</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>485335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662624</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T02:04:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Notifying author of speedy deletion</comment>
      <origin>4662624</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="707" sha1="are13td275lxexhsfwi38mrb69gee88" xml:space="preserve">
== Your page has been speedily deleted ==
Hi! I'm JJPMaster, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Samah2025/sandbox]]. However, it does not meet Wikibooks's [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?|standards for inclusion]], and it has therefore been [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy|deleted]]. The reason I provided was: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Out of project scope&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; If you believe that your page should not have been deleted, or you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:JJPMaster|let me know]]. Thank you! [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:04, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Dollarnickel</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>485336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662632</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:23:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dollarnickel</username>
        <id>3621061</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;I've discovered this place from [https://lichess.org Lichess], and I plan to catalogue all [https://www.chess.com chess.com] openings to here.&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="142" sha1="rsh4m1p8oay19pfx32pw0dxzn8tmbp0" xml:space="preserve">I've discovered this place from [https://lichess.org Lichess], and I plan to catalogue all [https://www.chess.com chess.com] openings to here.</text>
      <sha1>rsh4m1p8oay19pfx32pw0dxzn8tmbp0</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Nabal Kishore Pande</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>4662638</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T03:56:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nabal Kishore Pande</username>
        <id>3536387</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>REVISED USER PAGE.</comment>
      <origin>4662638</origin>
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      <text bytes="891" sha1="czldlxlkscvq6j3rhlnhphdd799yrkf" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Portrait of Nabal Kishore Pande.jpg|200px|right|alt=Portrait of Nabal Kishore Pande]]

'''Nabal Kishore Pande''' is an independent author and researcher from India.

I write mainly about decision-making, research methods, and scholarship preparation. I am interested in explaining subjects clearly and practically, especially where readers need to understand information before making a decision.

I am interested in contributing books and other instructional material to Wikibooks. I value clear writing, reliable sources, and material that can be useful to readers.

I am still learning the conventions of Wikibooks and will follow its policies and guidelines. I welcome constructive corrections and suggestions from other contributors.

'''Areas of interest'''

* Decision-making
* Research methods
* Scholarship preparation
* International education
* Practical learning resources</text>
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    <title>Template:Is temporary account</title>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-21T04:30:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJPMaster</username>
        <id>3095725</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;{{&lt;includeonly&gt;safesubst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;#invoke:IPAddress|isTemporaryAccount|1={{{1|}}}}}&quot;</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Sdadelhi</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>485339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4662656</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T06:47:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sdadelhi</username>
        <id>3622998</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Creating user page and describing areas of contribution</comment>
      <origin>4662656</origin>
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      <text bytes="1235" sha1="p066yxd2xg9m8sz1zbg5vt1hs11dzsz" xml:space="preserve">I am interested in contributing to educational resources covering private investigation, corporate security, due diligence, background verification, surveillance, and technical security.

My interests include researching and developing clear, practical information about investigative processes, corporate risk assessment, security awareness, and the legal and ethical considerations surrounding professional investigations.

Areas of Interest
Private investigation and investigative methodology
Corporate security and risk assessment
Corporate due diligence
Background verification
Business and employee verification
Fraud and misconduct investigations
Surveillance principles and practices
Technical Surveillance Counter-Measures (TSCM)
Electronic security and bug-sweeping concepts
Investigative documentation and reporting
Legal and ethical considerations in investigations

I aim to contribute useful, neutral, and well-sourced educational material and to improve existing resources where I can. My contributions are intended to support readers seeking a better understanding of investigative and corporate security topics.

I will follow Wikibooks' community guidelines and editorial practices when creating or improving content.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Category:Book:Naijá</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-21T09:02:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>3436497</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;Things related to Naija&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="23" sha1="0vejkhftlek9fr02a217k715frqg80k" xml:space="preserve">Things related to Naija</text>
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